text:
Mark Donohue

Mark Neary Donohue Jr. (March 18, 1937 – August 19, 1975), nicknamed "Captain Nice," and later "Dark Monohue," was an American race car driver and engineer known for his ability to set up his own race car as well as driving it to victories.

Donohue is probably best known as the driver of the 1500+ bhp "Can-Am Killer" Porsche 917-30 and as the winner of the Indianapolis 500 in 1972. Cars that Donohue raced include: AMC Javelin, AMC Matador, Chevrolet Camaro, Eagle-Offy, Elva Courier, Ford GT40 MK IV, Ferrari 250LM, Ferrari 512, Lola T70, Lola T330, Lotus 20, McLaren M16, Porsche 911, Porsche 917/10, Porsche 917/30, Shelby Cobra, and Shelby Mustang GT350R.

Early life
Born in Haddon Township, New Jersey, Donohue grew up in Summit, graduated from the Pingry School in Hillside, and entered Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island. At the age of 22 while a senior at Brown, Donohue began racing his 1957 Corvette. He won the first event he entered, a hillclimb in Belknap County, New Hampshire. He graduated from Brown in 1959 with a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering.

Donohue won the SCCA national championship in an Elva Courier in 1961. Experienced race driver Walt Hansgen (who worked for Inskip Motors in New York & Rhode Island) recognized Donohue's ability and befriended him, eventually providing an MGB (through Inskip Motors in Providence, RI and prepped by their race shop Competition Engineering) for Donohue to race at the 1964 Bridgehampton 500 mi SCCA endurance event, which he won. Hansgen arranged for Donohue to become his teammate in 1965, co-driving a Ferrari 275 at the 12 Hours of Sebring endurance race, which they finished in 11th place. That year, Donohue also won two divisional championships: in SCCA B Class in a GT350 and in SCCA Formula C in a Lotus 20B.

Donohue was hired on March 29, 1964, by Jack Griffith [Griffith Motors, Syosset, N.Y./Plainview, N.Y.] as design engineer for the Griffith, formerly TVR Grantura Mk III, powered by a Ford 289 cid (4.7l) V8 engine. He went on to assist TVR's David Hives in designing the Series 400 Griffith and then working on the ill-fated Bob Cumberford-designed, Intermeccanica-(Torino, Italy) produced Series 600 Griffith. During its production life, there were 192 Series 200 Griffiths built, 59 of the Series 400 and only 10 of the Series 600. During his tenure at Griffith Mark drove the Griffith-owned Shelby 289 Cobra making his mark on the SCCA circuit. In February of '65 Donohue was named comptroller at Griffith Motors, but was soon lured from Griffith by Roger Penske early in 1966. The Griffith company went defunct in November, 1966.

Ford GT40 and joining with Penske
In 1966, thanks to his friendship with Hansgen, word quickly spread to the Ford Motor Company about the young driver. Ford immediately signed Donohue to drive one of their GT-40 Mk II race cars campaigned at the 24 Hours of Le Mans by the Holman & Moody racing team. Le Mans proved frustrating for Donohue. Hansgen died while testing the GT40 in preparation for Le Mans so Donohue partnered with Australian Paul Hawkins. Donohue and Hawkins completed only twelve laps due to differential failure and finished 47th. Earlier that year, co-driving with Hansgen, Donohue finished third at the 24 Hours of Daytona and second at the 12 Hours of Sebring.

At Hansgen's funeral, Roger Penske spoke to Donohue about driving for him. In his first race for Penske, at Watkins Glen in June 1966, Donohue qualified well but crashed the car at the top of a hill, destroying it.

Donohue was invited back to Le Mans by Ford in 1967. Ford had developed a new GT, the Mark IV. Donohue co-drove in the No. 4 yellow car with sports car driver and race car builder Bruce McLaren for Shelby American Racing. The two drivers disagreed on many aspects of racing and car setup, but as a team were able to muster a fourth-place finish in the endurance classic.

In 1967, Penske contacted Donohue about driving Penske's brand new Lola T70 spyder in the United States Road Racing Championship. Donohue dominated the 1967 race, driving a Lola T70 MkIII Chevrolet for Penske. Donohue raced in seven of the eight races that year, winning six (at Las Vegas, Riverside, Bridgehampton, Watkins Glen, Pacific Raceways, and Mid-Ohio) and finishing third at the Laguna Seca Raceway round behind Lothar Motschenbacher and Mike Goth.

In 1968, Donohue and Penske returned to defend their USRRC championship with the McLaren M6A Chevrolet. Donohue did not start the first race of the year at Circuit Hermanos Rodriguez in Mexico City due to problems getting the engine to start. Despite this, Donohue still dominated the series, even though he suffered three DNFs during the season due to mechanical problems with the M6A.

Trans-Am
Donohue began his Trans-Am series campaign in 1967, winning three of twelve races in a Roger Penske-owned Chevrolet Camaro. In 1967 and 1968, Trans-Am schedule included two of the most prized endurance races in the world, the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 12 Hours of Sebring. Donohue finished fourth at Daytona and won the Trans-Am class at the 12 Hours of Sebring.

1968 would be a banner year for Donohue in the Trans-Am series, as he successfully defended his 12 Hours of Sebring victory by partnering with Craig Fisher and driving his Penske Chevrolet Camaro to victory. Donohue went on to win 10 of 13 races, a Trans-Am series record which would stand until Tommy Kendall went 11 for 13 in the 1997 Trans-Am championship, winning the first 11 races that year in his All-Sport liveried Mustang.

Donohue was considered a leading Trans-Am driver of the late 1960s and early 1970s. Had there been a Drivers' Championship in place at the time, he would have won three of them (his last in 1971) while driving Camaros in 1968 and 1969, and an AMC Javelin in 1971, all for Roger Penske Racing.

During their enormous success in Trans-Am, Penske and Donohue would begin to experiment with their Camaros. They discovered that using a drag racing trick of dipping a car in an acid bath would eat away small amounts of metal, which in turn made the car incrementally lighter, and allowed it to be driven faster. The 1967 Z-28 won its last race by lapping the entire field of cars, causing suspicion throughout the paddock.

During a post-race inspection, race stewards discovered that the car was 250 pounds lighter than the 2,800-pound minimum weight requirement. Donohue was about to have his race victory taken away for cheating, but Roger Penske stepped in. Penske warned that any disqualification would have the potential of motivating Chevrolet to pull all support for the Trans-Am series. After considering the potential consequences, the race stewards allowed Donohue's victory to stand, but the rules for the 1968 season incorporated a change whereby all cars would be weighed during the technical inspection before the race.

Penske and Donohue did not stop acid-dipping after this, however. Continuing the practice of reducing weight allowed them to place weights of certain sizes strategically in specific locations within the car, thus helping to balance the car while being driven on the limit. Acid-dipping car bodies was prevalent with competing Trans-Am teams also.

They continued to use the "lightweight" car in 1968, at the Sebring 12-hour race. They changed the grille and taillight to the 1968 model, and then painted both cars identically. They sent the legal weight car through the technical inspection with the number 15 and again with the number 16 on it. Then they put both cars in the race, number 15 and 16, one car being 250 pounds lighter. They won their class in the race, finishing third overall, and went on to win 10 out of 13 races that year.

They also acid-dipped the body on the Camaro and had to caution people not to lean against it, for fear it would dent. The lightweight car was featured on an episode of Dream Car Garage on Speed TV in 2005.

In 1970 new Javelin team owner Roger Penske and driver Mark Donohue would breathe new life into the AMC team. Donohue drove the Javelin to three victories, with AMC finishing second overall in the Manufacturers' Championship. In 1971, of the ten races that the Over 2.5L Class cars participated in, Donohue won seven of them, including the final six races in a row, with AMC winning the Manufacturers' championship for the first time ever. In the final race of the season, Javelins finished in first, second and third place, with George Follmer becoming the only other Javelin driver to win besides Donohue.

Indianapolis 500
In 1969, Penske and Donohue raced in their first Indianapolis 500, with Donohue finishing seventh, winning the rookie of the year award. Donohue raced at Indianapolis each year following, finishing second in 1970 and 25th in 1971.

Donohue won in 1972, driving for Penske. He finished the race in his McLaren-Offy setting a record speed of over 162 mph, which stood for twelve years. The victory was the first for Penske in the Indy 500.

NASCAR
Donohue raced in several NASCAR Grand American races and a NASCAR pony car division from 1968 until 1971. In the 1972–1973 season, driving an AMC Matador for Penske Racing in NASCAR's top division, the Winston Cup Series, Donohue won the season-opening event at Riverside. That race was Penske's first NASCAR win in a long history of NASCAR participation. Although photographs of Donohue with the more aerodynamic 1974 Matador coupe exist and are published, he did not drive it in competition.

Can-Am Porsche
Between 1971 and 1972, Penske Racing (along with Donohue as the primary test and development driver) was commissioned by Porsche to help develop the 917-10 to compete in the Can-Am series. During testing at Road Atlanta, Donohue recommended larger brake ducts, believing that more cooling would slow the brakes' degradation during a race.

The Porsche engineers obliged, but the new ducts interfered with the bodywork closure pins that attached body panels to the car. Coming out of turn seven at about 150 mi/h, the rear bodywork flew off the car, which became extremely unstable, lifted off the ground, and tumbled down the track. The front of the car was torn away, leaving Donohue, still strapped to his safety seat, with his legs dangling outside the car. Amazingly, Donohue only suffered an internal derangement of his knee with meniscus damage and limited cruciate plus collateral ligament damage. (He was operated on at Piedmont Hospital in Atlanta by Drs. J. Funk and J. L. Watts.) George Follmer, Donohue's old Trans-Am teammate, took over testing the 917-10 for Donohue, who said: It just doesn't feel right. Seeing another man driving your car, a car you know so well. I imagine it must feel like watching another man in bed with your wife.

Porsche, Penske, and Donohue quickly started the development of the 917-30, complete with a reworked aerodynamic "Paris" body and a 5.4-liter turbocharged flat-12 engine whose output could be adjusted from about 1,100 to 1,500 bhp by turning a boost knob in the cockpit. During the development of this motor, the German Porsche engineers often asked Donohue if the motor finally had enough power. He answered, "It will never have enough power until I can spin the wheels at the end of the straightaway in high gear."

On August 9, 1975, Donohue drove the 917–30 to a world closed-course speed record at the Talladega Superspeedway in Talladega, Alabama. His average speed around the 2.66 mi high-banked oval was 221.120 mi/h. Donohue held the record for 11 years, until it was broken by Rick Mears at Michigan International Speedway.

The 917-30 is referred to as the "Can-Am killer" as it dominated the competition, winning all but two races of the 1973 Can-Am championship (which is an untrue statement, because OPEC killed the Can-Am series in 1975–1976). After the Arab oil embargo in 1973, it led the SCCA, IMSA and other race series to impose fuel limitations on motor sport racing as a whole, which hampered the performance of the 917/30, making it uncompetitive in the Can-Am series. Brian Redman drove it once in 1974, and that was it for the car as far as Penske campaigning it. The 917/30 generally is considered one of the most powerful and most dominant racing machines ever created.

First IROC champion
Donohue raced in the inaugural IROC series in 1973–74, racing identical, specially-prepared Porsche RSRs. In the four-race series, Donohue won the first and third of three races at Riverside and the final race of the year at Daytona. The only person to beat Donohue was his former Penske Trans-Am teammate, George Follmer. In winning the first IROC championship, Donohue beat the best racing drivers of that era from all of the major championships, such as Denny Hulme, Richard Petty, A. J. Foyt, Emerson Fittipaldi, Bobby Allison, David Pearson, Peter Revson, Bobby Unser, and Gordon Johncock.

Retirement and Formula One
The pressures of racing and designing the car took their toll on Donohue. By 1973, the "Captain Nice" nickname he had earned earlier in his career was being supplanted by the nickname "Dark Monohue". Donohue announced that he would retire from racing after the 1973 Can-Am season. In addition, the horrific events at the 1973 Indianapolis 500 and the subsequent death of his friend, Swede Savage, pushed him to quit. His retirement was short-lived, however, as he was lured back to full-time competitive driving by Penske when he formed a Formula One team, Penske Cars Ltd, to compete in the final two events of the Formula One World Championship, and to continue competing in  with the new Penske PC1.

Donohue previously had debuted in Formula One in the season on September 19, 1971, with a Penske-sponsored McLaren car entered by the White Racing privateer team at the Canadian Grand Prix at Mosport Park, finishing on the podium in third place. After coming out of retirement with his former boss, Penske, Donohue returned to Formula One, entering into the final two races of the Formula One season. Donohue finished in 12th place at the Canadian Grand Prix, but failed to finish at the United States Grand Prix.

A full season of racing for the Formula One season was planned. The 1975 season turned out to be a difficult one for Donohue and Penske. Donohue was able to muster fifth-place finishes at the Swedish Grand Prix and the British Grand Prix, but the new Penske PC1 chassis proved problematic, as evidenced by three retirements in the first six races. At the Austrian Grand Prix, Donohue's career, along with Roger Penske's Formula One aspirations, took a tragic turn.

Death
Midway through the 1975 F1 season, Penske abandoned the troublesome PC1 and started using the March 751. Donohue recently had arrived in Austria for the Austrian Grand Prix at the Österreichring race track following the successful closed-course speed record attempt at Talladega Superspeedway in Alabama just a few days earlier. During a practice session for the race, Donohue lost control of his March after a tire failed, sending him into the catch fencing at Turn 1 (known as Vöest Hügel Kurve). A track marshal was killed by debris from the accident, but Donohue did not appear to be injured significantly. It is said that Donohue's head struck either a catch fencing post or the bottom of the wood frame for an advertising billboard located alongside of the racetrack. A headache resulted, however, and worsened. After going to the hospital in Graz the next day, Donohue lapsed into a coma from a cerebral hemorrhage and died. He was survived by his second wife and two sons from his first marriage. Donohue is buried at St. Teresa Cemetery in Summit, New Jersey.

The turn was tightened and became the Hella Licht Esses in 1977. Dononue's estate was involved in litigation against Penske and Goodyear that was settled in 1986, claiming tire failure killed Donohue. Goodyear paid the widow and children $9.6 million.

Commemorations and legacy
In 2003, in commemoration of Penske Racing's 50th NASCAR win, Nextel Cup driver Ryan Newman drove a Dodge Intrepid painted to resemble Donohue's 1973 AMC (with a No. 12 and current Alltel decals) at the fall Rockingham, North Carolina, race.

Penske's new Penske Racing complex in Mooresville, North Carolina is decorated with various murals of Donohue and his racing cars, most notably the AMC stock car and the various Porsche prototypes that Donohue drove through his career.

Donohue chronicled his entire racing career in the book, The Unfair Advantage (co-written with noted motorsports and engineering journalist Paul Van Valkenburgh). The book documents his career from his first races to his final full season of racing the year before he was killed. This was not merely a celebrity autobiography, but a detailed, step-by-step record of the engineering approach he took to getting the absolutely highest performance from every car he drove, always looking for that elusive "unfair advantage". Donohue (along with Penske) were pioneers in many rights, some as notable as the use of a skidpad as a tool for developing and perfecting race car suspension designs and setups. The book told how Donohue learned to exploit the antilock braking system and the powerful turbocharged engine of several prototype Porsches, as well as how he learned from various mishaps, including a near-fatal crash. The book was published shortly before Donohue's death.

The book was re-released in 2000 by Bentley Publishers (Cambridge, Massachusetts). It includes information and additional photography that was not available before the first edition was published.

Donohue's racing tradition is carried on by his son, David Donohue, a successful road racer in his own right.

Awards

 * Drexel University presented Mark Donohue with its Engineering and Science Award in 1973.
 * Mark Donohue was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1990.
 * He was also inducted in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1990.
 * He was inducted in the Sports Car Club of America Hall of Fame in its 2006 class.

Formula One World Championship
(key)

Formula One Non-Championship
(key)

International Race of Champions
(key) ( Bold – Pole position. * – Most laps led. )

Complete Canadian-American Challenge Cup results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

title: Mark Donohue


text:
Mike Parkes

Michael Johnson Parkes (born 24 September 1931 in Richmond, Surrey; died 28 August 1977 near Riva presso Chieri, Italy ) was a British racing driver, from England. Parkes was born into an automotive background as his father John, was Chairman of the Alvis Group.

He participated in seven Formula One World Championship Grands Prix, debuting on 18 July 1959. He achieved two podiums, and scored a total of 14 championship points. He also secured one pole position. When not racing cars, Parkes worked as an automotive engineer, and whilst working for the Rootes Group was involved in the project which led to production of the Hillman Imp.

Sports car career
Parkes began his racing career in the mid-1950s initially with an MG before moving on to a Frazer Nash. In 1957 he raced a Lotus and came to the attention of Colin Chapman who invited him to act as reserve driver for the works team at Le Mans. He then became involved with the Fry Formula Two project in 1958 and 1959, before returning to sportscars in 1960.

In 1960 Parkes drove a Lotus Elite for Sir Gawaine Baillie before moving to Tommy Sopwith's Equipe Endeavour in 1961, where he drove in sportscars and Formula Junior. He also drove a Ferrari GT for UK Ferrari franchise, Maranello Concessionaires. At Le Mans he shared a three-litre Ferrari Testa Rossa with Willy Mairesse and finished second.

In May 1962, Mairesse and Parkes came second in the 1000km Nürburgring race in a Ferrari behind the winning car of the same marque driven by Phil Hill and Olivier Gendebien. Parkes finished a mere car length behind Graham Hill in the 28th Royal Automobile Club tourist trophy race in August 1963. Umberto Maglioli and Parkes drove one of the Ferraris which claimed the top five qualifying positions for the 1964 12 Hours of Sebring. The Ferraris were equipped with new power plants. Parkes was timed at 3:10.4. In the race Parkes established a speed record and completed the most miles ever for a winner.

Parkes and Maglioli, finished a considerable distance ahead of the Ferrari of Ludovico Scarfiotti and Nino Vaccarella. Parkes teamed with Jean Guichet in a Ferrari to capture the 1,000 kilometre Classic of Monza Italy in April 1965. Tommy Spichiger, 30, of Switzerland, died instantly on the 34th lap of the race when his Ferrari 365 prototype went off the track and burst into flames. Parkes and Guichet led most of the race in their Ferrari prototype, after taking the lead from John Surtees and Ludovico Scarfiotti.

Parkes and Guichet placed 2nd to Surtees and Scarfiotti in a 620-mile race at the Nürburgring in May 1965. The winning pair led the full 44 laps. It was a 4th consecutive victory for Ferrari. Dan Gurney eclipsed the time of Parkes in the sole factory Ferrari in the final practice for the 1966 12 Hours of Sebring. The blue Ford was clocked at 2:54.6, 2 seconds faster than a lap run by Parkes the previous day. In a Ferrari P3 prototype, Parkes lap was so fast that none of the time-speed conversion charts would accept it. Parkes and Bob Bondurant started 2nd after Gurney and his co-driver, Jerry Grant.

Surtees and Parkes were in a Ferrari prototype in their victory in a 620-mile Monza sports car event in April 1966. Chris Amon and Lorenzo Bandini were triumphant in a 100 lap, 1,000 kilometre Monza race in April 1967. They drove a four-litre Ferrari for an average speed of 122.30 m.p.h. Parkes and Scarfiotti finished second with a time of 5:10:59.2. The winning time was 5 hours seven minutes, 43 seconds. The Ferraris were in front after the Chaparrals of Phil Hill and Mike Spence had to make pit stops following the 17th and 18th laps. He finished second at the 1967 24 Hours of Le Mans, paired with Ludovico Scarfiotti, in a Ferrari 330P4.

After the crash at the Spa Belgian GP 1967 Parkes returned to race sport cars events in 1970, with remarkable 4th place at the Daytona 24 hours on a Ferrari 312P entered by NART (paired with Sam Posey), at Sebring 12 hours he finished 6th on the same car (together with Chuck Parsons). He continued the season racing on the Filipinetti Ferrari 512S, reaching 5th place at the Targa Florio and 4th at the Nurburgring 1000 km together with Herbert Muller.

Parkes competed in a 1,000 kilometre sports car race in Argentina in January 1971, he was just ahead of Ignazio Giunti's Ferrari 312PB when the Italian driver crashed on the Beltoise's Matra. He was paired with Joakim Bonnier in a five-litre Ferrari entered and owned by the Swiss Filippinetti stable which maintained operations in Modena. Parkes competed in the 1971 24 Hours of Le Mans in a modified Ferrari 512M paired with Henri Pescarolo. He was involved in the development of this car (named 512F, where "F" stands for Filipinetti, the car's owner), which proved to be very fast, winning a non-championship race at Vallelunga, Rome ahead of the Jo Siffert Porsche 917K. Parkes-Pescarolo were running well at Le Mans when a mechanical failure during the night ended their race. Parkes came back to Le Mans in 1972 with a Ferrari 365GTB entered by Filipinetti. His teammates were Lafosse and Cochet, the trio finished in seventh place, third in the GT class behind two other Ferraris.

Formula One career
Parkes first entered a World Championship Grand Prix at Aintree in 1959 driving a Formula 2 (F2) Fry-Climax 1.5-litre Straight-4. However he did not qualify and returned to sportscars thereafter, apart from a single outing at Mallory Park in 1962 with a Bowmaker Cooper. Following his success with Ferrari sportscars, Parkes joined Ferrari officially, in 1963 as development and reserve driver, and over the following seasons became recognised as a leading sports car driver. When John Surtees unexpectedly left Ferrari in 1966, Parkes was promoted to the Grand Prix team and with an extended chassis to accommodate his height of six feet four inches, was immediately successful, finishing in second place in the 1966 French Grand Prix at Reims. Jack Brabham won the race with his teammate, Denny Hulme, third, in their Brabham–Repcos. However this was followed by two retirements before another second place at Monza where he also took pole position. Parkes won an international Formula One race at Silverstone by one third of a lap over Brabham in April 1967.The 52 lap race was the first Formula One contest for Parkes in his native country. He completed the 152.36 mile competition in 1:19:39.25 with an average speed of 114.65 m.p.h. In 1967, Parkes competed in two further Grands Prix for Ferrari finishing fifth at Zandvoort but retiring through accident at Spa, after sliding on oil being sprayed from Jackie Stewart's H16 BRM, on the first lap, suffering broken legs that would ultimately end his Grand Prix career. Ferrari Auto Works entered two cars in the 1967 Syracuse Grand Prix. This was a Formula One race that did not count toward the Formula One World Championship. Parkes and Scarfiotti were assigned 1966 model single seaters. After Parkes' Formula One career ended, he raced into the 1970s in sports cars.

Parkes was killed in a road accident near Turin, Italy on 28 August 1977.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)

Non-Championship Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Complete British Saloon Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)
 * Car over 1000cc – Not eligible for points.

Automotive engineering
Parkes worked for the Rootes Group from 1950 to 1962, initially as an apprentice. One of his roles at Rootes was as project engineer in the development of the Hillman Imp.

In 1963 Parkes joined Ferrari as development engineer for their road cars, notably the 330 GTC, and also as a GT sports car driver. Following his absence from work after his serious F1 accident, he returned to Ferrari in 1969 to find the company partly under the control of Fiat and at that point decided to work for Scuderia Filipinetti as engineer as well as driver. His departure from Ferrari was partly due to Enzo Ferrari's refusal to allow him to return to F1 after his accident, claiming that he was too valuable as an engineer.

In 1974 Parkes took a job as principal development engineer for the Lancia Stratos.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mike Parkes


text:
Writing center

Writing centers provide students with assistance on their papers, projects, reports, multi-modal documents, web pages, and other writerly needs across disciplines. Although writing center staff are often referred to as tutors, writing centers are primarily places for collaboration in which writers and tutors work together to help writers achieve their goals. Typical services include help with the purpose, structure, function of writing, and are geared toward writers of various levels and fields of study. The goal is to help a writer learn to address the various exigences that they may encounter with the realization that no writing is decontextualized—it always addresses a specific audience. Writing centers may offer one-on-one scheduled tutoring appointments, group tutoring, and writing workshops. Services may also include drop-in hours. Writing tutors do not assign grades to students' writing assignments.

Overview
A writing center usually offers individualized conferencing whereby the writing tutor offers his or her feedback on the piece of writing at hand; a writing tutor's main function is to discuss how the piece of writing might be revised. Writing centers generally rely on non-prescriptive and non-corrective approaches to construct a more complete account of how well a piece of writing aligns with the writer's aims. In other words, a tutor usually does not proofread nor edit a student's work. Instead, the tutor facilitates the student's attempts to revise his or her own work by conversing with the student about the topic at hand, discussing principles and processes of writing, modeling rhetorical and syntactical moves for the student to apply, and assisting the student in identifying patterns of grammatical error in his or her writing. In other words, "[the job of writing tutors] is to produce better writers, not better writing."

History
Historically, writing centers in American universities began appearing as "writing labs" in the early 20th century. Elizabeth Boquet and Stephen North point to the origins of the writing laboratory as first a method, not a place, where "the key characteristic of which appears to have been that all work was to be done during class time". This was to allow the student to compose with the teacher present, able to help with any revisions or questions the student may have. However, as class sizes and universities grew, Writing Centers began to develop as university institutions, often conceived of as an editing service for students. As post-secondary institutions began accepting more and more students, writing centers were created to help students who were struggling with their writing abilities. It was also at this time when writing centers began to employ student tutors, who were more affordable to hire than Faculty members.

Location of writing centers
Writing centers may be centrally located at higher education institutions. Centers may be located within a student success center, which may offer other academic support services to students such as study skills appointments and workshops. These might typically be called Academic Skills Units or Learning Development Groups. Some writing centers may be part of a writing studies department or stand-alone. Some institutions also offer an Online Writing Lab (OWL), which generally attempts to follow the model of writing center tutoring in an online environment. These environments have been said to be a step toward a new model of writing centers, a model known as Multiliteracy Centers. Another environment that could fall under this category is a physical space known as a digital studio.

Writing consultants
Depending on the writing center and the target population, consultants may be undergraduate peer consultants, graduate consultants, graduate peer consultants, staff consultants, or faculty consultants. The consultants may be working for pay or for college credit. If the writing center offers workshop or group tutoring sessions, staff, experienced undergraduates, or graduates may serve in an unofficial or official teaching assistant capacity. Writing center research has examined what effect each type of consultant has upon the writer seeking help.

In many cases, writing center directors or writing program administrators (WPAs) are responsible for conducting writing center assessment, and must communicate these results to academic administration and various stakeholders. Assessment is seen as beneficial for writing centers because it creates a professional and ethical environment that is important not just for writing centers but for all higher education.

Types of writers served
Writers served by these writing centers may vary depending on the setting. Post-secondary writing centers may serve undergraduate and graduate students in the same or separate facilities; others may be more inclusive, serving students, faculty, staff, GED students, and the general public. High school writing centers service enrolled students only.

English-language learners
Writing centers may serve English-language learners from across academic disciplines who are undergraduate or graduate students at the institution. English-language learners receive one-on-one writing assistance with a tutor, who may be a peer or a writing specialist. The goal is to assist English-language learners with language acquisition and to help students feel more confident in their ability to write effectively in the English language. Writing centers may develop resources and handouts for English-language learners on academic vocabulary and grammatical conventions.

Some English Language Learners may access a writing center specifically for grammatical help and error revision from tutors. This may conflict with the philosophy of a writing center to help students become better writers through discussing the overall flow and organization of the paper, rather than focusing on sentence-level revisions. Student tutors are generally taught not to edit papers during a session. Instead they are taught to collaborate on higher-level issues in their peer's paper. Much research has been done on if student tutors should take a more directive approach to teaching writing to English language learners. Ultimately student tutors must receive training on how to effectively teach English as a second language at writing centers so that sessions are effective and meaningful for both English language learners and tutors.

Writing center theory
Faculty, students, staff, and administrators often viewed writing centers as places for remediation. At their best, however, they are places where all students, including the best ones, can get better, a place (according to Karen Head), "that returns to the ideal of a safe space for active debate and discourse about the best ways to communicate in a variety of modes." Collaboration in theory and practice is one particular idea of a writing center, although creating collaborative environment is really difficult. Collaboration allows tutors to involve students in a dialogue which helps to get in touch with their knowledge and find their unique voices. Collaborative environment rejects any kinds of hierarchies in the writing centers, thus allowing to negotiate and set common goals. Writing center is an institutional response to the writers' needs to have a good listener and editor, someone who knows how to write and can ask questions about the writing which writers would not ask themselves.

Variations
No longer strictly an American phenomenon, writing centers have spread in other world regions as well. The European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing (EATAW) is in part concerned with the study and advancement of writing centers in European universities. The International Writing Centers Association offers support for writing centers from around the world, with current regional associations in Europe and proposed associations in the Middle East, South Africa, and the Far East.

Writing centers are not exclusively a post-secondary phenomenon. Some high schools have successfully created writing centers similar to the model in higher education. Some writing centers provide services for the non-academic community, such as peer-tutoring for out-of-school writers and workshops on a wide variety of topics. Some even have sites off-campus entirely, where they are sometimes identified as community writing centers.

Writing centers are now being used in the business world. Notably, the Philadelphia Federal Reserve added a writing center.

title: Writing center


text:
Andy Samuel

Andy Samuel (April 10, 1909 – March 5, 1992) was an American child actor most notable for his appearances in 19 Our Gang comedies over a three-year period.

Career
Samuel's film debut in that series was the 1923 short, The Big Show. Samuel was already thirteen before he joined the gang and became the oldest member of the gang. He left the series with a bit part in the 1925 short, Boys Will Be Joys. By the time Samuel left Our Gang he was already sixteen and was the oldest member of the gang.

Death
Samuel died aged 82 from cancer on March 5, 1992.

Selected "Our Gang" Filmography

 * The Champeen (1923)
 * The Big Show (1923)
 * Boys to Board (1923)
 * Giants vs. Yanks (1923)
 * Back Stage (1923)
 * Dogs of War (1923)
 * Lodge Night (1923)
 * No Noise (1923)
 * Big Business (1924)
 * The Buccaneers (1924)
 * Seein' Things (1924)
 * Commencement Day (1924)
 * Jubilo, Jr. (1924)
 * High Society (1924)
 * The Sun Down Limited (1924)
 * Every Man for Himself (1924)
 * Fast Company (1924)
 * The Mysterious Mystery! (1924)
 * Boys Will Be Joys (1925)

title: Andy Samuel


text:
Onofre Marimón

Onofre Agustín Marimón (19 December 1923  – 31 July 1954) was a racing driver from Zárate, Buenos Aires, Argentina. He participated in 11 Formula One World Championship Grands Prix, debuting on 1 July 1951. He achieved two podiums, and scored a total of 8 $1/7$ championship points.

Biography
Marimón was the son of racing driver and undertaker Domingo Marimón, the winner of the 1948 South American Grand Prix for Turismo Carretera. Marimón Sr. and Juan Manuel Fangio were team-mates for Chevrolet and friends, leading to Fangio becoming a mentor for Marimón Jr. when the young Zárateño moved to Europe.

Marimón was killed on 31 July 1954 during practice for the 1954 German Grand Prix, becoming the first driver to be fatally injured at a World Championship Grand Prix other than the Indianapolis 500. His Maserati left the Nürburgring race course at the Breidscheid curve near the Adenauer Bridge after he lost control attempting to improve his qualifying time. He died at the bottom of a steep and treacherous incline. He was going fast on a downgrade but failed to negotiate a sharp turn at the bottom. Marimón impacted a ditch, his Maserati shearing off a tree and rolling over a number of times. He was pinned underneath the car as it came to rest on its top with the wheels spinning in the air. Marimón was given the last rites by a Catholic priest before dying a few minutes after rescue workers freed him. It was thought that his braking unit failed.

Marimón's death trimmed the Maserati team to four drivers. His practice times had not been satisfactory enough for him to make the top 5 for the 1954 German Grand Prix. His best time was 21.3 seconds behind the record time of 9:50.1 set by Fangio.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

Non-Championship Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

title: Onofre Marimón


text:
Talk:John Forrest

earliest comment
An anonymous editor changed "Sir John Forrest" to "Lord Forrest of Bunbury" at the very start of the article. I have reverted it. For most of his life John Forrest was known as "John Forrest" or "Sir John", and he is still referred to exclusively by these names in Western Australia where he is a household name. Very few people know him as "Lord Forrest", and so I believe that it is not appropriate to introduce him as such here. "Sir John Forrest, later Lord Forrest of Bunbury" is a reasonable compromise. This is consistent with Naming conventions (names and titles).

Hesperian 00:12, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Forrest on the box
Tonight's episode of Dynasties is about the Forrest family. It screens at 8pm tonight on ABC TV. See. User:Hesperian | User talk:Hesperian 00:02, 28 November 2005 (UTC) ABC Radio have been unashamedly plugging itUser:SatuSuro 03:16, 28 November 2005 (UTC)

Important correction
The creation of a Peerage in the Peerage of the United Kingdom does not occur when an announcement is made to the subject, or when the announcement is made to the press. It only occurs when the Letters Patent are issued. In the case of Sir John Forrest, no letters patent were issued before his death. The Complete Peerage (the standard reference work) does not include Forrest in Volume XIII of Peerage creations 1901-1939. As W.D. Rubinstein remarks in "The Biographical Dictionary of Life Peers" (St Martin's Press, 1991) at page 368:

"Sir John Forrest .. was granted a hereditary peerage by the Lloyd George government, the first Australian to receive a peerage. Forrest died on the trip from Perth to England. Although he is referred to as 'Lord Forrest' in Who Was Who, 1916-1928, his peerage is not mentioned or included in Burke's Peerage, The New Extinct Peerage, the Complete Peerage, or any other standard reference work on the subject."

See also my recent article on John Davies who also died before receiving his peerage. Sir John Forrest was never a peer and his article is incorrect if it says that he is. David | Talk 00:56, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

* Crowley (2000) states that Forrest was told he had been raised to the British peerage on 6 February 1918. He didn't die until the following September. The absense of a mention in Burke's Peerage is hardly reason for overturning what is universally accepted as fact, and smacks of original research. Find me a reference that refutes that Forrest was a peer. User:Hesperian 01:14, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

Whether someone was a peer is a matter of law, not of opinion. If the law says that a person only becomes a peer when letters patent are issued, and if no letters patent were issued for Forrest, then he wasn't a peer and the article needs to be moved to John Forrest (explorer and politician). Adam 01:32, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Quite right. I've already apologised to David for my immediate reaction, and started correcting the article.  Since John Forrest (Australian politician) is itself ambiguous, I think it is time we claimed John Forrest for this article. User:Hesperian 01:38, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

"Murdered" v "killed"
Hesperian 03:42, 13 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Fred.e changed "murdered" to "killed" in the context of "a place where a group of white men had been murdered by Aborigines a long time ago" with edit summary "murder is legal term. killed."
 * Prester John reverted with edit summary "Bugs are killed. Humans are murdered."
 * I have now reverted Prester John. Humans aren't always "murdered"; for example, soldiers killed in action are "killed" not "murdered". Some people consider early explorers killed by Aborigines to be just that - killed in action. To assert that these people were murdered is therefore culturally biased. There is ample precedent on Wikipedia for making careful distinctions between forms of killing.

"Murder" is a legal term. A homicide is not a murder unless it is found to be so by a court. The neutral term is "killed." Adam 06:07, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

Try looking at Murder. Wikipedias own definition doesn't even back you. Prester John 18:57, 13 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes it does.
 * "Murder is the unlawful and intentional killing of a human being by another."
 * This issue hinges on the question of what system of law we should use to judge these killings as unlawful. They were certainly unlawful under colonial law; but they wouldn't have been unlawful under Aboriginal tribal law. Hesperian 23:13, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

They weren't even unlawful under colonial law unless a court found them to be so. Homicide can be successfully justified in court on grounds of self-defence, provocation, insanity etc. Unless someone was charged, tried and convicted of murder in relation to these killings, they were not murders. The use of the word "murder" merely to suggest moral approbrium is not acceptable. Adam 03:18, 14 February 2007 (UTC)
 * So I guess "murder-suicide" is an oxymoron then? Hesperian 03:28, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

Strictly speaking yes, since a dead person cannot be convicted of murder. A coroner could conclude that dead person A had killed dead person B, but not convict them of murder. Adam 03:30, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I think that it is the laws of the relevant jurisdiction, not the courts, that determine whether an act is lawful or unlawful. Of course the courts are best qualified to determine whether an act contravenes the law, but that doesn't mean an act only becomes unlawful once the court has reached a verdict. Rather, the act was unlawful all along, and the court merely told us so. It follows that trivially obvious contraventions of the law may be referred to as unlawful acts by us mere Wikipedians, irrespective of whether the perpetrator has been convicted. Hesperian 04:11, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

Remind me not to live in any country run by you. In THIS country we have the separation of powers. The legislature decides what shall be a crime, and the courts decide whether an individual is guilty of that crime. Murder is a crime under common law. The legislature (in the Crimes Act) defines the act of murder and sets penalties. A given act of homicide (the killing of one person by another) is a murder only if a court determines that it constitutes murder - the deliberate (or criminally negligent) killing of another person without lawful excuse (ie self-defence) or mitigating circumstances (ie insanity). It is open to the court to decide that the act constitutes manslaughter, of that it was not a crime at all. Adam 00:36, 15 February 2007 (UTC)
 * When I'm running the country, I'll let you know, just in case you haven't noticed. ;)
 * I actually agree with everything you've writtem. But I daresay we'll disagree on this next question: if a person didn't actually kill anyone, but is found guilty of murder by a kangaroo court, is s/he a murderer? Hesperian 00:52, 15 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I'd say yes under the following conditions a) the kangaroo court is an officially recognised court. and b) the decision hasnt been overturned. example is that guy who was recently released after 30-years then you'd categorised it him as "wrongly convicted" where as someone who is aquitted in a court without conviction would be "accused" aka OJ. Gnangarra 02:11, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

What is a "kangaroo court"? Except possibly in Western Australia, kangaroos are not eligible for jury service. Adam 05:17, 15 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Your are correct in noting that kangaroos arent eligible for jury duty even in WA though it is common place for wombats to sit on the bench 8) Gnangarra
 * see Kangaroo court Gnangarra 05:20, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

Compromise
OK I strongly suggest to all combatants that you move on to something else now that user Saulih has placed a compromise - otherwise we will have to invoke Essjays user page speach about the save button... SatuSuro 05:52, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

 * SatuSuro beat me to the Talk page, here is what I was typing before he beat me.
 * Since this has once again descended into two opposing POV camps edit warring over terminology, I have added what I think is a compromise. Killing stays with a note about the debate over this subject. Ernest Favenc refers to it as murder, so it isn't all cut and dried when sources are added into the debate. Whether it was murder or killing hardly matters as the point being made was that there was rumors about Leichhardts fate and final resting place. The note removes the issue from the article proper but alerts the reader to a significant issue regarding early race relations, attitudes, and the stance taken by the indigenous community. Please let's work together on this and pull your feet out of the POV mud. SauliH 06:00, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Hear hear! SatuSuro 06:07, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

Assessment
I've uprated this to B-Class as it has everything a GA class article has without the extensive in-line citations. —Moondyne 12:41, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

Kings Park president?
I found a statue in Kings Park (Image:John Forrest statue at Kings Park.jpg) that clearly is a statue of John Forrest (name and birth/death dates match) and claims he was "FIRST PRESIDENT OF THIS PARK", yet this is not mentioned in this article. Is it true? Dcoetzee 06:04, 25 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I duplicated this question at Talk:Kings Park, Western Australia. cygnis insignis 08:54, 25 November 2007 (UTC)

See 1927. Hesperian 12:00, 25 November 2007 (UTC)

Question on his putative title
''Shortly before his death, he was informed that he was to be raised to the British peerage as 1st Baron Forrest of Bunbury.
 * I understand that people are not simply informed that they've been elevated to the peerage. They are approached about whether they'll accept one, because many have declined, and the establishment doesn't want to be publicly embarrassed. If they accept, there's then the question of the precise name.  Some choose their existing surnames or variants of them, others choose some place name.  The preferred name then has to be checked to make sure there's not already a peerage with such a name; this all takes time, even today, and took even longer back in 1918 when communications were so much slower.  So I'm wondering whether there was work behind the scenes prior to February 1918 (ie. he was approached, he accepted, he gave his preferred title, it was checked), and what arrived on 6 Feb 1918 was an official letter saying that everything was right to go and that he should come to the UK to take his seat in the House of Lords or whatever.  The letters patent formally establishing the peerage would be created in the meantime; but as we know that hadn't happened prior to his death.  Anyone have any ideas about this?  --  JackofOz (talk) 01:36, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

 * His ADB article says:
 * ''On 9 February [1918] it was announced in the press that Forrest had been recommended for a barony, the first native-born to be so honoured. He was delighted, and thereafter signed only his surname. ... Late in May [he] left Melbourne with the intention of seeking further medical aid abroad, if and when war conditions would allow it. He had no intention of resigning from parliament, though he was hoping that when the legal formalities had been completed, he might sit for a time in the House of Lords as an elder statesman of the Empire.
 * ''On 30 July he left Albany with his wife and a nurse in the troopship Marathon, bound for London with A.I.F. reinforcements. He was very ill and suffering much pain when he celebrated his seventy-first birthday at sea on 22 August, whilst sailing up the west coast of Africa. He died on 3 September 1918 ...’’.

 * So what we have is a recommendation for a barony; he wasn’t informed that he was definitely going to get one, or had got one. He seems to have put the cart before the horse by signing as “Forrest”.  Nevertheless, ADB calls him 1st Baron Forrest of Bunbury, so they seem a bit confused about his title.  ADB also says he died on 3 September, not 2 September; and I've come across 3 September in other sources.  The Parliamentary Handbook says 2 September.  But they also call him "Lord Forrest", so I wonder about the accuracy of their information.  I’ve shot off an email to the Parliamentary Handbook asking them to remove the "Lord" bit, and explaining why.

 * There's still the uncertainty about his date of death. --  JackofOz (talk) 02:35, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I don't think people refused peerage in the 1910s.
 * According to Crowley's Big John Forrest, the relevant events/communications were:
 * a letter from the Governor-General to the King's private secretary, on 21 February 1917: "... should His Majesty by disposed to confer a peerage in Australia... I can think of no one here on whom it could be more appropriately conferred than on Sir John."
 * Later that year, a letter from Langdon Bonython to Prime Minister Hughes: "He would like immensely to be a baron, and why should he not be made one...? Think over the matter...."
 * On 6 February 1918, a coded telegram from the minister for the colonies to the Governor-General: "His Majesty has been pleases to confer the dignity of a barony of the United Kingdom on the Right Honorable Sir John Forrest G.C.M.G. in recognition of his long and distinguished services to the Empire."
 * The next day, the G-G visits Forrest in his sick room to let him know.
 * Publicly announced on 8 February
 * The legal situation at Forrest's death is described as follows: "The barony had been conferred, but letters patent had no been issued afterpassing under the Great Seal; technically, therefore, Forrest was not a baron, and his wife not a baroness. The barony is not mentioned in the Complete Peerage. The explanation is given in L.G.Pine, The New Extinct Peerage: 1884–1971 (London, 1972), p. 128'."
 * Hesperian 03:02, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

 * ... which raises a related point. Someone has inserted a quote from Rubenstein that says Forrest's barony is not mentioned in The New Extinct Peerage, but the quote I've given above states that he is. Hesperian 03:14, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Maybe mentioned, but only to explain why he's not correctly described as Baron Forrest. I know of no other case where a peerage has been conferred and publicly announced but not formally created prior to the person's death, so it is a special case that they were justified in giving some attention to.  Re declining honours, see Declining a British honour, which gives quite a few names of people who declined peerages, eg. Disraeli, well before Forrest.  --  JackofOz (talk) 08:38, 23 June 2008 (UTC)

WA Premier and Federal Minister concurrently
It seems that he remained WA Premier until 13 February 1901 (15 Feb according to Premier of Western Australia), although he had been a member of Barton's federal ministry from 1 January (PMG initially, then Defence Minister from 17 January following Sir James Dickson's death). This was probably not unconstitutional because he wasn't a member of the Federal Parliament until the end of March 1901. But it still seems to be an odd arrangement, involving potential conflicts of interest between his state responsibilities and his federal responsibilities. Was this an issue at the time, and has it ever been repeated by anyone else? -- JackofOz (talk) 05:10, 5 October 2008 (UTC)

Date of death
I raised this above, but it's still an issue. In the lede it's 2 September. In the infobox it's 3 September. I know sources disagree, but can we at least come to a concensus about the date and not speak with forked tongue? --  Jack of Oz    ... speak! ...   21:51, 19 July 2010 (UTC)

 * For an independent opinion, thePeerage.com has him dying on 4 September. --   Jack of Oz    ... speak! ...   11:51, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Encyclopedia Brittanica lists him as dying on 3 September. He died at sea, "off the coast of Sierra Leone", which has a timezone of UTC+0, not in his home in WA (timezone UTC +8). It is possible that he died (for example) at 8pm, 3rd September Sierra Leone time, which is 4am, 4th September, WA time (or 2nd/3rd Sep) - ie the date of his death may depend on the timezone in which it was considered. If we're really not certain, we should perhaps just say "September 1918", with a footnote stating that sources differ (and citing the sources with their differing dates). Mitch Ames (talk) 12:33, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

 * The date of his death may depend on the timezone in which it was considered - yes, absolutely. Dates of death are always rendered as at the place where the death occurred, and according to the time zone/daylight saving etc conventions applying in that place at that time.  Where the person was normally domiciled has nothing to do with it.  Sierra Leone is 9 hours behind Western Australian time, so an event occurring in Sierra Leone after 3 pm on a certain day (say 2 September) would be happening while it's already the next day (3 September) in WA, but the date of the event would still be 2 September.  However, we don't know exactly where "off the coast of Sierra Leone" Forrest died.  I for one have no idea how dates are computed for events that occur at sea in international waters; or on aircraft flying above international waters.  I've seen one site that says Forrest died while the ship was anchored in a harbour (probably Freetown, I imagine); but most don't say anything this specific.  Yet, Sierra Leone is a small country, and to be further out than "quite close" would mean the ship would more likely be described as off the coast of west Africa.  So that suggests it was close enough to be virtually in Sierra Leone maritime territory.  But how does that help?  We can still find dozens of sites saying 2 September, and dozens saying 3 September, and now one (a normally reputable site) saying 4 September.  We may need to track down some original documents/newspapers to get a handle on the precise timelime.

 * In the meantime, I propose we make all the dates in our article consistent. It's more likely to be the earlier of 2 and 3 September, so I suggest we choose that one, with a footnote acknowledging the alternative date.  Or we can come right out say "2 or 3 September (sources differ)".  Leaving it as just "September 1918" seems a little vague, as it's only ever been one of two dates (let's exclude 4 September as having virtually no support).   --   Jack of Oz    ... speak! ...   20:30, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

Baron or not?
PurpleHz changed the lead section and added a category to say that Forrest was a Baron. However: Because of the inconsistency, I've reverted the edit. I don't have online access to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (although I can probably get to a physical copy in the next week or two), so I can't check it. I suggest that we should discuss the discrepancy between ODNB and Rubinstein before changing the article. (And then if we do change it, change all of the relevant parts.) Mitch Ames (talk) 09:51, 9 February 2012 (UTC)
 * That paragraph was not consistent - the last sentence still said he was not.
 * The penultimate paragraph of In federal politics still said he was not, citing Rubinstein.
 * Hello, here is the relevant part in the ODNB :
 * "Already appointed a KCMG in 1891 and a GCMG in 1901, in 1918 he was created Baron Forrest of Bunbury, the first peerage bestowed on an Australian politician; but while bound for England to take his seat in the House of Lords and to seek medical advice, he died at sea on 3 September 1918 off Sierra Leone."

- Elizabeth Baigent, ‘Forrest, John, first Baron Forrest (1847–1918)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, online edn, Oct 2008.

 * Regards, PurpleHz (talk) 00:38, 10 February 2012 (UTC)

 * This topic has been discussed before, in and, both of which seem to conclude that he was not legally a baron. Is there any thing new to change this opinion?  (I'm not particularly knowledgeable on the subject of peerage; I just watch this article because I have a family-related interest in the Forrests.) Mitch Ames (talk) 12:22, 10 February 2012 (UTC)

Unlawfully repealed Section 70 of the [Constitution] Act?
I question the reliability of the source cited for this:

Self published sources are not generally considered sufficient. Donald McLeod does not appear to be a neutral source, if this biography of him is anything to go by. The book cited is apparently "Don McLeod’s own story". I suggest that we should remove the sentence, unless someone can provide a more reliable source. Mitch Ames (talk) 12:51, 28 March 2012 (UTC)

Okay, done. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.182.166.109 (talk) 05:56, 29 March 2012 (UTC)

 * What Good Condition? says "The colonists duly passed a second Bill for the repeal of s.70 in late 1897". Saying that "Forrest repealed S.70" doesn't appear to be very accurate. Mitch Ames (talk) 14:06, 29 March 2012 (UTC)

 * I've reworded the sentence to more accurately reflect what Meyers says. Mitch Ames (talk) 06:00, 31 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Read the Steven Church essay — Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.182.3.142 (talk) 11:49, 4 April 2012 (UTC)

 * Where can I find this Steven Church essay? It's not listed in the article's references. Mitch Ames (talk) 01:40, 9 April 2012 (UTC)

Section 70 did not "[grant] Indigenous Australians one percent of the State's consolidated revenue." It granted one percent of the colony's revenue to an Aborigines Protection Board. Essentially the British Government did not trust the West Australian government to deal with its indigenous peoples justly and humanely, and so insisted on the establishment of a separately funded apolitical board charged with the care of the Aboriginal peoples of the colony. It was in fact Forrest himself who guided the bill that established the APB through parliament in 1889. The 1895 amendment was based on the argument that the Western Australian government could be trusted to deal fairly and humanely with its Aboriginal peoples, and it was a humiliating insult that the colonial government had imposed this stricture on WA and no other colony. The point of the amendment was not to eliminate the 1% allocation but to abolish the Board altogether. As for it being illegal, the amendment was passed unanimously by parliament (there was no requirement for a referendum on constitutional amendments), and assented to by Joseph Chamberlain. Hesperian 04:20, 9 April 2012 (UTC)

 * I've reworded the sentence accordingly. Mitch Ames (talk) 09:17, 9 April 2012 (UTC)

Barony
I would argue that John Forrest's title should be included (even if only as a courtesy title):
 * John Forrest's title is listed as extinct (and so as valid) in the authoritative Burke's Peerage (1920), and his widow is clearly listed as a Baroness: https://books.google.com/books?redir_esc=y&id=PNc7AQAAMAAJ&dq=%22Baroness+Forrest%22&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22Baroness+Forrest%22
 * Most reference sources treat the title as having been created: e.g., http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/forrest-sir-john-6211, https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Forrest
 * WA's official monument to him (his statue in King's Park) describes him as a Baron
 * Even assuming that the peerage was not formally created, there is precedent in Britain for the use of a peerage title as a courtesy despite the failure of its formal creation: see Charles Stuart, Duke of Cambridge (1660–1661), Charles Stuart, Duke of Cambridge (1677).  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 36.84.66.46 (talk) 03:26, 9 March 2017 (UTC)
 * No we just don't do that. The title doesn't exist until created and can't be used before it is. A 17C royal title announcement is not a useful precedent for how this is done now or indeed for commoners anyway. Most sources don't treat it as having existed and the only sources that matter are official ones.Fwiw I can think of half a dozen similar case of announced titles that also never passed the great seal and they are correctly treated with no fictitious title included see for example George Cave, 1st Viscount Cave Garlicplanting (talk) 13:24, 28 July 2019 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 3 external links on John Forrest. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110927221002/http://www.rgs.org/NR/rdonlyres/C5962519-882A-4C67-803D-0037308C756D/0/GoldMedallists18322011.pdf to http://www.rgs.org/NR/rdonlyres/C5962519-882A-4C67-803D-0037308C756D/0/GoldMedallists18322011.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070220024722/http://www.hamersleyfamily.com/hamersley/f79.htm to http://www.hamersleyfamily.com/hamersley/f79.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110605023905/http://www.ga.gov.au/bin/gazm01?placename=Forrest&placetype=0&state=WA+ to http://www.ga.gov.au/bin/gazm01?placename=Forrest&placetype=0&state=WA+

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 18:36, 24 April 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:John Forrest


text:
Paul Frère

Paul Frère (30 January 1917 – 23 February 2008) was a racing driver and journalist from Belgium. He participated in eleven World Championship Formula One Grands Prix debuting on 22 June 1952 and achieving one podium finish with a total of eleven championship points. He drove in several non-Championship Formula One races, winning the 1952 Grand Prix des Frontières and 1960 VI South African Grand Prix.

He also won the 1960 24 Hours of Le Mans, driving for Ferrari with fellow Belgian teammate Olivier Gendebien.

Life
Frère was born at Le Havre in 1917.

He drove for the Ferrari works team, with Peter Collins.

After retiring from active racing in 1960, he worked as an automotive journalist based in Europe (he was the European Editor for Road & Track magazine). He had numerous acquaintances amongst vehicle design engineers, especially in Japan at Honda and Mazda and also worked as a consultant to automobile manufacturers. He also had the opportunity to test numerous road and racing cars as a journalist, one of the highlights being the Audi R8 which he tested and demonstrated during a break in the proceedings of the Test Day of the 2003 24 Hours of Le Mans. At the time he was 86 years old, making him the oldest racing driver to drive a then-current sportscar.

Frère, along with Piero Taruffi and Denis Jenkinson, was one of the first writers to treat motor racing as a skill that could be analyzed, explained, and taught. His 1963 book, Sports Car and Competition Driving is still a standard reference in the field. It influenced the development of competition driving schools, such as those founded by Jim Russell, Bob Bondurant and many others.

Frère was an expert on Porsche cars, in particular the Porsche 911, writing the definitive book on this series, The Porsche 911 Story. He maintained a close relationship with Porsche over the years. He was also considered an advisor and expert on the 911 by Alois Ruf, a respected Porsche tuner and manufacturer as head of Ruf Automobile, who consulted Frère during the development of Ruf's RGT8 Model.

In 1967, Frère had a cameo appearance in The Departure, a Belgian film about a car-obsessed young man trying to get possession of a Porsche 911 for a race.

Only weeks before his 90th birthday in January 2007, he was badly injured in an accident near the Nürburgring and was hospitalized for 14 days in intensive care.

Frère died on 23 February 2008 in Saint-Paul-de-Vence (France). Turn 15 at the Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps, formerly the first part of the Stavelot corner, has been renamed in his honour.

Rowing champion
Frère was also a successful rower winning three Belgian championships. In 1946 and 1947 he won the national title in a coxless four. In 1946, he also won it with the coxed four.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)

title: Paul Frère


text:
Paul Goldsmith

Paul Edward Goldsmith (born October 2, 1925) is a retired American racing driver. During his career he raced motorcycles, stock cars, and Indianapolis cars, achieving success in each discipline.

Goldsmith won the USAC Stock Car national championship in 1961 and 1962, driving a Pontiac for Ray Nichels. Earlier in his career, he was a successful motorcycle racer within the AMA circuit, capturing the Daytona 200 for Harley-Davidson in 1953. In 1958, driving a Pontiac for Smokey Yunick, Goldsmith won the final NASCAR stock car race on the Daytona Beach road course.

Goldsmith is currently the oldest living veteran of the Indianapolis 500; he and A. J. Foyt are the only living competitors from the 1958 Indianapolis 500.

Early life
Born in West Virginia, Goldsmith relocated to Detroit, Michigan, with his family at an early age.

During the Second World War, Goldsmith served in the Merchant Marine. After the war, he worked full-time at a Chrysler plant in Detroit. He co-owned a service-station in Royal Oak, Michigan, until 1952.

Motorcycle career
Goldsmith began riding motorcycles soon after the end of the Second World War. His racing career began by accident in 1946, while spectating an event at Partington Pastures in Sterling Heights, Michigan. A lower number of riders appeared than had been expected, and Goldsmith was invited to participate, finishing third. He soon began competing locally every weekend.

Goldsmith would race Harley-Davidsons throughout his cycling career, possibly inspired by Leo Anthony, a Michigan-born rider at the peak of his career in 1946. During 1947, Goldsmith earned the backing of leading Detroit Harley-Davidson dealer Earl Robinson. Teaming up with Robinson’s chief mechanic, Boots Carnegie, Goldsmith campaigned throughout the county fair circuit of the Midwest. By 1948, Goldsmith had achieved Expert rating from the AMA. In March of that year, he competed in his first Daytona 200, finishing in 5th position.

In 1950, Goldsmith increasingly ran among the leaders. His first Class C podium came at Strawberry Hill Raceway, near Richmond, Virginia, where he finished third in a 10-mile race. During the year, Goldsmith scored two further podiums - third place in a 20-mile event at Bay Meadows, in San Mateo, California; and third in a 5-mile national at the Iowa State Fairgrounds. During the 1951 season, Goldsmith repeated his performance at Strawberry Hill. He later finished second at the Iowa State Fairgrounds, the best finish of his career up until then. Goldsmith scored his third and final podium of the season in an 8-mile national at Williams Grove Speedway, in Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania.

Harley–Davidson relationship, and AMA success
In 1952, Goldsmith competed until midway though the season before scoring his first podium of the year, a third place in the Class C National Championship event, a 25-mile race held at the Illinois State Fairgrounds.The following week, Goldsmith scored the first victory of his career, at the Milwaukee Mile, close to the headquarters of Harley-Davidson. In the 15-mile event, extended four extra laps due to a caution, Goldsmith beat Ernie Beckman to the flag. Two weeks later, he finished second in a 5-mile event at the Indiana State Fairgrounds. During the season Goldsmith began competing directly for Harley-Davidson. Offered the new KR model, he disliked the handling, and continued competing on an older WR, while working on the handling and tuning of the KR model in order to bring it up to speed.

For the opening race of the 1953 season, the Daytona 200 on the Daytona Beach road course, Goldsmith entered riding the newly-developed Harley-Davidson KR-TT road-racing variant of the KR model introduced the season before. While in Daytona Beach, he would work on his cycles at the race shop owned by famed local racer Marshall Teague. It was on one such occasion that Goldsmith first met and began consulting famed local mechanic Henry "Smokey" Yunick, going on to impress him with his racing style and work ethic. Goldsmith prepared diligently for the event, fine-tuning his engine, and testing repeatedly on local roads.

On March 14, starting in the second row, Goldsmith took the lead heading into the North Turn, before being passed by John Hicks on the back stretch. By the ninth lap, Goldsmith had settled into third place, behind the Triumphs of Hicks, and Ed Kretz. For the duration of the event, Goldsmith would adhere to a remarkably consistent pace; his lap times for the duration of the 48-lap event on the 4.1 mile course varied by less than three seconds of one another. On the tenth lap, a serious accident occurred, which bunched up the field, allowing Kretz and Goldsmith to pass Hicks. On lap 21, shortly before the midpoint of the race, Goldsmith passed Kretz for the lead heading into the north turn. Goldsmith would run the remainder of the event unchallenged, setting a new record time of 94.45 MPH. His victory was Harley-Davidson's first at the event since 1940.

Goldsmith followed up his victory in Daytona with a third place at the Ohio State Fairgrounds 10-mile event. At Dodge City Raceway, in Dodge City, Kansas, Goldsmith had built up a two-mile lead by the quarter mark of the 200-mile event, before running out of gas. Later in 1953, he won a 100-mile event at the grueling Langhorne Speedway cinder track. He was voted the AMA Most Popular Rider of the Year Award for his efforts during the season.

During the 1954 Daytona 200, Goldsmith again took the lead on the opening lap before settling into a consistent pace, running second behind Joe Leonard. Goldsmith inherited the lead on the eighth lap, as Leonard dropped out with a mechanical issue. On the following lap, coming out of the south turn onto the beach, Goldsmith was caught by the surf, ending his race. That season, the first in which the AMA adopted a championship point system, Goldsmith took a victory in the Charity Newsies, the 10-mile national at the Ohio State Fairgrounds half mile. He also scored a second at the San Mateo 20-mile event, and took third place at a 5-mile event at Portland Meadows in Portland, Oregon. He finished second on the half mile oval at the Meade County Fairgrounds' 5-mile event in Sturgis, South Dakota. Goldsmith concluded the season second in the AMA National point standings, behind Leonard, his former pupil. During the season Goldsmith continually finished in points and prize-paying positions.

In 1955 he won his final AMA event, an 8-mile competition at Illiana Speedway, in Schererville, Indiana. He was frequently racing stock cars by this time. He recorded the final national podium of his career, a third at the Milwaukee Mile 9-mile event on August 27, 1955. Goldsmith finished the season eighth in points. Sometime before the 1956 AMA season, Goldsmith had signed with Yunick, to race Chevrolets during the 1956 NASCAR Grand National season. Goldsmith would soon leave motorcycle competition because he was pressured to run only stock cars by General Motors.

Goldsmith's final event of his motorcycle career was the 1956 Daytona 200. Goldsmith would later say that, "Ed Cole was on my fanny pretty good for riding. He told me I shouldn't be riding the bikes but driving full time for Chevy." Goldsmith said he "hated" giving up motorcycle racing, but made the decision because auto-racing was "much bigger than Harley-Davidson."

Stock car career
Goldsmith first began racing automobiles in 1950, competing in regional events. He experienced quick success, winning his first ever event driving a modified Ford roadster, in a race in Detroit. Later, he scored a second-place finish in a 250-mile stock car event held during the 1953 Michigan State Fair. Goldsmith competed in his first top-level automobile race during 1954, a AAA Stock Car national championship race at the Milwaukee Mile. Starting 22nd in a field of 38, Goldsmith finished in 21st.

Early NASCAR career (1956–1958)
During the 1956 Daytona Speedweeks, Goldsmith was competing in that year's Daytona 200 when he interacted with Yunick. Goldsmith had previously impressed Yunick by acing an improvised series of tests developed by Yunick. Yunick would offer prospective drivers a bit of candy from a snake nut can. Yunick later wrote in his autobiography, "[Goldsmith] caught the son-of-a-bitch snake coming out of the can. I've never seen anybody else that could catch it, even knowing what was going on." Yunick then asked Goldsmith to drive him around a race course set up on the Titusville-Cocoa Airport, located south of Daytona Beach. By Yunick's recollection, Goldsmith's performance lapping the course, as well as in a third test designed to gauge reflexes under braking, exceeded that of the previous record holders of Yunick's tests.

Yunick offered Goldsmith a ride driving his Chevrolet on the NASCAR Grand National circuit. Goldsmith's first appearance came on March 25 at Lakewood Speedway. Starting seventh, Goldsmith was involved in an accident on the 36th lap, ending the race 23rd. During the Southern 500 that year, Goldsmith started and finished the race in the top 5. The next event at Langhorne saw Goldsmith considered a dark horse, due to his strong performance at Darlington, and his previous motorcycling experience at Langhorne. Starting on the outside of the front row, Goldsmith dominated the 300 mile event. Leading 182 of 300 laps, Goldsmith beat runner-up Lee Petty by a seven-lap margin. In addition to his victory, Goldsmith recorded 3 other top 5 finishes in 9 races during 1956.

After continuing with Chevrolet for the first few rounds of the 1957 season, Yunick switched to Ford following the Daytona Beach race. Competing with them for the first several months of the season, their factory-backing was cut off after the Automobile Manufacturers Association (AMA) instituted a ban on factory programs in June, in response to increasing public concern over highway safety. During the 1957 Southern 500 held on September 2 at Darlington Raceway, which he had been favored by many to win, Goldsmith sustained serious injuries in an accident which also seriously injured Fonty Flock and killed Bobby Myers. Running for Yunick and occasionally Pete DePaolo, Goldsmith would finish the season with 4 wins and 6 other top 5 finishes in 25 events that season. Most notable was the Raleigh 250, run on July 4.

In 1958, Goldsmith was the winner of the final Grand National race at the famous Daytona Beach Road Course. His victory would make him the only racer to win the Daytona Beach road course both in a stock car and on a motorcycle. Driving a Pontiac in the event, he led the race from start to finish. A few weeks later, Goldsmith quit the NASCAR circuit, motivated by a desire to race in the Indianapolis 500, sanctioned by the United States Auto Club (USAC).

Association with Ray Nichels
Goldsmith's win at Daytona had attracted the attention of Semon Knudsen, the general manager of GM's Pontiac division. Knudsen, seeking to change Pontiac's stodgy image with the public, had recently hired Ray Nichels, until recently an Indianapolis car mechanic, to begin building Pontiac into a performance brand. That fall, Knudsen arranged a meeting between Nichels and Goldsmith, after which the latter was hired to be Nichels' Pontiac development driver.

Working well together, Nichels soon hired Goldsmith directly, where he replaced Pat O'Connor as Nichels' Firestone test driver. Goldsmith would begin putting in thousands of miles of testing at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway and Southwestern track. For most of 1958 and 1959, Goldsmith's commitment to break into the Indianapolis establishment, and later his business commitments with Nichels meant he had little time for a robust racing schedule, competing in only a handful of Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA) sanctioned stock car events in the Midwest.

1960
Goldsmith returned to racing in 1960, competing on the USAC circuit. While he recorded 4 poles, and finished near the front with regularity, he did not reach victory lane until the final race of the season, in Dayton. Taking the lead from Don White on the opening lap, Goldsmith dominated the event, leading from flag to flag, and only briefly being challenged by Tony Bettenhausen. Goldsmith earned a significant bonus for laps lead during the event, which took place on his 33rd birthday. The conclusion of the season saw Goldsmith and Nichels finish second in points, a significant margin behind the champion, Norm Nelson. In addition to his earnings from the Indianapolis 500, Goldsmith's prize money accrued during the Stock Car season saw him finish sixth overall among earners of all USAC-sanctioned series.

1961
Goldsmith opened the 1961 season with a victory in the Jimmy Bryan Memorial, held in Phoenix. Starting on the pole, Goldsmith was challenged by Rodger Ward during the early stages, before taking the lead for good on the 21st lap. In DuQuoin, Goldsmith, again on pole, dueled again with Ward, before taking the lead for good on the 63rd lap as Ward bobbled. At the 250-mile event at the Milwaukee Mile on September 17, the most prestigious event of the season, Goldsmith had a difficult race. Dropping out on lap 60, he took over teammate Len Sutton's car, only to drop out again on lap 130. Taking over the year-old Pontiac of Whitey Johnson, Goldsmith was able to fight to a leader lap finish of 5th place. In the final race of the season, at Trenton, Goldsmith came from behind to win the race as well as the championship, edging out Nelson, who finished fourth, for the title. Goldsmith won the 1961 USAC Stock Car national championship, with 7 poles, 10 wins, 16 top-five finishes in 19 races.

1962
Goldsmith again started strong for 1962. In a two-heat event at Riverside to open the season, Dan Gurney was disqualified from the first for lightening of his car. Goldsmith won the second heat over Gurney, as was declared the overall winner. Goldsmith's won his second consecutive road-course event, the Peterborough Invitational Trophy at Circuit Mont-Tremblant, in Canada. The 250-mile event consisted again of two heats. The combined highest average time of the two heats determined the winner. Goldsmith finished second behind Ward in the first heat, and beat Ward in the second. His combined time was two-seconds faster. He won the USAC championship in 1962 with 6 poles, 8 wins, and 15 top-five finishes in 20 races.

1963
Goldsmith and Nichels did not record as much success during the 1963 season, which saw Nichels Engineering transition from Pontiac to Plymouth factory support. Although they recorded three wins during the season, they also skipped several events, and suffered numerous mechanical DNFs. The end of the season saw Goldsmith seemingly ranked ninth in the points standings.

Suspension from USAC
While a USAC regular, Goldsmith and Nichels occasionally participated in NASCAR-sanctioned events. Due to compete in the 1963 NASCAR season-ending Golden State 400 at Riverside on November 6, USAC informed Goldsmith's team at the end of October that USAC would not permit their drivers to participate in the event, despite it having an FIA-affiliation. This effective ban lead to all USAC drivers, except Goldsmith, to withdraw. Goldsmith, who later claimed never to have been notified directly by USAC, declared that as an employee of his team and Plymouth, he intended to uphold his obligation to compete.

Goldsmith did not participate in the original day of qualifying, instead setting his time during a last chance session on November 3. His time broke the recent track record set by Dan Gurney during the main qualifying session held on October 31. Despite being the quickest of all drivers, Goldsmith was forced to start from the middle of the field. Gurney, along with fellow USAC drivers A. J. Foyt, Parnelli Jones, Roger Penske, and Rodger Ward did not compete in the event. During the race, Goldsmith was taken out on the 42nd lap after being hit by Bob Bondurant.

The day following the race, Henry Banks, USAC official and a former driver, announced that Goldsmith had been suspended by USAC for a period of one year, and stripped him of his points earned during 1963. Goldsmith threatened to relocate to Mexico, which he claimed would allow him to compete as an FIA-licensed foreign driver. USAC responded by affirming that such an action would lead to no change in Goldsmith's status. Goldsmith and Nichels were soon rumored to be competing in NASCAR during the 1964 Grand National Season.

1965
In 1965, having returned to USAC, Goldsmith lost the championship to Norm Nelson during the final event of the season.

Championship Car career
Goldsmith competed in 8 races in the USAC Championship Car series, between 1958 and 1963 with 6 of those starts in the Indianapolis 500. He finished in the top five twice at Indianapolis, following up a 5th-place finish in 1959 with a 3rd in 1960.

Personal and later life
During his racing career Goldsmith became one of the first drivers to become a pilot, often flying to and from races. After his retirement from driving, flying primarily a Cessna 421, he transported engines and parts to and from races.

For several decades following racing, Goldsmith owned a series of ranches and restaurants.

He remains an active pilot and worker, and is the owner-operator of the Griffith-Merrillville Airport in Griffith, Indiana.

Awards and honors

 * He was inducted into the Michigan Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1986.
 * He was inducted into the Motorcycle Hall of Fame in 1999.
 * He was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2008.
 * He was inducted into the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame in 2016.
 * He was inducted into the USAC Hall of Fame in 2018.

World Championship career summary
The Indianapolis 500 was part of the FIA World Championship from 1950 through 1960. Drivers competing at Indy during those years were credited with World Championship points and participation. Paul Goldsmith participated in three such World Championship races, finishing fifth in 1959 and third in 1960, earning him a total of six World Championship points.

He is currently the oldest living driver to have participated in a World Drivers' Championship calendar event.

title: Paul Goldsmith


text:
Fort Orange (New Netherland)

Fort Orange (Fort Oranje) was the first permanent Dutch settlement in New Netherland; the present-day city and state capital Albany, New York developed near this site. It was built in 1624 as a replacement for Fort Nassau, which had been built on nearby Castle Island and served as a trading post until 1617 or 1618, when it was abandoned due to frequent flooding. Both forts were named in honor of the Dutch House of Orange-Nassau. Due to a dispute between the Director-General of New Netherland and the patroonship of Rensselaerswyck regarding jurisdiction over the fort and the surrounding community, the fort and community became an independent municipality, paving the way for the future city of Albany. After the English reconquered the region they soon abandoned Fort Orange (renamed Fort Albany) in favor of a new fort: Fort Frederick, constructed in 1676.

History
In 1624, a ship with 30 Protestant Walloons (people from what is today southern Belgium) landed in New Netherland; 18 of the men were sent to the location near present-day Albany. Under direction of the Dutch, they built Fort Orange roughly 2 mi north of Fort Nassau, which was prone to flooding, and about five miles south of the confluence of the Mohawk River and the North River.

The Walloons were later recalled south to settle New Amsterdam. A 1628 publication on the population of New Netherland stated that "there are no families at Fort Orange ... they keep five or six and twenty (25 or 26) persons, traders, there". In 1626, the commander of Fort Orange and a company of men set out from the fort to assist the Mohican people in their war against the Mohawk, the powerful Iroquois tribe based in the Mohawk Valley to the west of the fort. The Dutch party was ambushed and three men were killed approximately a mile from the fort, roughly where Lincoln Park and Delaware Avenue are sited today.

Whereas later settlement would be through the purchase of land from the Native Americans, the Dutch built Fort Orange without any consent. They continued to hold it only through the goodwill of the Mahican, and the occasional presents that they gave to the local Mahicans.

When the Dutch established the Charter of Privileges and Exemptions in 1629 setting up the patroon system, Kiliaen van Rensselaer established his patroonship of Rensselaerswyck, surrounding Fort Orange on 24 mi of shoreline along the Hudson River and 24 mi inland on each side of the fort. This land patent was interpreted by van Rensselaer as including Fort Orange and the settlement that had begun outside its walls. He began purchasing and acquiring title to the lands from the Mahican.

In 1630, Gillis Hoosett purchased in van Rensselaer's name the lands to the south and north of the fort from the natives. Later in 1630 the first permanent Dutch settlers and farmers came to Fort Orange and settled on the outskirts of the fort; their village was first called the Fuyck and later Beverwyck. In 1634 the commander of Fort Orange ordered Harmen Meyndertsz van den Bogaert west into the Mohawk Valley and Indian country, for the purpose of understanding why the fur trade had declined. The trip lasted six weeks and took Bogaert and his men through a number of Mohawk villages and into Oneida villages, at least 100 miles from the fort. This journey was recorded in van den Bogaert's daily journal which is titled, A Journey into Mohawk and Oneida Country. In the 1640s a French Jesuit priest and missionary, Isaac Jogues, described Fort Orange as "a wretched little fort ... built of stakes, with four or five pieces of cannon of Breteuil".

In 1648, dispute arose between agents of the Dutch West India Company and agents of the patroon over control of Fort Orange and the surrounding settlement. The Director-General of New Netherland, representing the West India Company, was Pieter Stuyvesant, who saw the patroon's position, power, and land as a direct threat to the West India Company's ability to profit from the beaver pelt trade in Fort Orange. Several confrontations arose over the status of the fort and the rights of settlers around it. Stuyvesant at first ordered all buildings within cannon shot of the fort to be destroyed, then lowered that circumference to that of musket shot. In response, the patroon's agent, Commander van Schlechtenhorst, decided to expand settlement to "within pistol shot of Fort Orange".

After the yearly freshets had damaged much of the fort, the West India Company decided to reconstruct the fort using stone. In response, van Schlechtenhorst declared it illegal for anyone to quarry stone within Rensselaerswyck for the fort or for anyone to sell the material to the fort's commander, Carl van Brugge. All material for the fort had to be shipped in from outside the colony. Van Schlechtenhorst claimed that Fort Orange had been illegally built on the patroon's lands, while Stuyvesant noted that Fort Orange had been built 15 years prior to the establishment of Rensselaerswyck.

In 1651, Stuyvesant declared the jurisdiction of the fort to extend 600 paces around the fort, thereby severing it from Rensselaerswyck; he appointed Johannes Dyckman as commissary of Fort Orange. In 1652, Stuyvesant, to settle this dispute once and for all, set up a "Court of Justice for the Village of Beverwyck and its dependencies", the first municipal government for the future city of Albany.

At the time when Beverwyck consisted of roughly 100 structures huddled next to the fort, Stuyvesant set up Beverwyck at a safer distance from the cannons of the fort and laid out future Albany's oldest streets- State Street and Broadway.

By the end of the 1650s, the fort was in disrepair again, and both Fort Orange and Beverwyck were enclosed by a wooden stockade in 1660.

In 1663, smallpox raged in Fort Orange, killing one person a day, which was a large percentage given the small population in the fort. On September 8, 1664, the English, after sending numerous war ships to New Amsterdam, demanded the surrender of New Netherland and came to terms with the Dutch. On that date New Netherland became the Province of New York with Colonel Richard Nicolls appointed as the first English colonial governor; New Amsterdam was renamed New York. Johannes De Decker sailed on that day from New Amsterdam to Fort Orange to rally the troops and settlers to resist English rule. On September 10, Governor Nicholls sent troops to demand the peaceful surrender of the "Fort Aurania", aurania being the Latin name for "orange" that the English used when referring to Fort Orange.

It was not until September 24, 1664, that vice-director of New Netherland Johannes de Montagne surrendered the fort to the English, and Colonel George Cartwright took command. On the 25th, Captain John Manning was given control of the fort, which was renamed Fort Albany; Beverwyck was named Albany.

In 1673 the Dutch retook New York City, which they named New Orange, on July 29, then retook Albany on August 3. In September, Albany was renamed Willemstadt and Fort Albany became Fort Nassau. The Treaty of Westminster, signed on February 19, 1674, renamed New Orange and Willemstadt back to their English names; Fort Nassau became Fort Albany and Willemstadt became Albany.

In 1666, Jeremias van Rensselaer, then-patroon of Rensselaerswyck, had petitioned the new government of Governor Nicholls to recognize Fort Albany (Fort Orange) as part of Rensselaerswyck. Governor Nicholls informed him that he would be wise to drop the matter until he heard from the Duke of York. In 1678, Governor Andros issued to the patroon's heirs a grant reaffirming the patroon's rights over Rensselaerswyck, but leaving out Fort Albany and the immediate area around the fort.

The English abandoned Fort Orange and built a new fort on top of State Street Hill named Fort Frederick; it served both to defend the settlement from the Mohawk and other Iroquois to the west and to be on high ground to remind the Dutch inhabitants of English rule. The land around the old fort was sold to the Dutch Reformed Church for use as pastureland, but the fort structure continued to deteriorate. It was indicated on maps during the 18th century, labeled as "ruins of an Old Fort." Richard Smith, a traveler, observed by 1769 that there was "nothing to be seen of Fort Orange... but the Ditch which surrounded it". After the American Revolutionary War, the deteriorated site of the old fort was memorialized as a historic site and was the site of many historical observances.

Subsequent occupation
Simeon De Witt built a large house or mansion and a number of outbuildings on the site of the old fort during the 1790s; the address for the site of the old fort became 549 South Market Street (later Broadway). On his property traces of the old fort could still be seen as late as 1812. He lived at this location while he was the surveyor-general of New York. Following his death, his mansion and outbuildings were adapted for use as the Fort Orange Hotel. It burned down in 1848 but was rebuilt under the same name.

In 1886, as part of the bicentennial of Albany's incorporating document, the Dongan Charter, the city erected a bronze tablet at the site of the northeastern bastion of Fort Orange. In the 1930s the tablet was moved during construction of the Dunn Memorial Bridge, and for almost 100 years it did not mark the site of Fort Orange. The Albany Institute of History and Art has a cannonball labeled as "Dug up at Fort Orange site July 22nd 1886", the date the bicentennial marker was placed. No known archeological excavations were done other than placing the sign. The tablet was moved again in 1971 after excavations discovered remnants of the fort during construction of Interstate 787 and the interchange with the South Mall Expressway. The marker was returned to the site of Fort Orange, but not to the former location of the northeastern bastion.

As the Fort Orange Archeological Site, the area of the fort was declared a National Historic Landmark (and added to the National Register of Historic Places) on November 4, 1993.

Commanders of the fort

 * Adriaen Jorrissen Thienpont
 * Daniel van Krieckebeck ("Crieckenbeeck ... killed by Mohawks in 1626" )
 * Bastiaen Jansz Krol ("appointed commissary of Fort Orange several months ... after ... was killed by Mohawks in 1626"; "Krol returned to the Netherlands in 1629" )
 * Hans Jorissen Houten
 * Carl van Brugge
 * Johannes Dyckman
 * Johannes de Decker
 * Johannes de la Montagne

as Fort Albany under the English

 * Captain John Manning
 * Captain John Baker

as Fort Nassau under the Dutch

 * Lieutenant Andries Draeyer

Excavations
Prior to the 1970 excavations, no 17th-century Dutch artifacts had been discovered in Albany. The excavations were undertaken by the New York State Historic Trust with the New York State Department of Transportation from October 20, 1970, until March 1971. The first test hole was made in what had been the cellar of the De Witt house, which had obliterated all remnants of the old fort. Digging at a site under Broadway in front of the house turned up many pieces from the Dutch colonial past. Among those were a Jew's harp, tobacco pipes, beads, Rhenish stoneware, and Delftware. The excavations also revealed the south moat and counterscarp, a pebbled path from the east entrance of the fort, a brewery owned by Jean Labatie built in 1647, and parts of several houses owned by Hendrick Andriessen van Doesburgh, Abraham Staats, and Hans Vos.

From the excavations, scholars noted that venison made up the majority of the meat eaten by the settlers of the fort, followed by pork. The greatest number of fish bones and scales were found in a pit 20 ft south of the pebbled entrance path dating from before 1648. Sturgeon were found infrequently in later 17th-century deposits. Eating and drinking utensils consisted of lead-glazed red-bodied and white/buff bodied earthenware, tin earthenware, Rhenish stoneware, Chinese porcelain, glass roemers, Spechter glasses, and façon de Venise glassware. The tin-glazed earthenware, at least prior to 1650, were of the majolica variety and not delftware. Porcelain was rare, found only as a few shards. The remains of many clay pipes were found, often with the "EB" maker's mark of Eduard Bird (c. 1610–65) of Amsterdam. The site was in continual use and artifacts recovered include 1830s creamware or pearlware and 1860s copper bottom coffee pot remnants. The artifacts from the excavation are housed at the New York State Museum.

title: Fort Orange (New Netherland)


text:
Kawkawlin

Kawkawlin may refer to the geographic locations in the U.S. state of Michigan:

 * Kawkawlin Township, Michigan
 * Kawkawlin, Michigan, an unincorporated community in Monitor township
 * Kawkawlin River, namesake for both the township and community

title: Kawkawlin