text:
African black duck

The African black duck (Anas sparsa) is a species of duck of the genus Anas. It is genetically closest to the mallard group, but shows some peculiarities in its behavior and (as far as they can be discerned) plumage; it is accordingly placed in the subgenus Melananas pending further research.

Description
The African black duck is a black duck with pronounced white marks on its back, a dark bill, and orange legs and feet. A purpish-blue speculum is often visible, especially in flight. It lives in central and southern Africa. It is also known as the black river duck, or (A. s. leucostigma) West African black duck or Ethiopian black duck. It is a medium-sized duck, with a length of 48–57 cm. The male is larger than the female.

Distribution
The African black duck is mainly found in eastern and southern sub-Saharan Africa from South Africa north to South Sudan and Ethiopia with outlying populations in western equatorial Africa, in southeast Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon.

Behavior and reproduction
It is a very shy and territorial duck. It is usually seen in pairs or small flocks. It breeds throughout the year in different areas. Incubation is about 30 days by the mother and the fledgling period is 86 days and only the mother takes care of the young. Their egg quantity ranges from 4 to 8 eggs.

Ecology
Though it likes to stay in rivers and streams during the day it prefers large open waters during the night. This duck likes water in the wooded hills of Africa and hides its nest near running water. Also the African black duck makes its cup shaped nest of driftwood and matted grass. Though it builds its nest near water it is always above flood level and on the ground.

Diet
It is an omnivore that feeds off of larvae and pupae usually found under rocks, aquatic animals, plant material, seeds, small fish, snails, and crabs.

title: African black duck


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Decryption matrix

 This page is an archive of the proposed deletion of the article below. Further comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or on a Votes for Undeletion nomination). No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was delete. Eugene van der Pijll 19:28, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

Decryption matrix
There does not appear to be a notable concept by this name, as far as I can gather. The term is used a few times on pages indexed by Google, but they nearly all mean a different thing to what is described here. The only place is, but I would suggest their assertion that "a decryption matrix [is] a common device in codebreaking" is an error. There would seem to be no evidence of this concept outside that page, and I've never come across it in the literature. There was a previous VfD to keep, but that was based on the belief that this was a genuine concept, which would appear not to be the case. — Matt Crypto 16:01, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 *  Weak delete This is a placeholder vote. I'm going to research the topic when I get home tonight. I'll let you know what I come up with, and expand the article as/if needed -Harmil 16:55, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * I stopped at the local tech bookstore and abused their resources in order to peruse the most authoritative books I could find. I'd already leafed through Applied Cryptography at work, of course, but it doesn't deal with attacks against crypto except from the standpoint of assuring the security of a given algorithm. So, I paged through 4 or 5 of the books that were more of the accademic sort and less of the "teach yourself how to use a crypto library in 10 seconds". I'm crypto-savvy, but no expert, so it's possble that I missed something, but I found no references in the index or ToC to this term. I paged through the sections that looked most promissing in one or two of the texts as well. Unless someone can come up with a sound definition that actually parses well, I'm all for deleting. -Harmil 21:25, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Delete. Does not appear to be real. --Carnildo 23:49, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Keep and cleanup . The definition is wrong (a matrix of the form described is sometimes used in cryptanalysis but this is not termed the decryption matrix). However this is a real term used in decryption, specifically with respect to the Hill cipher, a family of cryptographic algorithms based on invertible matrices.  K. Gopalakrishnan, Associate Professor of Computer Science  at East Carolina University, set an exam in which students are required to compute the decryption matrix of a hill cipher .  This document is based on an original produced by Ross Moore of McQuarie University and Nikos Drakos of University of Leeds. --Tony Sidaway|Talk 18:02, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Yes, you would normally use the term "decryption matrix" in the context of the Hill cipher, but that's not what this article is discussing at all. You could, I suppose, write a new article from scratch that defines a decryption matrix with respect to the Hill cipher, but it's not a particularly special or separate concept from the Hill cipher itself, and wouldn't ever be much of an article. — Matt Crypto 18:10, 23 July 2005 (UTC)
 * You're right. Changed vote: delete. --Tony Sidaway Talk  15:17, 4 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Delete, the definition is entirely bogus. A new article could be written on the real definition, but this article is flatly wrong - it's like having the banana entry tell you that bananas are a type of mammal.  Xaa 03:56, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in an undeletion request). No further edits should be made to this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Category:714 deaths

title: Category:714 deaths


text:
User talk:Jvano~enwiki

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Pnětluky
I filled the stub with text. Can you take look and correct possible nonsenses? I do not know this place, all info is taken from Internet. Thanks. Pavel Vozenilek 23:48, 9 October 2005 (UTC)

František Merta
Hello Jvano. I tagged the article František Merta for deletion with WP:PROD. If you have any sources or want to add other information please do it within the next 5 days or the article may be deleted. regards, FloNight   talk   18:56, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

Witch hunt
while it is true that that POV should have been deleted, i don't exactly think that the unification church is a cult. vanis 11:37, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Hi, I'm just leaving a note to say that I reverted your recent deletion of a section from Witch-hunt. I reverted this because you didn't give any reasoning as to why you were deleting. If you're going to delete a section you have to have a good reason. You can word your reasoning in the Edit summary field when you're editing an article, if it fits; otherwise go to the discussion page and explain yourself there. If the section is biased, I encourage you to edit or delete it again, but please explain the reasoning behind your edits. Thanks, Fuzzypeg ☻ 14:51, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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title: User talk:Jvano~enwiki


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User talk:Henry79

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Welcome, newcomer!

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Feel free to ask me anything the links and talk pages don't answer. You can most easily reach me by posting on my talk page.

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Hello
This message is regading Valencia Metro. If you are new to Wikipedia, please read the tutorial and your first article first, to ensure that your new article will not be deleted. Please use only the sandbox for editing experiments. PJM 22:46, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Henry79


text:
Prahova Valley

Prahova Valley (Romanian: Valea Prahovei) is the valley where the Prahova river makes its way between the Bucegi and the Baiu Mountains, in the Carpathian Mountains, Romania. It is a tourist region, situated about 100 km north of the capital city of Bucharest.

World War I
During World War I, the area was the site of heavy fighting between Austro-Hungarian and German forces on one side and Romanian forces on the other. The strategic objective of the Central Powers was to reach Bucharest via the shortest route, but they were prevented from doing so by determined Romanian resistance.

Geography
Geographically, the Prahova river separates the Eastern Carpathians chain from the Southern Carpathians. Historically, the corridor was the most important passageway between the principalities of Wallachia and Transylvania. The DN1 road links Bucharest with the city of Brașov; the planned A3 freeway is currently being built along the Prahova Valley.

After failing to take part in the hosting of the 2013 European Youth festival, Prahova Valley considered making a bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics.

The region is a popular destination for mountaineers and for winter sports fans. The most important resorts are:

 * Predeal
 * Azuga
 * Bușteni
 * Sinaia
 * Comarnic
 * Breaza

title: Prahova Valley


text:
Casatus (crater)

Casatus is a lunar impact crater that is located near the southern limb of the Moon. The north-northeast rim of the crater overlies a portion of the slightly larger crater Klaproth. Along the western rim, Casatus A intrudes somewhat into the interior, producing an inward-bowing rim. To the southeast of Casatus is Newton.

The outer rim of Casatus is old and worn, with many tiny impacts along the rim and inner wall. The small satellite crater Casatus J lies across the south-southeastern rim. The height of the rim is lower where it divides this crater from Klaproth, forming a rounded ridge.

The interior floor is a nearly level surface marked by several tiny ghost-crater rims projecting above the surface and a pair of clefts in the southern part of the floor. A small, bowl-shaped impact crater forms a prominent feature in the northern half of the floor. There is no central peak formation at or near the midpoint of the interior.

Satellite craters
By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Casatus.

title: Casatus (crater)


text:
Bronze-winged duck

The bronze-winged duck (Speculanas specularis) also known as the spectacled duck, is a dabbling duck and the sole member of its genus Speculanas. It is often placed in Anas with most other dabbling ducks, but its closest relative is either the crested duck or the Brazilian duck, which likewise form monotypic genera. Together they belong to a South American lineage which diverged early from the other dabbling ducks and may include the steamer ducks.

Named after the "bronze" speculum this species is also known as "pato perro" or "dog-duck" after the harsh barking call of the female.

The bronze-winged duck lives among forested rivers and fast-flowing streams on the lower slopes of the South American Andes, in central and southern Chile and adjacent parts of Argentina.

The sexes are alike.

As noted by Johnsgard (2010): "Most observers agree that heavily forested rivers that are relatively swift-flowing are the preferred habitat of this species, although they also occur on slow-moving rivers and on pools or ponds of the adjoining forest areas. They are said to consume both vegetable and animal materials, and have been observed eating small snails that abound on stony shingle beaches. Stomach remains from two birds that were examined contained the seeds of water crowfoot (Batrachium), water milfoil (Myriophyllum), and a bulrush, leaves of water crowfoot, foliage and seeds of a pondweed, and caddis fly larvae as well as a few other aquatic insect remains (Phillips, 1922–26). In captivity at least the birds seem to spend a good deal of time on land and have not been observed diving for food."

title: Bronze-winged duck


text:
Arne Tiselius

Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius (10 August 1902 – 29 October 1971) was a Swedish biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1948 "for his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis, especially for his discoveries concerning the complex nature of the serum proteins."

Education
Tiselius was born in Stockholm. Following the death of his father, the family moved to Gothenburg where he went to school, and after graduation at the local "Realgymnasium" in 1921, he studied at the Uppsala University, specializing in chemistry.

Career and research
Tiselius became a research assistant at Theodor Svedberg's laboratory in 1925 and obtained his doctoral degree in 1930 on the moving-boundary method of studying the electrophoresis of proteins. From then to 1935 he published a number of papers on diffusion and adsorption in naturally occurring base-exchanging zeolites, and these studies continued during a year's visit to Hugh Stott Taylor's laboratory in Princeton University with support of a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship. On his return to Uppsala he resumed his interest in proteins, and the application of physical methods to biochemical problems. This led to a much-improved method of electrophoretic analysis which he refined in subsequent years.

Tiselius took an active part in the reorganization of scientific research in Sweden in the years following World War II, and was President of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 1951–1955. He was chairman of the board for the Nobel Foundation from 1960 to 1964.

Quotation from Arne Tiselius
We live in a world where unfortunately the distinction between true and false appears to become increasingly blurred by manipulation of facts, by exploitation of uncritical minds, and by the pollution of the language. Arne Tiselius

Awards and honours

 * 1948 Nobel Prize for Chemistry
 * 1949 Elected a Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences
 * 1953 Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * 1957 Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS).
 * 1961 Paul Karrer Gold Medal
 * 1964 Elected to the American Philosophical Society

The lunar crater Tiselius was named in his honour.

Personal life
Tiselius was married, with two children. He died of a heart attack 29 October 1971 in Uppsala. His wife died in 1986.

title: Arne Tiselius


title: File:Tron2.0box.jpg


text:
Silver teal

The silver teal or versicolor teal (Spatula versicolor) is a species of dabbling duck in the genus Spatula. It breeds in South America.

Between April and June they prefer reed beds and will lay 6 to 10 creamy-pink eggs. The eggs will hatch after 25 to 27 days. As with swans and geese, both parents will rear the ducklings. A pair may bond long term. It lives on fresh water in small groups, and feeds primarily on vegetable matter such as seeds and aquatic plants.

The silver teal's range includes southern Bolivia, southern Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, South Georgia, South Sandwich Islands, and the Falkland Islands. The southernmost birds migrate to southern Brazil in the winter.

Silver teals are on the whole placid ducks but may be protective of eggs, young and females.

Description
They have a black cap that extends below the eyes, and a bluish bill with a yellow tip. They also have a green speculum with a white border. The female's plumage is slightly duller and has less yellow at the base of the beak.

The Puna teal was previously regarded as a subspecies of this bird. Currently, there are two subspecies:
 * S. versicolor versicolor northern silver teal located in Paraguay, southern Bolivia, and southern Brazil.
 * S. versicolor fretensis southern silver teal located in southern Chile, Argentina, and the Falkland Islands.

title: Silver teal


text: Category:16 births

title: Category:16 births


text:
User talk:Xpendersx

Unreferenced BLPs
Hello Xpendersx! Thank you for your contributions. I am a bot alerting you that 23 of the articles that you created  are tagged as Unreferenced Biographies of Living Persons. Please note that all biographies of living persons must be sourced. If you were to add reliable, secondary sources to these articles, it would greatly help us with the current Category:All_unreferenced_BLPs article backlog. Once the articles are adequately referenced, please remove the unreferencedBLP tag. Here is the list:

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Thanks!--DASHBot (talk) 20:51, 2 January 2010 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Ray Cappo

The article Ray Cappo has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * Unable to find reliable sources of information about Cappo. All the ones I can find are about the bands rather than him. This article has been unsourced for almost 3 years.

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You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing  will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. The speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. --  Phantom Steve / talk | contribs \ 18:15, 9 March 2010 (UTC)

Nomination of Reuel Marc Gerecht for deletion
The article Reuel Marc Gerecht is being discussed concerning whether it is suitable for inclusion as an article according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

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Nomination of Jimmy Bower for deletion
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Good article reassessment for Byron Brown
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Nomination of One Life Crew for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article One Life Crew is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

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title: User talk:Xpendersx


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User talk:Wikerchair

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

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text: Category:10s births

title: Category:10s births


text: Category:38 deaths

title: Category:38 deaths


text: Category:194 BC deaths

title: Category:194 BC deaths


text:
Talk:Great Books of the Western World

Add Links?
Why not add links to copies of the books that are available on the internet? I added a link to the Aeneid and to James's Principals of Psychology by going to each of these works individual pages and copying what was already there. Sure, each reader could just do this for herself, but why add an extra step when there is no need to?N2lect2el 17:56, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Too cluttered and spammy. There are links on the works pages, which is a much better place for them. It's only one more click away. And there they can have a choice of external links as well. -R. fiend 19:53, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The pages for individual works or authors are more likely to be kept up-to-date than this catch-all approach. I'd prefer to limit links to other Great Books pages and sites. Alan Nicoll 17:06, Jan 7, 2005 (UTC)

Remove links?
I removed three links to three Yahoo discussion groups, as wikipedia is not a link farm. There are discussion groups on thousands of Web sites about tens of thousands of topics that are articles in Wikipedia; we don't want to start linking to all of them. Although I'll grant you that this is an area where standards aren't exactly firm, external links should either be source material or very important information that is too obtuse or difficult to include in the article itself. - DavidWBrooks 01:31, 3 Feb 2005 (UTC)

NPOV tweaks on criticism section
I've included some responses to criticisms of the set in the final section, including quotes from the editors. Seems like a reasonable effort at NPOV. One oddity is a disagreement on the number of writers. The editors of the second edition specifically give the 130 figure, which I verified by a handcount of their author list. I'm not sure where the 151 figure in Norman Davies' criticism came from. He may include the four authors who were dropped from the second edition, and/or biblical authors because selections from the Bible are included in the reading plans for both editions. Casey Abell 06:44, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

Great Books Foundation
Removed the sentence in the opening paragraph about the Great Books Foundation. The Foundation does not maintain any definitive list of Great Books of the Western World. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.222.33.146 (talk) 21:49, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

John Stuart Mill
The title of the essay in question is "Considerations on Representative Government", not simply "Representative Government" (although it's usually referred to by the shorter title, that's inappropriate for a list of titles). Thanks for reverting without comment, though. 81.104.160.179

 * Your change was reverted because it deleted much of the article. — goethean ॐ 16:47, 8 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Wow. My apologies, I've never seen *that* happen before. I wonder what went wrong? 81.104.160.179

Second edition
Mortimer Adler edited the second edition of the Great Books, with little or no contribution from Peter Temes. Adler was Editor in Chief of the edition and made all editorial decisions in consultation with a group of senior editors, which did not include Temes. (See Adler's own discussion of the process, referenced in the article.) In his criticism of Adler, Temes himself makes no claim to have presided over or even influenced the second edition. The article already includes an extensive discussion of the second edition and the criticisms made against Adler for the author list.

There appears to be some confusion between the second edition of the Great Books, published by Britannica, and the reading lists put out by the Great Books Foundation. Temes may have influenced those Foundation reading lists in the direction of more black, Hispanic and female authors, such as Morrison and Cortázar, who were not included in the second edition of the Britannica set. He had no apparent influence on that second edition from Britannica, which was heavily criticized for its lack of black and Hispanic authors (unless Cervantes counts as "Hispanic") and its small number of female authors. Casey Abell 18:29, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I think you're absolutely right. The articles I cited weren't clear about the distinction between the Great Books of the Western World series and the lists suggested by the Great Books Foundation.  Thanks for clearing this up.  Isokrates 18:39, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your note. Didn't want to get into an edit war on this. It's a good idea to put Temes' criticism of Adler in the article, but Temes really had little or nothing to do with the second edition. Casey Abell 18:42, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

 * This is very frustrating. I couldn't find any reference to the specific additions made in the second edition. What are the additional books? (By the way, let's wait until someone is dead at least fifty years before adding his/her name to this list. It's the Great Books, after all.Scott Adler (talk) 19:41, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

Copyright violation
Listing the whole contents of all 60 volumes is a copyright violation. The list was compiled by the project editors and they are the copyright holders of the list.

To comply with copyright policies, the listings of a few volumes have to be modified to say something like: "Volume 59 includes works by Henry James, George Bernard Shaw and others." -- Gabi S. 17:48, 20 July 2007 (UTC)

 * That's a stretch. The copyright is probably pro forma. A copyrighted work has to be distinctive and original. A list of other people's work, most of it in the public domain, can't be reasonably considered intellectual property.Scott Adler (talk) 19:41, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

Dwight MacDonald & "Book of the Millenium Club"
MacDonald wrote a brilliant review of the original set of "Great Books", entitled "Book of the Millenium Club". Kiefer.Wolfowitz (talk) 19:32, 12 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Thanks for adding a reference with a hypertext link.Kiefer.Wolfowitz (talk) 23:13, 29 March 2010 (UTC)

Leibniz
With respect to, I think it misses the point. We can come up with arbitrary lists of authors who were rejected, and make cases for many of them. Gauss, Cantor and Boole were all omitted. We don't need a cite saying that Leibniz was great, we need a cite of someone complaining that he was omitted from the Great Books of the Western World.--Prosfilaes (talk) 22:44, 19 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Adding this again violates WP:NOR. We really need that connection.--Prosfilaes (talk) 00:55, 21 March 2012 (UTC)
 * adding most certainly does not violate, as there is a reference; however your deleting it is clearly a violation as explained in (WP:PRESERVE). — Preceding unsigned comment added by Wran (talk • contribs) 13:30, 23 March 2012 (UTC)
 * There is no reference there that says he should have been in Great Books of the Western World. The connection of Leibniz to the Great Books of the Western World is NOR. Again, we don't need to add huge lists of authors saying how great each of them were.--Prosfilaes (talk) 23:19, 23 March 2012 (UTC)
 * WP:PRESERVE isn't relevant here; it says "Preserve appropriate content. As long as any of the facts or ideas added to the article would belong in a "finished" article, they should be retained and the writing cleaned up on the spot, or tagged if necessary." But the whole question is whether a finished article would include the names of arbitrary authors that haven't been included, and I argue no.--Prosfilaes (talk) 00:11, 24 March 2012 (UTC)
 * and I say that Leibniz is not plural ("names") or an "arbitrary author"; so that is not the question. stop edit warring and discuss BEFORE ELIMINATINGWran (talk) 14:00, 24 March 2012 (UTC)

2nd edition discrepancies
Looking here I noticed that the listing for the 2nd edition appears to be at variance. Can someone else take a look and give an opinion? Thanks. ~ Alcmaeonid (talk) 16:51, 21 October 2012 (UTC)
 * I have checked Teeter's listing and those of this article with my set of the 2nd edition (1994); although mine is incomplete - missing about 7 volumes - it has enough to measure both. I checked two out of each decade of volumes up to volume 59.
 * What he lists as volume 6 is actually volume 7, and his volume 58 is actually volume 59. He is also one out of step with what I can see on the official Britannica image of the GBWW at http://corporate.britannica.com/library/print/greatbooks.pdf.
 * The listing in this article seems entirely accurate.
 * So, as far as I can tell, the discrepancies are entirely Teeter's. I wonder if "The Great Conversation" is actually volume 1?  Teeter didn't include it.Twistlethrop (talk) 23:00, 30 December 2013 (UTC)

Volume listings revision?
Further to my comments above, I have removed part of the second paragraph of the Second Edition section because of the inaccuracy of the source cited.

But the article still should have a complete listing. The present layout is unsatisfactory; the entire first edition list is followed by a brief acknowledgement that the numbering differs between each editions, and then a list of those added by the second edition.

It should be presented in a way that is simple to use, but the information is split at present which makes it a difficult to refer to. It should be revised and rewritten to present all the information in one place. (I haven't found a usable listing on the Britannica web site.)

I'm wondering whether or not a tabular form presented as a single entity, perhaps with notes regarding the first edition, would be the best approach. Does anybody have any other ideas about this, please?Twistlethrop (talk) 23:51, 30 December 2013 (UTC)

Add source for these Great Books?
I happen to own a set of the 1st edition of this series, & was surprised to find that many of the works were reprints of existing editions. For example, the translations of Herodotus & Thucydides are reprints of the translations in the Everyman's Library (done with permission, of course). Looking at a few more books, I found that they too were drawn from existing translations or editions of the works. (Considering that the editors had a budget of $2 million -- back in the days when that was a large sum of money -- I'm amazed that the books selected weren't translated or prepared from scratch; buying the rights for the works that were used to fill the 54 volumes wouldn't cost even half their budget, & except for setting the books into type & proofing them, what other costs were there? Methinks someone profited from this self-described altruistic venture.) -- llywrch (talk) 06:33, 13 August 2016 (UTC)

 * I think you underestimate the cost of licensing an entire library and make a print run of heavy books. We do have some translators listed, and could afford more. We could have a section on original sources, but we'd need good references for that.--Prosfilaes (talk) 02:44, 15 August 2016 (UTC)

 * Yes, it is odd. The printing couldn't have cost very much, hardbacks retailed for two or three dollars in those days. I have owned a set for over forty years. The type is bad - no, wretched - the paper fragile, bindings not high quality, the translations second-rate, the Syntopicon utterly useless. The biographies are sketchy and unreferenced, there is no scholarly material to give context. There are seldom indexes or any notes - only when they came from a prior edition of the work. The selection of works is questionable, particularly the lack of Voltaire and Leibniz and the inclusion of Freud. There is virtually nothing on mathematics as it has been understood for the bast few hundred years. Where did the $2M go? Adler, one suspects. Still, it's a useful reference even if one starts to hate the books after an hour of reading turgid prose in tiny type. Weren't they developing aversion therapy at the U. of Chicago around then? Hmmm. Enon (talk) 02:37, 17 February 2017 (UTC)

 * Just what sort of WP article improvement is being suggested? – S. Rich (talk) 13:13, 17 February 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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Missing Work
It has always struck me as unfortunate that Bede's The Ecclesiastical History of the English People  was missing from this collection and that several important African-American authors are likewise not included, such as W.E.B. Dubois (works like The Souls of Black Folk and Black Reconstruction in America merited inclusion), Martin Luther King Jr. (Letter from Birmingham Jail and his The Measure of a Man), and Frederick Douglass (A Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave). Maybe Britannica will correct such omissions one day. --Obenritter (talk) 18:38, 11 August 2022 (UTC)

Reading Plans, Family Participation Plan, and other items
Separate from the original 1952 series is a 10-volume set of Reading Plans, aka the "Great Ideas Program" series (cf. and ), published 1959-1963. A Family Participation Plan is shown as an additional distinct item, among others, in this ad in the Apr 1968 issue of The Alcalde: The University of Texas Alumni Magazine: --RZiman (talk) 05:28, 30 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Great Books of the Western World


text:
Separatrix

Separatrix (from Latin, the feminine form of "separator") may refer to:

 * Separatrix (decimal mark), an mark or vertical bar  formerly used as a decimal point
 * Separatrix, a proofreader's mark resembling the slash
 * Separatrix in math, the boundary separating two modes of behaviour in a differential equation
 * A mechanism for magnetically limiting a plasma, and hence for controlling the nuclear fusion in a tokamak; see divertor

title: Separatrix


text:
Netscape Browser

Netscape Browser (or Netscape 8) is the eighth major release of the Netscape series of web browsers, now all discontinued. It was published by AOL, but developed by Mercurial Communications, and originally released for Windows on May 19, 2005.

Netscape Browser was the first browser of the Netscape series to be based on Mozilla Firefox, as opposed to Netscape versions 6 and 7 which were based on Mozilla Application Suite. Also, Netscape 6 and 7 were Internet suites whereas Netscape Browser (version 8) was solely a web browser.

As with other recent versions, it incorporates support for AOL Instant Messenger, and other AOL-related features.

Netscape Browser was succeeded by Netscape Navigator 9, which reverted to the Navigator name.

Release history and milestones
The browser was finally released on May 19, 2005. A minor update known as version 8.0.1 was released a few hours later to incorporate the key security patches added in Firefox 1.0.4.

Features

Perhaps the most noteworthy feature introduced in Netscape Browser is the ability to use either of two layout engines to render websites — either Internet Explorer 6's Trident layout engine or the Gecko engine used by Mozilla and its derivatives. This is used as part of the browser's "Site Controls" system, which allows security settings to be altered on a per-site basis, and is also touted as a defense against phishing and similar attacks, with both blacklists and whitelists built in and automatically updated regularly. This system decides whether a site is "trusted" or "suspect", while only whitelisted sites use the Trident engine by default.

However, this feature is actually implemented by using the IE ActiveX control, which is composed of most of IE's architectures.

Other features highlighted by AOL's publicity include improved tabbed browsing abilities, a toolbar system called the "MultiBar," which includes up to 10 toolbars in the space of one, and extra support for "Live Content", such as RSS feeds. In keeping with the security emphasis, a new secure form information and password management system, known as a "PassCard," which saves usernames and passwords for individual sites, is also included.

In Netscape version 8.1, the Security Center feature is much more integrated into the browser, and extra features, such as ID Theft Protection and Spyware Protection have been integrated.

Netscape includes a host of "widgets" designed to improve the browsing experience, including Local Weather information, Movie Times and reviews, Mapquest maps, Yellow pages, White pages, Stocks, and a City guide, all integrated into menu-enabled toolbar buttons.

Furthermore, a webmail button is included in the toolbar, which links directly to multiple webmail homepages and is configurable for multiple webmail accounts. A button to run the user's default mail client is included.

There are multiple smaller features included, including a shortcut menu that appears when text is selected to paste the selected text directly into a search engine of choice.

Finally, the browser includes a pop-up advertisement blocker which can be configured to allow pop-ups for individual sites, block only unrequested pop-ups, and open any pop-ups in new tabs in one window, thus preventing pop-unders.

Criticism
The Netscape Browser has been criticized for various reasons. Perhaps the most severe is the claim that, in contradiction to its claimed emphasis on security, its use of both the Trident and Gecko rendering engines means it unavoidably inherits all the vulnerabilities of both engines, making it potentially less secure than either Firefox or IE on their own.

Renderer modality problems
The switching between rendering engines may also confuse users, since the web browsing experience is very different depending on which is used. A standards based website will generally render better in Gecko thanks to its better standards support, but Netscape Browser renders whitelisted pages using Trident instead. "As the switching is transparent to the user, users are left wondering why their experience changes randomly across different websites".

User interface issues
The optional theme "Fusion" has also been criticized because it does not conform to the Microsoft human interface guidelines (HIG), either "Luna" or "classic" style, although the default theme, "Winscape", looks more like a traditional Windows application. There is also a claim that the usability of the browser is reduced by not obeying standard Windows manipulations. Similarly, the excessive nesting of tabs has been cited as a sign of generally poor interface design. The installation program of Netscape 8.12 prompts the user into which theme would be preferred, with the traditional "Winscape" being checked by default.

Helper programs removed
Some users have argued the formerly included email client and HTML editor were more valuable as part of the browser package than new features such as a live weather report and news ticker, especially since these applications were tradition in earlier versions. Firefox, upon which Netscape Browser is based, does not include an email client or HTML editor either, but an HTML editor extension can be downloaded from the Extension and Themes section of the Firefox website, and email support is provided by Mozilla Thunderbird. Older Netscape releases were based upon the Mozilla Suite, which did include this functionality.

Collection of personal information
Another criticism is that the browser collects user browsing behavior by default. By default, the option "Allow Netscape to gather anonymous browser usage statistics" is enabled. The option is found in the "Advanced Settings" during installation. As many casual users may skip the dialogs during installation, this feature could be turned on in many installations of Netscape Browser. Some argue this feature should be called spyware, however this term usually applies only to software that attempts to send private information to companies often later selling this to advertisers, whereas the information collected is actually anonymous.

Password issues
A related possible criticism is that in the browser's password manager menu, saved passwords can be viewed in plain text. Thus, if a user has access to another's account, they could retrieve all their usernames and passwords in plain text with little effort. Further, this option cannot be turned off or removed without editing the software. This problem doesn't happen in version 8.1.3.

XML rendering issue (fixed)
A few days after Netscape 8.0.1 was released, Microsoft reported the browser disables the XML rendering engine in Internet Explorer by causing IE to render XML pages as a blank page. Netscape fixed the issue in version 8.0.2.

title: Netscape Browser


text: Category:AD 2 births

title: Category:AD 2 births


text:
Tannu Uriankhai

Tannu Uriankhai (Таңды Урянхай, ; Тагна Урианхай, ; ) was a historical region of the Mongol Empire, its principal successor, the Yuan dynasty, and later the Qing dynasty. The territory of Tannu Uriankhai largely corresponds to the modern-day Tuva Republic of the Russian Federation, neighboring areas in Russia, and a small part of the modern state of Mongolia.

Tannu designates the Tannu-ola Mountains in the region, and Uriankhai was the Mongolian name for the Tuvans (and accordingly their realm), which meant "the people living in the woods".

After Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) declared independence from the Qing dynasty and the Republic of China in the early 20th century, the region of Tannu Uriankhai increasingly came under Russian influence and finally became an independent communist state, the Tuvan People's Republic, which was annexed by the Soviet Union in 1944.

Sovereignty over the area has not been officially renounced by the Republic of China since 1949. However, the Mainland Affairs Council issued a statement saying that "Outer Mongolia has never been part of its constitutionally claimed territory."

Referring to the 2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship, the People's Republic of China (PRC), which controls Mainland China, declared it "have no remaining territorial claims" with the Russian Federation. At the same time, the PRC has official contacts with Tuva and regards it as part of Russia.

History
With the fall of the Yuan dynasty in China, Tannu Uriankhai was controlled by the Oirots (western Mongols, also known as Zungars) until the end of the 16th and early 17th centuries. Thereafter, the history of western Mongolia, and by extension Tannu Uriankhai, is centred around the complex military relations between the Altan Khanate (Khotogoit tribe) and the Oirots, both competing for supremacy in western Mongolia.

The Qing dynasty established its dominion over Mongolia as a result of intervening in a war between the Oirots and the Khalkhas, the dominant tribe in the eastern half of Mongolia. In 1691 the Kangxi Emperor accepted the submission of the Khalkhas at Dolon Nor in Inner Mongolia, and then personally led an army into Mongolia, defeating the Oirots near Ulaanbaatar (the capital of present-day Mongolia) in 1696. Mongolia was now part of the Qing state, and the dynasty's rule over Tuva came not by conquest but by threat: In 1726 the Yongzheng Emperor ordered the Khotogoit Khan Buuvei Beise to accompany a high-ranking Qing official to "inform the Uriankhais of [Qing] edicts" in order to prevent "something untoward from happening".

Qing administration
The Tannu Uriankhai were reorganized into an administrative system similar to that of Mongolia, with five banners (khoshun, 旗) and 46 or 47 arrows (sum, 佐領); Chinese and Russian sources differ on the number of khoshuns and sums. Each khoshun was governed by a magistrate (not hereditary) nominally appointed by the Qing military governor at Uliastai. In the latter half of the 18th century, the magistrate of Tannu Banner was placed in charge of the others as governor ("amban-noyon", 四旗總管) in recognition of his military service to the dynasty, until 1872.
 * Tannu Banner (唐努旗)
 * Salajik Banner (薩拉吉克旗)
 * Tojin Banner (托錦旗)
 * Khövsgöl Nuur Banner (庫布蘇庫勒諾爾旗、庫蘇古爾旗)
 * Khemchik Banner (克穆齊克旗)
 * Uliastai General (Amban) 25 sums (烏里雅蘇臺將軍所屬烏梁海二十五佐領)
 * Zasagtu Khan 5 sums (札薩克圖汗部所屬烏梁海五佐領)
 * Sain Noyan Hošo Prince 13 sums (賽音諾顏部額魯特前旗所屬十三佐領)
 * Jebtsundamba Khutugtu's Shabinar 3 sums (哲布尊丹巴呼圖克圖所屬沙比納爾三佐領)

Tannu Uriankhai, as well as Altai and Altainor Uriankhai, occupied a unique position in the Qing dynasty's frontier administration system. If Qing statutes rigorously defined procedures to be followed by the nobles of Outer and Inner Mongolia, Zungaria, and Qinghai for rendering tribute, receiving government stipends, and participating in imperial audiences, they were silent regarding Tannu Uriankhai. After the demarcation of the Sino-Russian border by the Treaty of Kyakhta (1727), the Qing inexplicably placed border guards ("yurt pickets", Mongolian: ger kharuul) south of the Tannu-ola Mountains separating Tannu Uriankai from Outer Mongolia, not along the Sayan Mountains separating the region from Russia. This act was used by 19th-century Russian polemicists, and later Soviet writers, to prove that Tuva had historically been "disputed" territory between Russia and China. The Qing military governor at Uliastiai, on his triennial inspection tours of the 24 pickets under his direct supervision, never crossed the Tannu-ola mountains to visit Uriankhai. When problems occurred meriting official attention, the military governor sent a Mongol from his staff rather than attend to the matter himself.

There is no evidence that Tannu Uriankhai was ever visited by a senior Qing official (except perhaps in 1726). Chinese merchants were forbidden to cross the pickets, a law enforced until the turn of the 20th century. Instead, a few days were set aside for trade at Uliastai when Uriankhai nobles delivered their annual fur tribute to the military governor and received their salaries and other imperial gifts (primarily bolts of satin and cotton cloth) from the emperor. Thus, Tannu Uriankhai enjoyed a degree of political and cultural autonomy unequalled on the Chinese frontier.

Russian settlement
Russian settlement of the region began in 1839 with the opening of two gold mines in the Sayan Mountains; in the following decades, other areas were exploited for mining, mainly in the northern part of Uriankhai. By 1883 the total number of Russian miners there reached 485.

Russian merchants from Minusinsk followed, especially after the Treaty of Peking in 1860, which opened China to foreign trade. They were lured by the "wild prices", as one 19th-century Russian writer described them, that Uriankhais were willing to pay for Russian manufactured goods—cloth, haberdashery, samovars, knives, tobacco, etc. By the end of the 1860s there were sixteen commercial "establishments" (zavedenie) in Tannu Uriankhai. The Uriankhais paid for these goods in livestock-on-the-hoof, furs, and animal skins (sheep, goat, horse, and cattle). But crossing the Sayan Mountains was treacherous; by 1880–85 there were perhaps no more than 50 (or fewer) Russian traders operating in Tannu Uriankhai during the summer, when trade was most active.

Russian colonization followed in 1856 with a sect of Old Believers called the "Seekers of White Waters", seeking a place, which according to their tradition was isolated from the rest of the world by impassable mountains and forests, provided refuge from government authorities, and where the Nikon rites of the Russian Orthodox Church were not practiced.

The formal beginning of Russian colonization in Tannu Uriankhai occurred in 1885 when a merchant received permission from the governor-general of Irkutsk to farm in present-day Turan. Other settlements were formed, and by the first decade of the 20th century there were perhaps 2,000 merchants and colonists.

By the late 1870s and in the 1880s the Russian presence had acquired a political content. In 1878 Russians discovered gold in eastern Uriankhai. There were rumors of fabulous wealth to be gained from this area, and the Russian provincial authorities at Yeniseisk were inundated with petitions from gold miners to mine, and permission to do was granted. Merchants and miners petitioned Russian authorities for military and police protection. In 1886 the Usinsk Frontier Superintendent was established; its primary function was to represent Russian interests in Tannu-Uriankhai with Uriankhai nobles (not Qing officials) and to issue passports to Russians traveling in the area. Over the years the office quietly but steadily claimed the power of government over at least the Russians in the region—taxation, policing, administration, and justice—powers that should have belonged to but were effectively relinquished by the Qing. Shortly after the office of Superintendent was created, the Sibirskaya gazeta brought out a special edition, congratulating the government on its creation, and predicting that all Tannu Uriankhai would someday become part of the Russian state.

Qing reaction
The Qing government was not oblivious to the Russian presence. In the 1860s and 1870s the Uliastai military governor on a number of occasions reported to Peking on the movement of Russians into Uriankhai. Its suspicions were further aroused by other events. At negotiations between it and Russia resulting in the Tarbagatai Protocol of 1864, which defined a part of the Sino-Russian border, the Russian representative insisted that all territory to the north of the Qing frontier pickets fall to Russia. Moreover, the Uliastai military governor obtained a Russian map showing the Tannu-ola Mountains as the Sino-Russian border.

End of Qing rule
By the early 20th century, the Uriankhai economy had seriously deteriorated, resulting in its people becoming impoverished. The causes were varied: the declining number of fur-bearing animals likely from over-hunting by both Uriankhais and Russians; the declining number of livestock as a result of the export market to Siberia; and periodic natural disasters (especially droughts and plagues), which were detrimental to livestock herds. Additionally, Uriankhai trade with Russians was conducted on credit using a complex system of valuation principally pegged to squirrel skins. As the number of squirrels declined because of over-hunting, the price of goods increased. The Russians also manipulated the trade by encouraging credit purchases at usurious rates of interest. If repayment were not forthcoming, Russian merchants would drive off the livestock of either the debtor or of his relatives or friends, which led to retaliatory raids by the Uriankhai.

The situation worsened when the Han people arrived from China proper. Although the Qing had successfully kept Han traders out of Uriankhai (unlike in other parts of Outer Mongolia and other parts of the frontier), in 1902 they were allowed to cross the border to counter Russian domination of the Uriankhai economy. By 1910, there were 30 or so shops, all branches of Han-owned firms operating in Uliastai. For many reasons—more aggressive selling, easier credit terms, cheaper and more popular goods for sale—the Han people soon dominated commerce just as they had in Outer Mongolia. Soon, the Uriankhais, commoners and princes alike, had accumulated large debts to the Han.

The end of Qing rule in Tannu Uriankhai came quickly. On October 10, 1911, the Xinhai Revolution broke out, and soon afterwards Chinese provinces followed one another in declaring their independence. Mongolia (Outer Mongolia) declared its own independence from China on December 1, and expelled the Qing viceroy four days later.

Uriankhai nobles were divided on their course of political action. The Uriankhai governor, Gombo-Dorzhu, advocated becoming a protectorate of Russia, hoping that the Russians in turn would appoint him governor of Uriankhai. But the princes of two other banners preferred to submit to the new Bogd Khanate of Mongolia under the theocratic rule of the Jebstundamba Khutukhtu of Urga.

Gombu-Dorzhu sent a petition to the Frontier Superintendent at Usinsk, stating that he had been chosen as leader of an independent Tannu Uriankhai state. He asked for protection and proposed that Russian troops be sent immediately into the state to prevent China from restoring its rule over the region. There was no reply—three months earlier the Tsarist Council of Ministers had already decided on a policy of gradual, cautious absorption of Uriankhai by encouraging Russian colonization; precipitous action by Russia, the Council feared, might provoke China. This position changed as a result of pressure from commercial circles in Russia for a more activist approach, and a Russian sponsored "petition" from two Uriankhai khoshuns in the fall of 1913 requesting to be accepted as a part of Russia. Other Uriankhai khoshuns soon followed suit. In April 1914 Tannu Uriankhai was formally accepted as a protectorate of Russia.

title: Tannu Uriankhai


text:
User talk:Benjamin E.

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Welcome, newcomer!

Here are some useful tips to ease you into the Wikipedia experience:

 * First, take a look at the Wikipedia Tutorial, and perhaps dabble a bit in the test area.
 * When you have some free time, take a look at the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines. They can come in very handy!
 * Remember to use a neutral point of view!
 * If you need any help, feel free to post a question at the Help Desk
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Also, here are some odds and ends that I find useful from time to time:

 * Policy Library
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Feel free to ask me anything the links and talk pages don't answer. You can most easily reach me by posting on my talk page.

You can sign your name on any page by typing 4 tildes, likes this: ~~~~.

Best of luck, and have fun!

ClockworkSoul 18:01, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Benjamin E.


text: Category:0s births

title: Category:0s births


text: Category:98 deaths

title: Category:98 deaths


text:
Exaptation

Exaptation and the related term co-option describe a shift in the function of a trait during evolution. For example, a trait can evolve because it served one particular function, but subsequently it may come to serve another. Exaptations are common in both anatomy and behaviour.

Bird feathers are a classic example. Initially they may have evolved for temperature regulation, but later were adapted for flight. When feathers were first used to aid in flight, that was an exaptive use. They have since then been shaped by natural selection to improve flight, so in their current state they are best regarded as adaptations for flight. So it is with many structures that initially took on a function as an exaptation: once molded for a new function, they become further adapted for that function.

Interest in exaptation relates to both the process and products of evolution: the process that creates complex traits and the products (functions, anatomical structures, biochemicals, etc.) that may be imperfectly developed. The term "exaptation" was proposed by Stephen Jay Gould and Elisabeth Vrba, as a replacement for 'pre-adaptation', which they considered to be a teleologically loaded term.

History and definitions
The idea that the function of a trait might shift during its evolutionary history originated with Charles Darwin. For many years the phenomenon was labeled "preadaptation", but since this term suggests teleology in biology, appearing to conflict with natural selection, it has been replaced by the term exaptation.

The idea had been explored by several scholars when in 1982 Stephen Jay Gould and Elisabeth Vrba introduced the term "exaptation". However, this definition had two categories with different implications for the role of adaptation.

(1) A character, previously shaped by natural selection for a particular function (an adaptation), is coopted for a new use—cooptation. (2) A character whose origin cannot be ascribed to the direct action of natural selection (a nonaptation), is coopted for a current use—cooptation. (Gould and Vrba 1982, Table 1)

The definitions are silent as to whether exaptations had been shaped by natural selection after cooption, although Gould and Vrba cite examples (e.g., feathers) of traits shaped after cooption. Note that the selection pressure upon a trait is likely to change if it is (especially, primarily or solely) used for a new purpose, potentially initiating a different evolutionary trajectory.

To avoid these ambiguities, David Buss et al. suggested the term "co-opted adaptation", which is limited to traits that evolved after cooption. However, the commonly used terms of "exaptation" and "cooption" are ambiguous in this regard.

Preadaptation
In some circumstances, the "pre-" in preadaptation can be interpreted as applying, for non-teleological reasons, prior to the adaptation itself, creating a meaning for the term that is distinct from exaptation. For example, future environments (say, hotter or drier ones), may resemble those already encountered by a population at one of its current spatial or temporal margins. This is not actual foresight, but rather the luck of having adapted to a climate which later becomes more prominent. Cryptic genetic variation may have the most strongly deleterious mutations purged from it, leaving an increased chance of useful adaptations, but this represents selection acting on current genomes with consequences for the future, rather than foresight.

Function may not always come before form: developed structures could change or alter the primary functions they were intended for due to some structural or historical cause.

Examples
Exaptations include the co-option of feathers, which initially evolved for heat regulation, for display, and later for use in bird flight. Another example is the lungs of many basal fish, which evolved into the lungs of terrestrial vertebrates but also underwent exaptation to become the gas bladder, a buoyancy control organ, in derived fish. A third is the repurposing of two of the three bones in the reptilian jaw to become the malleus and incus of the mammalian ear, leaving the mammalian jaw with just one hinge.

Arthropods provide the earliest identifiable fossils of land animals, from about in the Late Silurian, and terrestrial tracks from about  appear to have been made by arthropods. Arthropods were well pre-adapted to colonize land, because their existing jointed exoskeletons provided support against gravity and mechanical components that could interact to provide levers, columns and other means of locomotion that did not depend on submergence in water.

Metabolism can be considered an important part of exaptation. As one of the oldest biological systems and being central to life on the Earth, studies have shown that metabolism may be able to use exaptation in order to increase fitness, given some new set of conditions or environment. Studies have shown that up to 44 carbon sources are viable for metabolism to successfully take place and that any one adaptation in these specific metabolic systems is due to multiple exaptations. Taking this perspective, exaptations are important in the origination of adaptations in general. A recent example comes from Richard Lenski's E. coli long-term evolution experiment, in which aerobic growth on citrate arose in one of twelve populations after 31,000 generations of evolution. Genomic analysis by Blount and colleagues showed that this novel trait was due to a gene duplication that caused a citrate transporter that is normally expressed only under anoxic conditions to be expressed under oxic conditions, thus exapting it for aerobic use.

Gould and Brosius took the concept of exaptation to the genetic level. It is possible to look at a retroposon, originally thought to be simply junk DNA, and deduce that it may have gained a new function to be termed as an exaptation. Given an emergency situation in the past, a species may have co-opted junk DNA for a useful purpose. This may have occurred with mammalian ancestors when confronted with the Permian–Triassic extinction event about 250 million years ago and substantial increase in the level of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere. More than 100 loci have been found to be conserved only among mammalian genomes and are thought to have essential roles in the generation of features such as the placenta, diaphragm, mammary glands, neocortex, and auditory ossicles. It is believed that as a result of exaptation, or making previously "useless" DNA into DNA that could be used in order to increase survival chance, mammals were able to generate new brain structures as well as behavior to better survive the mass extinction and adapt to new environments. Similarly, viruses and their components have been repeatedly exapted for host functions. The functions of exapted viruses typically involve either defense from other viruses or cellular competitors or transfer of nucleic acids between cells, or storage functions. Koonin and Krupovic suggested that virus exaptation can reach different depths, from recruitment of a fully functional virus to exploitation of defective, partially degraded viruses, to utilization of individual virus proteins.

Adaptation and exaptation cycle
It was speculated by Gould and Vrba in one of the first papers written about exaptation, that when an exaptation arises, it may not be perfectly suited for its new role and may therefore evolve new adaptations to promote its use in a better manner. In other words, the beginning of evolving a particular trait starts out with a primary adaptation toward a fit or specific role, followed by a primary exaptation (a new role is derived using the existing feature but may not be perfect for it), which in turn leads to the evolution of a secondary adaptation (the feature is improved by natural selection for better performance), promoting further evolution of an exaptation, and so forth.

Once again, feathers are an important example, in that they may have first been adapted for thermoregulation and with time became useful for catching insects, and therefore served as a new feature for another benefit. For instance, large contour feathers with specific arrangements arose as an adaptation for catching insects more successfully, which eventually led to flight, since the larger feathers served better for that purpose.

Evolution of complex traits
One of the challenges to Darwin's theory of evolution was explaining how complex structures could evolve gradually, given that their incipient forms may have been inadequate to serve any function. As George Jackson Mivart (a critic of Darwin) pointed out, 5 percent of a bird wing would not be functional. The incipient form of complex traits would not have survived long enough to evolve to a useful form.

As Darwin elaborated in the last edition of The Origin of Species, many complex traits evolved from earlier traits that had served different functions. By trapping air, primitive wings would have enabled birds to efficiently regulate their temperature, in part, by lifting up their feathers when too warm. Individual animals with more of this functionality would more successfully survive and reproduce, resulting in the proliferation and intensification of the trait.

Eventually, feathers became sufficiently large to enable some individuals to glide. These individuals would in turn more successfully survive and reproduce, resulting in the spread of this trait because it served a second and still more beneficial function: that of locomotion. Hence, the evolution of bird wings can be explained by a shifting in function from the regulation of temperature to flight.

Jury-rigged design
Darwin explained how the traits of living organisms are well-designed for their environment, but he also recognized that many traits are imperfectly designed. They appear to have been made from available material, that is, jury-rigged. Understanding exaptations may suggest hypotheses regarding subtleties in the adaptation. For instance, that feathers evolved initially for thermal regulation may help to explain some of their features unrelated to flight. However, this is readily explained by the fact that they serve a dual purpose.

Some of the chemical pathways for physical pain and pain from social exclusion overlap. The physical pain system may have been co-opted to motivate social animals to respond to threats to their inclusion in the group.

Evolution of technology
Exaptation has received increasing attention in innovation and management studies inspired by evolutionary dynamics, where it has been proposed as a mechanism that drives the serendipitous expansion of technologies and products in new domains.

In the cognitive science of religion
In the cognitive science of religion, exaptation is used to explain religious behavior and belief. As such, religion is seen as the byproduct of mental evolution.

title: Exaptation


text:
User talk:Davitf

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title: User talk:Davitf


text: Category:90s deaths

title: Category:90s deaths


text:
Leonardsville, New York

Leonardsville is a hamlet on the Unadilla River in the Town of Brookfield in Madison County, New York, United States. A portion of it does also extend into the Town of Plainfield in Otsego County, New York, United States.

The community started as a number of small factories deriving power from a dam on the Unadilla River during the first decade of the 19th century. These were known locally as the shops and included a scythe and hoe factory, a blacksmith shop, a grist mill, a saw mill, a horse rake factory and wagon shop, and a foundry and machine shop.

As with many small communities, Leonardsville was given its name by the Post Office Department, which in this case named if after Reuben Leonard who, in his early years, ran a local grocery and dry goods business that became a convenient location to drop off mail for local residents. In 1856, the grist mill, saw mill and agricultural implement factory were destroyed by fire, but were rebuilt immediately. Soon after that, the shops were purchased by the Babcock family who operated them until the 1930s, employing at their peak over 100 workers. Until the 1950s, when the manufacturing shops closed, Leonardsville was a stop on the Unadilla Valley Railway, had a milk station (now a recycling center) and a feed store. None of the manufacturing buildings remain, but the former Crandall Department Store still stands and is now the regionally known Horned Dorset Restaurant.

Leonardsville had its own kindergarten through 12th grade central school until 1969, when the district merged with Bridgewater and West Winfield, creating the Mount Markham Central School district. The building was one of the new district's elementary schools until 2001, but now is used for specialized educational programs.

The Wheeler House Complex was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.

Population reportedly decreased from 243 in the 2010 census to 110 in 2016, with an average age of 52.

title: Leonardsville, New York