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Horwich

Horwich is a town and civil parish in the Metropolitan Borough of Bolton, Greater Manchester, England,  within the historic county boundaries of Lancashire. It is 5.3 mi southeast of Chorley, 5.8 mi northwest of Bolton and 15 mi northwest of Manchester. It lies at the southern edge of the West Pennine Moors with the M61 motorway passing close to the south and west. At the 2011 Census, Horwich had a population of 20,067.

Horwich emerged in the Middle Ages as a hunting chase. Streams flowing from the moors were harnessed to provide power for bleachworks and other industry at the start of the Industrial Revolution. The textile industry became a major employer and after 1884 the construction of the railway works caused the population of the town to increase dramatically. The old industries have closed and urban regeneration has been led by out of town developments, particularly at Middlebrook, which, since 1997 has been the base of Bolton Wanderers football club, who play at the University of Bolton Stadium, having moved from Burnden Park near Bolton town centre.

History
The name Horwich derives from the Old English har and wice, meaning the place at the grey wych-elm and in 1221 was recorded as Horewic. The name was recorded as Harewych in 1277 and Horewyche in 1327.

Horwich Forest
Ancient records are of Horwich Forest being overrun with wolves in the time of Ecgfrid, ruler of Northumbria until 685, 'Smithills walled round to keep them at bay'. Around this time early Saxon Kings used the forest for the chase, while staying at the ancient Smithells Hall, records exist of Ælla_of_Northumbria making use of the forests for hunting. Ecgberht (Egbert) is a notably visitor associated with the area in this early period. Horwich developed from a 'bridge point settlement' on the River Douglas at what is now Scholes Bank. By the Middle Ages Horwich was a hunting chase, after the Norman Conquest held by Albert de Gresle between 1086 and 1100. In 1277 Robert Gresle, Baron of Manchester prosecuted Martin de Rumworth for carrying off deer in Horwich Chase which was described in 1322 as being within "a circuit of sixteen leagues with a yearly value in pannage, aeries of eagles, herons and goshawks, in honey, millstones, and iron mines, in charcoal-burning, and the like issues, 60 shillings; of which the vesture in oaks, elms and wholly covered with such, 160 marks." In 1294 Thomas Gresle, sixth Baron of Manchester obtained free warren over "Horewich". The local enforcement of Forest Law was through a Bailiff who served the Lord of the Manor and it was he who decided punishments. Trespassers in the forest were brought before the Manorial Court Leet. The decline of Horwich forest is connected to the dissolution when Henry VIII seized all the church lands and then sold them.

Pre-industrial
By the 16th century, subsequent to the reformation land ownership had shifted from Church to the crown and was then sold to new owners, who transformed the town into an agricultural economy, and forests were cleared. Many of the farms from the period still existed until the housing boom of the 19th and 20th centuries, like many Lancashire towns the cotton industry was prominent as at least a secondary occupation in many households, weaving became a widespread occupation, and industries like bleaching, dying and paper making grew from the use of water power with the towns preindustrial plentiful access to flowing water. The town continued this path until the arrival of the railway workshops in the 19th century.

In 1598 a number of men were presented at the court leet for tithing and in 1621 the court leet recorded "paid for hue and crye that came from Horwich after the man who made an escape forth of ye stocks for stealing certain lynen cloth 8d". The earliest map of Horwich is dated 1620 and is known as 'The Platt of Horwich', naming the landowner as Sir Thomas Barton, of the Barton family of Holme Hall in the manor of Holme Newark and Smithills Hall, Bolton. A plague pit is noted on the map, with victims of a 1623 outbreak, interred in a mass grave under what is now Lever Park Avenue. By the 17th century, the amount of woodland in the Horwich forest was reduced by house building and for fuel. Horwich Moor was enclosed between 1815 and 1818. Race meetings were held between 1837 and 1847 at the 'Old Lords estate', an area next to the Rivington border, named after 11th Baron Willoughby. Four Barons Willoughby of Parham are interred at Horwich Parish Church.

The manor became the property of the Andertons of Lostock Hall, Lostock, who purchased it in 1599 from Nicholas and Elizabeth Mosley. These lands were confiscated by The Crown in 1715 after the Battle of Preston. They were leased to the Blundells whose coat of arms is displayed above the door at the Blundell Arms on Chorley Old Road.

The Pilkington family were notable in the town's history, prior to the Ridgways. The town coat of arms incorporates the Pilkington Cross, in recognition of the founder of the Rivington and Blackrod High School, James Pilkington, Bishop of Durham and the prominent role in the local history of the family. Richard Pilkington, a leading non-conformist and owner of Horwich Manor, and his family feature in the town's history from the post Protectorate to the industrial revolution being benefactors and founders of a number of places of worship. Another William Pilkington (1765–1831) became a physician and apothecary in St Helens. It is this branch that links Horwich to the founders of Pilkington Glass, his sons being Richard (1795–1869) and William (1800–1872).

Industrial Revolution
In the 1770s brothers, John and Joseph Ridgway, land agents to the Blundells, moved their bleach works from Bolton to Wallsuches. Their works was the oldest and one of the few stone-built mills in the Bolton borough. The firm was one of the earliest users of chemical bleaching using chlorine. In 1798 the firm installed a Boulton and Watt steam engine.

Horwich Vale Printworks, founded in 1799 by the River Douglas, printed cloth using machines and handblocks. On the slopes of Winter Hill, stone was quarried and there were several small collieries and a firebrick and tile works. In 1896 the Montcliffe Colliery was owned by Adam Mason and Son and managed by Joseph Crankshaw and Joseph Kenwright. It employed 26 men underground and seven surface workers getting coal and fireclay from the Mountain coal seam. Crankshaws pipeworks used the fireclay and had had several beehive kilns at their works at Tiger's Clough. In the mid-19th century, cotton mills were built by W. & W. Bennett and Peter Gaskell.

Ridgways provided land for the early 19th century Club Houses, a grid pattern development of streets of stone built cottages south of Church Street. Some had basements for hand loom weaving. In 1851 the occupants were crofters, stovers and bleachers.

Heavy Industry
In 1881 the population of 3,761 lived in 900 houses and had remained stable for fifty years, the arrival of the railway works and other industries including W.T. Taylor's cotton mill resulted in a considerable change to Horwich leading to a rapid increase in population, creating a boom in population by 1891 to 12,850 people, Horwich became a railway town in this period of the Industrial Revolution.

Coming with this increased population was a need for more houses, schools, and retail and service industries to provide for this new population. Large areas of former farmland was built on with the creation of vast numbers of brick terraced house streets of Victorian and Edwardian types of two-up two-down for the working class who had arrived from across Britain and Ireland, still used in the 21st century. Many new streets near Horwich Locomotive Works were named after famous engineers of the time. Local government in Horwich meets and is administered from a typical Victorian-style building which became known as Horwich Public Hall, a gift to the town by Peter Martin of The Street, Rivington in 1879 and still in use. The post-war years saw a boom in the builds of Council Houses.

In 1937 the de Havilland Aircraft Company built a factory that supplied aircraft to Cobham's Flying Circus. During World War II the factory manufactured variable pitch propellers for Spitfires, making it a target for German bombers, who in July 1942 attempted to raid the factory by employing some of Germany's best pilots and crews in two Junkers JU 88 bombers in a mission using the Rivington reservoirs as landmarks to navigate at low level flying over the water then rooftops of Lever Park to find its target. The raid went off course due to low clouds. The company was taken over by Hawker Siddeley and subsequently British Aerospace, the site was halved and moved to the south side of Hall lane Lostock when taken over by MBDA in 1997 it is still in 2013 making missiles and the site is now used for integration and test purposes. Horwich works was very active in armament production in the first and second world wars, in recognition George VI and his wife Queen Elizabeth visited the town in 1940.

Railway Town
In the period of the railway works from spring 1884 to 1983 Horwich changed drastically. The site first opened as the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (L&YR) works, leading to a large complex for building and maintaining locomotives, the site replaced one at Miles Platting.

Horwich Works was built on 142 hectares of land bought for £36,000. The first workshop, Rivington House opened in February 1887. It is 106.7 metres long by 16.8 metres wide. The long brick built workshops had full-height arched windows and were separated by tram and rail tracks. Work to construct the three-bay, 463.3 metres long, 36 metres wide, erecting shop began in March 1885. Inside it were 20 overhead cranes. By November 1886 the first locomotives arrived at the works for repair.

The first Horwich built locomotive, Number 1008, left the works in 1887 and is preserved at the National Railway Museum.

In the First and Second World War, the works played a part in the war effort manufacturing tanks and munitions. The war led to women being employed in manufacturing at the site, but this did not continue in post-war years with occupational inequality persisting.

The L&YR amalgamated with the London and North Western Railway in 1922 becoming a constituent of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, (LMS) in 1923.

Horwich Works continued to build and repair locomotives for the LMS until the company was nationalised in 1948 by the Transport Act 1947, becoming British Railways. In 1962, British Railways transferred control of its main works to British Railways Workshops Division, with its headquarters in Derby. In 1970 it was renamed British Rail Engineering Limited (BREL) and remained the towns most significant employer.

Production changed and the last steam locomotive built at Horwich Works left on 27 November 1957, after which the works produced shunting diesel trains until 28 December 1962. It was reduced to repairing engines and maintaining railway wagons. On 18 February 1983 BREL announced that the works would close at the end of the year. Protest marches and spirited trade union resistance failed to alter the decision and at 1 pm on Friday, 23 December 1983 Horwich Works closed after 97 years. The town went through a period of high unemployment afterward,  The freehold of the railway works site was transferred from British Rail to Bolton Council in the mid-1990s.

A proposal to demolish the works and build 1,700 homes and a school was submitted to Bolton Council in early 2010. The initial phase of the development commenced in 2019.

Asbestos used to insulate steam engines and railway carriages linked to mesothelioma has been a legacy affecting former workers and their families with asbestos dust also being carried in clothing. The redevelopment of the site required it to be cleared of contaminants before building commenced. Part of the site is planned for demolition for the creation of a link road in 2019, linking the Middlebrook Retail Park, M61 and Horwich Railway Station.

With the closure of Horwich Locomotive Works and other heavy industries, the town went through a period of hardship until the development of the Middlebrook Retail Park and the arrival in the town of Bolton Wanderers Football Club, which revived the service and retail sectors, alongside this the town is now known for sub-urban residential accommodation with the benefit of access to the motorway and other transport links. The economic area is centered around the Middlebrook area, this is planned to expand with new industrial areas being built toward Blackrod.

Governance

Horwich was within the county boundaries of Lancashire from the 12th century and was a township in the historic ecclesiastical parish of Deane, in the Hundred of Salford. In 1837 Horwich joined with other townships and civil parishes to form the Bolton Poor Law Union and took joint responsibility for the administration and funding of the Poor Law in that area and built a workhouse in Farnworth. The Horwich Local board of health was established in 1872 and was superseded by Horwich Urban District of the administrative county of Lancashire in 1894. Under the Local Government Act 1972 Horwich Urban District was abolished in 1974 and its area became a successor parish of the newly created Metropolitan Borough of Bolton in Greater Manchester and was removed from the county of Lancashire.

On 9 January 1974 Horwich was granted a Town Charter by the Earl Marshal, giving Horwich the status of a town, a town council and the ability to elect a Mayor. An official coat of arms was granted and assigned on 6 December 1974 by the Earl Marshal.

Horwich is covered by two electoral Wards of the Bolton Metropolitan Borough Council, the Horwich South and Blackrod, and Horwich North Wards. Each Ward elects three councillors to the Metropolitan Borough Council. Horwich Town Council, formed in 1974, has eight Wards; Vale, Bridge, Lever Park, Church, Claypool, Brazley, Central and Fall Birch which elect 14 representatives to the Town Council.

Horwich is part of the Bolton West Constituency. Its Member of Parliament is Chris Green who won the parliamentary seat at the 2015 General Election.

Geography

Suburban localities in Horwich include Wallsuches and Middlebrook.

Horwich extends to 3230 acre and measures 3 mi from north to south and 2 mi west to east. The River Douglas flowing in a south westerly direction forms part of its northern boundary. The landscape to the north is dominated by Winter Hill, Rivington Pike and the West Pennine Moors. The highest point is 1475 ft on the moors in the north from where the ground slopes down towards the south and west, where the lowest land is about 350 ft. On Wilders and Horwich Moors the underlying rock is Millstone Grit, and in the intermediate slopes are found the Lower Coal Measures of the Lancashire Coalfield. The Middle Coal Measures are found in the southwest of the township.

Red Moss, 1.5 km south of the town centre, is a 47.2 ha Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) which was designated in 1995 because of its biological interest. Red Moss is the best example of lowland raised mire in Greater Manchester and is one of 21 SSSIs in the area. The site is managed by the Wildlife Trust for Lancashire, Manchester and North Merseyside.

Demography
At the 2001 UK census, Horwich had a population of 19,312 of which 9,370 were male and 9,942 were female. The 2001 population density is lower than Bolton at 12.5 people per hectare compared to 18.7 in Bolton. At the 2011 UK census, Horwich's population increased to 20,067 of which 9,777 were male and 10,290 were female. The 2011 census recorded a total of 9,013 households, of which were 1,979 detached houses, 2,642 semi-detached houses, 3,254 terraced houses, 971 purpose-built flats, 160 other flats (including bedsits), and 7 caravans (or other mobile or temporary structure).

Population change
Until the late 18th century, Horwich was a small rural community. In 1774, it had a population of 305, comprising 156 females and 149 males. After 1780 the population increased as the Industrial Revolution brought changes to the town but remained constant until 1885 when the locomotive works were built more than trebling the population in ten years.

Economy
Many of Horwich's traditional industries, Horwich Works and W.T. Taylor's cotton mill closed in the late 20th century. Regeneration was led by the construction of the Toughsheet Community Stadium for Bolton Wanderers at Middebrook in 1995. The development which stretches into neighbouring Lostock, attracted industrial and commercial users including Hitachi, generating jobs to replace those lost in the old industries and the area is now dominated by small and medium enterprises. E.ON and RBS have set up offices close the University of Bolton stadium. Watson Steel Structures founded in 1933 and BAe's successor company, Matra BAe Dynamics operates from the Middlebrook area. Georgia Pacific has a paper manufacturing plant close to the University of Bolton Stadium. Halbro, manufacturers of sportswear and equipment for both codes of rugby, is based on Chorley New Road.

There are Tesco and Asda stores on the outskirts of town and Aldi and Iceland stores closer to the town centre. The Horwich indoor market building was closed and demolished in 2009, but the traditional town centre has many small, specialist shops and businesses, including a greengrocers, butchers, florist and gift shops. Free parking is available across the town and there is a post office and library in the town centre.

Transport
Public transport is co-ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester. The nearest railway stations are at Blackrod and Horwich Parkway adjacent to the University of Bolton Stadium where there is a Park and Ride facility with trains to Bolton, Manchester and Preston. Blackrod station is nearer the town centre. The original Horwich railway station was closed in the Beeching cuts to passenger traffic on 27 September 1965, goods traffic continued until 1966, the line was fully closed in 1967.

Frequent buses operate between Horwich and Bolton. The 575 is operated by Arriva North West, with Arriva services terminating in Wigan. Stagecoach Lancashire provide service 125 between Preston and Bolton via Chorley and Adlington. Bus links to Middlebrook Retail Park are provided by Diamond Bus North West services 516 (Evening and Sunday services only), 517 and 518 which all between Horwich and Leigh via Westhoughton and Atherton. Service 576, which operates from Bolton to Wigan via the Middlebrook and Blackrod areas in Horwich also runs in the evenings.

Horwich is situated close to the motorway network with access at junction 6 of the M61 motorway. The A673 Bolton to Preston road passes through the town which is accessed by the B6226 and B5238.

Manchester Airport is 50 minutes by direct train from Horwich Parkway railway station.

Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the nearby Winter Hill TV transmitter situated north east of the town.

Local radio stations are BBC Radio Manchester, Heart North West, Smooth North West, Greatest Hits Radio Bolton & Bury, XS Manchester, Capital Manchester and Lancashire and Bolton FM, a community-based radio station which broadcast from its studios in Bolton.

Horwich Advertiser is the local newspaper including other regional newspapers, The Bolton News, Manchester Evening News and North West Enquirer''.

Education
The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company built the Railway Mechanics Institute in 1888. It became the Technical College but has been demolished.

Horwich secondary school students years attend either Rivington and Blackrod High School, a Specialist Technology College which was originally the Rivington & Blackrod Grammar School on a site in Rivington close to the boundary with Horwich, or St Joseph's RC High School on Chorley New Road. The oldest school building is the old Horwich Parish School which was built as a National, Infant and Sunday School in 1793 and now used as a parish hall and is a Listed building. Horwich Parish Church of England Primary School occupies the listed premises built in 1832.

Our Lady's school was built in 1886 on Chorley New Road and Holy Family Primary School on Victoria Road in 1894. Holy Family was the first Lancashire County Council school to be granted aided status under the 1944 Education Act. The schools merged on the Victoria Road site as St. Mary's RC Primary School.

Religion
Prior to the reformation a chapel of ease existed dedicated to St Mary's Church in Deane. In 1565 the commissioners for "removing superstitious ornaments" took various items that were deemed idolatrous from the chapel. The local population were forced by various means to conform to the Church of England and as with all other towns and villages across the country Catholicism was suppressed and it was not until 1886 when Father Hampson opened St Mary's Roman Catholic Church on Chorley New Road that the local Catholic population had a formal place of worship. The presbytery there was built by Father McGrath in 1906.

After the English Civil War, with the contrivance of the vicar of Deane, the Chapel of Horwich was used by nonconformists and in 1669 a conventicle, meeting of nonconformists, was reported at Horwich and the ringleaders were prosecuted. In 1672 a nonconformist service was held at Old Lord's Farm, the home of the puritan Major Thomas Willoughby, a soldier of the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, who later become 11th Baron Willoughby of Parham. In 1716 Bishop Gastrell of Chester recovered the chapel for the established church. The chapel was replaced in 1782 and rebuilt as Holy Trinity Church, a Commissioners' Church, in 1831. Until 1853 became a parish in its own right with Holy Trinity as the parish church. After the non conformists were ejected from Horwich Chapel, Richard Pilkington built "New Chapel" between 1716 and 1719. It was enlarged in 1805. In 1890 the Unitarian Free Church was built on Church Street. In the 18th and 19th centuries other nonconformist churches and chapels were built.

Lee Lane Congregational Church, founded in 1754, closed in 2005 and was converted into a flats. It was originally built in 1856 on the site of an earlier build known as Horwich Lee Chapel built in 1774 on the site of an earlier house, also owned by Thomas Willoughby and was used for meetings from 1682 by Presbyterian members splitting away from the Rivington Unitarian Chapel as its doctrine changed.

The Independent Methodist chapel in Lee Lane was built in 1867, Methodism had been practised from 1810. Primitive Methodists had a chapel on Horwich Moor and where a Baptist church was built in 1890.

Sport
Bolton Wanderers F.C. play at the Toughsheet Community Stadium having moved from Burnden Park near Bolton town centre in 1997. Indoor facilities for sports training and major racket sports tournaments are provided at Bolton Arena, which was used for badminton events in the 2002 Commonwealth Games.

Several of the town's sporting organisations have origins in the sport and social clubs of Horwich Locomotive Works. Horwich RMI Harriers and Athletic Club founded in 1924, is based at Middlebrook and participates in road, fell and cross country races, track and field athletics. Horwich Cycling Club was founded in 1934 as the Horwich Wheelers. It is involved in the organisation of the Horwich Carnival Road Races, held in the town centre. Horwich RMI Cricket Club was founded in 1892. The club plays in the Bolton Cricket League which it joined in 1934.

Twin town
In March 1990, Horwich and Crowborough, East Sussex entered into a unique twinning arrangement when they became the first towns within the United Kingdom to sign a town twinning charter. It was signed by the Mayors of Horwich and Crowborough at a ceremony in the Public Hall, Horwich on 22 March 1990 and the Town Hall, Crowborough on 27 March 1990. On the 25th anniversary of the Town Twinning, in March 2015, the Mayor of Horwich, Cllr. Richard E W Silvester and the Mayor of Crowborough, Cllr. Ronald G Reed signed 25th Anniversary celebratory Town Twinning documents in Crowborough Town Hall on Tuesday 10 March 2015 and in Horwich Public Hall on Thursday 19 March 2015, to re-new the twinning agreement. Horwich Cycle Club members travelled down to Crowborough on Friday 15 May 2015 and cycled with members of Wealden Cycle Club over that weekend as part of the celebrations.

title: Horwich


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Seoul Subway Line 3

Seoul Subway Line 3 (dubbed The Orange Line) of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway is a rapid transit service that connects Eunpyeong District to Gangnam and southeastern Seoul. Most trains head further northwest to serve Goyang via the Ilsan Line. In 2021, the Seoul Metro operated section had an annual ridership of 295,930,000 or 810,767 passengers per day.

In December 2010 the line is recorded as having the second highest Wi-Fi data consumption in the Seoul Metropolitan area. It averaged 1.8 times more than the other 14 subway lines fitted with Wi-Fi service zones.

History
Construction began in 1980, and the first section of Line 3 opened (Gupabal–Yangjae; Jichuk opened in 1990) after the completion of work in two stages during 1985, along with subway Line 4. In October 1993, a second extension to the south was opened (Yangjae–Suseo).

In March 1996, the Korail Ilsan Line opened and allowed Line 3 trains to through operate all the way to the city of Goyang. There are two depots near Jichuk station and Suseo station, which are for both Korail and Seoul Metro.

A 3 km extension opened on February 18, 2010, stretching from Suseo to Garak Market (Line 8) and Ogeum (Line 5).

On December 27, 2014, Wonheung station opened between Wondang and Samsong stations.

Tourism
In January 2013, the Seoul Metropolitan Rapid Transit Corporation, published free guidebooks in three languages: English, Japanese and Chinese (simplified and traditional), which features eight tours as well as recommendations for accommodations, restaurants and shopping centers. The tours are designed with different themes for travel along the subway lines, e.g. Korean traditional culture, which goes from Jongno 3-ga station to Anguk station and Gyeongbokgung station on this line that showcases antique shops and art galleries of Insa-dong.

Current

 * VVVF inverter-controlled electric car
 * First generation – since 2009
 * Second generation – since 2022
 * Korail Class 3000
 * First generation – since 1995 (Retirement in Process)
 * Second generation – since 2023
 * Third generation – delivered since 2023

Former

 * Seoul Metro 3000 series
 * Chopper-controlled from GEC Traction electric car (from 1989–2022, some transferred from Seoul Subway Line 4)
 * Chopper-controlled from GEC Traction electric car (rebuilt cars) (from 2010–2022)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Seoul Subway Line 3


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Uppland Regiment

The Uppland Regiment (Upplands regemente), designation I 8, was a Swedish Army infantry regiment that traced its origins back to the 16th century. It was disbanded in 1957. The regiment's soldiers were originally recruited from the province of Uppland, and it was later garrisoned there.

History
The regiment has its origins in fänikor (companies) raised in Uppland in the 1550s and 1560s. In 1617, these units—along with fänikor from the nearby provinces of Dalarna and Västmanland—were organised by Gustav II Adolf into Upplands storregemente, of which eight of the total 24 companies were recruited in Uppland. Upplands storregemente consisted of three field regiments, of which Uppland Regiment was one. Sometime around 1623, the grand regiment was permanently split into 3 smaller regiments, of which Uppland Regiment was one.

The regiment was officially raised in 1626 although it had existed since 1623. Upplands regemente was one of the original 20 Swedish infantry regiments mentioned in the Swedish constitution of 1634. The regiment's first commander was Nils Brahe. It was allotted in 1682 as one of the first regiments to be so.

The regiment was given the designation I 8 (8th Infantry Regiment) in a general order in 1816. Uppland Regiment was renamed Uppland Infantry Regiment in 1904 to distinguish it from Uppland Artillery Regiment. The regiment was garrisoned in Uppsala from 1912. In 1928, the regiment regained its old name. The regiment was disbanded in 1957. The signal regiment Uppland Signal Regiment was renamed to Uppland Regiment in 1974, but does not trace its origins from the original regiment, even though the victory names have been transferred to it.

Organisation

 * 1682(?)
 * Livkompaniet
 * Överstelöjtnantens kompani
 * Majorens kompani
 * Hundra härads kompani
 * Rasbo kompani
 * Sigtuna kompani
 * Hagunda kompani
 * Bälings kompani

 * 18??
 * Livkompanie
 * Rasbo kompani
 * Olands kompani
 * Uppsala kompani
 * Hundra Härads kompani
 * Sigtuna kompani
 * Hagunda kompani
 * Enköpings kompani

Colours, standards and guidons
The regiment has carried a number of colour over the years. On 3 July 1855, His Majesty the King Oscar I presented a new colour to the regiment's two battalions. The two colours only had two battle honours, Lützen and Kliszow. On 27 September 1955, His Majesty the King Gustaf VI Adolf presented a colour, which replaced the 1855 colours. The new colour had 12 battle honours. The colour was on 30 March 1957 handed over to the Uppland Signal Regiment, which carried it alongside its original colour.

Coat of arms
The coat of the arms of the Uppland Regiment (I 8). It was used by Uppland Group (Upplandsgruppen) 2000–2005 and by the Uppland and Västmanland Group (Upplands- och Västmanlandsgruppen) since 2005. Blazon: "Gules, the provincial badge of Uppland, an orb or, banded and ensigned with a cross-crosslet. The shield surmounted two swords in saltire or".

Medals
In 1934, the ''Kungl. Upplands regementes (I 8) förtjänstmedalj'' ("Royal Uppland Regiment (I 8) Medal of Merit") in gold, silver and bronze (UpplregGM/UpplregSM/UpplregBM) were established.

Heritage
Following the decision of the Riksdag on the disbandment of the regiment, a ceremony was held on 10 March 1957. After the regiment was disbanded, the regiment's traditions were continued Uppland Signal Regiment, which also assumed the name of Uppland Regiment. From 2007, the traditions of the regiment were passed on to the Command and Control Regiment. From 1 July 2013, the regimental traditions will be continued by the Uppland Battalion, part of the Uppland and Västmanland Group (Upplands- och Västmanlandsgruppen).

Commanding officers
Regimental commander active from 1698 to 1957.

 * 1698–1705: O W Löwe(n)
 * 1705–1706: J V von Daldorff
 * 1706–1709: G F de Frietzcyk
 * 1709–1709: G Stiernhöök
 * 1709–1710: J Braun
 * 1710–1710: C Ekeblad
 * 1710–1711: G Ribbing
 * 1711–1721: G W Fleetwood
 * 1721–1723: G Oxenstierna
 * 1723–1728: O J Koskull
 * 1728–1730: O W Staël von Holstein
 * 1730–1737: O M Wolffelt
 * 1737–1741: W L Taube
 * 1741–1748: C M de Laval
 * 1748–1757: Fredrik Henrik Sparre
 * 1757–1759: C J Mörner
 * 1759–1772: T G Rudbeck
 * 1772–1772: Per Scheffer
 * 1772–1788: Fabian Casimir Wrede
 * 1788–1791: Fabian Wrede
 * 1791–1794: Adam Ludvig Lewenhaupt
 * 1794–1810: Adolf Ludvig von Schwerin
 * 1810–1816: Gustaf Olof Lagerbring
 * 1816–1825: C A Hård
 * 1825–1837: S D Sparre
 * 1837–1854: C L Daevel
 * 1854–1860: A L Rappe
 * 1860–1862: A F Z Reuterskiöld
 * 1862–1865: J A Sundmark
 * 1865–1881: Otto Mauritz von Knorring
 * 1881–1888: S G R von Bahr
 * 1888–1899: L W Stiernstedt
 * 1899–1905: Bengt Erland Eberhard von Hofsten
 * 1905–1911: Curt Johan Elof Rosenblad
 * 1911–1923: Claës Sundin
 * 1923–1928: Bo Boustedt
 * 1928–1935: Carl Schöning
 * 1935–1940: Helmer Bratt
 * 1940–1942: Sven Ryman
 * 1942–1950: Olle Norman
 * 1950–1957: Carl Axel Grewell

title: Uppland Regiment


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Uppland Regiment (signals)

The Uppland Regiment (Upplands regemente), designations Ing 3, S 1 and S 1/Fo 47, was a Swedish Army signal regiment that traced its origins back to the 19th century. It was disbanded in 2006. The regiment was garrisoned in Uppland.

History
The regiment has its origins in the field signal (later telegraphy) company raised in 1871 and subordinated to Pontoon Battalion in 1875. The company was redesignated as the Field Telegraph Corps and with designation Ing 3 (3rd Engineer Regiment) in 1902 when it became independent. An aircraft squadron was created in 1916 and split from the unit in 1926, this squadron would later become the Swedish Air Force.

The unit was reorganised and renamed to Signal Regiment with the designation S 1 (1st Signal Regiment) when the Swedish Army Signal Troops became a separate arm in 1937. A in 1915 detached company of the unit later became Norrland Signal Regiment and another in 1944 detached company later became Göta Signal Regiment.

It was renamed to Uppland Signal Regiment in 1957 and in 1974 to Uppland Regiment. The same name was used by the infantry regiment Uppland Regiment, although the signal regiment does not trace its origins from this regiment, even though the victory names were transferred to the signal regiment.

In 1974, the regiment gained the new designation S 1/Fo 47 as a consequence of a merge with the local defence district Fo 47. The designation was changed back to S 1 in 2000 when the defence district was disbanded. Uppland Regiment was disbanded in 2006 but was replaced by the Command and Control Regiment which took the role that the regiment previously had.

Coat of arms
The coat of the arms of the Uppland Regiment (S 1/Fo 47) 1974–2000 and the Uppland Regiment (S 1) 2000–2006. Blazon: "Gules, the provincial badge of Uppland, a mound or, banded and ensigned with a cross-crosslet. The shield surmounted a cluster of bolts, or".

Colours, standards and guidons
Uppland Regiment presented two regimental colours.

First colour of S 1
The colour was presented to the regiment by His Majesty the King Carl XVI Gustaf in Enköping on 4 November 1976. The colour is drawn by Mrs Westberg and is embroidered by hand in insertion technique by the company Libraria. Blazon: "On blue cloth in the centre the lesser coat of arms of Sweden, three open yellow crowns placed two and one. In the first corner a mullet with a cluster of rays, all yellow. In the lower part of the rays, placed upon a cluster of yellow bolts, the provincial coat-of-arms of Uppland; gules an orb, banded and ensigned with a cross-crosslet, or. The shield ensigned with a royal crown proper."

Second colour of S 1
The colour was presented to the regiment in Enköping by the Supreme Commander, general Johan Hederstedt on 20 May 2000. The colour replaced an older which was presented to the former Royal Uppland Regiment (I 8) in 1955 and which was handed over to S 1 in 1957. The colour is drawn by Kristina Holmgård-Åkerberg and embroidered by hand in insertion technique by Sofie Thorburn. Blazon: "On red cloth the provincial badge of Uppland; a yellow orb, banded and ensigned with a cross-crosslet. On a yellow border at the upper side of the colour, battle honours (Varberg 1565, Narva 1581, Lützen 1632, Warszawa 1656, Frederiksodde 1657, March Across the Belts 1658, Rügen 1678, Düna 1701, Kliszow 1702, Holovczyn 1708, Helsingborg 1710, Svensksund 1790) in red."

Medals
In 2000, the Upplands regementes (S 1) förtjänstmedalj ("Uppland Regiment (S 1) Medal of Merit") in gold and silver (UpplregGM/SM) of the 8th size was established. The medal ribbon is divided in red and yellow moiré.

In 2000, the Uppland-Västmanlands försvarsområdes (Fo 47/48) minnesmedalj ("Uppland-Västmanland Defence District (Fo 47/48) Commemorative Medal") in silver (UpplVästmlfoSMM) of the 8th size was established. The medal ribbon is of red moiré with two thinly placed yellow stripes on the middle.

Commanding officers

 * 1902–1904: Nils Gustaf Stedt (also commanding officer of Ing 1)
 * 1904–1907: Georg Frans Herman Julius Juhlin-Dannfelt
 * 1907–1912: Broder Sten A:son Leijonhufvud
 * 1912–1915: Carl Adolf Alfred Murray
 * 1915–1920: Karl Albert Byron Amundson
 * 1920–1924: Erik Conrad Erikson
 * 1924–1925: Karl Albert Byron Amundson
 * 1925–1927: Carl Eggert Nauclér
 * 1928–1932: Torsten Friis
 * 1932–1942: Gottfried Hain
 * 1942–1945: Harald Hægermark
 * 1945–1948: Nils Åke Sundberg
 * 1948–1957: Casa Crafoord
 * 1957–1963: Sven Almqvist
 * 1963–1968: Ivar Syberg
 * 1968–1971: Lennart Ljung
 * 1971–1974: Arne Risling
 * 1974–1976: Curt W Helmfrid
 * 1976–1982: Carl-Ivar Lindgren
 * 1982–1990: Fredrik Lilliecreutz
 * 1990–1999: Lennart Johansson
 * 1999–2000: Björn Karlsson
 * 2000–2004: Lars-Olof G Johansson
 * 2004–2006: Mats O Blom

title: Uppland Regiment (signals)


text:
Medieval weights and measures

The following systems arose from earlier systems, and in many cases utilise parts of much older systems. For the most part they were used to varying degrees in the Middle Ages and surrounding time periods. Some of these systems found their way into later systems, such as the Imperial system and even SI.

English system
Before Roman units were reintroduced in 1066 by William the Conqueror, there was an Anglo-Saxon (Germanic) system of measure, of which few details survive. It probably included the following units of length:

 * fingerbreadth or digit
 * inch
 * ell or cubit
 * foot
 * perch, used variously to measure length or area
 * acre and acre's breadth
 * furlong
 * mile

The best-attested of these is the perch, which varied in length from 10 to 25 feet, with the most common value (16$1/2$ feet or 5.03 m) remaining in use until the twentieth century.

Later development of the English system continued in 1215 in the Magna Carta. Standards were renewed in 1496, 1588 and 1758.

Some of these units would go on to be used in later Imperial units and in the US system, which are based on the English system from the 1700s.

Danish system
From May 1, 1683, King Christian V of Denmark introduced an office to oversee weights and measures, a justervæsen, to be led by Ole Rømer. The definition of the alen was set to 2 Rhine feet. Rømer later discovered that differing standards for the Rhine foot existed, and in 1698 an iron Copenhagen standard was made. A pendulum definition for the foot was first suggested by Rømer, introduced in 1820, and changed in 1835. The metric system was introduced in 1907.

Length

 * skrupel – Scruple, $1/12$ linie
 * linie – Line, $1/12$ tomme
 * tomme – Inch, $1/12$ fod
 * palme – Palm, for circumference, 8.86 cm
 * kvarter – Quarter, $1/4$ alen
 * fod – Defined as a Rheinfuss 31.407 cm from 1683, before that 31.41 cm with variations.
 * alen – Forearm, 2 fod
 * mil – Danish mile. Towards the end of the 17th century, Ole Rømer connected the mile to the circumference of the earth, and defined it as 12000 alen. This definition was adopted in 1816 as the Prussian Meile. The coordinated definition from 1835 was 7.532 km. Earlier, there were many variants, the most commonplace the Sjællandsk miil of 17600 fod or 11.130 km.

Volume

 * potte – Pot, from 1603 $1/32$ foot3
 * smørtønde – Barrel of butter, defined as 136 potter from 1683
 * korntønde – Barrel of corn, defined as 144 potter from 1683

Weight

 * pund – Pound, from 1683 the weight of $1/62$ fot3 of water, 499.75 g

Miscellaneous

 * dusin – 12
 * snes – 20
 * gross – 144

Dutch system
The Dutch system was not standardised until Napoleon introduced the metric system. Different towns used measures with the same names but differing sizes.

Some common measures:

Length

 * duim –2.54 cm
 * kleine palm –3 cm
 * grote palm –9.6 cm, after 1820, 10 cm
 * voet –12 duim = abt. 29.54 cm, many local variations
 * el – about 70 cm

Volume

 * Pint – 0.6 L

Weight

 * Ons, Once – $1/16$ pond = 30.881 g
 * Pond (Amsterdam) – 494.09 g (other ponds were also in use)
 * Scheepslast – 4000 Amsterdam pond = 1976.4 kg = 2.1786 short tons

Finnish system
In Finland, approximate measures derived from body parts and were used for a long time, some being later standardised for the purpose of commerce. Some Swedish, and later some Russian units have also been used.

Length

 * vaaksa – The distance between the tips of little finger and thumb, when the fingers are fully extended.
 * kyynärä – c. 60 cm – The distance from the elbow to the fingertips.
 * syli – fathom, c. 180 cm – The distance between the fingertips of both hands when the arms are raised horizontally on the sides.
 * virsta – 2672 m (Swedish), 1068.84 m (Russian)
 * poronkusema – c. 7.5 km – The distance a reindeer walks between two spots it urinates on. This unit originates from Lapland (i.e. Sápmi).
 * peninkulma – 10.67 km – The distance a barking dog can be heard in still air.

Area

 * tynnyrinala – 4936.5 m2 – The area (of field) that could be sown with one barrel of grain.

Volume

 * kannu – 2.6172 L
 * kappa – 5.4961 L

Weight

 * leiviskä – 8.5004 kg

Miscellaneous

 * kortteli – 148 mm (length) or 0.327 L (volume)

French system
In France, again, there were many local variants. For instance, the lieue could vary from 3.268 km in Beauce to 5.849 km in Provence. Between 1812 and 1839, many of the traditional units continued in metrified adaptations as the mesures usuelles.

In Paris, the redefinition in terms of metric units made 1 m = 443.296 ligne = 3 pied 11.296 ligne.

In Quebec, the surveys in French units were converted using the relationship 1 pied (of the French variety; the same word is used for English feet as well) = 12.789 inches (of English origin). Thus a square arpent was 5299296.0804 in2 or about 36,801 ft2 or 0.8448 acre.

There were many local variations; the metric conversions below apply to the Quebec and Paris definitions.

Length

 * ligne – $1/12$ pouce 2.2558 mm
 * pouce – Inch, $1/12$ pied 27.070 mm
 * pied – Foot, varied through times, the Paris pied de roi is 324.84 mm. Used by Coulomb in manuscripts relating to the inverse square law of electrostatic repulsion. Isaac Newton used the "Paris foot" in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
 * 1 Roman cubit = 444 mm (so 10000 Roman cubits = 4.44 km, a closer approximation to $1/25$ degree)
 * toise – Fathom, 6 pieds. Originally introduced by Charlemagne in 790, it is now considered to be 1.949 m.
 * arpent – 30 toises or 180 pieds, 58.471 m
 * lieue de poste – Legal league, 2000 toises, 3.898 km
 * lieue metrique – Metric system adaptation, 4.000 km
 * lieue commune – French land league, 4.452 km, $1/25$ Equatorial degree
 * lieue marine – French (late) sea league, 5.556 km, 3 nautical miles.

Area

 * arpent – square arpent, 900 square toises, 3419 m2

Volume

 * litron – 0.831018 litres

Weight

 * livre – 0.4895 kg
 * quintal – 100 livres, 48.95 kg

German system
Up to the introduction of the metric system, almost every town in Germany had their own definitions. It is said that by 1810, in Baden alone, there were 112 different Ellen.

Length

 * Linie – Line, usually $1/12$ inch, but also $1/10$.
 * Zoll – Inch, usually $1/12$ foot, but also $1/10$.
 * Fuss – Foot, varied between 23.51 cm in Wesel and 40.83 cm in Trier.
 * Rheinfuss – Rhine foot, used in the North, 31.387 cm
 * Elle – Ell / cubit, distance between elbow and finger tip. In the North, often 2 feet, In Prussia $17/8$ feet, in the South variable, often $2 1/2$ feet. The smallest known German elle is 402.8 mm, the longest 811 mm.
 * Klafter – Fathom, usually 6 feet. Regional changes from 1.75 m in Baden to 3 m in Switzerland.
 * Rute – Rod, Roman origin, use as land measure. Very differing definitions, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18 or 20 feet, varied between approx. 3 and 5 m.
 * Wegstunde – 'Way's hour', one hours travel (by foot), used up to the 18th century. In Germany $1/2$ Meile or 3.71 km, in Switzerland 16000 feet or 4.8 km
 * Meile – 'Mile', a German geographische Meile or Gemeine deutsche Meile was defined as 7.420 km, but there were a wealth of variants:
 * Anhalt – 7532 m
 * Baden – 8889 m before 1810, 8944 m before 1871, 8000 m thereafter
 * Böhmen – 7498 m
 * Brabant – 5000 m
 * Bayern – 7415 m, connected to a $1/15$ Equatorial degree as 25406 Bavarian feet.
 * Hamburg (Prussia) – In 1816, king Frederick William III of Prussia adopted the Danish mile at 7532 m, or 24000 Prussian feet. Also known as Landmeile.
 * Hessen-Kassel – 9206 m
 * Lippe-Detmold – 9264 m
 * Oldenburg – 9894 m
 * Osnabrück – 5160 m
 * Pfalz – 4630 m
 * Rheinland – 4119 m
 * Sachsen – Postmeile, 7500 m. Also 9062 m or 32000 feet in Dresden
 * Schleswig-Holstein – 8803 m
 * Westfalen – 11100 m, but also 9250 m
 * Vienna – 7586 m
 * Wiesbaden – 1000 m
 * Württemberg – 7449 m
 * Reichsmeile – 'Imperial / (The) Realm's mile', new mile when the metric system was introduced, 7.5 km. Prohibited by law in 1908.
 * Schainos – Uncertain use, between 10 and 12 km,
 * Stadion – Uncertain use

Norwegian system
Before 1541, there were no common definition for length measures in Norway, and local variants flourished. In 1541, an alen in Denmark and Norway was defined by law to be the Sjælland alen. Subsequently, the alen was defined by law as 2 Rhine feet from 1683. From 1824, the basic unit was defined as a fot being derived from astronomy as the length of a one-second pendulum times $12/38$ at a latitude of 45°. The metric system was introduced in 1887.

Length

 * skrupel – Scruple, $1/12$ linje or approx. 0.18 mm.
 * linje – Line, $1/12$ tomme or approx. 2.18 mm
 * tomme – Thumb (inch), $1/12$ fot, approx. 2.61 cm. This unit was commonly used for measuring timber until the 1970s. Nowadays, the word refers invariably to the Imperial inch, 2.54 cm.
 * kvarter – Quarter, $1/4$ alen.
 * fot – Foot, $1/2$ alen. From 1824, 31.374 cm.
 * alen – Forearm, 62.748 cm from 1824, 62.75 cm from 1683, 63.26 cm from 1541. Before that, local variants.
 * favn – Fathom (pl. favner), 1.882 m.
 * stang – Rod, 5 alen or 3.1375 m
 * lås – 28.2 m
 * steinkast – Stone's throw, perhaps 25 favner, used to this day as a very approximate measure.
 * fjerdingsvei – Quarter mile, alt. fjerding, $1/4$ mil, i.e. 2.82375 km.
 * rast –Lit. "rest", the old name of the mil. A suitable distance between rests when walking. Believed to be approx. 9 km before 1541.
 * mil – Norwegian mile, spelled miil prior to 1862, 18000 alen or 11.295 km. Before 1683, a mil was defined as 17600 alen or 11.13 km. The unit survives to this day, but in a metric 10 km adaptation
 * landmil – Old land-mile, 11.824 km.

Area

 * kvadrat rode – Square stang, 9.84 m2
 * mål – 100 kvadrat rode, 984 m2. The unit survives to this day, but in a metric 1000 m2 adaptation.
 * tønneland – "Barrel of land", 4 mål

Volume

 * skjeppe – $1/8$ tønne, i.e. 17.4 L.
 * tønne – Barrel, 139.2 L.
 * favn – 1 alen by 1 favn by 1 favn, 2.232 m3, used for measuring firewood to this day.

Weight

 * ort – 0.9735 g
 * merke – From Roman pound, (pl. merker), 249.4 g, 218.7 g before 1683.
 * pund – Pound, alt. skålpund, 2 merker 0.4984 kg, was 0.46665 kg before 1683
 * bismerpund – 12 pund, 5.9808 kg
 * vette – 28.8 mark or 6.2985 kg.
 * laup – alt. 'spann', used for butter, 17.93 kg (approx. 16.2 L).
 * våg – $1/8$ skippund, 17.9424 kg.
 * skippund – Ships pound, 159.488 kg. Was defined as 151.16 kg in 1270.

Nautical

 * favn – Fathom (pl. favner), 3 alen, 1.88 m
 * kabellengde – cable length, 100 favner, 185.2 m
 * kvartmil – Quarter mile, 10 kabellengder, 1852 m
 * sjømil – Sea mile, 4 kvartmil, 7408 m, defined as $1/15$ Equatorial degree.

Monetary

 * skilling – Shilling, see riksdaler and speciedaler.
 * ort – See riksdaler and speciedaler.
 * riksdaler – Until 1813, Norwegian thaler. 1 riksdaler is 4 ort or 6 mark or 96 skilling.
 * speciedaler – Since 1816. 1 speciedaler is 5 ort or 120 skilling. From 1876, 1 speciedaler is 4 kroner (Norwegian crown, NOK).

Miscellaneous

 * tylft – 12, also dusin
 * snes – 20
 * stort hundre – Large hundred, 120
 * gross – 144

Portuguese system
The various systems of weights and measures used in Portugal until the 19th century combine remote Roman influences with medieval influences from northern Europe and Islam.The Roman and northern European influences were more present in the north. The Islamic influence was more present in the south of the country. Fundamental units like the alqueire and the almude were imported by the northwest of Portugal in the 11th century, before the country became independent of León.

The gradual long-term process of standardization of weights and measures in Portugal is documented mainly since the mid-14th century. In 1352, municipalities requested standardization in a parliament meeting (Cortes). In response, Afonso IV decided to set the alna (aune) of Lisbon as standard for the linear measures used for color fabrics across the country. A few years later, Pedro I carried a more comprehensive reform, as documented in the parliament meeting of 1361: the arrátel folforinho of Santarém should be used for weighing meat; the arroba of Lisbon would be the standard for the remaining weights; cereals should be measured by the alqueire of Santarém; the almude of Lisbon should be used for wine. With advances, adjustments and setbacks, this framework predominated until the end of the 15th century.

Further information: Portuguese customary units.

Romanian system
The measures of the old Romanian system varied greatly not only between the three Romanian states (Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania), but sometimes also inside the same country. The origin of some of the measures are the Latin (such as iugăr unit), Slavic (such as vadră unit) and Greek (such as dram unit) and Turkish (such as palmac unit) systems.

This system is no longer in use since the adoption of the metric system in 1864.

Length

 * Cot (cubit) – 0.664 cm (Moldavia); 0.637 cm (Wallachia)
 * Deget (finger) – the width of a finger
 * Palmac – 3.48 cm (Moldavia)
 * Lat de palmă (palm width) – $1/2$ palmă
 * Palmă (palm) – $1/8$ of a stânjen
 * Picior (foot) – $1/6$ of a stânjen
 * Pas mic (small step) – 4 palme (Wallachia)
 * Pas mare (large step) – 6 palme (Wallachia; Moldavia)
 * Stânjen – 2 m (approximately)
 * Prăjină – 3 stânjeni
 * Funie (rope) – 20 – 120 m (depending on the place)
 * Verstă – 1067 m
 * Leghe (league) – 4.444 km;
 * Poştă – 8 – 20 km (depending on the country)

Area

 * Prăjină – 180–210 m2
 * Feredelă – $1/4$ pogon
 * Pogon – 50000 m2
 * Iugăr – the area ploughed in one day by two oxen – 7166 m2 (Transylvania in 1517); 5700 m2 or 1600 square stânjeni (later)
 * Falce – 14300 m2

Volume

 * Litră – $1/4$ oca
 * Oca – (pl. ocale), 1.5 litres (Moldavia); 1.25 litres (Wallachia)
 * Pintă – 3.394 litres (Transylvania)
 * Vadră – (pl. vedre, in Transylvania 'Tină), 10 ocale''; 12.88 litres (Wallachia); 15 litres (Moldavia)
 * Baniţă – 21.5 litres (Moldavia); 33.96 litres (Wallachia)
 * Chiup – 30–40 litres (a chiup was a large clay pot for liquids)
 * Obroc mic – 22 ocale
 * Obroc mare – 44 ocale
 * Merţă – 110–120 ocale (Moldavia); 22.5 litres (Transylvania)
 * Giumătate – 80–100 vedre (poloboc)
 * Feredelă – $1/4$ bucket (Transylvania)
 * Câblă – A bucket of wheat

Weight

 * Dram – 3.18–3.25 g sau 3.22–3.80 cm3
 * Font – 0.5 kg (Transylvania)

Russian and Tatar systems
See:
 * Obsolete Russian weights and measures
 * Obsolete Tatar weights and measures

Length

 * inch – 2.554 cm
 * foot – 12 inches, 30.645 cm
 * ell – Elbow, 37 Scots inches. 94.5 cm
 * fall – 18 Scots feet
 * mile – 320 falls, 1814.2 m

Spanish system
There were several variants. The Castilian is shown.

Length

 * punto – Point, $1/12$ línea
 * línea – Line, $1/12$ pulgada
 * pulgada – Inch, $1/36$ vara, 0.02322 m
 * pie – Foot, 12 pulgadas, 0.2786 m
 * vara – Yard, 0.8359 m
 * paso – Pace, 60 pulgadas
 * legua – League, 5000 varas, approx 4.2 km

Swedish system
In Sweden, a common system for weights and measures was introduced by law in 1665. Before that, there were a number of local variants. The system was slightly revised in 1735. In 1855, a decimal reform was instituted that defined a new Swedish inch as $1/10$ foot. It did not last long, because the metric system was subsequently introduced in 1889. Up to the middle of the 19th century there was a death penalty for falsifying weights or measures.

Length

 * linje – Line, after 1863 $1/10$ tum, 2.96 mm. Before that, $1/12$ tum or 2.06 mm.
 * tum – Thumb (inch), after 1863 $1/10$ fot, 2.96 cm. Before that, $1/12$ fot or 2.474 cm.
 * tvärhand – Hand, 4 inches.
 * kvarter – Quarter, $1/4$ aln
 * fot – Foot, $1/2$ aln. Before 1863, the Stockholm fot was the commonly accepted unit, at 29.69 cm.
 * aln – Forearm (pl. alnar). After 1863, 59.37 cm. Before that, from 1605, 59.38 cm as defined by king Carl IX of Sweden in Norrköping 1604 based on the Rydaholmsalnen.
 * famn – Fathom, 3 alnar.
 * stång – 16 fot, for land measurement
 * ref – 160 fot, for land measurement, was 100 fot after 1855.
 * stenkast – Stone's throw, approx 50 m, used to this day as an approximate measure.
 * fjärdingsväg – $1/4$ mil
 * skogsmil – Also rast, distance between rests in the woods, approx 5 km.
 * nymil – New mile from 1889, 10 km exactly. Commonly used to this day, normally referred to as mil.
 * mil – Mile, also lantmil. From 1699, defined as a unity mile of 18000 aln or 10.69 km. The unified mile was meant to define the suitable distance between inns.
 * kyndemil – The distance a torch will last, approx 16 km

Area

 * kvadratfamn – square famn or 3.17 m2
 * kannaland – 1000 fot2, or 88.15 m2
 * kappland – 154.3 m2.
 * spannland – 16 kappland
 * tunneland – 2 spannland
 * kvadratmil – square mil, 36 million square famnar, from 1739.

Volume

 * pot – Pot (pl pottor), 0.966 L
 * tunna – 2 spann
 * ankare – Liquid measure, 39.26 L
 * ohm – (alt. åm), 155 pottor
 * skogsfamn – for firewood, 2.83 m3 = 6×6×3 fot
 * storfamn – for firewood, 3.77 m3 = 8×6×3 fot
 * kubikfamn – 5.65 m3 = 6×6×6 fot

Weight

 * ort – 4.2508 g
 * mark – $1/2$ skålpund or 212.5 g. Used from the Viking era, when it was approx 203 g.
 * skålpund – Pound, 0.42507 kg
 * bismerpund – 12 skålpund, 5.101 kg.
 * lispund – 20 skålpund
 * skeppspund – Ships pound, 20 lispund or 170.03 kg.

Nautical

 * kabellängd – Initially 100 famnar or 178 m. Later, a distansminut or $1/10$ nautical mile.
 * kvartmil – Quarter mile, 1852 m, identical to nautical mile.
 * sjömil – Sea mile, 4 kvartmil, 7408 m

Monetary

 * skilling – From 1776, $1/48$ riksdaler
 * õre – From 1534, $1/8$ mark. Replaced by the skilling, but from 1855 reintroduced as $1/100$ riksdaler.
 * mark – From 1534, $1/3$ daler. From 1604, $1/4$ daler.
 * daler – From 1534, Swedish thaler. From 1873, replaced by the krona (Swedish crown, SEK).
 * riksdaler – From 1624, $1 1/2$ daler, from 1681 2 daler, from 1715 3 daler, from 1776 6 daler

title: Medieval weights and measures


text:
User:Lieutenant Blue

Lieutenant Commander Blue
I am Lieutenant Commander Blue, an Executive Officer of Liberty Fleet. I am currently posted on the Sovereign Class star ship, USS Poseidon.

Previous Assignments
My career began on the USS Poseidon as a Tactical Officer. I recieved my first promotion to Liutenant (junior grade) at the same time as I was promoted to the position of Chief Tactical Officer aboard the Poseidon. I later recieved a promotion tu Lieutenant (senior grade), not long before my transfer to Phoenix 7.

My Aims
I have noticed several sites dedicated to Star Trek cannon information (such as memory page alpha). I have also noticed that these sites do not allow fan-made items, and I think that's a real shame, because I think it's well worth noting. Some of these fan-made things will no doubt be lost forever, without ever getting noticed. So, where better to note them than here on Wikipedia?

Liberty-Fleet
Liberty Fleet is an author-created role-playing game based within the Star Trek universe. It currently consists of one starship and a starbase, and is run by the Liberty Fleet Council, a group of three authors who participate in the game. Liberty Fleet, like many other games in the role-play game genre creates an artificial environment; in this case based around the Star Trek concept. The characters in Liberty Fleet are each created by an author, whom develops the character through plot development and interactions with other characters. The games format is that of a Play By E-Mail role-play game.

The Ships
Liberty Fleet consists of one star ship and a space station. They are: (formerly) USS Poseidon NCC-46559-A, Phoenix 7 NCC-767442 and USS Arapaho NCC-62629

USS Poseidon
USS Poseidon (NCC-46559-A) is a Sovereign class starship in the Star Trek fictional universe. She was the flagship of Liberty Fleet, until her destruction.

Phoenix 7
Phoenix 7 is an upgrade of the Starbase 173 design, and is a starbase of Liberty Fleet. Originally named AV-5, the station was designed as an argicultural support station for the M-Class planet it orbits, Arcaria V. Over time, the Federation realized the station's logistical advantage in the quadrant and reclassified the station Phoenix 7, modifying it substantially to support leading-edge weapons research for Starfleet Tactical Command. The station still operates an agricultural support section, designed primarily as 'cover' for its classified research.

USS Arapaho
The USS Arapaho is an Akira class starship. In the Star Trek-based role-playing game Liberty Fleet it is the only remaining ship of the fleet and a defense and patrol vessel.

History
The in game history (i.e.: the storyline) is basically a conceptual addition to the known Star Trek timeline. It follows each ship, respectively, and, from the individual character's points of view, adds on to the Star Trek timeline.

The actual history of the game dates back to December 2001, when the game was thrust into being by the "launch" of the USS Poseidon.

The game itself takes format, allowing players within it to create their own page or so long story from the point of view of their own unique character. This character then interacts with the others in the game.

title: User:Lieutenant Blue


text:
Basic command unit

A Basic Command Unit (BCU) is the largest unit into which territorial British Police forces are divided BCUs may alternatively be called an Area Command or a Division.They will also contain smaller, more local teams which are often called a Local Policing Unit (LPU) or a Local Policing Team (LPT). There are 228 BCUs (or equivalent units) in England and Wales.

Most forces are divided into at least three BCUs and some have many more. Most BCUs are further subdivided into smaller units. The BCU is usually commanded by a Chief Superintendent.

Metropolitan Police
Until recently the Metropolitan Police used the term Borough Operational Command Unit (BOCU) for regional units within Frontline Policing (previously known as Territorial Policing), the subdivision of the Met responsible for day-to-day policing within the 32 London boroughs.

Between 2017 and 2019 the 32 BOCUs were reorganised to form 12 new Basic Command Units, each incorporating between two and four of the original BOCUs (see the article on Collar numbers).

The term Operational Command Unit (OCU) is used for specialised units, for example the Aviation Security OCU.

West Midlands Police
West Midlands Police is split into 10 Local Policing Units (LPUs). Each LPU is in turn organized into four Core Policing Teams (CPTs) that manage its different core functions: Investigation, Neighbourhood, Response and Community Action and Priority Team (CAPT).

Warwickshire Police
Warwickshire Police has abolished BCUs, the first British territorial police force to do so. The force is now divided directly into five Districts, each headed by a Chief Inspector. These were formerly grouped into two Areas (BCUs), North and South, each headed by a Chief Superintendent.

title: Basic command unit


text:
User talk:Jfthorpe

JFW | T@lk  17:10, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jfthorpe


text:
Seoul Subway Line 4

Seoul Subway Line 4 (dubbed The Light Blue Line) of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway is a long line crossing from the southwest to the northeast across the Seoul National Capital Area. The central section in Seoul City is operated by Seoul Metro with some trains offering through service to Korail's Ansan and Gwacheon Lines. The southern terminus (Oido) is in Jeongwang 4-dong, Siheung City, and the northern terminus (Jinjeop) is in Jinjeop-eup, Namyangju-si, Gyeonggi-do; the newly built northern section (officially called the Jinjeop Line) is correspondingly owned by a company owned by Namyangju-si, with operations contracted to Seoul Metro. In 2022, the Seoul Metro operated section (excluding the Jinjeop Line) had an annual ridership of 219,587,000 or about 601,608 passengers per day.

Express train service stops at all stations between Danggogae and Sanbon, then at Sangnoksu, Jungang, Choji, Ansan, Jeongwang, and Oido. The express service only operates during rush hours on weekdays.

History
1985:
 * 20 April: Line 4 is officially opened from Sanggye to Sadang.

1993:
 * 21 April: The line is extended northward from Sanggye to Danggogae, and southward from Sadang to Namtaeryeong.

1994:
 * 1 April: The line is extended southward from Sadang to Ansan when a section of the Gwacheon Line (from Seonbawi to Indeogwon) and Namtaeryeong Station open.

2000:
 * 28 July: The line is extended westward from Ansan to Oido.

2003
 * 18 July: Surisan Station opens as an in-fill station on the Ansan Line section.

2010
 * Ansan Line AM express service is launched in the northbound direction only (starting from Ansan). Trains stopped at Jungang, Sangnoksu, and Sanbon, before continuing local up to Danggogae.

2014
 * 1 September: Southbound PM express service is launched (terminating at Ansan). Trains make the same stops as their AM express service counterparts.

2017
 * 7 July: Express service is extended to Oido. In addition to the stops they made before, trains make all stops between Ansan and Oido.

2020
 * 12 September: Express service is modified, with trains now stopping at Choji but skipping Singiloncheon.

2022:
 * 19 March: The Jinjeop Line, a northward extension of Line 4, opens from Danggogae to Jinjeop.

Future
Express services are planned to start skipping various stations north of Sanbon station by 2023 to cut travel times.

Depots, junctions, and points of interest
(from Jinjeop to Oido)
 * Jinjeop Depot (opening December 2024, will replace Changdong Depot for Seoul Metro-operated rolling stock)
 * Turnback siding (underground) after Danggogae Station
 * Changdong Depot (used for Seoul Metro class 4000, with non-revenue connection to Line 1)
 * Non-revenue connecting track to Line 3 before Chungmuro Station
 * Dongjak Bridge
 * Chongshin Univ. – Sadang scissors crossover
 * Hanyang University, ERICA Campus
 * Turnback siding (underground) after Sadang Station
 * Namtaeryong–Seonbawi track crossing point (flying crossover, switch from right to left-hand traffic, or vice versa)
 * The voltage/current switches between DC 1,500 V ↔ AC 25,000 V
 * Non-revenue crossover to Line 1 after Geumjeong Station
 * Non-revenue connecting track to Seohae Line before Choji Station
 * Ansan Depot (used for simple maintenance of Korail Class 341000 train)
 * Siheung Depot (used for Korail Class 341000 maintenance and also for heavy maintenance of Korail Class 311000 trains operated on Line 1)
 * The largest scale of shell mounds in the South Korean west coast in Oido

Seoul Metro

 * Seoul Metro 4000 series
 * 1st generation, DC only: 4-01~4-26 (Restricted to Jinjeop-Sadang)(Retirement in Progress)
 * 1st generation, DC & AC: 4-51~4-71 (Retirement in Progress)
 * 2nd generation: 4-81~4-85
 * 3rd generation: 4-50~4-70
 * 4th generation: 4-01~4-26

Korail

 * Korail Class 341000 (ex-Korail Class 2030)
 * 2nd generation: 341-26~341-30
 * 3rd generation: 341-31~341-37
 * 4th generation: 341-38~341-60
 * Trains 341-53~341-55 are temporary running on Line 1.

Seoul Metro

 * Seoul Metro 3000 series (former 4000 series)
 * Wide-width GEC Traction chopper resistor controlled electric car (1985–1993; transferred to Seoul Subway Line 3)

Korail

 * Korail Class 1000 (Ansan Line only, transferred to Seoul Subway Line 1)
 * Korail Class 341000 1st generation: 341-01~341-25, retired in 2024

title: Seoul Subway Line 4


text:
Talk:Diane Duane

permission to use DD's biography
We will have permission to use Diane Duane's official biography from owlsprings.com as the basis of this article. This is an excerpt from an e-mail I received this morning:

Date: Sat, 04 Dec 2004 10:57:01 +0000 To: Rob Brewer From: Diane Duane Subject: Re: Copyvio on "my" Wikipedia entry? I'm in the midst of work right now, but next week sometime I'll do an updated version of the material and post it along to you, with whatever formal permissions are necessary for GDFL...

Thanks, Diane. --rbrwr± 17:11, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

doubled content?
Why do we double the info on the Young_Wizards series here? And it's not even in sync... --84.176.11.182 6 July 2005 09:41 (UTC)

I removed the 2005 date from The Door into Starlight because Meisha Merlin, the intended publisher, states on their website that "We have released Diane Duane from her contract for this series with us, so that she may complete other projects." I assume this means it has reverted to the "due out someday" status that it has maintained for the past decade. --Ambyr 23:12, 31 July 2005 (UTC)

Related to James Duane
According to her blog he's her "six-times-great-grandfather". I'm sure we could find sources which would be more acceptable to more people, but this is just to make a mark. HTH HAND —Phil | Talk 20:08, 4 April 2007 (UTC)

Star Trek novels
Duane's Star Trek novel "Doctor's Orders" is listed here as TOS #50. This is confirmed by an article at Memory Alpha: However, I own a copy of this novel myself, and my copy is definately numbered as TOS #36. Is there any possibility that different versions of this publication make use of different numbering systems? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by John1701 (talk • contribs).
 * Interesting: #36 is supposed to be "How Much for Just the Planet?". I just Googled around, and every reference I found had it at #50. It'd be interesting to include if you could scan and post the cover with the wrong number...--SarekOfVulcan 13:13, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

I think this link might serve to explain the inconsistency My copy was published by Titan Books in the UK, which apparently do not share the same numbering system as Pocket Books' versions of the same novels. Just out of interest, "How Much for Just the Planet?" is apparently TOS #05 in the Titan Books series. John1701 00:18, 22 August 2007 (UTC)
 * To coin a phrase, "Fascinating." :-) Thanks for the followup! Wonder if we should get this info into the main article...--SarekOfVulcan 01:31, 22 August 2007 (UTC)

I think another consideration might be: do all of the wiki articles on Trek novels exclusively use the Pocket Books method of numbering, and should this be ammended to include both sets of numbers? John1701 19:39, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
 * I think that we should go with the Pocket numbers, since that's the original publication order.--SarekOfVulcan 22:52, 1 September 2007 (UTC)

Makes sense. John1701 00:48, 2 September 2007 (UTC)

Book Formats
Perusing the bibliography, it seems that none of the book formats are standardized. While I agree with some things (like a bullet for one entry and numbers for a series) other things need some cleanup — years being both before and after titles, missing ISBNs and publishers (do we need publishers? What about multiple publications?), and the like.

I would edit to to be all nice looking with the Young Wizards series as the template, but I wanted to inquire here before I made any major changes whether there was a standard on how book entries should be. For example, Spider Robinson's entry seem to prefer the year after the title, and most of them lack publishers as well.

Any thoughts? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Talonkarrde (talk • contribs) 15:29, August 27, 2007 (UTC)
 * I'd just as soon use Cite book as the standard. The problem with standardizing them is that some of them have changed publishers: do we use the original publisher, or the most recent one?

Free image?
There's a free image here on flickr, but is it her? --Magnus Manske 12:40, 5 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Yup, it matches the picture at http://www.dianeduane.com/?q=about-the-author. Besides, I think Patrick Nielsen Hayden is probably a reliable source for identification... I'll upload and link. Thanks! :-)--SarekOfVulcan 16:13, 5 October 2007 (UTC)

Thieves' World
There is no mention of her work in the Thieves' World shared universe (unless I missed it). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.19.56.5 (talk) 00:40, 27 January 2008 (UTC)
 * WP:BOLD. WCityMike (talk) 16:14, 19 October 2009 (UTC)

Publisher correction
I'm avoiding editing this due to some WP:COI (I'm editing together a new edition of this material), but in the section on comics, the publisher of The Dreamery is currently listed as Epic Comics; the series actually came from Eclipse Comics. --Nat Gertler (talk) 19:57, 16 July 2010 (UTC)

Name pronunciation
Having never met the lady or actually heard her name said, I was hoping that Wikipedia would have had the answer to my biggest question: Is her last name pronounced as a single syllable (like the common masculine first name) or is it pronounced with two syllables (and, if so, how? "Doo - ann" or "Doo - ayne"?)? --Khajidha (talk) 12:33, 7 August 2013 (UTC)
 * Five years later, the answer comes: a single syllable, just like you'd expect.  Everyone But You (talk) 02:20, 14 February 2018 (UTC)
 * Except "just like you'd expect" is an assumption. I've always pronounced it "Doo--Ayne".--Khajidha (talk) 13:39, 14 March 2018 (UTC)
 * E & K, Khalijidha's pronunciation is how I assumed it was pronounced ("doo-wayne" / "doo-ayne") for the past 30 years, as well (related to its origin Dubhán which is pronounced similar to "doo-van"). I came here today because I heard Robert Burnett pronounce her name differently, so wanted to see if WP had any info on pronunciation. Is there any sources to go on, and can we include it in the WP article's lede? — al-Shimoni  (talk) 12:02, 4 March 2019 (UTC)

External links modified
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"References" #21
Clicked on the link but could not find any info about Duane doing the map for Ringworld: Engineers.

Need someone to verify or delete reference/inline citation. 2600:8800:784:8F00:C23F:D5FF:FEC4:D51D (talk) 16:33, 15 January 2019 (UTC)

Prince Ivan
In the comics heading, Duane's Prince Ivan material is mentioned. However, when the material was collected in The Misadventures of Prince Ivan (About Comics, 2011), there was a new story that had been drawn for the book, the 28-page tale "Prince Ivan and the Bachelor Parties of Doom", and that should probably be mentioned as well. As the publisher of that book and the editor of that story, I have a strong conflict of interest and will not be adding it myself. --Nat Gertler (talk) 18:11, 19 April 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Diane Duane


text:
Talk:History of measurement/Archive 4

 * Miles
 * Unified theory of ancient measurements
 * Archive III
 * Archive IV
 * Archive V
 * Archive VI

=Mediæval weights and measures=

This article was taken from part of the former article Historical weights and measures, which was move to Ancient weights and measures. As a result, some of the discussion & history for Medieval weights etc. may be found in Talk:Ancient weights and measures

The reason for splitting the articles was simply size - over 41Kb. It is intended that these articles are closely linked. Ian Cairns 17:12, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Shouldn't there better be separate articles for each system/country/culture instead? After all many of the units or measures in this article may actually have been used in the Middle Ages and thus be medieval, but most of the definitions given are 17th to 19th century, i.e. modern era. Of course there are many connections that should be highlighted by hyperlinks—some even say all human systems before the metric one were related (megalithic yard etc.). Crissov 15:01, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Looks to me like one basic problem is a poor choice of terminology by whoever split "historical" into "medieval" and "ancient" leaving that gap above "medieval". Gene Nygaard 16:24, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Move English system?
"Shouldn't there better be separate articles ... ?" asks Ian Cairns. I say "Yes."

I've just created an English unit page. Perhaps (the bulk of) the section on English units could be moved there.

In fact ... what are we waiting for? I'm doing just that. It should be done for the others too. User:Jimp 13Jul05

 * rktect 8/3/05 If you are going to reorganize how about looking at organizing by the history of the units themselves rather than by the history of the various countries that adopted them.

 * No, that is not a good idea, for reasons I have stated many times. -- Egil 13:31, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

No, I agree with Egil. I don't think that that's such a great idea either. You'd loose the sense of the measurement system. User:Jimp 6Aug05

 * rktect 8/6/05 Not if you did it properly
 * so that for example you put the units in as a system
 * and then compare their value for the people who used that system
 * I have put up a couple of pages with a table like this

Removed content
The following content by anon rktect has been removed (between the horizontal lines, below). It is basically ramblings vaguely about the subject that are unsubstatiated, probably the authors original reseearch, plus statements that either have no meaning or as outright false. I tried to verify the claim about Abbe Mouton claims, for instance, and it seems their origin is from the anti-metric movement, claiming that the imperial system is just as metric as the frog-eater system, since they are all based on Sumerian measures. Or something of that sort. Anyway, there was a Mouton, but his real name was Gabriel Mouton. He was an abbot (hence the confusion with Abbe which of course is French for abbot), and definitely worth an article. (I have just started). -- Egil 13:31, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * rktect 8/5/05
 * You should better research and cite your sources Egil.
 * What I contributed was from Klein and refers to the well known Abbe Mouton
 * who was the gentleman who first proposed the metric system.

 * English may not be your first language, so I try not to be harsh
 * but here is the essence of your complaint
 * "This individual is talking about a lot of things I have little or no knowledge of"

 * What I have written is not "basically ramblings" but cites from sources
 * The Sources I have cited are not unsubstantiated
 * When you attribute to me as "original research" things that have been
 * in publication through half a dozen reprints it makes me wonder
 * what you have for credentials in this field whose work you are so critical of.

 * You are apparently unaware of the main body of mensurational discussion
 * for the last couple of centuries
 * I think its possible you would enjoy learning about measures
 * but have too many other intersts to spend the time to make yourself conversant
 * with the most basic research in the field.

 * rktect 8/6/05
 * Added a correction note to the page on Norway which seems
 * full of mistakes and eroneous information such as that
 * there were no standards of measure prior to 1578 when
 * in fact the rast and mil go back to the time of the Vikings.

- Medieval systems of weights and measures arose from earlier systems.

From Medieval guilds and trade associations to banks, and from church to state, everyone had vested interests in keeping weights and measures the same. Over time even non essential changes, like the definition of the inch as three barleycorns, caused widespread confusion and concern. Every time they changed they changed to the advantage of one group and the detriment of another.

Whenever things were changed, as by a king ordering churchgoers to stand in line so the average of their feet could form the basis of a new standard, the essential parts of much older systems were retained by the competant administrators and judges because they defined property.

One example of how this worked occured during the French Revolution when French revolutionaries attempted to use the confusion of definitions to their advantage in order to overthrow the feudal system. They conspired to further confuse the definition of ancient obligations of land in return for service, through their support of the expert authority of various savants who were busily modifying the ancient standards of measure into the metric system.

Up to then it had always been counted among the divine rights of kings and popes to establish the standards of what was right and proper and equitable. Now the ability of scientists to measure weigh and judge accurately made it difficult if not impossible for church and state to simply decree rather than measure, weigh and judge by the standards of science what was due them.

This made it somewhat difficult to establish and collect their tithes and taxes without turning to the experts for the arbitration of disputes.

Earlier during the crusades many Europeans had encountered familiar units of measure in the Ancient Near East. By the Renaisance the study of Greek and Roman measures and cannons of proportion had been extended to the study of Egypt.

Sir Issac Newton was only one of many medieval scholars fascinated by the stability of earlier systems that it was thought might be resablished and overcome the confusion of the Middle Ages as to what should be the proper standard for the common system.

The French Metric Sytem which re-introduced the innovative concept of decimalizing the ancient standards as the Greeks had done was first proposed by the Abbe Mouton in 1670.

The British Imperial System Imperial system arose out of an attempt to resist the adoption of the Metric System in Europe because it was clearly being used to undermine the foundation of the kings right to rule or establish the standards.

The metric system itself had come out of Napoleons savants attempting to restablish the Ancient measures that they had found reference to in Egypt. SI.

xxx English System xxx

The English Myle and its subdivisions of length, area and volume was derived from the Greek Milos which spread widely through Europe North from the Danube as far West as the Rhine by about 800 BC.

Within a millenia the Romans had substituted the Milliare for the Milos everywhere to the west of that. The so calledAnglo-Saxon (Germanic) system of measure based on the units of the barleycorn and the gyrd (rod) were traced by the Roman surveyor Hyginus Gromaticus back to Claudius Ptolomy as the Romans first entered Germanica.

Normanized Roman units from Hispania and Gaul introduced further modifications after 1066 under the influence of William the Conqueror.

The English mile and its subdivisions of length, area and volume was derived from the Greek Milos which spread widely through Europe North from the Danube as far West as the Rhine by about 800 BC.

Within a millennium the Romans had substituted the milliare for the milos everywhere to the west of that. The so called Anglo-Saxon (Germanic) system of measure based on the units of the barleycorn and the gyrd (rod) were traced by the Roman surveyor Hyginus Gromaticus back to Claudius Ptolomaeus as the Romans first entered Germanica.

Normanized Roman units from Hispania and Gaul introduced further modifications after 1066 under the influence of William the Conqueror.

Later development of the English system continued by defining the units by law in the Magna Carta of 1215, and issuing measurement standards from the then capital Winchester. Standards were renewed in 1496, 1588 and 1758.

The last Imperial Standard Yard in bronze was made in 1845; it served as the standard in the United Kingdom until the yard was internationally redefined as 0.9144 metre in 1959 (statutory implementation there: Weights and Measures Act of 1963).

Much of the units would go on to be used in later Imperial units and in the U.S. system, which are based on the English system from the 1700s

title: Talk:History of measurement/Archive 4


text:
Southern Carpathians

The Southern Carpathians (also known as the Transylvanian Alps;  Carpații Meridionali ; Déli-Kárpátok) are a group of mountain ranges located in southern Romania. They cover the part of the Carpathian Mountains located between the Prahova River in the east and the Timiș and Cerna Rivers in the west. To the south they are bounded by the Balkan mountain range in eastern Serbia.

Heights

The Southern Carpathians are the second highest group of mountains in the Carpathian Mountain range (after Tatra), reaching heights of over 2,500 meters. Although considerably smaller than the Alps, they are classified as having an alpine landscape. Their high mountain character, combined with great accessibility, makes them popular with tourists and scientists.

The highest peaks are:
 * Moldoveanu Peak, 2,544 metres – Făgăraș Mountains
 * Negoiu, 2,535 metres – Făgăraș Mountains
 * Parângu Mare, 2,519 metres – Parâng Mountains
 * Omu Peak 2,514 metres – Bucegi Mountains
 * Peleaga, 2,509 metres – Retezat Mountains

Despite the heights, some of the most accessible passages in the Carpathians in Romania are along the rivers, which cross the mountain range (the Olt River) or form wide valleys (along the Prahova River Valley or along the Jiu River Valley).

Geology
The South Carpathians represent an intricate pile of tectonic nappes, overthrusted from west eastwards during the Austrian (Middle Cretaceous) and Laramian paroxysmal phases, corresponding to various plate fragments. The napes are (from west eastwards): the Supragetic, Getic, Severin and Danubian Units. The Getic Nappe was identified by Murgoci (1905), while the general understanding over the Alpine structure of the South Carpathians was later refined by Codarcea (1940), Codarcea et al. (1961), Năstăseanu et al. (1981), Săndulescu (1984), Săndulescu and Dimitrescu (2004), and Mutihac (1990). The first to apply the global tectonics concepts for the Romanian Carpathians were Rădulescu and Săndulescu (1973).

The Supragetic, Getic Nappes as well as the Danubian Units represent units with both a metamorphic basement and a sedimentary cover, while the Severin Nappe includes only a sedimentary sequence. The Getic Nappe and the Danubian Units sediments include a Palaeozoic sequence (Upper Carboniferous, Lower Permian) and a Mesozoic sequence (Lowermost Jurassic – Middle Cretaceous). The Supragetic Nappe comprises mainly metamorphosed rocks (gneisses, micashists), while the Severin Nappe includes only Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous sediments.

Mountain ranges

From east to west, four mountain groups can be identified, separated by different river valleys.
 * Bucegi Mountains group – between the Prahova and Dâmbovița Rivers.
 * Bucegi Mountains (Munții Bucegi)
 * Piatra Craiului (literally: "Rock of the King")
 * Leaotă Mountains (Munții Leaotă)
 * Făgăraș Mountains group – between the Dâmbovița River and the Olt River.
 * Făgăraș Mountains (Munții Făgărașului)
 * Iezer Mountains (Munții Iezer; literally: "Mountains of the Deep Lake")
 * Cozia Mountains (Munții Cozia)
 * Parâng Mountains group – between the Olt River and the Jiu River.
 * Parâng Mountains (Munții Parâng)
 * Șureanu Mountains (Munții Șureanu/M. Sebeșului)
 * Cindrel Mountains (Munții Cindrel/M. Cibinului)
 * Lotru Mountains (Munții Lotrului; literally: "Mountains of the Thief")
 * Căpățână Mountains (Munții Căpățânii; literally: "Mountains of the Skull")
 * Retezat-Godeanu Mountains group – between the Jiu River and the Timiș and Cerna Rivers.
 * Retezat Mountains (Munții Retezat; literally: "Hewed Mountains")
 * Godeanu Mountains (Munții Godeanu)
 * Vâlcan Mountains (Munții Vâlcan)
 * Mehedinți Mountains (Munții Mehendinți)
 * Cerna Mountains (Munții Cernei)
 * Țarcu Mountains (Munții Țarcu; literally: "Pen Mountains").
 * Poiana Ruscă Mountains

The first two groups are steepest on the North side, and the last two are steepest on the South side.

title: Southern Carpathians


text:
Testosterone poisoning

Testosterone poisoning is a popular term used to explain behaviors that are deemed excessively masculine.

Origins
An early printed reference to "testosterone poisoning" came in 1975 from actor Alan Alda. In a parody of self-help writing, Alda diagnosed the "ailment" of masculinity and offered methods for its "cure". He wrote: "Everyone knows that testosterone, the so-called male hormone, is found in both men and women. What is not so well known, is that men have an overdose... Until recently it has been thought that the level of testosterone in men is normal simply because they have it. But if you consider how abnormal their behavior is, then you are led to the hypothesis that almost all men are suffering from testosterone poisoning."

Ten years later, that same sentence from Alda's article was quoted in the 1985 book A Feminist Dictionary.

Carl Sagan gave the phrase more publicity when he praised Moondance magazine writer Daniela Gioseffi's American Book Award winner Women on War as follows: "A book of searing analysis and cries from the heart on the madness of war. Why is the half of humanity with a special sensitivity to the preciousness of life, the half untainted by testosterone poisoning, almost wholly unrepresented in defense establishments and peace negotiations worldwide?" A Los Angeles Times op-ed piece accused Sagan of "pompously inform[ing] us that the whole planet is imminently endangered by 'testosterone poisoning'".

Bruce Tremper used the term in The Avalanche Review, stating that being "a man" is best proven by dying "a stupendously violent death".

Psychology
A 1996 Psychology Today article referred to the phrase as "only a joke", but noted that a study about testosterone and male employment had shown that testosterone levels were lower for successful new male employees at a southern U.S. oil firm than they were for new male employees who had quit their jobs or been terminated.

Berenbaum et al. (1997) stated that exposure to high levels of androgens in utero is associated with higher levels of adult aggression. Mazur et al. (1998) stated that males with higher testosterone levels tend to be slightly more aggressive than other males. The authors suggested that higher testosterone levels were a result of aggressive behavior, not a cause of it.

In Family and Friends' Guide to Domestic Violence, Elaine Weiss wrote that "deadly testosterone poisoning" (DTP) is one of "many misunderstandings about abusive men". She continued: "[This] is not a war of the hormones, an inevitable biological clash between estrogen and testosterone. If it were, then there would be more of it; every heterosexual relationship would be abusive".

McDermott (2007) found a significant positive relationship between levels of testosterone and aggression. However, the link between testosterone and aggression was questioned in a 2010 study published in Nature. According to that study, "a single dose of testosterone in women causes a substantial increase in fair bargaining behaviour, thereby reducing bargaining conflicts and increasing the efficiency of social interactions. However, subjects who believed that they received testosterone—regardless of whether they actually received it or not—behaved much more unfairly than those who believed that they were treated with placebo."

Usage
Antonia Feitz protested the use of the expression in a 1999 essay in the Australian Daily Issues Paper, calling it hate speech.

Beth Gallagher's Salon.com essay "Road Sows", which discussed sports utility vehicles, asserted that "Not long ago, if you found yourself being tailed within an inch of your life by one of these monsters, you could be reasonably sure that testosterone poisoning was at work. But now I don't even bother to check my makeup — the macho creep back there is as likely to be the soccer mom next door, or even her mom..." Several readers submitted "testosterone poisoning" to a 2001 Atlantic Monthly competition to find a male equivalent for hysteria (which was originally regarded as a female-only condition). Dr. Karl Albrecht made testosterone poisoning a synonym for male chauvinism in his 2002 book The Power of Minds at Work: Organizational Intelligence in Action; he described the phenomenon as one of 17 basic syndromes of dysfunction.

In a 2003 Wall Street Journal essay, Kay S. Hymowitz chided Western feminists for neglecting the rights of Third World women in Muslim countries; she wrote: "There is no need, in their minds, to distinguish between Osama, Saddam, and Bush: They're all suffering from testosterone poisoning".

Magazine editor Tina Brown used the phrase thematically in a 2005 Washington Post essay about the downfall of Harvard University president Larry Summers and the problems of Disney's former embattled CEO Michael Eisner.

The term is also sometimes used by transfeminine people, including transgender women, to describe how testosterone has damaged their bodies.

title: Testosterone poisoning