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A Wedding (1978 film)

A Wedding is a 1978 American satirical comedy-drama film directed by Robert Altman, with an ensemble cast that includes Desi Arnaz, Jr., Carol Burnett, Paul Dooley, Vittorio Gassman, Mia Farrow, Lillian Gish, Geraldine Chaplin, Howard Duff, Nina Van Pallandt, Amy Stryker, and Pat McCormick. The story is told in typical Altman style, with multiple plots and overlapping humorous dialogue.

The story takes place in a single day during a lavish wedding that merges a nouveau riche Southern family with an established wealthy Chicago family having possible ties to organized crime.

Plot
Dino Corelli marries Muffin Brenner and attends the reception at the Corelli mansion. Bedridden matriarch Nettie Sloan, mother of Dino's mother Regina Sloan Corelli, is being tended by disreputable Dr. Jules Meecham. While speaking with wedding planner Rita Billingsley, Nettie suddenly dies. Meecham informs Dino's father, Luigi Corelli, but Luigi is unable to tell his wife Regina because she is mentally unstable. Nettie's corpse remains in bed throughout the reception, while various attendees visit her room without realizing she's dead. By the time bossy daughter Toni finds out and plans a dramatic announcement, other family members are mostly unsurprised or not even too upset.

The Brenners are a nouveau riche family from Louisville, Kentucky, where Muffin's father, "Snooks", made millions in the trucking industry. The Corellis are an old money family from North Shore Chicago. Because of rumors that Luigi has mob connections, virtually every invitee sent regrets. Only one guest (other than family members) attends. Nevertheless, Rita is determined to run the reception by the book, setting up a receiving line for the one guest and asking family members and staff to go down the line so it will not look empty.

A series of disasters unfolds, including the display of an embarrassing nude portrait of the bride; caterer Ingrid Hellstrom becoming ill, then getting high and causing a disturbance after Meecham gives her a pill; and a tornado when the cake is to be cut, forcing everyone to find shelter in the cellar. Two guests arrive late: the groom and bride's disgruntled exes, Tracy Farrell and Wilson Briggs, who bond over their shared anger.

Unsavory family drama unfolds. Regina is a drug addict. Her marriage was arranged by Nettie after Luigi met Regina while working as a waiter in Italy. Luigi was forced to change his name and be estranged from his Italian family for 22 years. His Italian-speaking brother unexpectedly shows up, and when Meecham reminds Luigi that Nettie is dead and can no longer impose the marriage conditions, Luigi is thrilled to see his long-lost brother. Regina's sister Clarice has a romance with her African-American butler, Randolph; her other sister, Toni, is married to Mack Goddard, who falls in love at first sight with Tulip Brenner, mother of the bride, and tries to woo her.

Snooks has a borderline incestuous attachment to his nearly mute daughter Buffy, the maid of honor, who speaks at the reception only once, to tell Dino she is pregnant and he is the father. Not wanting to be upstaged by the bride, Buffy disrobes in front of Muffin's nude portrait. Dino confides to Wilson about Buffy's pregnancy; Wilson tells Tracy, who vindictively spreads the news. Snooks confronts Dino, who admits to sleeping with Buffy but says she also slept with nearly every member of his military-school barracks. Snooks's sister from New Jersey, Marge Spar, starts romancing the Corellis' gardener, while bridesmaid Rosie Bean is unaware her shy friend Shelby Munker is having an affair with Rosie's husband Russell.

Muffin and Dino prepare to leave for their honeymoon in a new car, the Corellis' wedding gift. Muffin is rattled when Rita makes an unexpected pass at her. She then finds Dino in the shower with his groomsman, Reedley Roots, seemingly engaged in a gay sexual encounter. Actually, Dino has passed out drunk and Reedly is just holding him up straight while trying to sober him up. The newlyweds' car is seen driving away, and the families assume Dino and Muffin left without saying goodbye. Snooks drives his family back to their hotel. They see Dino's car wrecked and in flames, and rush back to the mansion to share the awful news. The families are grieving when Muffin and Dino appear from upstairs, having never left because of Dino's passing out. When Luigi remembers that the car keys were last seen in Wilson's possession, it becomes clear that Wilson (presumably accompanied by Tracy, since she is nowhere to be found), out for revenge, stole the car and died in the crash. Tulip privately declares the incident was God punishing her for sinful thoughts of having an affair with Mack.

Luigi pays his respects to Nettie. He tells her corpse he kept his bargain for 22 years, and no one there knows who he really is. Now he will take his leave. He finds his brother in the bushes, making love with Buffy. Luigi and his brother happily drive away as a half-dressed Buffy waves goodbye.

Cast

 * Desi Arnaz Jr. as Dino Sloan Corelli
 * Carol Burnett as Katherine "Tulip" Brenner
 * Geraldine Chaplin as Rita Billingsley
 * Howard Duff as Dr. Jules Meecham
 * Mia Farrow as Elizabeth "Buffy" Brenner
 * Vittorio Gassman as Luigi Corelli
 * Lillian Gish as Nettie Sloan
 * Nina Van Pallandt as Regina Sloan Corelli
 * John Cromwell as Bishop Martin
 * Paul Dooley as Liam "Snooks" Brenner
 * Peggy Ann Garner as Candice Ruteledge
 * Amy Stryker as Muffin Brenner
 * Dennis Christopher as Hughie Brenner
 * Gerald Busby as Rev. David Ruteledge
 * Mark Deming as Matthew Ruteledge
 * Lesley Rogers as Rosie Bean
 * Tim Thomerson as Russell Bean
 * Marta Heflin as Shelby Munker
 * Mary Seibel as Aunt Marge Spar
 * Margaret Ladd as Ruby Spar
 * Belita Moreno as Daphne Corelli
 * Luigi (Gigi) Proietti as Dino Corelli I (brother of Luigi)
 * Virginia Vestoff as Clarice Sloan

 * Dina Merrill as Antoinette "Toni" Sloan Goddard
 * Pat McCormick as Mackenzie "Mack" Goddard
 * Ruth Nelson as Aunt Beatrice Sloan Cory
 * Ann Ryerson as Victoria Cory
 * Cedric Scott as Randolph
 * Craig Richard Nelson as Capt. Reedley Roots
 * Jeff Perry as Bunky LeMay
 * Beverly Ross as Nurse Janet Schulman
 * Viveca Lindfors as Ingrid Hellstrom
 * Lauren Hutton as Florence Farmer
 * Allan F. Nicholls as Jake Jacobs
 * John Considine as Jeff Kuykendall
 * Dennis Franz as Koons
 * Pam Dawber as Tracy Farrell
 * Gavan O'Herlihy as Wilson Briggs
 * Robert Fortier as Jim Habor
 * Bert Remsen as William Williamson

Several actors who later had notable film or television careers appeared as extras, including John Malkovich, Gary Sinise, Laurie Metcalf, Dennis Franz, Alan Wilder, and George Wendt.

Production
The film was inspired by a remark Altman made while doing publicity for 3 Women. Upon being asked what his next movie would be, Altman jokingly replied that he was going to shoot a wedding next. Later, Altman and his production assistant decided to follow through on the idea and began planning the film.

The film was shot almost exclusively over an 8-week period at the Lester Armor House in Lake Bluff, Illinois.

The role of Bishop Martin was the final film appearance by longtime actor and director John Cromwell, who died on September 26, 1979, at age 91. Cromwell's wife of 33 years, Ruth Nelson, appeared as Aunt Beatrice Sloan Cory.

A Wedding was the 100th film in which Lillian Gish appeared.

Reception
Roger Ebert gave A Wedding three-and-a-half out of four stars, writing "It begins in comedy, it moves into realms of social observation, it descends into personal revelations that are sometimes tragic, sometimes comic, and then it ends in a way that turns everything back upon itself. The more you think about what Altman's done, the more impressive his accomplishment becomes". Gene Siskel gave it one-and-a-half stars out of four, writing "Altman mistreats us to one boob after another. He appears not to care for any one of the people involved here. He creates pompous straw men and women and then he ridicules them. It's a particularly mean-spirited movie likely to please no one". Variety wrote "Altman's loose, seemingly unstructured style backfires in this comedy drama. Even the innovative director-producer's legion of fans will be disappointed. Those already not a member of his cult will find this work tedious". Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote "Altman in A Wedding, for all his undifferentiated sport with the upper reaches of the middle class, remains the entertaining satirist rather more than the angry scold. Still we have all come a long way from Father of the Bride, and A Wedding is an original and funny piece of work". Jack Kroll of Newsweek called it "one of Altman's best films, at once one of his funniest and one of his darkest visions of a crazy, contradictory America". Gary Arnold of The Washington Post wrote "Musically and pictorially, Altman can't hide his condescension. He has invented a wedding party, ostensibly a misalliance between old but tarnished Midwestern aristocracy and new, uncouth Southern wealth, but that seems to inspire him to nothing but stale jokes and complacent contempt". Pauline Kael of The New Yorker wrote "There's no way to get into the movie; it's like a busted bag of marbles—people are running every way at once".

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 69%, based on 13 reviews, with an average rating of 6.4/10.

Awards and nominations
Burnett won the Best Actress Award at the San Sebastian International Film Festival, Spain's equivalent of France's Cannes Film Festival.

Burnett won the People's Choice Award for Favorite All-Around Female Entertainer Film and Television.

Burnett was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture.

Opera
A Wedding is a 2004 comic opera based on Altman's film, composed by William Bolcom, with a libretto written by Robert Altman and Arnold Weinstein.

title: A Wedding (1978 film)


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Talk:James Whitcomb Riley

Untitled
This page should be retitled "James Whitcomb Riley (poet)" to avoid linking confusion with "James Whitcomb Riley (passenger train)," and a disambiguation page should be created. —the preceding unsigned comment is by 68.88.233.11 (talk • contribs) 17:39, December 11, 2004
 * No, since the train is named for Riley, there should be no disambiguation needed. That would be like having to rename George Washington to George Washington (United States President) so people don't get confusted with George Washington University.  --rogerd 01:23, 11 December 2005 (UTC)

Vandalism
It seems this page has been vandalized. I deleted a sentence that read "Many of his phrases are present in 'yer mom's' reading of his poetry," or somesuch. I think the image has been vandalized, as well. User: GreeneC'06

Date duck test written?
RE:

 * Poet James Whitcomb Riley (1849 – 1916) wrote "when I see a bird that walks like a duck and swims like a duck and quacks like a duck, I call that bird a duck."

What year did Riley write this? I want to add it to the Duck test page.

It is not in these books either:
 * The complete works of James Whitcomb Riley By James Whitcomb Riley, Edmund Henry Eitel.
 * The complete poetical works of James Whitcomb Riley By James Whitcomb Riley

Ikip (talk) 15:27, 8 April 2009 (UTC)

Phi Kappa Psi membership
WP:COI disclosure: I'm a member of Phi Kappa Psi, as was James Whitcomb Riley. Charles Edward is currently undertaking a major revision of this page, and his excellent work suggests featured article status isn't far away. I'll leave this up to him, and the Wikipedia community as a whole, about including fraternity membership in this article. If it is decided to include this, here are some sources:

NYCRuss  ☎  17:40, 1 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Thanks for this information! I will be sure to integrate it into the article. I am off for a break for a bit though. :) —Charles Edward (Talk 18:21, 1 May 2010 (UTC)
 * I'm sure that you'll do a great job of integrating this in. NYCRuss   ☎  18:13, 3 May 2010 (UTC)

Living the life of Riley
I've removed the paragraph about "Living the life of Riley" twice. This may be true, but I can't confirm it, and the sources given are not acceptable. One was a blog, which does not meet WP:RS, and the other an encyclopedia with no publisher or page numbers given, making lookup nearly impossible. A scan of google books failed to return a result on that book. Furthermore, a search on the phrase in general finds other sources saying it is a term from the Irish-American community and "Riley" was slang for an Irishman. It denoted immigrants who found a better life in the US over that which they had in Ireland. I cannot find any connection of the term to James Whitcomb Riley. —Charles Edward (Talk 14:55, 18 March 2011 (UTC)

Infobox
Generally speaking, there is some consensus on literature-related articles on Wikipedia that infoboxes should either not be included or remain as minimal as possible as they seek recognized status. Some examples: Mary Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, Emily Dickinson, James Russell Lowell, William Butler Yeats, Stephen Crane, James Joyce, etc. I recommend at least simplifying it. --Midnightdreary (talk) 13:57, 29 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Ok, I think I got this. I started a reception\critism section. I still don't have a realy good source for it, I kinda pieced that together from a few source. It still feel like its missing something. Do you have any thoughts? —Charles Edward (Talk 17:16, 29 March 2011 (UTC)

His brother John.
I have been collecting books for 30 years and have several printings of Pipes O' Pan at Zekesbury. The book is dedicated to his brother John A. Riley who had passed away and been the inspiration of the work. I see no mention of him having a brother.

CharlesU (talk) 14:33, 8 July 2011 (UTC)

Bottsford or Bottsworth?
How is her name correctly spelled? It currently appears both ways.

JamieMcCarthy (talk) 04:40, 14 January 2015 (UTC)

Copyright-free picture of Riley
There is a photograph of a young(-ish) Riley in a book about the American flag over at openlibrary.org I don't know how to go through the rigamarole of dealing with rights and uploading the thing to WikiCommons, but if you are interested have a look at this page https://archive.org/stream/storyofamericanf00fall/storyofamericanf00fall#page/100/mode/2up  79.76.114.69 (talk) 19:17, 1 September 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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Detinue

In tort law, detinue is an action to recover for the wrongful taking of personal property. It is initiated by an individual who claims to have a greater right to their immediate possession than the current possessor. For an action in detinue to succeed, a claimant must first prove that he had better right to possession of the chattel than the defendant, and second, that the defendant refused to return the chattel once demanded by the claimant.

Detinue allows for a remedy of damages for the value of the chattel, but unlike most other interference torts, detinue also allows for the recovery of the specific chattel being withheld.

History
Historically, detinue came in two forms: "detinue sur bailment" and "detinue sur trover".
 * In detinue sur bailment, the defendant is in a bailment relationship with the claimant and either refuses to return the chattel or else has negligently or intentionally lost or destroyed it. The onus is on the bailee to prove that the loss of the chattel was not his or her fault.
 * In detinue sur trover, the defendant can be any individual in possession of the chattel who refuses to return it to the claimant. A defendant could be a finder or a thief or any innocent third party, and the claimant need only have a better right to possession.

Early writs and forms of action were exceptionally narrow in scope. This is reflective of the basic conservatism of the common law courts in the middle and late medieval period. This was in contrast with the courts of equity, which were creative in producing novel writs for many new fact situations. Compensation in those days was usually not in money, which was rare, but in land, livestock, or furnishings, as these were the typical measures of wealth. What the plaintiff wanted back was the land, cattle or even coins lent. Maitland suggests that in the earliest time the writ of debt seems almost to have been designed to recover identical coins.

The early writ of detinue was specifically designed for recovery of a chattel wrongfully detained, but not an action to recover loss due to a chattel being harmed while the defendant had it.

Two facts marked the early common law actions. They were defective because of the wide field which was excluded. They were also defective because the plaintiff might well think himself entitled to a remedy, but by reason of the procedure find that he went away empty. The defendant to a writ of debt or detinue might bring others with him who would swear that his denial of the claim was true. This was technically called his "wage of law" or "wager of law". It was enough to dispose of the plaintiff's claim. A common way to escape all writs, even the writ of right, as well as debt and detinue was to claim sickness. If the jury found him in bed with his boots off, the custom was to delay the writ for a year and a day.

Relation to replevin
One of the oldest actions in the royal courts was replevin which had its roots in the law of customary courts. Strictly speaking, replevin in its original form was a provisional remedy. Its provision was to procure for the plaintiff the return of chattels taken out of his possession until the right to their possession could be decided by a court of law. No doubt, it was designed to avoid quarrels likely to cause a breach of the peace pending a settlement of the dispute about the right to possession. In other words, the rule of law was beginning to replace that of local force of arms and personal conflict as the resolution of disputes over chattels. The action was in direct succession to the efforts made to regulate self-help, which were the origin of the law of tort. The form of legal recourse was in connection of distress (distractio). This was the practice of taking some chattel from the peasant or underling until some action was performed. In the medieval era the services for which distress could be levied were numerous, since the incidents of tenure were then very numerous. Distress was also leviable as damage feasant. When animals strayed and did damage to a neighbor, they could be retained until the damage was made good. Whether or not the distress was levied for rent or for livestock damage feasant, the owner of the animals could obtain their release by giving "gage and pledge" – a form of security that the damage would be made good. One peculiarity of distraint lay in the fact that the distrainor did not get any form of legal possession. The goods and chattels were considered to be in the custody of the law. As a result, there was no taking of possession by the distrainor that was unlawful, since no possession was technically inferred.

The action in replevin began to appear in the thirteenth century. It seems clear that originally the action of replevin lay simply where the question to be determined was that of wrongful distress. Excess and abuse of distress was punished.

The mere claim by the distrainor that he had a right to the chattels distrained was a technicality that ended the action in replevin. It was then necessary to re-file using a new writ invented in the early fourteenth century, called the writ de proprietate probanda – a writ "concerning the proof of ownership".

Alternatives to replevin
Since the distrainor did not get possession he was not originally liable in trespass, and the spheres of the two forms of action remained distinct. During the fourteenth century, after some vacillation by judges, it was held that the plaintiff could elect which remedy he chose when the chattels had been distrained. It was also held that replevin could be used in place of the writ of trespass de bonis aspotatis (trespass by the asportation of goods). In reality, there is little evidence this substitution ever occurred with any frequency, if at all. The rule involved interference with the possession of a chattel by the rightful owner. The 1856 case of Mennie v. Blake gives what Harold Potter calls an admirable survey of the law of replevin. There it was stated:

"It seems clear that replevin is not maintainable unless in a case in which there has been first a taking out of the possession of the owner. This stands upon authority and the reason of the thing." In the Law of Torts, John Fleming wrote: "From medieval times, there has also come down to us a summary process, known as replevin, by which a man out of whose possession goods have been taken may obtain their return until the right to the goods can be determined by a court of law. Replevin arose out of the need of a turbulent society to discourage resort to self help and although for a long time primarily used in disputes about distress between landlord and tenant, it was gradually expanded to cover all cases of allegedly wrongful dispossession.  If the plaintiff wanted return of his chattel in specie, replevin was a more appropriate remedy than either trespass or trover in which only damages could be recovered. Restoration of the property is, of course, only provisional, pending determination of title."

It depended upon an original unlawful taking by the way of distraint. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the action of trover largely replaced trespass for wrongful distress. Replevin and trover never completely coincided, because there was a limitation on replevin.

Replevin remains the modern action, albeit defined by statute, for recovery of chattels pending a decision of the right of possession. It lies only where the possession was taken from the plaintiff, whether under colour of legal process or otherwise, by an act having the nature of a trespass.

Canadian cases distinguishing replevin from detinue
Manitoba Agricultural Credit Corp. v Heaman, a 1990 Canadian case, the Manitoba Court of Appeal adopted the words of the 1875 Manitoba Administration of Justice Act as having "codified, but not changed, at least in substance the action of replevin" by saying,

"Whenever any goods, chattels, bonds, debentures, promissory notes, bills of exchange, books of account, papers, writings, valuable securities or other personal property or effects have been wrongfully distrained under circumstances in which by the law of England replevin might be made, the person so complaining of such distress as unlawful, may obtain a writ of replevin in the manner prescribed by this Act"

In the 1899 case McGregor v McGregor, British Columbia Supreme Court justice Irving wrote:

"An action of replevin may be brought (1) where goods have been wrongfully distrained or (2) where goods have been otherwise, i.e. otherwise than by distress, wrongfully taken or detained. The word 'wrongfully' is applicable to both cases. 'Wrongfully' ... imports the infringement of some right, and any invasion of the civil rights of another is in itself a legal wrong, and the appropriate action for the violation of the legal right unconnected with contract is an action for tort. The early history of replevin action in England is traced (as) ... The nature of the complaint in the action was for a tortious taking of the goods. Our British Columbia replevin action, which is wider than the English, gives the right to replevy to the party who could maintain trespass or trover. It is given, as it were, supplementary to, or in aid of, the remedy which those actions afford; but as all three actions, trespass, trover and replevin are classed ... as actions of tort, I think the action under our British Columbia statute is for the tortious taking or tortious detention of goods."

Medieval detinue
Detinue was an old form of action which slowly branched off from the action of debt. The action lay for the unlawful detention of ascertained chattels at the instance of a person who was entitled to have possession. The writ was a command to the defendant that he should deliver up to the plaintiff the chattels quae ei injuste detinet – "which he unlawfully withholds from him". The gist of the action was the unlawful detention by the defendant. An example is seen when a borrower might be sued for unlawfully refusing to return a borrowed article.

Ames regarded the action of detinue as essentially an action based upon contract, having its foundation in bailment. Ames' point is that the action was a means of enforcing an agreement which was recognized by the law. This argument represents the realization of a theory of contract in detinue. Detinue also replaced the more ancient action of res adiratae. According to Bracton the plaintiff could drop the words felony and merely claim that his chattels were in the possession of the defendant. Holdsworth is of the opinion that the gist of this action was unlawful detention. Holdsworth bases this on a case from Bracton's notebook in which the plaintiff alleges that "William Nutach in the peace of God and of our Lord the King and of his bailiffs unjustly detains (injuste detinuit) from her three pigs which were lost to her." The action depended upon loss of the chattel, which had come to the hands of a defendant who had refused on demand to give it up. Holdsworth deduces this case was the forerunner of the action in detinue, which also lay to recover a lost chattel. Ames is of the opinion that this case represents not so much an action, but a formal demand made in court for the return of the chattel, which, if denied, could be followed by an appeal. It is certain that an appeal could be substituted after an allegation of res adiratae had been made. It is disputed whether proceedings in res adiratae could not be brought in royal courts. Holdsworth cites a case from 1292 which seems to fulfill all the requirements of res adiratae. "Note that where a thing belonging to a man is lost, he may count that he (the finder) tortiously detains it. Etc. and tortiously for this that whereas he lost the said thing on such a day, etc. he (the loser) on such a day etc., found it in the house of such a one and prayed him to restore the thing but he would not restore it, etc., to his damage, etc.; and if he etc. In this case the demandant must prove by his law (his own hand the twelfth; i.e. wager of law) that he lost the thing."

Ames said of detinue "In the first place, the count must allege a bailment, and a traverse of this allegation was an answer to the action." However, there are many instances where allegation of bailment was not necessary for an action in detinue. Holdsworth cites a 1313 case in which the counsel. Toudeby for the defendant pleaded no allegation of bailment, but Scrope, the counsel for the demandant (plaintiff), replied that, if the defendant carried off the chattels and a writ was brought to recover them, it was no answer to say that the chattels had not been bailed to the plaintiff. Still the case turned on the question of bailment. In 1343, the defendant was driven to a traverse in these terms: "We tell you that the horse did not come into our keeping, nor do we detain the horse, as he counts." In 1410, both counsel agreed that an action of detinue lay whether the chattel was bailed or whether the defendant found it in the road. The plea simply amounted to an assumption that the chattels had come into the hands of the defendant (devenerunt ad manus), and were wrongfully withheld from the plaintiff.

Detinue sur trover

During the fifteenth century, this plea gave rise to a special form of the action of detinue known as "detinue sur trover" which should be distinguished from the action of "trespass on the case sur trover". The latter would be shortened into simple trover. Littleton remarked that the count or plea of "per interventionem (sur trover) was a newfound halliday." The action probably represents the development of a simpler form of pleading in which it was unnecessary to allege by what means the chattel had come into the defendant's hands. Nevertheless, the counts sur bailment and sur trover seem to have had the effect of drawing a distinction between two forms of action, detinue sur trover and detinue sur bailment. This distinction represented the recognition of the two forms of wrongful detention: one based on a purely tortious wrong and the other connected with an agreement between the parties. Detinue sur trover is of greater interest in tort because it covers a more general field. It was distinguished from trespass since it did not involve any interference with the physical possession of the plaintiff. It did not depend on a failure to fulfill a condition to return the chattel which had been delivered to the defendant. There was no necessity for an agreement between the parties.

There were certain defects in detinue sur trover. Wager of law was a possible defense in certain kinds of cases. Wager of law involved the use by a defendant of witnesses, some of whom may have had no knowledge of the case to testify. If a large number of these "witnesses" testified, the defendant would prevail. It was a form of sanctioned perjury. The courts began to severely limit wager of law by the middle of the fourteenth century. No action lay where the chattel was returned but in a damaged or impaired condition. In 1478, Catesby said, "And in the same manner I deliver my robes to you to keep for me and you wear them so that they perish, I shall have an action of detinue for in all these cases the property is not altered, and afterwards an action on the case and recover damages for the loss sustained by your using the clothes." the same opinion was reiterated in 1510 by Serjeant Moore, although an action would lie for trespass on the case. In the cases of a chattel damaged or destroyed, the plaintiff must choose some remedy other than detinue. This was also true if the bailee dealt with the property in an improper manner as noted by Littleton in 1462: "I bail to you my cloak and you burn it, I will have a writ of trespass on the case against you (and not detinue)." It was doubtful whether detinue lay where, after bailment, a third party had destroyed the chattel bailed. The action lay against a bailee who had himself been responsible for the loss, as where a charter had been found by the jury to have been burned. It was disputed whether this remedy applied to the action of a third party. Judge Brian said, "If I bail my horse to a smith to shoe and he bails it to another smith who damages the horse an action will not lie against him." The second party was a stranger to the bailment, but the other justices were opposed to this opinion of Brian.

By the time of Bracton, the old preference for an action in trespass exclusively was seen to have softened somewhat, with certain actions allowed against a third party in detinue. This began to make wager of law ineffective as a defense. The judges of the time were growing wary of wager of law as a legitimate defense, anyway. This attitude allowing detinue was not universally held, as can be seen from the cases noted in this section.

Bracton on third party liability

In the opinion of Bracton, if goods were unlawfully taken from the possession of the bailee, it was he who had the action against the wrongdoer, not the original bailor. The action was appeal of larceny or trespass. Even in the time of Bracton, there was pressure to change this arrangement and allow the bailor to bring an action directly against the third party. Under the old rules, the bailee had an absolute responsibility to the bailor for safe keeping of the goods. A case from 1200 directed the verdict for lost goods against the bailee who claimed they had been lost and stolen during a fire at his property. Glanvill also held this opinion. Glanvill held that the bailee was absolutely bound to restore the lost chattel or its value. Bracton appeared to mitigate the old rule. If the bailee had shown due diligence, there was room for mitigation of damages. However, it was never clear how Bracton would decide to proportion damages. Bracton's description has been called Romanesque, and premature. Even by Bracton's time, lawyers were becoming accustomed to the notion that bailees did not have an absolute liability for chattels bailed to their tending, assuming they used reasonable care or diligence in handling them. In Bracton's text, there was the beginning of the notion that bailee had an action for loss, assuming he had some interest in the chattel beyond mere possession. That must be some kind of responsibility for its care and safety. It had not developed very far. Bracton more than once seems to require that the appellor shall complain of a theft of his own goods or of goods for which he has been made responsible, namely, intravit in solutionem erga dominum suum. The time between conveyance and possession was ill-defined. The time of bailee possession was called the custodia or "custody". The bailee had three courses of action: (1) the appeal of larceny; (2) the action of trespass; (3) the action of detinue. Bracton wrote of detinue:

"It would seem at first sight that the action in which a movable is demanded should be as well in rem as in personam, for he whom the thing is demanded and the possessor is bound to restore that thing; but in truth it is merely in personam for he from whom the thing is demanded is not absolutely bound to restore it, but is bound alternatively to restore it or its price; and this, whether the thing be forthcoming or no. And therefore, if a man vindicates his movable chattel as having been carried off for any cause, or as having been lent (commodatum), he must in his action define its price, and propound his claim thus: – I, such a one, demand that such a one do restore to me such a thing of such a price: – or – I complain that such a one detains from me, or has robbed me of, such a thing of such a price: – otherwise, no price being named, the vindication of a movable thing will fail."

The question of ownership and possession

From a case in 1292, the following was reported:

"I bail a charter for safe custody to a married woman; her husband dies; can I bring an action of detinue against her, it being clear law that a married woman not bind herself by contract? Huntingdon: Sir, our plaint is of a tortious detinue of a charter which this lady is now detaining from us. We crave judgment that she ought to answer for her tort.

Lowther: The cause of your action is the bailment; and at that time she could not bind herself. We crave judgment if she must now answer for a thing about which she could not bind herself.

Spigurnel: If you had bailed to the lady thirty marks for safe custody while she was coverte for return to you when you should demand them, would she be now bound to answer? I think not. And so in this case.

Howard: The cases are not similar; for in a writ of debt you shall say debet, while here you shall say iniuste detinet. And again, in this case, an action arises from a tortious detainer and not from bailment. We crave judgment.

Lowther: We repeat what we have said."

The question of what was the nature of the action of detinue remained open till the present time.

This case illustrates two points. Ownership was key to determining the kind of action to be brought for remedy. Ownership was unclear, and difficult to define at the end of the thirteenth century.

Detinue separated from debt
Glanvill described one action which had features of both debt and detinue. They were the same. In his time, the form of the writ was a demand for a sum of money which could be issued for various reasons. "Debt" or detinue could be demanded for return of the loan of money, the price of sale, the loan of a chattel, letting to hire, or a deposit. The writ was available for a creditor against a surety on the default of the principal debtor. Glanvill speaks of debt and its writ as being a retrieval of "debt that is due", or detinue. Later, and by the time of Bracton, detinue had been more or less separated from primary actions in debt, Detinue had come to be restricted to actions against bailees. After Bracton, the special situation of de bonis asportatis, the taking of chattels by a bailee or theft of these from a bailee gave rise to the special situation of trover. Trover became fully formed in the reign of Elizabeth I. By the end of Bracton's life and into the reign of Edward I, debt was confined to contract law, while detinue was concerned with the developing issues of personal property.

Breaking the bulk
Occasionally, the issue of a transporting agent, a bailee who was charged with moving chattels would open the wrapped packages and misappropriate the contents. This was called breaking the bulk. In 1315, an action in detinue was allowed for "breaking the bulk". Later, in 1473, breaking the bulk was determined to be a felony, and not an action in pure detinue.

Detinue in United States law
In the United States, detinue is a possessory action having for its object the recovery of specific personal property and damages for its detention. At common law an action of detinue would lie for the recovery of specific personal property unlawfully detained, or its value, and for damages for its detention. Detinue differs from replevin in that possession of the chattel in controversy is not changed until after the judgment in detinue, whereas in replevin possession is changed at the beginning of the proceeding. The gist of an action in detinue is that the defendant is wrongfully in possession of personal property which belongs to the plaintiff, whereas replevin lies only where there has been a wrongful taking or seizure of the property. Detinue is distinguished from common-law trover which is for the recovery of damages for the wrongful conversion of personal property. In modern practice, detinue has been superseded almost entirely by statutory actions for the recovery of personal property.

England and Wales
In England and Wales, detinue was abolished from 1 January 1978 by the Torts (Interference with Goods) Act 1977. However, the tort of conversion was extended at the same time to cover circumstances that had previously been covered only by detinue.

title: Detinue


text:
Psathi

Psathi may refer to the following places:

Cyprus

 * Psathi, Paphos

Greece

 * Psathi, Arcadia, a village in Arcadia
 * Psathi, Ios, a village on the island of Ios, Cyclades
 * Psathi, Kimolos, the port of the island Kimolos, Cyclades

title: Psathi


text:
Teredo tunneling

In computer networking, Teredo is a transition technology that gives full IPv6 connectivity for IPv6-capable hosts that are on the IPv4 Internet but have no native connection to an IPv6 network. Unlike similar protocols such as 6to4, it can perform its function even from behind network address translation (NAT) devices such as home routers.

Teredo operates using a platform independent tunneling protocol that provides IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) connectivity by encapsulating IPv6 datagram packets within IPv4 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) packets. Teredo routes these datagrams on the IPv4 Internet and through NAT devices. Teredo nodes elsewhere on the IPv6 network (called Teredo relays) receive the packets, un-encapsulate them, and pass them on.

Teredo is a temporary measure. In the long term, all IPv6 hosts should use native IPv6 connectivity. Teredo should be disabled when native IPv6 connectivity becomes available. Christian Huitema developed Teredo at Microsoft, and the IETF standardized it as RFC 4380. The Teredo server listens on UDP port 3544.

Purpose
For 6to4, the most common IPv6 over IPv4 tunneling protocol, requires that the tunnel endpoint have a public IPv4 address. However, many hosts currently attach to the IPv4 Internet through one or several NAT devices, usually because of IPv4 address shortage. In such a situation, the only available public IPv4 address is assigned to the NAT device, and the 6to4 tunnel endpoint must be implemented on the NAT device itself. The problem is that many NAT devices currently deployed cannot be upgraded to implement 6to4, for technical or economic reasons.

Teredo alleviates this problem by encapsulating IPv6 packets within UDP/IPv4 datagrams, which most NATs can forward properly. Thus, IPv6-aware hosts behind NATs can serve as Teredo tunnel endpoints even when they don't have a dedicated public IPv4 address. In effect, a host that implements Teredo can gain IPv6 connectivity with no cooperation from the local network environment.

In the long term, all IPv6 hosts should use native IPv6 connectivity. The temporary Teredo protocol includes provisions for a sunset procedure: Teredo implementation should provide a way to stop using Teredo connectivity when IPv6 matures and connectivity becomes available using a less brittle mechanism. As of IETF89, Microsoft plans to deactivate their Teredo servers for Windows clients in the first half of 2014 (exact date TBD), and encourage the deactivation of publicly operated Teredo relays.

Overview
The Teredo protocol performs several functions:
 * 1) Diagnoses UDP over IPv4 (UDPv4) connectivity and discovers the kind of NAT present (using a simplified replacement to the STUN protocol)
 * 2) Assigns a globally routable unique IPv6 address to each host using it
 * 3) Encapsulates IPv6 packets inside UDPv4 datagrams for transmission over an IPv4 network (this includes NAT traversal)
 * 4) Routes traffic between Teredo hosts and native (or otherwise non-Teredo) IPv6 hosts

Node types
Teredo defines several different kinds of nodes:

 * Teredo client: A host that has IPv4 connectivity to the Internet from behind a NAT and uses the Teredo tunneling protocol to access the IPv6 Internet. Teredo clients are assigned an IPv6 address that starts with the Teredo prefix.

 * Teredo server: A well-known host used for initial configuration of a Teredo tunnel. A Teredo server never forwards any traffic for the client (apart from IPv6 pings), and has therefore modest bandwidth requirements (a few hundred bits per second per client at most), which means a single server can support many clients. Additionally, a Teredo server can be implemented in a fully stateless manner, thus using the same amount of memory regardless of how many clients it supports.

 * Teredo relay: The remote end of a Teredo tunnel. A Teredo relay must forward all of the data on behalf of the Teredo clients it serves, with the exception of direct Teredo client to Teredo client exchanges. Therefore, a relay requires a lot of bandwidth and can only support a limited number of simultaneous clients. Each Teredo relay serves a range of IPv6 hosts (e.g. a single campus or company, an ISP or a whole operator network, or even the whole IPv6 Internet); it forwards traffic between any Teredo clients and any host within said range.

 * Teredo host-specific relay: A Teredo relay whose range of service is limited to the very host it runs on. As such, it has no particular bandwidth or routing requirements. A computer with a host-specific relay uses Teredo to communicate with Teredo clients, but sticks to its main IPv6 connectivity provider to reach the rest of the IPv6 Internet.

IPv6 addressing
Each Teredo client is assigned a public IPv6 address, which is constructed as follows (the higher order bit is numbered 0):
 * Bits 0 to 31 hold the Teredo prefix (2001::/32).
 * Bits 32 to 63 embed the primary IPv4 address of the Teredo server that is used.
 * Bits 64 to 79 hold some flags and other bits; the format for these 16 bits, MSB first, is "CRAAAAUG AAAAAAAA". The "C" bit was set to 1 if the Teredo client is located behind a cone NAT, 0 otherwise, but RFC 5991 changed it to always be 0 to avoid revealing this fact to strangers. The "R" bit is currently unassigned and should be sent as 0.  The "U" and "G" bits are set to 0 to emulate the "Universal/local" and "Group/individual" bits in MAC addresses.  The 12 "A" bits were 0 in the original RFC 4380 specification, but were changed to random bits chosen by the Teredo client in RFC 5991 to provide the Teredo node with additional protection against IPv6-based scanning attacks.
 * Bits 80 to 95 contain the obfuscated UDP port number. This is the port number that the NAT maps to the Teredo client, with all bits inverted.
 * Bits 96 to 127 contain the obfuscated IPv4 address. This is the public IPv4 address of the NAT with all bits inverted.

Teredo IPv6 addressing table

As an example, the IPv6 address 2001:0000:4136:e378:8000:63bf:3fff:fdd2 refers to a Teredo client that:
 * Uses Teredo server at address 65.54.227.120 (4136e378 in hexadecimal)
 * Is behind a cone NAT and client is not fully compliant with RFC 5991 (bit 64 is set)
 * Is probably (99.98%) not compliant with RFC 5991 (the 12 random bits are all 0, which happens less than 0.025% of the time)
 * Uses UDP mapped port 40000 on its NAT (in hexadecimal not 63bf equals 9c40, or decimal number 40000)
 * Has a NAT public IPv4 address of 192.0.2.45 (not 3ffffdd2 equals c000022d, which is to say, 192.0.2.45)

Teredo IPv6 example table

Servers
Teredo clients use Teredo servers to autodetect the kind of NAT they are behind (if any), through a simplified STUN-like qualification procedure. Teredo clients also maintain a binding on their NAT toward their Teredo server by sending a UDP packet at regular intervals. That ensures that the server can always contact any of its clients—which is required for NAT hole punching to work properly.

If a Teredo relay (or another Teredo client) must send an IPv6 packet to a Teredo client, it first sends a Teredo bubble packet to the client's Teredo server, whose IP address it infers from the Teredo IPv6 address of the Teredo client. The server then forwards the bubble to the client, so the Teredo client software knows it must do hole punching toward the Teredo relay.

Teredo servers can also transmit ICMPv6 packet from Teredo clients toward the IPv6 Internet. In practice, when a Teredo client wants to contact a native IPv6 node, it must locate the corresponding Teredo relay, i.e., to which public IPv4 and UDP port number to send encapsulated IPv6 packets. To do that, the client crafts an ICMPv6 Echo Request (ping) toward the IPv6 node, and sends it through its configured Teredo server. The Teredo server de-capsulates the ping onto the IPv6 Internet, so that the ping should eventually reach the IPv6 node. The IPv6 node should then reply with an ICMPv6 Echo Reply, as mandated by RFC 2460. This reply packet is routed to the closest Teredo relay, which — finally — tries to contact the Teredo client.

Maintaining a Teredo server requires little bandwidth, because they are not involved in actual transmission and reception of IPv6 traffic packets. Also, it does not involve any access to the Internet routing protocols. The only requirements for a Teredo server are:
 * The ability to emit ICMPv6 packets with a source address belonging to the Teredo prefix
 * Two distinct public IPv4 addresses. Though not written down in the official specification, Microsoft Windows clients expect both addresses to be consecutive — the second IPv4 address is for NAT detection

Public Teredo servers:
 * teredo.trex.fi (Finland)

Former public Teredo servers:
 * teredo.remlab.net / teredo-debian.remlab.net (Germany), now redirects to teredo.trex.fi

Relays
A Teredo relay potentially requires much network bandwidth. Also, it must export (advertise) a route toward the Teredo IPv6 prefix (2001::/32) to other IPv6 hosts. That way, the Teredo relay receives traffic from the IPv6 hosts addressed to any Teredo client, and forwards it over UDP/IPv4. Symmetrically, it receives packets from Teredo clients addressed to native IPv6 hosts over UDP/IPv4 and injects those into the native IPv6 network.

In practice, network administrators can set up a private Teredo relay for their company or campus. This provides a short path between their IPv6 network and any Teredo client. However, setting up a Teredo relay on a scale beyond that of a single network requires the ability to export BGP IPv6 routes to the other autonomous systems (AS's).

Unlike 6to4, where the two halves of a connection can use different relays, traffic between a native IPv6 host and a Teredo client uses the same Teredo relay, namely the one closest to the native IPv6 host network-wise. The Teredo client cannot localize a relay by itself (since it cannot send IPv6 packets by itself). If it needs to initiate a connection to a native IPv6 host, it sends the first packet through the Teredo server, which sends a packet to the native IPv6 host using the client's Teredo IPv6 address. The native IPv6 host then responds as usual to the client's Teredo IPv6 address, which eventually causes the packet to find a Teredo relay, which initiates a connection to the client (possibly using the Teredo server for NAT piercing). The Teredo Client and native IPv6 host then use the relay for communication as long as they need to. This design means that neither the Teredo server nor client needs to know the IPv4 address of any Teredo relays. They find a suitable one automatically via the global IPv6 routing table, since all Teredo relays advertise the network 2001::/32.

On March 30, 2006, Italian ISP ITGate was the first AS to start advertising a route toward 2001::/32 on the IPv6 Internet, so that RFC 4380-compliant Teredo implementations would be fully usable. As of 16 February 2007, it is no longer functional.

In Q1 2009, IPv6 backbone Hurricane Electric enabled 14 Teredo relays in an anycast implementation and advertising 2001::/32 globally. The relays were located in Seattle, Fremont, Los Angeles, Chicago, Dallas, Toronto, New York, Ashburn, Miami, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, and Hong Kong.

It is expected that large network operators will maintain Teredo relays. As with 6to4, it remains unclear how well the Teredo service will scale up if a large proportion of Internet hosts start using IPv6 through Teredo in addition to IPv4. While Microsoft has operated a set of Teredo servers since they released the first Teredo pseudo-tunnel for Windows XP, they have never provided a Teredo relay service for the IPv6 Internet as a whole.

Limitations
Teredo is not compatible with all NAT devices. Using the terminology of RFC 3489, it supports full cone, restricted, and port-restricted NAT devices, but does not support symmetric NATs. The Shipworm specification original that led to the final Teredo protocol also supported symmetric NATs, but dropped that due to security concerns.

People at the National Chiao Tung University in Taiwan later proposed SymTeredo, which enhanced the original Teredo protocol to support symmetric NATs, and the Microsoft and Miredo implementations implement certain unspecified non-standard extensions to improve support for symmetric NATs. However, connectivity between a Teredo client behind a symmetric NAT, and a Teredo client behind a port-restricted or symmetric NAT remains seemingly impossible.

Indeed, Teredo assumes that when two clients exchange encapsulated IPv6 packets, the mapped/external UDP port numbers used will be the same as those that were used to contact the Teredo server (and building the Teredo IPv6 address). Without this assumption, it would not be possible to establish a direct communication between the two clients, and a costly relay would have to be used to perform triangle routing. A Teredo implementation tries to detect the type of NAT at startup, and will refuse to operate if the NAT appears to be symmetric. (This limitation can sometimes be worked around by manually configuring a port forwarding rule on the NAT box, which requires administrative access to the device).

Teredo can only provide a single IPv6 address per tunnel endpoint. As such, it is not possible to use a single Teredo tunnel to connect multiple hosts, unlike 6to4 and some point-to-point IPv6 tunnels. The bandwidth available to all Teredo clients toward the IPv6 Internet is limited by the availability of Teredo relays, which are no different than 6to4 relays in that respect.

Alternatives
6to4 requires a public IPv4 address, but provides a large 48-bit IPv6 prefix for each tunnel endpoint, and has a lower encapsulation overhead. Point-to-point tunnels can be more reliable and are more accountable than Teredo, and typically provide permanent IPv6 addresses that do not depend on the IPv4 address of the tunnel endpoint. Some point-to-point tunnel brokers also support UDP encapsulation to traverse NATs (for instance, the AYIYA protocol can do this). On the other hand, point-to-point tunnels normally require registration. Automated tools (for instance AICCU) make it easy to use Point-to-Point tunnels.

Exposure
Teredo increases the attack surface by assigning globally routable IPv6 addresses to network hosts behind NAT devices, which would otherwise be unreachable from the Internet. By doing so, Teredo potentially exposes any IPv6-enabled application with an open port to the outside. Teredo tunnel encapsulation can also cause the contents of the IPv6 data traffic to become invisible to packet inspection software, facilitating the spread of malware. Finally, Teredo exposes the IPv6 stack and the tunneling software to attacks should they have any remotely exploitable vulnerability.

In order to reduce the attack surface, the Microsoft IPv6 stack has a "protection level" socket option. This allows applications to specify from which sources they are willing to accept IPv6 traffic: from the Teredo tunnel, from anywhere except Teredo (the default), or only from the local intranet.

The Teredo protocol also encapsulates detailed information about the tunnel's endpoint in its data packets. This information can help potential attackers by increasing the feasibility of an attack, and/or by reducing the effort required.

Firewalling, filtering, and blocking
For a Teredo pseudo-tunnel to operate properly, outgoing UDP packets to port 3544 must be unfiltered. Moreover, replies to these packets (i.e., "solicited traffic") must also be unfiltered. This corresponds to the typical setup of a NAT and its stateful firewall functionality. Teredo tunneling software reports a fatal error and stops if outgoing IPv4 UDP traffic is blocked.

DoS via routing loops
In 2010, new methods to create denial of service attacks via routing loops that use Teredo tunnels were uncovered. They are relatively easy to prevent.

Default use in MS-Windows
Microsoft Windows as of Windows 10, version 1803 and later disable Teredo by default. If needed, this transitional technology can be enabled via a CLI command or Group Policy.

Implementations
Several implementations of Teredo are currently available:

 * Windows XP SP2 includes a client and host-specific relay (also in the Advanced Networking Pack for Service Pack 1).
 * Windows Server 2003 has a relay and server provided under the Microsoft Beta program.
 * Windows Vista and Windows 7 have built-in support for Teredo with an unspecified extension for symmetric NAT traversal. However, if only a link-local and Teredo address are present, these operating systems don't try to resolve IPv6 DNS AAAA records if a DNS A record is present, in which case they use IPv4. Therefore, only literal IPv6 URLs typically use Teredo. This behavior can be modified in the registry.
 * Windows 10 version 1803 and later disable Teredo by default. If needed, this transitional technology can be enabled via a CLI command or Group Policy.
 * Miredo is a client, relay, and server for Linux, *BSD, and Mac OS X,
 * ng_teredo is a relay and server based on netgraph for FreeBSD from the LIP6 University and 6WIND.
 * NICI-Teredo is a relay for the Linux kernel and a userland Teredo server, developed at the National Chiao Tung University.

Choice of the name
The initial nickname of the Teredo tunneling protocol was Shipworm. The idea was that the protocol would pierce through NAT devices, much as the shipworm (a kind of marine wood-boring clam) bores tunnels through wood. Shipworms have been responsible for the loss of many wooden hulls. Christian Huitema, in the original draft, noted that the shipworm "only survives in relatively clean and unpolluted water; its recent comeback in several Northern American harbors is a testimony to their newly retrieved cleanliness. The Shipworm service should, in turn, contributes [sic] to a newly retrieved transparency of the Internet."

To avoid confusion with computer worms, Huitema later changed the protocol's name from Shipworm to Teredo, after the genus name of the shipworm Teredo navalis.

title: Teredo tunneling


text:
Otto Nuschke

Otto Nuschke (23 February 1883 – 27 December 1957) was a German politician.

Nuschke was born in Frohburg in the Kingdom of Saxony. In 1910 he was elected secretary general of the liberal Progressive People's Party (Fortschrittliche Volkspartei) of Kassel. In the same year he became chief editor of the Berliner Tageblatt and in 1915 co-editor of the Berliner Volkszeitung.

Nuschke soon joined the Liberal Union (Freisinnige Vereinigung), left-wing liberal organisation, and became its secretary general of Kassel in 1906. As this group fused with other left-liberal organisations (in 1910) to form the Progressive People's Party, Nuschke became the secretary general of the new party in Kassel.

In 1918 he took part in establishing the German Democratic Party. In 1919 he was a delegate to the National Congress of Weimar and from 1921 to 1933 he was a member of the Reichstag. In 1920s Nuschke was at times the deputy chairman of the German Democratic Party. Nuschke was one of the founders of the republican Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold and became the secretary general of the German State Party in 1931 (i.e., a successor to the German Democratic Party).

After the Nazis gained power in 1933 Nuschke joined the opposition. After the 1944 assassination attempt on Hitler's life, he went into hiding.

After World War II, he became involved in the politics of the Soviet Occupation Zone (SBZ)--what became East Germany. Unlike most of the former German Democratic Party members, Nuschke did not take part in forming the LDPD/FDP, but became one of the co-founders of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) in June 1945, along with Ferdinand Friedensburg, Ernst Lemmer and Walther Schreiber. In 1946 Nuschke was elected in the party's executive committee. From 1946 to 1952 he was a member of the Landtag of Brandenburg. In 1947, after the deposition of party chairmen Jakob Kaiser and Ernst Lemmer by the Soviet military authorities, Nuschke became acting chairman and after the party congress of 1948, party chairman.

In March 1948, Nuschke—alongside Wilhelm Pieck (SED) and Wilhelm Külz (LDPD)—was chairman of the German People's Council (Deutscher Volksrat) that drafted the Constitution of the German Democratic Republic. In 1949 Nuschke became a member of the Provisional People's Chamber of the GDR. He remained a member of parliament until his death. After the formal establishment of the German Democratic Republic, Nuschke became Deputy Prime Minister and chief of the Church Office.

Nuschke was a loyal supporter of the SED regime, and gradually pushed out those CDU members not willing to do the Communists' bidding. This culminated in the party's 1952 conference, at which the CDU formally declared itself a socialist party.

On 17 June 1953, during the East German uprising, Nuschke and his driver were kidnapped and brought to West Berlin. Some American military recognised him and saved him from the angry masses. He and his driver were brought to a police station, but released on 19 June. After that Nuschke and his driver returned to East Berlin. In a spontaneous interview given to RIAS reporter Peter Schultze, Nuschke claimed that the East German government had popular support and that the demonstrators included West Berliners.

In 1954 he received the Patriotic Order of the GDR and in 1955 he received an honorary degree.

title: Otto Nuschke


text: User talk:68.237.125.57

title: User talk:68.237.125.57


text:
User:Matsurika

I have a hard time believe anyone would be interested in finding out who I am. But as a quick blurb, I'm relatively new to Wikipedia, although this place is terribly addicting, and I find myself watching and editing a myriad of articles, most unrelated to each other. If I find more time, perhaps I'll link to them and my hobbies.

If you have similar interests, I'll probably see you around!

title: User:Matsurika


text:
University of Leoben

The University of Leoben is a public university in Leoben, Styria, Austria. It was established on 4 November 1840 as the Steiermärkisch-Ständische Montanlehranstalt in Vordernberg, Styria, Austria's mining region. In 1849 Peter Tunner relocated the university to nearby Leoben. That year the university had a mere 48 students enrolled.

The University of Leoben is a member of TU Austria, an association of three Austrian universities of technology and offers education and conducts research in the fields of mining, metallurgy and materials science.

Name
The university itself uses its German name Montanuniversität Leoben in its English communications, the Austrian Ministry of Education, Science and Research calls the university the Leoben University Mining and Metallurgy [sic] in English and the English translation of the 2002 Universities Act calls the university the University of Mining Leoben.

Departments
Currently, the university has the following departments:
 * Department of Analytical and Physical Chemistry
 * Department of Polymer Engineering and Science
 * Institute of Electrical Engineering
 * Department of Geoscience and Geophysics
 * Department of Materials Science
 * Institute for Structural and Functional Ceramics
 * Department of Mathematics and Information Technology
 * Institute of Mechanical Engineering
 * Department of Metallurgy
 * Department Mineral Resources and Petroleum Engineering
 * Department of Product Engineering
 * Department of Economics
 * Institute for Process Technology and Industrial Environmental Protection

Rankings
In ShanghaiRanking Consultancy's 2023 Global Ranking of Academic Subjects, the university attained rank 21 in metallurgical engineering. It is in the 301-400 range in mechanical engineering.

title: University of Leoben


text:
Goddard

Goddard may refer to:

People

 * Goddard (given name)
 * Goddard (surname)
 * Goddard., American musician

Places in the United States

 * Goddard, Kansas
 * Goddard, Kentucky
 * Goddard, Maryland
 * Goddard College, a low-residency college with campuses in Vermont and Washington
 * Goddard Memorial State Park, Warwick, Rhode Island
 * Homer, Indiana, also known as Goddard
 * Maurice K. Goddard State Park, New Vernon Township, Pennsylvania

Named after Robert H. Goddard

 * Goddard (crater), a lunar crater along the eastern limb of the Moon
 * Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph, a spectrograph installed on the Hubble Space Telescope
 * Goddard High School (New Mexico), Roswell, New Mexico
 * Goddard Space Flight Center, a major NASA space science laboratory in Greenbelt, Maryland
 * Goddard Institute for Space Studies, component laboratory of Goddard Space Flight Center
 * Blue Origin Goddard, a private spacecraft which first flew in November 2006
 * Version 13 of the popular Linux distribution Fedora, nicknamed Goddard
 * Goddard, a robotic dog in the American animated television series The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius

Other uses

 * Goddard & Gibbs, stained glass manufacturers
 * Goddard School, a national network of franchised, early childhood education providers

title: Goddard


text:
Category:Jimmy Neutron characters

This category contains characters from the Nickelodeon animated television series The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius.

title: Category:Jimmy Neutron characters


text: Template:Amphoe Sa Kaeo

title: Template:Amphoe Sa Kaeo