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List of cities and towns in South Australia

This is a list of town and locality names in South Australia outside the metropolitan postal area of Adelaide.

 * For a list of suburbs in metropolitan areas of Adelaide, see lists inside following individual city council articles: City of Adelaide, City of Burnside, City of Campbelltown, City of Charles Sturt, Town of Gawler, City of Holdfast Bay, City of Marion, City of Mitcham, City of Norwood Payneham St Peters, City of Onkaparinga, City of Playford, City of Port Adelaide Enfield, City of Prospect, City of Salisbury, City of Tea Tree Gully, City of Unley, City of West Torrens and Town of Walkerville

See also List of South Australian place names changed from German names

A

 * Adelaide
 * Agery
 * Alawoona
 * Alford
 * Aldgate
 * Allendale East
 * American River
 * Andamooka
 * Andrews
 * Angaston
 * Angle Vale
 * Appila
 * Ardrossan
 * Armagh
 * Arno Bay
 * Arthurton
 * Auburn
 * Avenue Range

B

 * Bagot Well
 * Baird Bay
 * Balaklava
 * Balgowan
 * Balhannah
 * Barmera
 * Barabba
 * Beachport
 * Beltana
 * Berri
 * Bethany
 * Binnum
 * Birdwood
 * Black Hill
 * Black Point
 * Blakiston
 * Blanche Harbor
 * Blanchetown
 * Blinman
 * Blyth
 * Booborowie
 * Booleroo Centre
 * Bordertown
 * Borrika
 * Border Village
 * Boston
 * Bower
 * Bowhill
 * Bowmans
 * Bridgewater
 * Brentwood
 * Brinkworth
 * Bruce
 * Brukunga
 * Buckleboo
 * Burra
 * Burrungule
 * Bute
 * Butler

C

 * Cadell
 * Calca
 * Callington
 * Calomba
 * Caloote
 * Calperum Station
 * Cultana
 * Caltowie
 * Cambrai
 * Cape Jervis
 * Carpenter Rocks
 * Carrickalinga
 * Carrieton
 * Ceduna
 * Charleston
 * Cherry Gardens
 * Cherryville
 * Chowilla
 * Clare
 * Clarendon
 * Clayton Bay
 * Cleve
 * Clinton
 * Cobdogla
 * Cockaleechie
 * Cockatoo Valley
 * Cockburn
 * Coffin Bay
 * Commissariat Point
 * Coober Pedy
 * Coobowie
 * Cook
 * Cooke Plains
 * Cooltong
 * Coomandook
 * Coonalpyn
 * Coonawarra
 * Coorabie
 * Copeville
 * Copley
 * Corny Point
 * Coulta
 * Cowell
 * Cradock
 * Crystal Brook
 * Cudlee Creek
 * Culburra
 * Cummins
 * Cungena
 * Curramulka
 * Currency Creek

D

 * Danggali
 * Darke Peak
 * Davenport
 * Dawesley
 * Delamere
 * Donovans
 * Dowlingville
 * Dublin
 * Dutton

E

 * Eden Valley
 * Ediacara
 * Edillilie
 * Edithburgh
 * Elliston
 * Encounter Bay
 * Ernabella
 * Eudunda

F

 * Farrell Flat
 * False Bay
 * Felixstow
 * Finniss
 * Forreston
 * Foul Bay
 * Fowlers Bay
 * Frances
 * Freeling
 * Fregon
 * Furner
 * Farina

G

 * Galga
 * Gawler
 * Georgetown
 * Geranium
 * Giles Corner
 * Gladstone
 * Glencoe
 * Glendambo
 * Gluepot
 * Goolwa
 * Grange
 * Greenock
 * Greenways
 * Gulnare
 * Gumeracha

H

 * Hahndorf
 * Halbury
 * Halidon
 * Hallett
 * Hallett Cove
 * Hamilton
 * Hamley Bridge
 * Hammond
 * Harrogate
 * Hartley
 * Haslam
 * Hatherleigh
 * Hawker
 * Hayborough
 * Head of the Bight
 * Henley Beach
 * Hill River
 * Hilltown
 * Hincks
 * Honiton
 * Hoyleton
 * Hynam

I

 * Innamincka
 * Inman Valley
 * Inneston
 * Iron Baron
 * Iron Knob
 * Island Beach

J

 * Jabuk
 * Jamestown
 * James Well
 * Jervois

K

 * Kadina
 * Kainton
 * Kalangadoo
 * Kanmantoo
 * Kapunda
 * Karkoo
 * Karoonda
 * Keith
 * Kersbrook
 * Keyneton
 * Ki Ki
 * Kielpa
 * Kimba
 * Kingoonya
 * Kingscote
 * Kingston SE
 * Kingston-On-Murray
 * Kongorong
 * Koolunga
 * Koppio
 * Korunye
 * Krondorf
 * Kunytjanu
 * Kyancutta
 * Kybybolite

L

 * Lightsview
 * Lake View
 * Lameroo
 * Langhorne Creek
 * Laura
 * Leigh Creek
 * Lenswood
 * Lewiston
 * Linwood
 * Light Pass
 * Lipson
 * Littlehampton
 * Lobethal
 * Lochiel
 * Lock
 * Long Plains
 * Longwood
 * Louth Bay
 * Loveday
 * Lower Light
 * Loxton
 * Loxton North
 * Lucindale
 * Lyndhurst
 * Lyndoch
 * Lyrup

M

 * Macclesfield
 * Maitland
 * Mallala
 * Mambray Creek
 * Manna Hill
 * Mannum
 * Manoora
 * Mantung
 * Marama
 * Marananga
 * Marion Bay
 * Marla
 * Marrabel
 * Marree
 * McCracken
 * Meadows
 * Melrose
 * Meningie
 * Mercunda
 * Merriton
 * Middleback Range
 * Middle Beach
 * Middleton
 * Mil Lel
 * Milang
 * Millicent
 * Mindarie
 * Minlaton
 * Minnipa
 * Mintabie
 * Mintaro
 * Miranda
 * Moana
 * Moculta
 * Monarto South
 * Monash
 * Moonta
 * Moorak
 * Moorlands
 * Moorook
 * Morchard
 * Morgan
 * Mount Barker
 * Mount Bryan
 * Mount Burr
 * Mount Compass
 * Mount Gambier
 * Mount Pleasant
 * Mount Torrens
 * Mullaquana
 * Mundallio
 * Mundoora
 * Murdinga
 * Murray Bridge
 * Murray Bridge East
 * Murray Bridge South
 * Murray Town
 * Mylor
 * Mypolonga
 * Myponga

N

 * Nackara
 * Nain
 * Nairne
 * Nangwarry
 * Nantawarra
 * Naracoorte
 * Narrung
 * New Well
 * Nildottie
 * Ninnes
 * Noarlunga
 * Nonning
 * Normanville
 * Northgate
 * Norton Summit
 * Nullarbor
 * Nundroo
 * Nuriootpa

O

 * OB Flat
 * Oakbank
 * Olary
 * Olympic Dam
 * Oodnadatta
 * Orroroo
 * Owen
 * Overland Corner

P

 * Padthaway
 * Palmer
 * Parachilna
 * Paratoo
 * Parham
 * Parilla
 * Paringa
 * Parndana
 * Parrakie
 * Paruna
 * Paskeville
 * Peake
 * Peebinga
 * Penneshaw
 * Penola
 * Penrice
 * Penwortham
 * Perlubie
 * Perponda
 * Peterborough
 * Piccadilly
 * Pine Point
 * Pinkerton Plains
 * Pinnaroo
 * Point Boston
 * Point Lowly
 * Point Mcleay
 * Point Pass
 * Point Pearce
 * Point Souttar
 * Point Sturt
 * Point Turton
 * Polda
 * Poochera
 * Port Arthur
 * Port Augusta
 * Port Augusta North
 * Port Augusta West
 * Port Broughton
 * Port Elliot
 * Port Flinders
 * Port Gawler
 * Port Germein
 * Port Hughes
 * Port Julia
 * Port Kenny
 * Port Lincoln
 * Port MacDonnell
 * Port Neill
 * Port Paterson
 * Port Pirie
 * Port Pirie South
 * Port Pirie West
 * Port Victoria
 * Port Vincent
 * Port Wakefield
 * Port Willunga
 * Price
 * Proof Range
 * Punyelroo

Q

 * Quorn
 * Qualco

R

 * Ramco
 * Rapid Bay
 * Raukkan
 * Redbanks
 * Redhill
 * Reeves Plains
 * Rendelsham
 * Renmark
 * Renmark South
 * Riverton
 * Risdon Park
 * Risdon Park South
 * Riverton
 * Robe
 * Robertstown
 * Rogues Point
 * Roseworthy
 * Rowland Flat
 * Roxby Downs
 * Rudall

S

 * Saddleworth
 * Saltia
 * Sandalwood
 * Sanderston
 * Sandilands
 * Sandy Creek
 * Sapphiretown
 * Sceale Bay
 * Seacliff
 * Seacombe Heights
 * Seaford
 * Second Valley
 * Secret Rocks
 * Sedan
 * Semaphore
 * Semaphore South
 * Seppeltsfield
 * Shea-Oak Log
 * Sherlock
 * Smoky Bay
 * Snowtown
 * Solomontown
 * South Kilkerran
 * Southend
 * Spalding
 * Springton
 * Stanley Flat
 * Stansbury
 * Stenhouse Bay
 * Stirling
 * Stirling North
 * Stockport
 * Stockwell
 * Stone Hut
 * Stone Well
 * Strathalbyn
 * Streaky Bay
 * Sultana Point
 * Summertown
 * Sutherlands
 * Swan Reach

T

 * Tailem Bend
 * Taldra
 * Tantanoola
 * Tanunda
 * Taplan
 * Tarcoola
 * Tarcowie
 * Tarlee
 * Tarpeena
 * Taylorville Station
 * Templers
 * Terowie
 * Thevenard
 * Thompson Beach
 * Tickera
 * Tiddy Widdy Beach
 * Tintinara
 * Tirulla
 * Tooligie
 * Totness
 * Trihi
 * Truro
 * Tumby Bay
 * Tungkillo
 * Two Wells

U

 * Uleybury
 * Ungarra
 * Upper Sturt
 * Uraidla

V

 * Veitch
 * Venus Bay
 * Verdun
 * Victor Harbor
 * Virginia

W

 * Waikerie
 * Wallaroo
 * Wami Kata
 * Wanbi
 * Wangary
 * Wanilla
 * Warnertown
 * Warooka
 * Warrachie
 * Warramboo
 * Warrow
 * Wasleys
 * Watervale
 * Waukaringa
 * Webb Beach
 * Weetulta
 * Wellington
 * Wharminda
 * Whites Flat
 * Whyalla
 * Whyalla Barson
 * Whyalla Jenkins
 * Whyalla Norrie
 * Whyalla Playford
 * Whyalla Stuart
 * Whyte Yarcowie
 * Williamstown
 * Willunga
 * Wilmington
 * Windsor
 * Winkie
 * Winninowie
 * Wirrabara
 * Wirrulla
 * Wistow
 * Witchelina
 * Wolseley
 * Woodside
 * Wool Bay
 * Woolundunga
 * Woomera
 * Wudinna
 * Wynarka

Y

 * Yacka
 * Yahl
 * Yalata
 * Yallunda Flat
 * Yaninee
 * Yankalilla
 * Yeelanna
 * Yellabinna
 * Yongala
 * Yorketown
 * Younghusband
 * Yumali
 * Yunta


text: Category:476 deaths

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:476 deaths


text:
1976 in India

Events in the year 1976 in the Republic of India.

Incumbents

 * President of India – Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
 * Prime Minister of India – Indira Gandhi
 * Vice President of India – B.D. Jatti
 * Chief Justice of India – Ajit Nath Ray

Governors

 * Andhra Pradesh –
 * until 10 January: S. Obul Reddy
 * 10 January-15 June: Mohanlal Sukhadia
 * starting 15 June: Ramchandra Dhondiba Bhandare
 * Assam – L. P. Singh
 * Bihar – Ramchandra Dhondiba Bhandare
 * Gujarat – Kambanthodath Kunhan Vishwanatham
 * Haryana –
 * until 26 March: Birendra Narayan Chakraborty
 * 27 March-13 August: Ranjit Singh Narula
 * starting 13 August: Jaisukh Lal Hathi
 * Himachal Pradesh – S. Chakravarti
 * Jammu and Kashmir – L. K. Jha
 * Karnataka – Uma Shankar Dikshit
 * Kerala – N. N. Wanchoo
 * Madhya Pradesh – Satya Narayan Sinha
 * Maharashtra – Ali Yavar Jung (until 11 December), vacant thereafter (starting 11 December)
 * Manipur – L.P. Singh
 * Meghalaya – L.P. Singh
 * Nagaland – L.P. Singh
 * Odisha – Akbar Ali Khan (until 17 April), Shiva Narayan Shankar (starting 17 April)
 * Punjab – Mahendra Mohan Choudhry
 * Rajasthan – Sardar Jogendra Singh
 * Sikkim – B. B. Lal
 * Tamil Nadu – Kodardas Kalidas Shah (until 15 June), Mohan Lal Sukhadia (starting 15 June)
 * Tripura – L. P. Singh
 * Uttar Pradesh – Akbar Ali Khan
 * West Bengal – Anthony Lancelot Dias

Events

 * National income - ₹918,117 million
 * 2 March - The Rajan case, a famous case of Police brutality during the Emergency Period. The victim, P. Rajan, a final year Engineering student at Regional Engineering College, Calicut was arrested by police, taken to Kakkayam and allegedly tortured severely which led to his death. It is believed that his body was thrown into the Kakkayam Dam.
 * 16 April – A family planning initiative involves the vasectomy of thousands of men and tubal ligation of women, either for payment or under coercive conditions. (The minimum age for marriage is also raised to 21 years for men and 18 years for women.) The son of then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, Sanjay Gandhi, is largely blamed for what turned out to be a failed program. A strong backlash against any initiative associated with family planning followed the highly controversial program, which continues (in part) into the 21st century.
 * 10 June – George Fernandes arrested from Calcutta during the Emergency.
 * 12 October - Indian Airlines Flight 171 crashed in Bombay killing all 95 on board.
 * 15 November – Subramanian Swamy was expelled from Rajya Sabha for his campaign against the Emergency in foreign countries.

Law
The 42nd amendment Act, 1976, was enacted during the Emergency by the Indian National Congress government headed by Indira Gandhi.

January to June

 * Abhishek Bachchan.jpg February – [[Abhishek Bachchan]], actor.
 * 4 April – Simran Bagga, actress.
 * 9 April – Rohit Gupta, writer and inventor.
 * 9 April – Nithin Sathya, actor.
 * 21 May – Aditi Gowitrikar, model, actress and physician.
 * AmeeshaPatel01.jpg]]9 June – Amisha Patel, actress.
 * 5 June – Rambha, actress.
 * 7 June – Pandiraj, film director.
 * 29 June – Saurabh Kalia, Military officer-KARGIL HERO. (d. 1998).

July to December

 * 20 July – Debashish Mohanty, cricketer.
 * 12 August – Baljit Singh Saini, field hockey player.
 * 3 September – Vivek Oberoi, actor
 * 16 September – Meena, actress.
 * 19 September – Ishaa Koppikar, actress and model.
 * 27 October – Pooja Batra, actress.
 * 29 October – Raghava Lawrence, actor, choreographer, director.
 * 14 November – Hemang Badani, cricketer.
 * Bhaichung Bhutia at the NDTV Marks for Sports event 21.jpg]]15 December – Baichung Bhutia, soccer player.

Deaths

 * 25 January – Swami Anand, Gandhi activist and writer (b. 1887)
 * 2 March - P. Rajan, college student and victim of Police brutality (b. 1954)
 * 28 July – T. Nagi Reddy, communist politician (b. 1917).
 * Mukesh Indian Singer.jpg August – [[Mukesh (singer)|Mukesh]], playback singer (b. 1923).
 * 2 September – Vishnu Sakharam Khandekar, writer (b. 1898).

title: 1976 in India


text:
User talk:Aapje

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! -- Graham ☺ | Talk 12:06, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)
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User talk:RobK

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! -- Graham ☺ | Talk 12:06, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
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 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

title: User talk:RobK


text:
Shah Rukh

Shah Rukh or Shahrukh Mirza (, Šāhrokh; 20 August 1377 – 13 March 1447) was the ruler of the Timurid Empire between 1405 and 1447.

He was the son of the Central Asian conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), who founded the Timurid dynasty in 1370. However, Shah Rukh ruled only over the eastern portion of the empire established by his father, comprising most of Persia and Transoxiana, the western territories having been lost to invaders in the aftermath of Timur's death. In spite of this, Shah Rukh's empire remained a cohesive dominion of considerable extent throughout his reign, as well as a dominant power in Asia.

Shah Rukh controlled the main trade routes between Asia and Europe, including the legendary Silk Road, and became immensely wealthy as a result. He chose to have his capital not in Samarqand as his father had done, but in Herat. This was to become the political centre of the Timurid empire and residence of his principal successors, though both cities benefited from the wealth and privilege of Shah Rukh's court.

Shah Rukh was a great patron of the arts and sciences, which flourished under his rule. He spent his reign focusing on the stability of his lands, as well as maintaining political and economic relations with neighbouring kingdoms. In the view of historians Thomas W. Lentz and Glenn D. Lowry, "unlike his father, Shahrukh ruled the Timurid empire, not as a Turco-Mongol warlord-conqueror, but as an Islamic sultan. In dynastic chronicles he is exalted as a man of great piety, diplomacy, and modesty—a model Islamic ruler who repaired much of the physical and psychological damage caused by his father."

Early life
Shah Rukh was born on 20 August 1377, the youngest of Timur's four sons. In Persian, his name's elements have multiple meanings: شاه shah means "a king, a sovereign. [specifically], shah, title of the ruler of Persia", "the king" in chess, "used as a prefix meaning 'the best, greatest, main', etc. Ex. شاهکار shahkar, masterpiece" or "a bridegroom" (synonymous with داماد dâmâd); رخ rokh means "the face or figure; also, the cheek; the countenance", "the castle or rook" in chess; and the roc,"a fabulous bird; perhaps the condor". This is also the Persian term for the chess move "castling". According to Ibn 'Arabshah, Timur, who was a talented chess player, was involved in a match when he received the news of Shah Rukh's birth, using this chess move as a name for the newborn child.

Some sources suggest that his mother was the Empress Saray Mulk Khanum, formerly a Chaghatai princess and Timur's chief consort; she had been captured by Timur from the harem of Amir Husayn Qara'unas several years prior to Shah Rukh's birth. However, it was stated by the 15th-century historian Khwandamir that Shah Rukh's mother was a certain Taghay Tarkhan Agha of the Qara Khitai, a Tajik concubine of Timur's. Khwandamir used a genealogical record written during Shah Rukh's reign as his source for this assertion. Regardless of his maternal origins, the prince was personally raised by Saray Mulk, alongside Timur's grandson Khalil Sultan.

Reign of Timur
Timur appears not to have had particularly close relations with Shah Rukh, despite the latter never having incurred his displeasure. In 1397, Shah Rukh was appointed governor of Khorasan by his father, with his viceregal capital being Herat. Although this was a significant region, it was also the same post that had been awarded to Shah Rukh's brother Miran Shah when the latter had been thirteen years old. Shah Rukh was never promoted beyond this position during his father's lifetime. Further to this, during Timur's campaign to China, Shah Rukh's young sons took pride of place in the procession while he himself was passed over.

Historical sources give no explanation for their relationship, though there is some evidence which suggests that it was Shah Rukh's ancestry which had affected Timur's lack of favour, being the son of a concubine as opposed to a freeborn wife. Alternatively, there have been suggestions that Timur believed Shah Rukh did not possess the personal qualities required for ruling; the prince by this point had acquired a reputation for excessive modesty as well as personal piety. It might also have been this Islamic adherence and subsequent rejection of the laws of Genghis Khan, which had always been so strongly revered by Timur, that had resulted in the alienation of Shah Rukh from his father.

Shah Rukh, alongside most of the royal family, accompanied Timur west in his campaign against the Ottoman Empire, which culminated in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. Shah Rukh commanded the left wing of the army, Miran Shah the right and Timur himself in the centre. The vanguard was headed by two of Shah Rukh's nephews. The battle resulted in a Timurid victory, as well as the capture and subjugation of the Ottoman Sultan, Bayezid I.

War of succession

Timur died in 1405, whilst leading his army east in a campaign against the Ming Dynasty. He was reported to have said on his deathbed that he "had no other desire than to see the Mirza Shah Rukh once more" and had lamented the fact that he did not have time to do so.

Timur had no unambiguously appointed heir at the time of his death; as a result, a succession dispute erupted among his surviving sons and grandsons. Khalil Sultan proclaimed himself emperor at Tashkent soon after his grandfather's death and seized the royal treasury, as well as Timur's imperial capital Samarqand. Shah Rukh marched his army out of Herat to the Oxus river but made no offensive move against his nephew at this point. This was likely due to Miran Shah, Khalil Sultan's father, who posed a serious threat as he, along with his other son Abu Bakr, had led an army out of Azerbaijan in support of the younger prince. They were both forced to withdraw prior to joining with Khalil Sultan however, due to invasions to their rear by the Jalayirids and the Qara Qoyunlu, who took advantage of the death of the old emperor to seize territory. Miran Shah was killed in battle in 1408 whilst attempting to repel the invaders, with Abu Bakr dying similarly the year after.

In the years following Timur's death, Shah Rukh and Khalil Sultan had a series of unproductive negotiations as well as many military encounters, with Khalil Sultan frequently emerging victorious. During this time, other pretenders also pursued their own claims to the throne. Among these was Sultan Husayn Tayichiud, a maternal grandson of Timur who later aligned himself with Khalil Sultan, before betraying him in order to reassert his own claim. Sultan Husayn was defeated by his former ally and fled to Shah Rukh, who had him executed, with his body parts being displayed in the bazaars of Herat. Two more of Timur's grandsons, Iskandar and Pir Muhammad, also made bids for the throne. They were defeated by Shah Rukh and Khalil Sultan respectively, with each being spared by their subjugator. Pir Muhammad was later assassinated by one of his nobles in 1407, while Iskandar was executed in 1415 following a failed rebellion.

It was not until 1409 that the war started to turn in Shah Rukh's favour. During this time, Khalil Sultan began to lose support among his emirs in Samarqand. His wife Shadi Mulk had been given a large amount of authority in court. Under her influence, low-ranking individuals were given high positions instead of Timur's old nobles. Additionally, several of the old emperor's widows and concubines were remarried (somewhat forcefully) to men of undistinguished backgrounds.

Following a famine which further spread discontent among the populace, Khalil Sultan was eventually taken captive by the powerful emir Khudaidad Hussain, leader of the Dughlat tribe and a former mentor of the prince. Hussain took Khalil Sultan to Ferghana and had him proclaimed ruler in Andijan. Samarqand, having been left abandoned, was taken unopposed by Shah Rukh. When he later captured Shadi Mulk, Khalil Sultan was forced to go to his uncle in Samarqand and submit to him. The prince had his wife returned to him and was appointed governor of Rayy, but died in 1411, with Shadi Mulk committing suicide soon after.

Following the deaths of Khalil Sultan, Sultan Husayn and Pir Muhammad, Shah Rukh had no immediate Timurid rivals to contest his rule and he began his reign as Timur's successor. However, rather than ruling from Samarqand as his father had done, Shah Rukh held court in Herat, which had formerly been his viceregal capital. Samarqand was instead bestowed on his eldest son Ulugh Beg, who was appointed governor of Transoxiana.

War with the Qara Qoyunlu
The new emperor began his reign by launching expeditions against regions which had begun to break away during the war of succession. Fars, which was held by Shah Rukh's nephew Bayqara, was taken in 1414. Two years later Kirman, which had been ruled as an independent kingdom by Sultan Uwais Barlas since 1408, was also subdued. The area under Shah Rukh's rule continued to be extended and consolidated over the following years, either through voluntary subjugation by minor rulers or through alliances. By 1420, the eastern portion of Timur's empire, as well as central and southern Persia, had been brought under Shah Rukh's rule.

However, despite Shah Rukh's successes, the western portion of the empire, including Azerbaijan and Mesopotamia, remained out of his control. These were held by Qara Yusuf of the Qara Qoyunlu (Black Sheep Turkoman), who had defeated and killed Shah Rukh's brother Miran Shah several years previously. With the conquests of several prominent cities such as Baghdad, Qazvin and Diyarbakır, the Qara Qoyunlu had established themselves as dangerous neighbours to the Timurids. This threat was one which remained unresolved for decades. Shah Rukh made many attempts to pacify his western border, both through political and military means (having launched three campaigns against Azerbaijan), none of which proved entirely successful.

Qara Yusuf died during the first of the campaigns in November 1420, which ended in the Timurid capture of Azerbaijan and Armenia. However, less than a year later Shah Rukh was forced to face off a rebellion by the late Turkoman prince's sons. One of these sons, Qara Iskander, continued his attempts to reassert Turkoman authority over the following years, necessitating the second campaign in 1429. This too resulted in a Timurid victory and the installation of a Qara Qoyunlu prince, Abu Said, as a puppet ruler. However, Qara Iskander reoccupied the city of Tabriz two years later and had Abu Said executed.

This action prompted the third and final campaign in 1434, in which Qara Iskander was once more forced to flee. He was later assassinated by his son Qubad in the fortress of Alinja. Although this campaign did not result in a final resolution of the Turkoman issue, it did achieve stability in the region for the remainder of Shah Rukh's reign with the installation of Qara Iskander's less bellicose brother Jahan Shah as the Turkoman ruler.

Conflict with Hurufis and anti-intellectual purges

The Hurufis were a Sufi sect who based their doctrine on the mysticism of letters. In the late 14th century, the group was accused of heresy by traditional Islamic scholars. As a result, in 1394 the founder of the movement, Fazlallah Astarabadi, had been arrested and executed on Timur's orders by his son Miran Shah. The death of their leader led Astarabadi's followers to have a specific hatred against the Timurids.

While leaving a mosque in 1426, Shah Rukh became the victim of an assassination attempt. The attacker, Ahmed Lur, approached the emperor under the pretence of presenting a petition, before stabbing him in the stomach. Lur however, failed to give a fatal blow and was quickly killed by Shah Rukh's servant. Shah Rukh recovered within a few days and an investigation was launched, which linked Lur to the Hurufis as well as to the family of Astarabadi.

There was an immediate backlash against the sect, which resulted in the execution of Astarabadi's grandson, Azud. High-ranking members of the group were subject to extensive interrogations. These eventually extended beyond the sect, with many intellectuals residing in Herat having to defend themselves against accusations of blasphemy. These included the Persian historian Sharaf-ud-din Ali Yazdi, author of the Zafarnama, and his teacher Sain-ud-din Turka. The prominent poet and Sufi, Qasem-e Anvar was expelled from the capital on Shah Rukh's orders. These accusations even went beyond Shah Rukh's court in Herat, with Ma'ruf-i Khattat, a prominent calligrapher under the patronage of Prince Baysunghur, also being arrested and interrogated.

The extent to which the Hurufis were involved in the assassination attempt has not yet been clearly established. However, the subsequent purges served to worsen the already strained relations between the Timurid court and the intellectuals of the empire.

Rebellions
In the early part of his reign, in what was likely an attempt to stave off rebellion amongst his relations, Shah Rukh regularly made transfers between the governorships they held. For example, Khalil Sultan was moved from Samarqand to Rayy, Umar Mirza from Azerbaijan to Astrabad, Iskandar Mirza from Ferghana to Hamadan to Shiraz etc.

These attempts did not prove to be entirely successful, as Shah Rukh had to repeatedly suppress rebellions by his various family members. Iskandar Mirza, after encouraging his brother to revolt in 1413, himself rebelled and devastated the cities of Isfahan and Kerman. Bayqara, after his initial defeat in Fars, rebelled once more soon after in Shiraz. These insurrections even continued into Shah Rukh's old age. In 1446, at nearly seventy years old, he had to march against his grandson Sultan Muhammad, who had revolted in the empire's western provinces.

Administration
Shah Rukh's reign saw a marked improvement in economic standards and cultural achievements in many areas of the empire. Although this may partly be accredited to Shah Rukh's more diplomatic character in contrast to the ruthlessness of Timur, evidence does not assign Shah Rukh with superior skill as a statesman. It is instead believed that other influences on his government led to the relative success of his rule. These include his empress, Gawhar Shad, who along with her sons and some state officials, maintained orderly continuity of state affairs. Some of the highest state officials appear to have been unusually talented individuals who were able to endure in their positions for several decades. These include Jalal-ud-din Firuz Shah, who was supreme commander of the army for thirty-five years, Ghiyath al-Din Pir Ahmad Khvafi, supreme secretary for thirty-one years and Amir Alika Kokultash, head of state finance for forty-three years.

In regards to his policies, Shah Rukh distanced himself from Timur, with less importance being placed on Mongol concepts of authority. He abandoned the institution of a figurehead Khan and replaced the Mongol tribunals with Sharia courts. Like his father, Shah Rukh was married to a Mongol princess; Malikat Agha, daughter of Khizr Khoja and widow of his brother Umar Shaikh Mirza I. He did not however, claim the title of Küregen (son-in-law) which had been enjoyed by Timur. He similarly did not employ Timur's title of Amir, instead adopting the Islamic and Persian styles of Sultan and Padshah.

Shah Rukh's religious advisor Jalal-Din al-Qayini, described the abolishment of the Mongol tribunals in 1411: "His Majesty’s correct thinking on the subject of giving currency to the Sharia and reviving the customs of the Sunna has progressed so far at this time that, in Dhul-Qada 813 (i.e., February–March 1411), he abolished the yarghu court of investigation and the customs of the törä which had been observed by Turko-Mongolian rulers since ancient times."

The Timurid author Sain ad-Din Ali Turka Isfahani praised Shah Rukh for ruling by Islamic Law in the following words: “Absolutely everyone with a legal case has it heard in accordance with the Sharia, and thanks to the felicity of the favour of this Faith-promoting padshah (i.e. Shahrukh), not a trace has remained anywhere of the Yarghu Tribunal which (God preserve us!) had for a long time exercised its tyranny over the minds of rulers and polluted the lands of Islam, and no creature has the power [to conduct] this type of interrogation except in secret."

Cultural influence
Shah Rukh's wife, Gawhar Shad, funded the construction of two mosques and theological colleges in Mashhad and Herat. The Gawhar Shad Mosque was finished in 1418. The mixed ethnic origins of the ruling dynasty led to a distinctive character in its cultural outlook, which was a combination of Persian civilization and art, with borrowings from China, and literature written in Persian as well as Chagatay and Arabic. Shah Rukh commissioned the production of a number of historical and geographic works by Hafiz-i Abru. Among them is Tāriḵ-e Šāhroḵ(i), the history of Shah Rukh's reign through 1413-14 (816 AH). It was later incorporated by its author into larger "universal history" compilations, Majmuʿa-ye Ḥāfeẓ-e Abru (a universal history work) and Majmaʿ al-tawāriḵ [al-solṭāni(ya)] (section Zobdat al-tawāriḵ-e Bāysonḡori).

Foreign relations
During Shah Rukh's reign, relations between the Timurid state and Ming China, under the rule of the Yongle Emperor and his descendants, were normalised. This was contrasted by the preceding era of Timur and the Hongwu Emperor (the first emperor of Ming China) who almost started a war with each other (which was only averted by the death of Timur). Chinese embassies, led by Chen Cheng, visited Samarqand and Herat several times in 1414–1420, while a large embassy sent by Shah Rukh (and immortalized by its diarist, Ghiyāth-ud-dīn Naqqāsh) travelled to Beijing in 1419–22 and were hosted with lavish banquets and the exchange of gifts. Shah Rukh sent two letters in Arabic & Persian to the Yongle emperor inviting him to Islam & praising the virtues of Islamic Law (as opposed to the Yasa). The letters were also meant to assert Shah Rukh's independence & to clarify that the Timurids were not the vassals of the Ming dynasty. Through his promotion of commercial and political relations with neighbouring kingdoms, Shah Rukh also maintained contact with several other contemporary rulers. Monarchs of the Aq Qoyunlu, India, Hurmuz and (in the early part of his reign) the Ottoman Empire made homage to him. Successive Sultans of Delhi, starting with Khizr Khan, exchanged embassies with the Timurid court and swore their loyalty to the emperor, while the Sultan of Bengal, Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah, had sought his military support. Relations with the Mamluks of Egypt, however, were increasingly tense due to Shah Rukh's attempts to assert dominance. They eventually normalised on the ascension of Sultan Jaqmaq, under whom the two rulers were amicable, but equal.

Death and succession
Soon after suppressing Sultan Muhammad's revolt, Shah Rukh, by this point weakened by ill-health, died in his winter quarters in Rayy in March 1447. Despite initial attempts to conceal it, news of the emperor's death quickly spread. Chaos erupted in the military camp, rendering transport of Shah Rukh's body to the capital for burial impossible. It was only on the third day following his death that the body, accompanied by the now-dowager empress Gawhar Shad and Shah Rukh's grandson Abdal-Latif, began its journey east. However, within a few days Abdal-Latif took both his grandmother and the corpse hostage, possibly in the hopes of launching his own bid for the vacant throne, or to support that of his father, Shah Rukh's last surviving son Ulugh Beg. Ala al-Dawla, another grandson, defeated his cousin's troops and liberated Gawhar Shad, and afterwards had Shah Rukh interred in the Gawhar Shad Mausoleum in Herat. When Ulugh Beg captured the city the following year, he ordered his father's body to be exhumed before reburying it with Timur's in the Gur-e-Amir in Samarqand.

The succession struggle among Shah Rukh's family continued for several years, initially between Ulugh Beg and Ala al-Dawla, in which the former emerged victorious. However, he was murdered by his son Abdal-Latif in 1449, and in the subsequent civil wars, control of the Timurid Empire passed from Shah Rukh's descendants.

Consorts

 * Gawhar Shad, daughter of Ghiyas-ud-din Tarkhan
 * Malikat Agha, daughter of Khizr Ughlan Chaghatay, widow of Umar Shaikh Mirza I
 * Tuti Agha, a Narin Mughal lady
 * Aq Sultan Agha, daughter of Charkas bin Timan Ilchigiday
 * Mihr Nigar Agha, an Uzbek Bisut lady;
 * La'l Takin Agha

Sons

 * Ulugh Beg (1394–1449) – with Gawhar Shad Begum. Viceroy of Transoxiana, later succeeded his father.
 * Sultan Ibrahim Mirza (1394–1435). Viceroy of Persia.
 * Baysunghur (1397–1433) – with Gawhar Shad Begum. Shah Rukh's artistic third son never had a vice-royal position, but played an important part in his father's government in Samarqand.
 * Soyurghatmish Mirza (1399–1426) – with Malikat Agha. Viceroy of India and Ghazni.
 * Muhammad Juki Mirza (1402–1444) – with Gawhar Shad Begum. Viceroy of Garmsir and Khuttal.

Daughters

 * Maryam Sultan Agha (d. 1441) – with Gawhar Shad Begum. Married to Muhammad Jahangir Mirza, son of Muhammad Sultan Mirza, son of Jahangir Mirza
 * Qutlugh Turkan Agha – with Gawhar Shad Begum
 * Qutlugh Sultan Agha – with Tuti Agha
 * Taghay Turkan Agha – with Tuti Agha
 * Sa'adat Sultan Agha – with Gawhar Shad Begum
 * Payanda Sultan Agha with Aq Sultan Agha. Married to Yahya Mirza, son of Muhammad Sultan Mirza, son of Jahangir Mirza

Facial reconstruction
Soviet anthropologist Mikhail Mikhaylovich Gerasimov reconstructed the facial features of Timur, his son Shah Rukh and grandson Ulugh Beg. Relative to the others, Timur appears to have been phenotypically East Asian, while Shah Rukh, the son of a Tajik woman, had more Europoid features. Shah Rukh appeared more similar to brachycephalic Europoids. Shah Rukh's son Ulugh Beg, however, had predominantly Mongoloid features, and no obvious Caucasoid influence.

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Category:Bollywood playback singers

 * This category is about playback singers who have sung in Hindi films.

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Gate of Horn

The Gate of Horn was a 100-seat folk music club, located in the basement of the Rice Hotel at 755 N. Dearborn St. at the corner of Chicago Avenue, on the near north side of Chicago, Illinois, in the 1950s and 1960s. It was opened by journalist Les Brown and Albert Grossman in 1956. It was where Odetta, Bob Gibson, Roger McGuinn and others made their name. Also appearing at the club were Theodore Bikel, Josh White (Sr. and Jr.), Oscar Brown, Jo Mapes, Brownie McGhee, Sonny Terry, Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem, the New Lost City Ramblers, Judy Collins, Hoyt Axton, Jim Croce and Bonnie Dobson. Bill Cosby and George Carlin also performed as comedians at the club.

Bob Gibson was its frequent Master of Ceremonies (M.C.) and often introduced new talent at the Gate of Horn. He met a quiet, shy singer with a great voice named Joan Baez at the Newport Folk Festival and persuaded her to perform at the Gate of Horn after the festival. Many of those who performed at the Gate of Horn were interviewed by Studs Terkel for his radio show Studs Terkel's Wax Museum which also helped build the folk music revival in Chicago. Gibson was also one of the forces behind the influential Old Town School of Folk Music for several decades after the 1960s.

In April 1961, Gibson and Bob Camp recorded their folk album Bob Gibson & Bob Camp at the Gate Of Horn at the club.

The Gate of Horn outgrew its basement and moved to a larger venue on Rush Street near Oak. This was also one of the clubs at which stand-up comedian Lenny Bruce performed, in December 1962, before his arrest and trial for obscenity. When the Gate of Horn folded, its space was filled for several years by Second City. The original Gate of Horn site at 755 N. Dearborn is now a hi-rise rental apartment building; a similar fate befell the building which last housed the 1950s and 1960s free-speech coffee house "The College of Complexes" which was at 515 N. Clark Street—a few short blocks away.

McGuinn later wrote the song "Gate of Horn" about the venue and the way it affected him.

Albums recorded at the Gate of Horn

 * 1957: At the Gate of Horn (Odetta, 1957), Tradition TLP1025 **''Although titled "At the Gate of Horn," Odetta's album is not a live recording from the club. Rather, it is named such because it is representative of the set she performed there.
 * 1959: Memphis Slim at the Gate of Horn (Memphis Slim, 1959)
 * 1961: Gibson & Camp at the Gate of Horn (Bob Gibson and Bob Camp, 1961)
 * 1967: Hearty and Hellish (The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem, 1961)
 * 1995: Live 1962: Busted! (Lenny Bruce, recorded Dec. 4, 1962)

Appearances in film
The Gate of Horn appears in the 2013 film Inside Llewyn Davis; its exterior as a visual effect with a set construction interior.

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Category:Hindi cinema

The Indian Hindi language film industry is nicknamed Bollywood. The 'B' in Bollywood is for the city of Bombay (Mumbai) where the industry is based, the rest of the name being an obvious pun on Hollywood. It produces more than 200 movies a year.

 * Bollywood films should be placed in appropriate subcategories, and in Category:Indian films

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Talk:Wolof

Sources?
Hi Leipoldt, thanks for updating the figures on Wolof population, etc. Only one request--can you add a source for them (either as a reference or an external link)? I've no reason to doubt them, but a ref'd be helpful for future editors to see not to tamper with them (or to be able to tell when they go out of date. --Dvyost 21:51, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Comment originally misposted at Talk:Wolof language, to which this page previously redirected.

dhffghfsghgfhsh — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.209.61.34 (talk) 02:43, 22 May 2013 (UTC)

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Walter Moberly

Walter Moberly may refer to:

 * Walter Moberly (engineer), British-born civil engineer active in Canada
 * Walter Hamilton Moberly (1881–1974), British academic and author of Crisis in the University (1949)
 * R. W. L. Moberly, British theologian

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Anthony Winkler Prins

Anthony Winkler Prins (30 or 31 January 1817 in Voorst – 4 January 1908 in Voorburg) was a Dutch writer. He is remembered mostly for being chief editor of the Winkler Prins encyclopedia.

Besides being an encyclopedist, Winkler Prins (a double surname) was a "Doopsgezind" (Mennonite) preacher. He also wrote editorials for many newspapers, as well as poetry.

Winkler Prins studied science and literature in Utrecht and later studied theology at the Doopsgezind Seminarium (Mennonite Seminary) in Amsterdam. From 1841 to 1850, he preached in the village of Tjalleberd.

From 1850 to 1882, Winkler Prins preached in the northern town of Veendam, where he completed his encyclopedia in 1882. He was very important to the community, not just as a preacher, but also because he founded a high school, a seafaring school and a Masonic Lodge.

After he retired as a preacher in 1882, he went to live with his daughter in Voorburg, where he died and was interred in 1908. A statue of Winkler Prins was erected outside the Veenkoloniaal Museum ("Peat Colony Museum") in Veendam in 1991; see photo. On 9 September 2005, the Museum had the remains of Winkler Prins and his wife Henderika reburied in the graveyard of the Reformed Church in Veendam.

Winkler Prins' son Jacob (born in Tjalleberd on 5 February 1849, died at sea on 25 November 1907) was a poet (mostly of sonnets) and a painter.

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Gröndal

Gröndal (Green Valley) is a district of the Hägersten-Liljeholmen borough in Söderort, the southern suburban part of Stockholm, Sweden. The name Gröndal means Green Dale or Green Valley. Gröndal developed as a working class and industrial suburb after the opening of Liljeholmen freight station in the 1860s. The district was a part of Liljeholmen municipal community in the Brännkyrka municipality until 1913, when Brännkyrka was incorporated into the city of Stockholm.

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Great Turkish War

The Great Turkish War (Großer Türkenkrieg), also called the Wars of the Holy League (Kutsal İttifak Savaşları), was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League consisting of the Holy Roman Empire, Poland-Lithuania, Venice, Russia, and the Kingdom of Hungary. Intensive fighting began in 1683 and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. The war was a defeat for the Ottoman Empire, which for the first time lost substantial territory, in Hungary and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as in part of the western Balkans. The war was significant also for being the first instance of Russia joining an alliance with Western Europe.

The French did not join the Holy League, as France had agreed to reviving an informal Franco-Ottoman alliance in 1673, in exchange for Louis XIV being recognized as a protector of Catholics in the Ottoman domains. Initially, Louis XIV took advantage of the start of the war to extend France's eastern borders in the War of the Reunions, taking Luxembourg and Strasbourg in the Truce of Ratisbon. However, as the Holy League made gains against the Ottoman Empire, capturing Belgrade by 1688, the French began to worry that their Habsburg rivals would grow too powerful and eventually turn on France. The Glorious Revolution was also a matter of concern for the French, as William III of Orange-Nassau was being invited by English nobles in the Invitation to William letter to take control of England as king. Therefore, the French besieged Philippsburg on 27 September 1688, breaking the truce and triggering the separate Nine Years' War, which relieved the Turks.

As a result, the advance made by the Holy League stalled, allowing the Ottomans to retake Belgrade in 1690. The war then fell into a stalemate, and peace was concluded in 1699 which began following the Battle of Zenta in 1697 when an Ottoman attempt to retake their lost possessions in Hungary was crushed by the Holy League.

The war largely overlapped with the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), which took up the vast majority of the Habsburgs' attention while it was active. In 1695, for instance, the Holy Roman Empire states had 280,000 troops in the field, with England, the Dutch Republic, and Spain contributing another 156,000 specifically to the conflict against France. Of those 280,000, only 74,000, or about one quarter, were positioned against the Turks; the rest were fighting France. Overall, from 1683 to 1699, the Imperial States had on average 88,100 men fighting the Turks, while from 1688 to 1697, they had on average 127,410 fighting the French.

Background (1667–1683)
Following Bohdan Khmelnytsky's rebellion, the Tsardom of Russia in 1654 acquired territories from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (currently parts of eastern Ukraine), while some Cossacks stayed in the southeastern part of the Commonwealth. Their leader, Petro Doroshenko, sought the Ottoman Empire's protection and in 1667 attacked Polish commander John Sobieski.

Sultan Mehmed IV, who knew that the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was weakened by internal conflicts, in August 1672 attacked Kamenets Podolski, a large city on the border of the Commonwealth. The small Polish force resisted the siege of Kamenets for two weeks but was then forced to surrender. The Polish army was too small to resist the Ottoman invasion and could score only some minor tactical victories. After three months, the Poles were forced to sign the Treaty of Buchach in which they agreed to cede Kamenets, Podolia and to pay tribute to the Ottomans. When the news of the defeat and treaty terms reached Warsaw, the Sejm refused to pay the tribute and organized a large army under Sobieski; subsequently, the Poles won the Battle of Khotyn (1673). After the death of King Michael in 1673, Sobieski was elected king of Poland. He tried to defeat the Ottomans for four years, with no success. The war ended on 17 October 1676 with the Treaty of Żurawno in which the Turks retained control over only Kamenets-Podolski. This Turkish attack also led in 1676 to the beginning of the Russo-Turkish Wars.

Overview
After a few years of peace, the Ottoman Empire, encouraged by successes in the west of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, attacked the Habsburg monarchy. The Turks almost captured Vienna, but John III Sobieski led a Christian alliance that defeated them in the Battle of Vienna (1683), stalling the Ottoman Empire's hegemony in south-eastern Europe.

A new Holy League was initiated by Pope Innocent XI and encompassed the Holy Roman Empire (headed by the Habsburg monarchy), the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Venetian Republic in 1684, joined by Russia in 1686. Holy League's troops besieged and conquered Buda in 1686 what was under Ottoman's rule since 1541. The second Battle of Mohács (1687) was a crushing defeat for the Sultan. The Turks were more successful on the Polish front and were able to retain Podolia during their battles with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Russia's involvement marked the first time the country formally joined an alliance of European powers. This was the beginning of a series of Russo-Turkish Wars, the last of which was World War I. As a result of the Crimean campaigns and Azov campaigns, Russia captured the key Ottoman fortress of Azov.

Following the decisive Battle of Zenta in 1697 and lesser skirmishes (such as the Battle of Podhajce in 1698), the League won the war in 1699 and forced the Ottoman Empire to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz. The Ottomans ceded most of Hungary, Transylvania and Slavonia, as well as parts of Croatia, to the Habsburg monarchy while Podolia returned to Poland. Most of Dalmatia passed to Venice, along with the Morea, which the Ottomans reconquered in 1715 and regained in the Treaty of Passarowitz of 1718.

Serbia
After allied Christian forces had captured Buda from the Ottoman Empire in 1686 during the Great Turkish War, Serbs from Pannonian Plain (present-day Hungary, Slavonia region in present-day Croatia, Bačka and Banat regions in present-day Serbia) joined the troops of the Habsburg monarchy as separate units known as Serbian Militia. Serbs, as volunteers, massively joined the Habsburg side. In the first half of 1688, the Habsburg army, together with units of Serbian Militia, captured Gyula, Lippa (today Lipova, Romania) and Borosjenő (today Ienu, Romania) from the Ottoman Empire. After the capture of Belgrade from the Ottomans in 1688, Serbs from the territories in the south of the Sava and Danube rivers began to join Serbian Militia units.

Kosovo
Kosovo Albanian Roman Catholic Bishop and philosopher Pjetër Bogdani returned to the Balkans in March 1686 and spent the next years promoting resistance to the armies of the Ottoman Empire, in particular in his native Kosovo. He and his vicar Toma Raspasani played a leading role in the pro-Austrian movement in Kosovo during the Great Turkish War. He contributed a force of 6,000 Albanian soldiers to the Austrian army which had arrived in Pristina and accompanied it to capture Prizren. There, however, he and much of his army were met by another equally formidable adversary, the plague. Bogdani returned to Pristina but succumbed to the disease there on 6 December 1689. His nephew, Gjergj Bogdani, reported in 1698 that his uncle's remains were later exhumed by Turkish and Tatar soldiers and fed to the dogs in the middle of the square in Pristina.

Among the papers of Ludwig von Baden in Karlsruhe, there is a copy of an intercepted letter, in French, written by a secretary of the English embassy in Constantinople on 19 January 1690. It reported that the "Germans" in Kosovo had made contact with 20,000 Albanians who had turned their weapons against the Turks.

Morean War
The Republic of Venice had held several islands in the Aegean and the Ionian seas, together with strategically positioned forts along the coast of the Greek mainland since the carving up of the Byzantine Empire after the Fourth Crusade. However, with the rise of the Ottomans, during the 16th and early 17th centuries, they lost most of these, such as Cyprus and Euboea (Negropont) to the Turks. Between 1645 and 1669, the Venetians and the Ottomans fought a long and costly war over Crete, the last major Venetian possession in the Aegean. During this war, the Venetian commander, Francesco Morosini, came into contact with the rebellious Maniots, for a joint campaign in the Morea. In 1659, Morosini landed in the Morea, and together with the Maniots, he took Kalamata. However, he was soon after forced to return to Crete, and the Peloponnesian venture failed.

In 1683, a new war broke out between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottomans, with a large Ottoman army advancing towards Vienna. In response to this, a Holy League was formed. After the Ottoman army was defeated in the Battle of Vienna, the Venetians decided to use the opportunity of the weakening of Ottoman power and its distraction in the Danubian front so as to reconquer its lost territories in the Aegean and Dalmatia. On 25 April 1684, the Most Serene Republic declared war on the Ottomans.

Aware that she would have to rely on her own strength for success, Venice prepared for the war by securing financial and military aid in men and ships from Hospitaller Malta, the Duchy of Savoy, the Papal States, and the Knights of St. Stephen. In addition, the Venetians enrolled large numbers of mercenaries from Italy and the German states, especially Saxony and Brunswick.

Operations in the Ionian Sea
In mid-June, the Venetian fleet moved from the Adriatic towards the Ottoman-held Ionian Islands. The first target was the island of Lefkada (Santa Maura), which fell, after a brief siege of 16 days, on 6 August 1684. The Venetians, aided by Greek irregulars, then crossed into the mainland and started raiding the opposite shore of Acarnania. Most of the area was soon under Venetian control, and the fall of the forts of Preveza and Vonitsa in late September removed the last Ottoman bastions. These early successes were important for the Venetians not only for reasons of morale, but because they secured their communications with Venice, denied to the Ottomans the possibility of threatening the Ionian Islands or of ferrying troops via western Greece to the Peloponnese, and because these successes encouraged the Greeks to cooperate with them against the Ottomans.

The conquest of the Morea
Having secured his rear during the previous year, Morosini set his sights upon the Peloponnese, where the Greeks, especially the Maniots, had begun showing signs of revolt and communicated with Morosini, promising to rise up in his aid. Ismail Pasha, the new military commander of Morea, learned of this and invaded the Mani Peninsula with 10,000 men, reinforcing the three forts that the Ottomans already garrisoned, and compelled the Maniots to give up hostages to secure their loyalty. As a result, the Maniots remained uncommitted when, on 25 June 1685, the Venetian army, 8,100 men strong, landed outside the former Venetian fort of Koroni and laid siege to it. The castle surrendered after 49 days, on 11 August, and the garrison was massacred. After this success, Morosini embarked his troops towards the town of Kalamata, in order to encourage the Maniots to revolt. The Venetian army, reinforced by 3,300 Saxons and under the command of general Hannibal von Degenfeld, defeated a Turkish force of ca. 10,000 outside Kalamata on 14 September, and by the end of the month, all of Mani and much of Messenia were under Venetian control.

In October 1685, the Venetian army retreated to the Ionian Islands for winter quarters, where a plague broke out, something which would occur regularly in the next years, and take a great toll on the Venetian army, especially among the German contingents. In April 1686, the Venetians helped repulse an Ottoman attack that threatened to overrun Mani, and were reinforced from the Papal States and Tuscany. The Swedish marshal Otto Wilhelm Königsmarck was appointed head of the land forces, while Morosini retained command of the fleet. On 3 June Königsmarck took Pylos and proceeded to lay siege the fortress of Navarino. A relief force under Ismail Pasha was defeated on June 16, and the next day the fort surrendered. The garrison and the Muslim population were transported to Tripoli. Methoni (Modon) followed on 7 July, after an effective bombardment destroyed the fort's walls, and its inhabitants were also transferred to Tripoli. The Venetians then advanced towards Argos and Nafplion, which was then the most important town in the Peloponnese. The Venetian army, ca. 12,000 strong, landed around Nafplion between 30 July and August 4. Königsmarck immediately led an assault upon the hill of Palamidi, then unfortified, which overlooked the town. Despite the Venetians' success in capturing Palamidi, the arrival of a 7,000 strong Ottoman army under Ismail Pasha at Argos rendered their position difficult. The Venetians' initial assault against the relief army succeeded in taking Argos and forcing the pasha to retreat to Corinth, but for two weeks, from 16 August, Königsmarck's forces were forced to continuously repulse attacks from Ismail Pasha's forces, fight off the sorties of the besieged Ottoman garrison and cope with a new outbreak of plague. On 29 August 1686 Ismail Pasha attacked the Venetian camp, but was heavily defeated. With the defeat of the relief army, Nafplion was forced to surrender on September 3. News of this major victory were greeted in Venice with joy and celebration. Nafplion became the Venetians' major base, while Ismail Pasha withdrew to Achaea after strengthening the garrisons at Corinth, which controlled the passage to central Greece.

Despite losses to the plague during the autumn and winter of 1686, Morosini's forces were replenished by the arrival of new German mercenary corps from Hanover in spring 1687. Thus strengthened, he was able to move against the last major Ottoman bastion in the Peloponnese, the town of Patras and the fort of Rion, which along with its twin at Antirrion controlled the entrance to the Corinthian Gulf (the "Little Dardanelles"). On 22 July 1687, Morosini, with a force of 14,000, landed outside Patras, where the new Ottoman commander, Mehmed Pasha, had established himself. Mehmed, with an army of roughly equal size, attacked the Venetian force immediately after it landed, but was defeated and forced to retreat. At this point panic spread among the Ottoman forces, and the Venetians were able, within a few days, to capture the citadel of Patras, and the forts of Rion, Antirrion, and Nafpaktos (Lepanto) without any opposition, as their garrisons abandoned them. This new success caused great joy in Venice, and honours were heaped on Morosini and his officers. Morosini received the victory title "Peloponnesiacus", and a bronze bust of his was displayed in the Great Hall, something never before done for a living citizen. The Venetians followed up this success with the reduction of the last Ottoman bastions in the Peloponnese, including Corinth, which was occupied on 7 August, and Mystra, which surrendered later in the month. The Peloponnese was under complete Venetian control, and only the fort of Monemvasia (Malvasia) in the southeast continued to resist, holding out until 1690.

Polish–Ottoman & Austro-Turkish Wars (1683–1699)
After a few years of peace, the Ottoman Empire attacked the Habsburg monarchy again. The Turks almost captured Vienna, but King John III Sobieski of Poland led a Christian alliance that defeated them in the Battle of Vienna, which shook the Ottoman Empire's hegemony in south-eastern Europe.

A new Holy League was initiated by Pope Innocent XI and encompassed the Holy Roman Empire (headed by the Habsburg monarchy), joined by the Venetian Republic and Poland in 1684 and the Tsardom of Russia in 1686. The Ottomans suffered three decisive defeats against the Holy Roman Empire after siege of Buda: the second Battle of Mohács in 1687, the Battle of Slankamen in 1691 and the Battle of Zenta a decade later, in 1697.

On the smaller Polish front, after the battles of 1683 (Vienna and Parkany), Sobieski, after his proposal for the League to start a major coordinated offensive, undertook a rather unsuccessful offensive in Moldavia in 1686, with the Ottomans refusing a major engagement and harassing the army. For the next four years Poland would blockade the key fortress at Kamenets, and Ottoman Tatars would raid the borderlands. In 1691, Sobieski undertook another expedition to Moldavia, with slightly better results, but still with no decisive victories.

The last battle of the campaign was the Battle of Podhajce in 1698, where a Polish hetman named Feliks Kazimierz Potocki defeated the Ottoman incursion into the Commonwealth. The League won the war in 1699 and forced the Ottoman Empire to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz. The Ottomans thereby lost much of their European possessions, with Podolia (including Kamenets) returned to Poland.

Russo-Turkish War (1686–1700)
During the war, the Russian army organized the Crimean campaigns of 1687 and 1689, which both ended in Russian defeats. Despite these setbacks, Russia launched the Azov campaigns in 1695 and 1696, and after laying siege to Azov in 1695 successfully occupied the city in 1696.

Battle of Vienna

Capturing Vienna had long been a strategic aspiration of the Ottoman Empire, because of its interlocking control over Danubian (Black Sea to Western Europe) southern Europe, and the overland (Eastern Mediterranean to Germany) trade routes. During the years preceding this second siege (the first had taken place in 1529), under the auspices of Grand viziers from the influential Köprülü family, the Ottoman Empire undertook extensive logistical preparations, including the repair and establishment of roads and bridges leading into the Holy Roman Empire and its logistical centres, as well as the forwarding of ammunition, cannon and other resources from all over the Ottoman Empire to these centres and into the Balkans. Since 1679, the Great Plague had been ravaging Vienna.

The main Ottoman army finally laid siege to Vienna on 14 July 1683. On the same day, Kara Mustafa Pasha sent the traditional demand for surrender to the city. Ernst Rüdiger Graf von Starhemberg, leader of the garrison of 15,000 troops and 8,700 volunteers with 370 cannon, refused to capitulate. Only days before, he had received news of the mass slaughter at Perchtoldsdorf, a town south of Vienna, where the citizens had handed over the keys of the city after having been given a similar choice. Siege operations started on 17 July.

On 6 September, the Poles under John III Sobieski crossed the Danube 30 km north-west of Vienna at Tulln to unite with the Imperial troops and the additional forces from Saxony, Bavaria, Baden, Franconia, and Swabia. Louis XIV of France declined to help his Habsburg rival, having just annexed Alsace. An alliance between Sobieski and the Emperor Leopold I resulted in the addition of the Polish hussars to the already existing allied army. The command of the forces of European allies was entrusted to the Polish king, who had under his command 70,000–80,000 soldiers facing a Turkish army of 150,000. Sobieski's courage and remarkable aptitude for command were already known in Europe. During early September, the experienced 5,000 Ottoman sappers had repeatedly blown up large portions of the walls between the Burg bastion, the Löbel bastion and the Burg ravelin, creating gaps of about 12m in width. The Viennese tried to counter this by digging their own tunnels to intercept the depositing of large amounts of gunpowder in caverns. The Ottomans finally managed to occupy the Burg ravelin and the low wall in that area on 8 September. Anticipating a breach in the city walls, the remaining Viennese prepared to fight in the inner city.

Staging the battle

The relief army had to act quickly to save the city and so prevent another long siege. Despite the binational composition of the army and the short space of only six days, an effective leadership structure was established, centred on the Polish king and his Hussars. The Holy League settled the issues of payment by using all available funds from the government, loans from several wealthy bankers and noblemen and large sums of money from the Pope. Also, the Habsburgs and Poles agreed that the Polish government would pay for its own troops while still in Poland, but that they would be paid by the Emperor once they had crossed into Imperial territory. However, the Emperor had to recognise Sobieski's claim to first rights of plunder of the enemy camp in the event of a victory.

Kara Mustafa Pasha was less effective at ensuring his forces' motivation and loyalty, and preparing for the expected relief-army attack. He had entrusted defence of the rear to the Khan of Crimea and his light cavalry force, which numbered about 30,000–40,000. There is doubt as to how far the Tatars participated in the final battle before Vienna. The Ottomans could not rely on their Wallachian and Moldavian allies. George Ducas, Prince of Moldavia, was captured, while Șerban Cantacuzino's forces joined the retreat after Sobieski's cavalry charge.

The confederated troops signalled their arrival on the Kahlenberg above Vienna with bonfires. Before the battle a Mass was celebrated for the King of Poland and his nobles.

Battle

At around 6:00 pm, the Polish king ordered the cavalry to attack in four groups, three Polish and one from the Holy Roman Empire. Eighteen thousand horsemen charged down the hills, the largest cavalry charge in history. Sobieski led the charge at the head of 3,000 Polish heavy lancers, the famed "Winged Hussars". The Lipka Tatars who fought on the Polish side wore a sprig of straw in their helmets to distinguish themselves from the Tatars fighting on the Ottoman side. The charge easily broke the lines of the Ottomans, who were exhausted and demoralised and soon started to flee the battlefield. The cavalry headed straight for the Ottoman camps and Kara Mustafa's headquarters, while the remaining Viennese garrison sallied out of its defences to join in the assault.

The Ottoman troops were tired and dispirited following the failure of both the attempt at sapping and the assault on the city and the advance of the Holy League infantry on the Turkenschanz. The cavalry charge was one last deadly blow. Less than three hours after the cavalry attack, the Christian forces had won the battle and saved Vienna. The first Christian officer who entered Vienna was Margrave Ludwig of Baden, at the head of his dragoons.

Afterwards, Sobieski paraphrased Julius Caesar's famous quotation Veni, vidi, vici in saying "Veni, vidi, Deus vicit" – "I came, I saw, God conquered".

Conclusion
On September 11, 1697, the Battle of Zenta was fought just south of the Ottoman ruled town of Zenta. During the battle, Habsburg Imperial forces routed the Ottoman forces while the Ottomans were crossing the Tisa River near the town. This resulted in the Habsburg forces killing over 30,000 Ottomans and dispersing the rest. This crippling defeat was the ultimate factor of the Ottoman Empire signing the Treaty of Karlowitz on January 22, 1699, ending the Great Turkish War. This treaty resulted in the transfer of most of Ottoman Hungary to the Habsburgs, and after further losses in the Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718), prompted the Ottomans to adopt a more defensive military policy in the following century.

title: Great Turkish War


text:
Eddie Leonski

Edward Joseph Leonski (12 December 1917 – 9 November 1942) was a United States Army soldier and serial killer responsible for the strangling murders of three women in Melbourne, Australia in 1942. Leonski was dubbed The Brownout Strangler, after Melbourne's wartime practice of dropping the electricity voltage to conserve energy. His self-confessed motive for the killings was a twisted fascination with female voices, especially when they were singing, and his claim that he killed the women to "get their voices".

Leonski was initially arrested by Melbourne police, but was then transferred to U.S. military authorities for prosecution. He was court-martialed for murder under American military law, sentenced to death, and executed. Leonski was the first and only citizen of another country to have been tried and sentenced to death in Australia under the law of their own country.

Early life
The sixth child of Russian-Jewish immigrants John Leonski, laborer, and his Polish-born wife Amelia, née Harkavitz, in Kenvil, New Jersey, Leonski grew up in an abusive, alcoholic family. One of his brothers was committed to a mental institution. According to a psychologist who interviewed Leonski during his trial, his mother had been overprotective and controlling. Leonski had been bullied by other neighborhood kids and called a mama's boy. Accordingly, the psychologist ruled that Leonski's crimes were born of his resentment and hatred of his mother and thus constituted "symbolic matricide."

Leonski worked for a time as a delivery boy.

Military service
He was called up for the U.S. Army in February 1941 and arrived in Melbourne, Australia, on 2 February 1942, after the United States had entered World War II. The Army had set up a temporary base (Camp Pell) in Royal Park just north of the city and the university. Prior to departing to Australia, Leonski had assaulted a woman in San Antonio, but was never disciplined for this.

Murders
On 3 May 1942, Ivy Violet McLeod, 40, was found dead in Albert Park, Melbourne. She had been beaten and strangled, and because she was found to be in possession of her purse it was evident that robbery was not the motive. Six days later 31-year-old Pauline Thompson was strangled after a night out. She was last seen in the company of a young man who was described as having an American accent.

Gladys Hosking, 40, was the next victim, murdered on 18 May while walking home from work at the Chemistry Department at the University of Melbourne. That same night, another woman said that a dishevelled American man had approached her asking for directions, seemingly out of breath and covered with mud. This description matched the individual Thompson was seen with on the night of her murder, as well as the descriptions given by several women who had survived recent attacks. These survivors and other witnesses were able to pick 24-year-old Leonski out of a line-up of American servicemen who were stationed in Melbourne. Leonski, a private in the 52nd Signal Battalion, was arrested and charged with three murders.

Trial and execution
Although Leonski's crimes were committed in Australia, the trial was conducted under American military law. Leonski confessed to the crimes and was convicted and sentenced to death at a general court-martial on 17 July 1942. American general Douglas MacArthur confirmed the sentence on 14 October, and a board of review, appointed by MacArthur, upheld the findings and sentence on 28 October. General Court-Martial Order 1 promulgated Leonski's death sentence on 1 November. In a departure from normal procedure, on 4 November, MacArthur personally signed the order of execution (in subsequent executions this administrative task was entrusted to MacArthur's Chief of Staff, Richard Sutherland). Leonski was hanged at HM Prison Pentridge on 9 November. His reported last meal was Steak, Eggs, Toast, and Coffee

Leonski's defence attorney, former Colorado lawyer Lieutenant Ira C. Rothgerber Jr., attempted to win an external review, even from the U.S. Supreme Court, but was unable to do so. Leonski was temporarily interred at several cemeteries in Australia. His remains were eventually permanently interred in Section 9, Row B, Site 8 at Schofield Barracks Post Cemetery on the island of O'ahu, Hawaii. His grave is located in a section of the facility reserved for prisoners who died in military custody.

Media portrayals
In the 1950s, the case was the subject of a two-episode radio dramatization titled "A Strong Man", which was part of a series titled D24. In keeping with usual practice on the series, some names and details were changed, although the dramatization otherwise followed events faithfully.

A 1986 feature film, Death of a Soldier, directed by Philippe Mora, was based on Leonski, who was played by American actor Reb Brown.

It is believed that the Australian painter Albert Tucker's Images of Modern Evil series was somewhat influenced by Leonski's murders.

The 2015 television program Inside the Mind of a Serial Killer (series one, episode one) focused on Leonski.

National Archives of Australia

 * A472: W7493: Part 1: "Court Martial of Edward J. Leonski Pages 10-338 excepting pp 192 & 193 which numbers were missed by the typist, and 240 which is missing."
 * A472: W7493: Part 2: "Transcript of Evidence - Leonski Murder Trial - U.S. Military Forces Pages 1-388 and covering letter."
 * A472: W7493: Part 3: "Records of Trial Leonski, Edward J. U.S. ARMY Prosecution Exhibits Nos 1 and 51." (NAA catalog entry)
 * A472: W7493: Part 4: "Record of trial of Leonski, Edward J. Supplement A (Exhibits)."
 * A472: W7493: Part 5: "Court Martial of Edward J. Leonski." (NAA catalog entry)
 * A816: 1/301/542: "Private E.J. Leonski." (NAA catalog entry)
 * MP508/1: 4/702/943: "Trials of American Servicemen for Crimes under Aust. Law Case of Pte E J Leonski."
 * A5954: 287/6: "Leonski Case. Representations to Commander in Chief, Southwest Pacific Area. October 1942."

Australian National Maritime Museum

 * 00017254: Three page handwritten letter by United States soldier Private Edward Leonski: page one of a letter, apparently addressed to "Rene", written while Leonski was in custody in Melbourne. (ANMM catalog entry)
 * 00017255: Three page handwritten letter by United States soldier Private Edward Leonski: page two of a letter, apparently addressed to "Rene", written while Leonski was in custody in Melbourne. (ANMM catalog entry)
 * 00017256: Three page handwritten letter by United States soldier Private Edward Leonski: page three of a letter, apparently addressed to "Rene", written while Leonski was in custody in Melbourne. (ANMM catalog entry)
 * Hyde, Penny, "The Prosecutor and the Perpetrator: Murder in Melbourne…", Australian National Maritime Museum, 23 November 2012.

title: Eddie Leonski


text:
Intramembranous ossification

Intramembranous ossification is one of the two essential processes during fetal development of the gnathostome (excluding chondrichthyans such as sharks) skeletal system by which rudimentary bone tissue is created. Intramembranous ossification is also an essential process during the natural healing of bone fractures and the rudimentary formation of bones of the head.

Unlike endochondral ossification, which is the other process by which bone tissue is created during fetal development, cartilage is not present during intramembranous ossification.

Formation of woven bone
Mesenchymal stem cells within mesenchyme or the medullary cavity of a bone fracture initiate the process of intramembranous ossification. A mesenchymal stem cell, or MSC, is an unspecialized cell that can develop into an osteoblast. Before it begins to develop, the morphological characteristics of a MSC are: A small cell body with a few cell processes that are long and thin; a large, round nucleus with a prominent nucleolus that is surrounded by finely dispersed chromatin particles, giving the nucleus a clear appearance; and a small amount of Golgi apparatus, rough endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and polyribosomes. Furthermore, the mesenchymal stem cells are widely dispersed within an extracellular matrix that is devoid of every type of collagen, except for a few reticular fibrils.

The process of intramembranous ossification starts when a small group of adjacent MSCs begin to replicate and form a small, dense cluster of cells that is called a nidus. Once a nidus has been formed the MSCs within it stop replicating. At this point, morphological changes in the MSCs begin to occur: The cell body is now larger and rounder; the long, thin cell processes are no longer present; and the amount of Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum increases. Eventually, all of the cells within the nidus develop into, and display the morphologic characteristics of, an osteoprogenitor cell.

At this stage of development, changes in the morphology of the osteoprogenitor cells occur: Their shape becomes more columnar and the amount of Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum increases. Eventually, all of the cells within the nidus develop into, and display the morphologic characteristics of, an osteoblast. Then the osteoblasts create an extracellular matrix containing Type-I collagen fibrils, which is osteoid. The osteoblasts, while lining the periphery of the nidus, continue to form osteoid in the center of the nidus. Some of the osteoblasts become incorporated within the osteoid to become osteocytes.

At this point, the osteoid becomes mineralized resulting in a nidus consisting of mineralized osteoid that contains osteocytes and is lined by active osteoblasts. The nidus, that began as a diffuse collection of MSCs, has developed into woven bone, the most rudimentary bone tissue.

Formation of lamellar bone
The first step in the process is the formation of bone spicules which eventually fuse with each other and become trabeculae. The periosteum is formed and bone growth continues at the surface of trabeculae. Much like spicules, the increasing growth of trabeculae result in interconnection and this network is called woven bone. Eventually, woven bone is replaced by lamellar bone.

Formation of bone spicules
Embryologic mesenchymal cells (MSC) condense into layers of vascularized primitive connective tissue. Certain mesenchymal cells group together, usually near or around blood vessels, and differentiate into osteogenic cells which deposit bone matrix constitutively. These aggregates of bony matrix are called bone spicules. Separate mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts, which line up along the surface of the spicule and secrete more osteoid, which increases the size of the spicule.

Formation of trabecular bone
As the spicules continue to grow, they fuse with adjacent spicules and this results in the formation of trabeculae. When osteoblasts become trapped in the matrix they secrete, they differentiate into osteocytes. Osteoblasts continue to line up on the surface which increases the size. As growth continues, trabeculae become interconnected and trabecular bone is formed. The term primary spongiosa is also used to refer to the initial trabecular network.

Primary centre of ossification
The periosteum is formed around the trabeculae by differentiating mesenchymal cells. The primary center of ossification is the area where bone growth occurs between the periosteum and the bone. Osteogenic cells that originate from the periosteum increase appositional growth and a bone collar is formed. The bone collar is eventually mineralized and lamellar bone is formed.

Formation of osteon
Osteons are components or principal structures of compact bone. During the formation of bone spicules, cytoplasmic processes from osteoblasts interconnect. This becomes the canaliculi of osteons. Since bone spicules tend to form around blood vessels, the perivascular space is greatly reduced as the bone continues to grow. When replacement to compact bone occurs, this blood vessel becomes the central canal of the osteon.

Examples in the human body
The following bones develop in humans via Intramembranous ossification:
 * Flat bones of the face
 * Most of the bones of the skull
 * Clavicles

Other bone that formed by intramembranous ossification are: cortices of tubular and flat bones as well as the calvaria, upper facial bones, tympanic temporal bone, vomer, and medial pterygoid process.

title: Intramembranous ossification


text:
Patrick Steptoe

Patrick Christopher Steptoe CBE FRS (9 June 1913 – 21 March 1988) was an English obstetrician and gynaecologist and a pioneer of fertility treatment. Steptoe was responsible with biologist and physiologist Robert Edwards and the nurse and embryologist Jean Purdy for developing in vitro fertilisation. Louise Joy Brown, the first test-tube baby, was born on 25 July 1978. Edwards was awarded the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his work on the development of in vitro fertilisation; Steptoe and Purdy were not eligible for consideration because the Nobel Prize is not awarded posthumously.

Education
Born in Oxford, Steptoe was educated at The Grammar School, Witney (since 1968 the comprehensive Henry Box School) in Oxfordshire. He went to King's College London and graduated from St George's Hospital Medical School, London in 1939. He served in the Royal Navy from 1939–1946 and attained the rank of Lieutenant Commander.

From 1947 to 1949 he was chief assistant in obstetrics and gynaecology at St. George's Hospital, then senior registrar at the Whittington Hospital (formerly known as Highgate Hospital) and obtained his FRCS(Ed) in 1950. His chief at Highgate, Kathleen Harding, was credited by Steptoe as teaching him a great deal about the management of infertility.

Laparoscopy pioneer
After the Second World War, he studied obstetrics and, in 1951 he started to work at the Oldham & District General Hospital. From Raoul Palmer he learned the technique of laparoscopy and promoted its usefulness. In 1967 he published Laparoscopy in Gynaecology. Subsequently, Robert Edwards, a physiologist from the University of Cambridge, contacted him and got him interested in collaborating in the development of in vitro fertilization. Multiple sources:

Work with Edwards
Steptoe became the Director of the Centre for Human Reproduction, Oldham, in 1969. Using laparoscopy, he collected the ova from volunteering infertile women who saw his place as their last hope to achieve a pregnancy. Edwards and Jean Purdy provided the laboratory expertise. During this time they had to endure criticism and hostility to their work. Finally, in 1978, the birth of Louise Brown changed everything. Although he encountered further criticism, other clinics were able to follow the lead and patients responded. To accommodate the increased patient number and train specialists, he, Purdy, and Edwards founded the Bourn Hall Clinic, Cambridgeshire in 1980 of which Steptoe was a Medical Director until his death.

Awards and honours
In 1979, Steptoe received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

In the 1988 New Year Honours, he was appointed Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE), just a week after the 1,000th test-tube baby, conceived with his help, was born.

Steptoe was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in March 1987 His nomination reads:

A plaque was unveiled at the Bourn Hall Clinic in July 2013 by Louise Brown and Alastair MacDonald – the world's first IVF baby boy – commemorating Steptoe and Edwards. Steptoe is also commemorated with a plaque at the Maternity Ward at the Royal Oldham Hospital, and at 52 West End, Witney.

Steptoe is buried in Bourn, St Helena and St Mary Churchyard.

In popular culture
Steptoe, Edwards, and Purdy's work was dramatised in Gareth Farr's 2024 play A Child of Science, which premiered at Bristol Old Vic; Steptoe was portrayed by Jamie Glover.

title: Patrick Steptoe


text:
User talk:Benlee66

Welcome!

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User talk:DanielTheuma

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Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! -- Graham ☺ | Talk 12:23, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)
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User talk:UltimaGuy

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