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Laker Airways

Laker Airways was a private British airline founded by Sir Freddie Laker in 1966. It was originally a charter airline flying passengers and cargo worldwide. Its head office was located at Gatwick Airport in Crawley, England.

It became the second long-haul, low-cost, "no frills" airline in 1977, operating low-fare scheduled services between London Gatwick Airport and New York City's John F. Kennedy Airport (after pioneering Icelandic low-cost carrier Loftleiðir). In the early 1980s, the company went into bankruptcy during the recession, operating its last flight on 5 February 1982.

Early history
Freddie Laker announced the creation of Laker Airways in February 1966. The airline commenced commercial operations from its Gatwick Airport base on 29 July 1966 with two former British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) Bristol Britannia 102 series turboprops, initially operating under contract to Air France. The aircraft's livery was a combination of black, red and white – an adaptation of Laker's racing colours. The Britannias were supplemented and eventually replaced by five BAC One-Eleven 300 short-haul jet aircraft from December 1967. This included an initial 1966 order with the manufacturer for three aircraft valued at £4 million.

Laker spent more than £200,000 of his own money on the newly-ordered aircraft's deposits, with a consortium of City banks led by Clydesdale Bank funding the remainder. He placed a follow-up order for a fourth aircraft to be delivered in 1968 and acquired a former-British Eagle aircraft from Bahamas Airways in 1971. These airline's short- and medium-haul charter operations to holiday resorts in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands were primarily operated with these aircraft.

Operational history
Laker Airways offered 30% discounts to tour operators to charter the airline's aircraft during the winter, when demand was lower, and implemented other promotions to incentivise longer-term use of the aircraft by tour operators. This ensured that the fleet was in use for almost the entire year.

August 1968 saw the establishment of its first overseas base at Tegel Airport in what was then West Berlin. The company had up to three BAC One-Elevens stationed there until 1981, when these aircraft were replaced with one of its three newly acquired Airbus A300 B4 series wide-bodies, at the time the largest aircraft operated out of any Berlin airport.

Its Berlin operation was staffed by ninety, mainly local, workers. Throughout this period, it carried thousands of holidaymakers from the Western parts of the then divided German capital to resorts in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands.

Ground handling
In 1972, Laker Airways co-founded Gatwick Handling, a Gatwick handling agent that has become part of the Aviance group, with Dan-Air. Each airline owned 50% of Gatwick Handling at its inception.

Climbing speed
In the days when airports and air space were relatively uncongested, Laker Airways instructed departing One-Eleven crews to tune into other jet aircraft taking off ahead of them, and to begin a conversation with the other aircraft's crew while continuing their climb. The aim was to obtain information about the other aircraft's altitude to encourage that aircraft's crew to climb to their upper cruising altitude as quickly as possible so that Laker's One-Elevens could attain their optimum height in the shortest possible time. This helped Laker's One-Elevens climb faster without using as much power, helping the company to reduce fuel consumption and reduce the engines' wear and tear.

Weight-saving
Among the weight-saving measures Laker Airways used to make its aircraft fly further without the need of refuelling was a baggage allowance limit of 40 lb rather less than the more usual 44 lb, and carrying fewer passengers than the aircraft could hold. This policy was first employed when the airline began operating its BAC One-Elevens. By limiting the free baggage allowance and restricting passengers, the company used the weight saved to carry additional fuel, increasing range.

This was sufficient to permit non-stop flights from London Gatwick or Berlin Tegel to Tenerife at least in one direction, depending on the direction and strength of the winds. This helped make Laker's One-Elevens more competitive with larger, longer-range aircraft operated by rivals, especially for tour operators struggling to fill a bigger aircraft profitably. If the passenger load was greater than 70, the charterer paid for any stops, encouraging operators to keep to 70 passengers.

Alternatively, weight saved as a result of limiting free baggage could be traded for reduced fuel consumption on shorter routes well within the BAC One-Eleven's range by making the aircraft lighter, even with a full load of passengers.

Introduction of DC-10 aircraft
Weight-saving measures adopted to boost the BAC One-Eleven's range stood Laker Airways in good stead when the airline introduced the McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10.

This model lacked the range of the DC-10-30. The DC-10-10 was optimised for medium-haul routes. The aircraft McDonnell Douglas was offering had been built against an order placed by Mitsui Group, for five aircraft, who intended to lease them to All Nippon Airways (ANA). But, instead, ANA decided to order the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar. Before offering, on behalf of Mitsui, the aircraft to Laker, McDonnell Douglas had asked British Caledonian (BCal) whether it was interested. BCal was looking for a widebody replacement for its ageing Boeing 707s and Vickers VC10s. BCal rejected this offer because the aircraft had insufficient range to fly non-stop from Gatwick to the distant points on its network.

Despite these drawbacks, Laker Airways took two of those five Mitsui (originally intended for ANA) ordered aircraft. The three remaining Mitsui aircraft went to Turkish Airlines. One of these later crashed as Turkish Airlines Flight 981. The airline concluded it could fly non-stop from the UK to any point east of the Rockies by keeping the baggage limit at 40 lb and reducing single-class seating from 380 to 345. The saving could be used to carry more fuel. The calculations had shown that even with reduced seating, it had to fill only 52% of the seats to break even. Moreover, Laker Airways had figured that the aircraft's low break-even seat factor would enable it to operate its proposed London – New York Skytrain with a lower break-even factor compared to the Boeing 707, an ageing narrow-bodied aircraft whose costs were higher per passenger. The DC-10s also had huge potential to boost the projected profitability of Skytrain. Revised estimates anticipated an average load factor of 70–75% and raised the traffic forecast for the first year of operation to 250,000 passengers each way. This was almost three times the original 707-based forecast. These factors swung the firm in favour of McDonnell-Douglas's offer.

A Laker Airways McDonnell Douglas DC-10 series 10 was one of four widebodies that were specially flown in for the pre-inauguration of the then-new terminal building at Berlin's Tegel Airport on 23 October 1974. (A British Airways (BA) Lockheed L-1011 Tristar 1, a Pan Am Boeing 747-100 and an Air France Airbus A300 B2 were the other widebodies specially flown in on that day to mark this occasion.)

Introduction of Skytrain
The early 1970s saw the airline and its owner battle with aviation authorities in the UK and US to gain approval for a low-cost, "no frills" transatlantic service to link London and New York daily during the peak summer period from May to September and four times a week during the remainder of the year. This was to be marketed as Skytrain for £32.50 one-way in winter and £37.50 in summer. Two Boeing 707-138Bs were acquired from the administrators of British Eagle in 1969. Both were operated by Qantas when new.

They were subsequently purchased by Kleinwort Benson, which had leased them to British Eagle until its demise in November 1968. These aircraft were earmarked for Skytrain. Laker's original Skytrain application assumed a 62.9% break-even load factor. This meant that the airline needed to sell 100 out of 158 seats at a single fare of £37.50 per seat on each flight to start making money with Skytrain. Sir Freddie announced Skytrain at a press conference at London's Savoy Hotel on 30 June 1971.

Laker claimed that there was demand for this kind of service and maintained that it would grow the total number of passengers flying between Britain and the United States each year from 14m to 16m, rather than diverting other airlines' existing passengers.

Since approval for Skytrain was not forthcoming for several years, Laker Airways needed alternative work to keep its long-haul planes busy. Initially, both Boeing 707s supplemented the BAC One-Elevens on Mediterranean and Canary Islands routes, such as Gatwick – Palma de Mallorca and Gatwick–Tenerife. Both aircraft replaced Bristol Britannias on the airline's long-haul flights, an increasing number of which were affinity group charters to North America, primarily the US.

During summer 1970, Laker sought the UK and Australian authorities' permission to operate a series of affinity group charter flights to Australia. Following his request's refusal, he flew to Australia in early 1971 to discuss his proposal for 15-day inclusive tours from Australia to the UK, including full board at first class hotels for A$935, with the director-general of the Australian Department of Civil Aviation who doubled as Qantas's chairman. Freddie Laker’s visit did not succeed in convincing the Australian authorities of his proposal's merits as a result of lobbying from BOAC and Qantas, both of which were estimated to have lost £11 million in revenue due to competition from charter airlines on the Kangaroo route.

From December 1970, one of Laker's two 707s was used for a once-a-week low-fare service linking Luxembourg with Barbados on behalf of International Caribbean Airways, a joint venture between Barbados businessmen Norman Ricketts and Geoffrey Edwards, who enjoyed the support of the Barbados government, and Laker Airways. Laker Airways initially held a 33% stake in International Caribbean. The aircraft Laker Airways allocated to International Caribbean Airways sported International Caribbean as well as the Barbadian flag on both sides of the forward fuselage in place of Laker and the Union Flag featured by the company's other aircraft. In addition to the weekly Luxembourg–Barbados schedule, which subsequently became twice weekly and was extended to London Gatwick, this aircraft operated regular charters from Canada and West Germany to Barbados. In January 1975, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) designated International Caribbean Airways the flag carrier for Barbados. Laker Airways had taken delivery of a fourth McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 series 10 widebodied jet in 1976 in preparation for the launch of its daily London to New York Skytrain. This aircraft was the DC-10's second prototype, which the airline had acquired direct from MDC at a knock-down price. By that time, the work force had expanded to 1,000.

Skytrain was inaugurated between London Gatwick and New York JFK on 26 September 1977. It recorded a profit in excess of £2 million in its first year of operation.

In early 1979, the airline ordered a further two DC-10 series 10 widebodies as well as five longer range McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 series 30 widebodied aircraft.

Laker Airways expanded to Los Angeles (1978). The company acquired two-second-hand Boeing 707-351B narrow-bodied long-haul aircraft from Cathay Pacific to commence non-stop operations to the US West Coast prior to receiving the first of the McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 series 30 aircraft that were on order.

Following a public hearing, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) approved Laker's request to operate unrestricted Skytrain services at the beginning of July 1979. This enabled the airline to offer bookable seats, excursion fares and the carriage of cargo in addition to the original, non-bookable Skytrain fare from Gatwick to New York JFK and Los Angeles.

With the arrival of the series 30 DC-10s, Intasun owner Harry Goodman recognised that long-haul charters to new destinations were now available and approached Laker with a number of possibilities from the Caribbean to Florida. Eventually, Goodman chose Florida and Disney World charters were introduced to the UK market. The programme rapidly expanded to seven times weekly and was eventually converted into a Skytrain operation to Miami.

By October 1980, Laker introduced fully bookable Super Economy fares on all Skytrain services. These were approximately half its competitors' standard economy fares and significantly lower than those airlines' Super APEX  fares. The airline reserved about 60% of its scheduled seats for the new bookable fares. This move marked a major strategic shift in the company's fare structure.

Tampa, Florida, was added in 1981 from Gatwick, Manchester and Prestwick, following lobbying from Bob Beckman's client. By that time, the firm had sold both the older, shorter fuselage Boeing 707-138Bs and disposed of one BAC One-Eleven. This left it with 20 aircraft comprising 14 widebodies and six narrowbodies – 11 DC-10s, three A300s, two 707s and four One-Elevens, doubling the size within only five years. Over this period, the number working for Laker Airways and associated companies doubled again to 2,000.

During the 1981 summer period, Laker operated up to three daily frequencies each way between Gatwick and JFK and Gatwick and Miami as well as twice daily round-trips between Gatwick and Los Angeles. This made Laker the fourth biggest transatlantic scheduled airline between the UK and US as well as fifth biggest overall. By that time, the airline had carried over two million Skytrain passengers.

Widebody era
In November 1972, Laker Airways became the first airline outside North America to operate the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 widebody when it took delivery of a pair of new series 10 aircraft from McDonnell Douglas Corporation's (MDC) factory in Long Beach, California, via Japanese lessor Mitsui.

Simplified charter rules
On 1 April 1973, new charter regulations in the UK, the US and Canada replaced the complicated "affinity group" rules with simplified rules termed "Advance Booking Charters", popularly known as ABC. The following day, a Laker Airways McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 flew the world's inaugural ABC flight from Manchester to Toronto. Laker's first ABC passengers had paid £45 round-trip. The inaugural flight was operated under contract to Laker's Liverpool-based in-house package tour operator Arrowsmith Holidays, a group company since 1967. It was followed by similar ABC services from Prestwick and a three-times-a-week Gatwick–Toronto ABC operation. The latter was operated under contract to Lord Brothers, the airline's London-based in-house tour operator that had been part of the group since 1968 and changed its name to Laker Air Travel in 1974.

A third DC-10 series 10 widebody joined the fleet in April 1974 to maintain the airline's commitments in the ABC flights market. (Laker intended to allocate two DC-10s exclusively to Skytrain in anticipation of the start of daily services between Stansted and Newark later that year. This aircraft was eventually used to meet growing ABC commitments.)

The new ABC rules enabled Sir Freddie to build a successful ABC flights business across the North Atlantic over the next couple of years, making Laker Airways the market leader in transatlantic ABC flights. During the early to mid-1970s, the airline ran low-key advertising on hoardings and public transport in London, Manchester and other large British cities under the motto "Take a Laker".

Laker's transatlantic charters provided meals, movies (at the time, a new amenity), and a free bar.

The success of Laker Airways's transatlantic ABC flights resulted in an application to launch an Australian low-fare operation from Gatwick and/or Luxembourg to Sydney and Melbourne. Laker's application was dismissed by Peter Nixon, the Australian Transport Minister. Nixon stated that the UK–Australia scheduled air services market was to remain the preserve of BA and Qantas. This decision was the result of successful lobbying by Qantas, which had exerted pressure on its government to protect the long-established duopoly it shared with British Airways on the Kangaroo route under a joint revenue-sharing agreement. Nixon also maintained that the proposed service to only two Australian points would be discriminatory on people living in other parts of the country by denying them the benefits of low fares. These comments prompted Sir Freddie to retort that the Australian transport minister still thought the earth was flat, and that it had not come to his attention that Australia already had a number of regional airlines covering the whole of the country.

An advertising campaign featuring the slogan "I've got my name on every plane!" was developed in conjunction with a New York-based company. It was successfully launched during the Super Bowl VIII interval in January 1974. "Laker to London – the end of Skyway robbery" was the follow-on campaign. The success of these campaigns resulted in Laker carrying more non-scheduled UK–US passengers than all US carriers combined.

Despite attaining market leadership in the transatlantic ABC market, Sir Freddie considered this second best in the absence of his Skytrain service.

Plans for a new low-fare Australian service
In 1980, Laker Airways withdrew its application to run ABC flights to Australia. Instead, the airline proposed a scheduled low-fare service from London Gatwick with one stop. It was to be one flight a day in each direction using the airline's five DC-10-30 widebodies. In contrast to Skytrain, this was to feature a first class section called Pullman. It was to operate three flights per week each to Sydney and Melbourne respectively, and one to Perth.

The CAA took a negative view of Laker's application for a UK–Australia scheduled low-fare service and a rival application by BCal to launch a conventional, scheduled service between Gatwick and four Australian destinations via Colombo at four flights a week each way. It considered Laker's market growth forecast overoptimistic, its stimulation factors unreal, and its fares intentions vague. In the CAA's opinion, the Australians were unlikely to accept another UK airline without a reciprocal service from a second Australian carrier, and the traffic on the UK–Australia route would not support two additional carriers without a substantial reduction in service frequencies of the incumbent operators. (The CAA told BCal that it considered its proposal for a new, faster service to Australia superior to Laker's, and that it would therefore look favourably on its application if it wished to re-apply with specific proposals for a joint Anglo-Australian operation.)

Second designated UK carrier to Hong Kong
The UK government decided in 1979 to open the route between London and Hong Kong to competition. This was to be by a second British scheduled carrier to ease the shortage of seats passengers were experiencing at peak times on the ten-times-a-week monopoly service by BA from Heathrow.

A race ensued when BCal, Laker and Cathay Pacific, Hong Kong's de facto "flag carrier", filed their applications with the CAA in London.

Laker proposed a daily Skytrain linking Gatwick and Hong Kong via Sharjah to be operated with single-class, 380-seat McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30s. At the CAA hearing the airline proposed larger, higher capacity Boeing 747s as soon as this was justified by increased demand. The company tried to convince the CAA that its additional all-economy class discount service was the best option to alleviate the shortage of seats on this route. Its analysis showed the bottom end of the economy market was the most under-served segment because of the scarcity of low fares. The other airlines used Laker's analysis in support of their claims that Skytrain would flood the market with cheap seats that risked undermining profitability without doing anything to alleviate the shortage of premium seats. Laker retorted that low fares would stimulate the market by meeting untapped demand from people who could not afford to fly this route because of BA's high fares, rather than taking market share from competitors. It pointed to the success of its transatlantic Skytrain in helping create demand while maintaining that its rivals' proposals would do little to meet the unsatisfied demand for low-fare seats.

The CAA awarded a licence to operate unlimited scheduled services between London and Hong Kong to BCal, which had proposed running a conventional service from Gatwick via Dubai, using its growing fleet of McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 widebodies in a three-class configuration featuring a first and an executive class in addition to economy. BCal had also agreed to offer a number of low fares that would match the lowest fares Laker had proposed. The CAA rejected Cathay Pacific's and Laker's applications, clearing the way for BCal to become the second British scheduled carrier on that route.

However, Hong Kong's Air Transport Licensing Authority (ATLA) refused to endorse BCal because many felt upset that Cathay Pacific was excluded from one of the world's most lucrative routes. This caused a row between the UK and Hong Kong governments. Cathay Pacific began lobbying in the Crown colony as well as in the UK, stressing it had invested millions in the British economy at a time of high unemployment in the UK by placing large orders for Rolls-Royce RB211-powered Boeing 747s. The UK government allowed Cathay Pacific to join Laker in appealing to John Nott, the UK Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, against the CAA's award of a licence exclusively to BCal. The Secretary of State overturned the CAA's decision and opened the route to all three airlines without placing restrictions on frequencies of service. For Laker Airways this turned out to be a partial victory because the ATLA continued to refuse a reciprocal permit, without which Laker's service remained grounded.

Cathay Pacific commenced a thrice-weekly service between Hong Kong and London Gatwick via Bahrain on 17 July 1980 using a Rolls-Royce RB211-powered Boeing 747-200B ahead of BCal, which began a four-times-a-week London Gatwick – Hong Kong service via Dubai on 1 August 1980 using a McDonnell-Douglas DC-10-30.

Globetrain
Laker Airways planned to link its Gatwick – Los Angeles Skytrain with the proposed Gatwick – Hong Kong Skytrain across the Pacific via Honolulu and Tokyo to create the first daily round-the-world through service by a British airline in both directions. This was to be marketed under the trademark Globetrain.

Cathay Pacific was among airlines attacking Laker's plans. The established transpacific airlines were concerned that Laker was likely to create excess capacity, threatening the profitability as well as long-term viability of these routes. Sir Freddie said Cathay seemed concerned about sharing the Hong Kong – Tokyo route with a competitor because this route was the main source of profits for Cathay Pacific's Asian and transpacific operation.

Laker abandoned Globetrain due to its inability to obtain regulatory approvals.

Proposed Skytrain routes to Europe
In September 1978, Laker Airways became the UK launch customer for the twin-engined Airbus A300, short and medium-haul widebodied jet. The airline ordered 10 series B4 aircraft in a 314-seat single-class configuration to serve a network of up to 666 European Skytrain routes. The majority of the low-fare network was not going to touch the UK, making it the first pan-European commercial airline.

Laker's European Skytrain plans were opposed by BCal, which was keen to expand its European network beyond routes linking Gatwick with Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Amsterdam, Brussels and Genoa. BCal needed to develop its connecting traffic at Gatwick by growing the European network to include Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia and Southern Europe to help it increase loads on flights to Africa, South America and the US as well as improve profitability. BCal came up with its own proposal, Miniprix, to counter Laker. This alternative was less ambitious than Laker's. Excluding BCal's existing four European routes, it envisaged linking Gatwick with 20 additional points on the continent. Services were to be operated during off-peak times with BAC One-Eleven 500s and Boeing 707-320Cs. BCal was considering both the McDonnell Douglas MD-80 narrowbody as well as the Airbus A310 widebody as long-term replacements for its existing narrow-bodied aircraft on these proposed routes.

Dan-Air and Britannia Airways, the UK's leading charter airlines, feared that without reciprocal foreign regulatory approvals Laker would be forced to dump this additional widebody capacity on the European charter market, creating excess capacity that would collapse charter rates.

The CAA heard Laker's as well as BCal's and other UK independent airlines' proposals. It rejected Laker. It subsequently awarded two scheduled licences to Laker Airways, one for Gatwick – Berlin Tegel and the other for Gatwick–Zürich, following British Airways's decision to abandon short-haul routes it had been operating from Gatwick at low frequencies since the late 1970s and to surrender unused licences to the CAA. By the time the CAA awarded Laker these licences, the airline was experiencing financial difficulties and had to dispose of three A300 widebodies to cut costs by reducing the number of aircraft types as well as its overall size. Laker Airways intended to commence operations on both routes during the spring of 1982, operating two flights a day each way using spare capacity on its remaining BAC One-Elevens. The airline ceased to exist before the inaugural date.

Laker introduced a short-lived scheduled service between Manchester and Zürich during 1981, which it operated at one flight per day in each direction using a newly delivered A300 widebody. This route, the airline's only short-haul scheduled operation, had come about after British Airways's decision to abandon its loss-making Manchester–Zürich services. Laker's application to have BA's licence transferred to itself resulted in its becoming the UK flag carrier between Manchester and Zürich. The airline's subsequent withdrawal and its demise in turn resulted in Dan-Air becoming the UK flag carrier between Manchester and Zürich.

BCal began offering Miniprix fares on off-peak services on Gatwick–Amsterdam after it had obtained approval from the UK authorities and their Dutch counterparts.

Additional Skytrain routes to the United States
Laker Airways sought to strengthen its position as a transatlantic airline by applying to the CAA and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) for licences to serve additional US cities under the Bermuda II UK-US accord. Both the CAA and the CAB approved the application to commence daily Skytrain services from Gatwick, Manchester and Prestwick to Chicago, Detroit, Oakland, Seattle and Washington DC. The company did not have aircraft to use these licences immediately. Its deteriorating financial position did not let it add more aircraft. By the time Laker Airways went out of business, those licences remained unused. They were eventually allocated to other airlines.

Bankruptcy

Laker Airways did not have the financial strength to survive the early 1980s recession and competition by the established scheduled airlines. Swiss aviation enthusiasts' magazine Interavia had reported in a 1978 issue that Laker's issued share capital was £10,000. As per the airline's 1980 balance sheet, the paid-up share capital was £504,000. These figures compared unfavourably with BCal and British Airways, whose issued share capital stood at £12 million and £100 million respectively.

As long ago as June 1971, when Skytrain was first announced, it was revealed that Laker Airways had net assets of £1.68 million and tax equalisation reserves of £450,000. Although this amounted to over £2 million, it could not disguise the fact that Laker Airways was a financial minnow compared with most of the established flag carriers and BCal.

The weak financial position was underlined by the fact that 90 per cent of the share capital was held by Freddie Laker and the remainder by Joan Laker, a former spouse, while Laker Airways was a subsidiary of Laker Airways (Leasing), which in turn was a subsidiary of Jersey-incorporated Laker Airways (International). This had served the firm well since it allowed it to take advantage of lower taxes and more employer-friendly labour legislation in the Channel Islands. However, the fact that the airline's ultimate holding company was in an off-shore tax haven outside the jurisdiction of UK law increased lenders' risk to get their money back.

In addition to undercapitalisation, unsustainably high debts and weak finances, Laker Airways was not backed by any significant assets. The bulk of its fleet was leased, as was the maintenance hangar at Gatwick that also housed the airline's offices. The only financial backup that Laker Airways had was Freddie Laker's's stud farm and his personal wealth.

Economic climate
Both the UK and US were in recession in the early 1980s, characterised by negative/low growth, high unemployment, high inflation and high interest rates. During that period the company was expanding to sustain commercial success generally and that of Skytrain in particular. Laker Airways needed to position itself to take advantage of additional opportunities to expand its business to maintain its status as Britain's second largest independent airline and third principal long-haul operator. Eventually, the company borrowed at high interest rates. The high interest rates were a major cause for the increase in the firm's borrowing costs as well as its debts.

Although the Laker Airways fleet contained a greater proportion of modern widebodied aircraft than most of its competitors, which made it cheaper to operate and maintain, the airline felt the sudden tripling of the price of crude oil in the aftermath of the Shah of Iran's fall from power. Laker Airways needed to pay the high spot market oil prices because it could not hedge its future supplies by negotiating fixed-rate, forward purchases. Such financial derivatives were non-existent.

The airline attempted to protect itself against sterling-dollar exchange rate fluctuations by buying US dollars at a fixed rate. This was a necessity as most of its costs were in dollars whereas most of its income was in pounds sterling. The company's growing problems were exacerbated by wrongly anticipating the sterling-dollar exchange rate for the 1981/2 winter season. During all 1980 and the better part of 1981 the rate was 1:2. The pound could buy two dollars because sterling was kept high by Britain's North Sea oil exports and the importance these exports assumed against high crude oil prices. Laker Airways did not anticipate the speed of sterling's subsequent decline. This meant that it needed to pay more for dollars than it had originally budgeted, leading to an outflow of funds at a time of financial crisis.

Demise
The Skytrain concept was flawed, as it required high year-round loads to make money at discount prices, even though Laker Airways had lower costs and a simpler organisation.

The airline began to fail when Pan Am, a transatlantic competitor, decided in October 1981 to drop its lowest economy fares where it was in competition with Skytrain by up to 66%. Laker retaliated by introducing a discounted premium cabin branded Regency Class. Following the end of the 1981/2 winter peak, there was insufficient traffic to support four airlines competing across the North Atlantic between January and March. At this point, state-owned British Airways and TWA, Laker's other transatlantic competitors, dropped their fares by a similar amount. As a result, Laker's loads and cash inflow halved between October 1981 and February 1982. It has also been suggested that Laker experienced a downturn after passengers began avoiding the DC-10 due to the series of high-profile fatal accidents that befell the type at the end of the 1970s.

The final blow to Laker Airways came when British Caledonian (BCal) and other European operators of the DC-10 warned McDonnell Douglas and GE that if the companies moved forward with a rescue contract with Laker, they would cease all business with those companies. McDonnell Douglas and GE did not proceed with the rescue, and Laker Airways collapsed in the early morning of 5 February 1982 with debts of £270 million, the largest corporate failure in Britain.

Freddie Laker sued IATA member airlines British Airways, BCal, Pan Am, TWA, Lufthansa, Air France, Swissair, KLM, SAS, Sabena, Alitalia and UTA for conspiracy to put his airline out of business by predatory pricing. They settled out of court for US$50 million. BA reached a separate out-of-court agreement with Freddie Laker personally for £8 million.

In July 1985, BA agreed to contribute an additional $35 million on top of its earlier out-of-court agreement with Freddie Laker. The total amount contributed by all parties enabled Laker to pay off his outstanding debts of $69 million, permitted BA to proceed with its own privatisation, and saved the other airlines from potential bankruptcy.

Following Laker's demise, its former fleet was quickly re-allocated to other operators. These included two DC-10-10 widebodies that joined the fleet of British Caledonian Charter (BCal's charter division), four BAC One-Eleven 300 narrow-bodies BCal's seven One-Eleven 200s, and two Airbus A300B4 widebodies that were placed with Air Jamaica.

Incidents and accidents
On 17 August 1969, a BAC One-Eleven 320L (registration: G-AVBX) operating a charter flight from Klagenfurt, Austria, to Berlin Tegel, Germany, under contract to West Berlin package holiday company Flug-Union Berlin. The aircraft made an emergency landing at Hanover Airport because of an electrical fire in an aerial tuning unit in the forward cabin area behind the flight deck. The fire started when the aircraft was 30 nmi from Hanover, filling the cabin with fumes. This reduced visibility on the flight deck to 18 in. Forward vision was nil.

Using the emergency oxygen system, the captain began his emergency descent from FL250 under radar guidance from Hanover air traffic control (ATC), while the co-pilot depressurised the aircraft and attempted to open a side window to clear the smoke. The cabin crew were deprived of both their public address system and intercom with the flight deck during the descent. Due to lack of time before landing, emergency procedures were abandoned. Following the successful emergency landing, the aircraft came to a rapid halt clear of the runway. By the time the last of the 89 occupants (5 crew and 84 passengers) had evacuated the aircraft, the fire had burned through the pressure hull and was being fed by oxygen. There were no injuries. The fire was extinguished on the ground. Following the incident, the aircraft manufacturer issued several service bulletins (SBs) listing action to be taken as mandated by the UK's Airworthiness Requirements Board (ARB). These SBs were circulated to all One-Eleven operators. The ARB also issued a more general warning to all One-Eleven operators regarding the need to ensure that oxygen leaks do not create fire hazards, and that oxygen lines are routed away from potential fire sources.

As a result of this incident, the ARB also began to pay close attention to the fire resistance of aircraft fittings and furnishings due to their potential to form major hazards in oxygen-fed inflight fires. The flight deck crew, Captain Basil Bradshaw and First Officer Bernard Sedgwick, subsequently received the Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air, while the cabin crew were commended for their action during the emergency. The citation for the Queen's Award stated that "the crew displayed a high standard of airmanship in circumstances which could have had very serious consequences".

Other Laker Airways operations

 * Laker Airways was an airline based in the Bahamas to which Sir Freddie Laker lent his name and operational expertise. The airline was established in 1992 with financial assistance from Oscar Wyatt, a Texas oilman and business partner of Sir Freddie Laker. The fleet comprised two Boeing 727-200 Advanced narrow-bodied jet aircraft. According to the Official Airline Guide (OAG), in 1994 the airline was operating scheduled nonstop service between Freeport, Bahamas and Baltimore, Maryland, Birmingham, Alabama, Chicago, Illinois (via Chicago O'Hare Airport), Cincinnati, Ohio, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Greenville, South Carolina, Memphis, Tennessee, Raleigh, North Carolina, Richmond, Virginia and West Palm Beach, Florida. By 1995, the OAG listed nonstop Laker service between Freeport and these same US cities with the exception of Birmingham, Greenville and Memphis with new nonstop flights being operated between Freeport and Cleveland, Ohio and Hartford, Connecticut. Laker Airways (Bahamas) was wound up in 2005.
 * Laker Airways, Inc was a US-registered airline Sir Freddie Laker co-owned with Oscar Wyatt. The company commenced operations in April 1996 with a leased fleet of four McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 widebodied jets and 300 employees. Twice-weekly low-fare, high-quality scheduled services linking Fort Lauderdale in Florida with London Gatwick were inaugurated on 5 July 1996, followed by similar services linking Orlando with Manchester and Glasgow Prestwick. These flights featured an executive class with leather seats, seat back TVs and inflight catering marketed as Regency Class Service. A daily Miami–Gatwick service was to start in March 1997. Laker Airways, Inc ceased operations in 1998.
 * Laker Airways Limited was incorporated as a Company in England and Wales in June 2013 and was a division of a larger aviation training, recruitment and consultancy firm. The company was registered at offices near to Liverpool John Lennon Airport. The company was dissolved on 9 September 2014.

Fleet
Laker operated the following aircraft types at various times over the years:

 * Airbus A300B4
 * Boeing 707 (series −138B and −351B models)
 * Boeing 727-200 Advanced (Laker Airways Bahamas operation)
 * British Aircraft Corporation BAC One-Eleven (series −300 and −400 models)
 * Bristol Britannia (series −102 model)
 * McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10
 * McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30
 * Vickers VC10 (leased to Middle East Airlines and not operated by Laker Airways )

Legacy
Unlike Laker, the vast majority of low-cost airlines have limited themselves to short and midrange flights and shunned the long range market. Almost all attempts to enter the long range market with a low cost model have ended within a couple of years in either withdrawal or bankruptcy.

Sir Freddie Laker was an influence for Sir Richard Branson and his establishment of Virgin Atlantic.

At London Southend Airport is the Lakers bar & restaurant, named after the airline.

Notes and citations

 * Notes

 * Citations

title: Laker Airways


text:
2004 South American Summit

The 2004 South American Summit – the third of its kind, after earlier events in Brasília (September 2000) and Guayaquil (July 2002) – was held in Cuzco and Ayacucho, Peru, on 7 –9 December 2004. Officially it constituted the Extraordinary Meeting of the Andean Presidential Council (Reunión Extraordinaria del Consejo Presidencial Andino ) and was also billed as the Third Meeting of Presidents of South America (III Reunión de Presidentes de América del Sur).

The main item on the agenda was the signature, by heads of state and plenipotentiary representatives of 12 South American nations, of the Cuzco Declaration, a two-page document containing a preamble to the deed of foundation of the South American Community of Nations (or "South American Union"), uniting the region's two existing free-trade organisations – Mercosur and the Andean Community.

Ayacucho was chosen for symbolic reasons: it was there that Antonio José de Sucre, fighting under the banner of Simón Bolívar "the Liberator", defeated the last Imperial Spanish troops in South America on  9 December 1824.

While the organisation's exact nature and functions – and even its name – remain unclear, it aspires to evolve along the lines followed by the continental integration efforts of the European Union, rather than becoming a mere free-trade area. The initiative emerged – largely at the instigation of Brazil – in response to the failed negotiations of the Free Trade Area of the Americas. The FTAA process has been stalemated for more than 12 months in the wake of irreconcilable differences, largely along the geopolitical faultlines between Latin America and the Caribbean on the one hand and the United States and Canada on the other.

Participating nations

 * Argentina – Néstor Kirchner not attending
 * Bolivia – represented by Carlos Mesa
 * Brazil – represented by Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva
 * Colombia – represented by Álvaro Uribe
 * Chile – represented by Ricardo Lagos
 * Ecuador – Lucio Gutiérrez not attending
 * Guyana – represented by Bharrat Jagdeo
 * Paraguay – Nicanor Duarte not attending
 * Peru – represented by Alejandro Toledo
 * Suriname – represented by Ronald Venetiaan
 * Uruguay – Jorge Batlle not attending
 * Venezuela – represented by Hugo Chávez

Mexico (Foreign Minister Luis Ernesto Derbez) and Panama (President Martín Torrijos) are also attending the event, with nonparticipating observer status.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 2004 South American Summit


text:
European United Left

European United Left can refer to one of three political groups in the European Parliament:

 * European United Left–Nordic Green Left
 * European United Left (1989–93)
 * European United Left (1994–95)

title: European United Left


text:
I. M. Singer

I. M. Singer may refer to:

 * Isadore Singer (1924–2021), American mathematician
 * Isaac Singer (1811–1875), inventor of the Singer sewing machine

title: I. M. Singer


text:
Adesoji Aderemi

Oba Sir Titus Martins Adesoji Tadeniawo Aderemi (Atobatele I), alias Adesoji Aderemi KCMG, KBE (15 November 1889 – 3 July 1980), was a Nigerian political figure and Yoruba traditional ruler as the Ooni (King) of Ife (or Ilé-Ifẹ̀, as it is properly known) from 1930 until 1980. He served as the governor of Western Region, Nigeria between 1960 and 1962.

Adesoji Aderemi was known as a wealthy man and had a large family of many wives and children. One of his children was the civil servant Tejumade Alakija.

During the colonial era, the Oba Ooni gained a considerable amount of power due to the colonial policy of indirect rule and being labelled a first class Oba among traditional rulers in Yorubaland. The policy of indirect rule was used to ensure native awareness and consultations about colonial policies affecting the regions. The British leaned on existing native political structures and hierarchy, particularly the Nigerian traditional rulers, for political consultation and tax collection. Later on, the Ooni with the consent of the leading Yoruba political leaders used his position to close the gaps of exploitation of divisional differences among Yorubas and tried fervently to rally the Yoruba towards a common goal.

In 1962, the king acting as governor, used his power to remove the premier of the region, sensing the premier did not have the support of the majority members of the House of Assembly. The event escalated the political rivalries in the region.

Early life
He was born on 15 November 1889, during the turbulence of the Yoruba civil war to Prince Osundeyi Gbadebo of the Osinkola ruling house of Ile Ife and Madam Adekunbi Itiola of Ipetumodu, (she was his 19th and youngest wife). In the absence of his warrior father, who was on a war expedition; he was named Adesoji Aderemi, meaning "The crown has woken up," and "The crown consoles me," respectively. On Prince Gbadebo's return, Adesoji's older sister Ibiyemi, unable to contain her excitement of the news, had to be held back from initial physical contact with her war-weary and juju laden father. Until he had rid himself of his protective war attire by appeasing his gods, then was it safe to embrace his family. Prince Gbadebo being an Ifa priest, presented his newborn to his Ifa Oracle demanding to know what the future holds for the new baby Aderemi. The father was told to bow to his son. The Ifa predicted that baby Aderemi, was going to wear the crown of his ancestors, that his reign will be known far and wide, and he will come in contact with strangers in far away places.

Prince Gbadebo told his wife to get coral beads to dress his son as was customary for royalty. In the belief of the oracle, mother-Adekunbi went into protective mode, always washing Aderemi in herbs, until he outgrew her methods. His father died in 1897 when he was 8 years old. Having lost his father at an early age, he was raised by his mother. The emergence of Christianity dissuaded his mother from the traditional family worship of Ifa, hence his enrollment at the new local Christian primary school of St Phillips, Ife, as one of the first students in Ife to attend a local school in 1901.

The young Prince Aderemi had a vision. His objection to farming with his much older and beloved brother, Papa Prince Adeyemo, led to his enrollment at the Anglican primary school at Aiyetoro, Ile-Ife.

Ooni of Ife: 1930–1980
Prince Aderemi's wealth and exposure made him the clear candidate to rise to the throne of Ile-Ife. Upon the death of Oba Ademiluyi, his predecessor, he became the outstanding contestant for the throne.

On the 2nd of September, he became the 49th Ooni of Ife. He was widely dubbed the first literate Ooni. Oba Aderemi quickly acclimatised himself to his new environment, at 40, he was the youngest of the Yoruba Obas at the time. Oba Aderemi with the aid of the traditional Ife elders, (Obalufe, Obajio, Obaloran, Wasin, Obalaye, Akogun, Jagunosin, Ejesi), formed the administrative set up that transformed the ancient town in the next decade. Oba Aderemi championed Education during his reign as Ooni, which was the sentiment behind the foundation of Oduduwa College in January 1932. Oba Aderemi personally funded the construction of the Secondary School, a model institution at the time; Oba Aderemi believed that the surest way to facilitate and sustain modernisation is through education.

A great landmark of his reign pertaining education was the foundation of the University of Ife, which many attributed to Oba Aderemi's influence in the ruling Government, with the Ooni tenaciously proposing Ife as the ideal location for the foremost institution to be situated. Oba Aderemi constructed the main building of his palace, which remains a mainstay of the Ife palace to date - with its unique colonial-style. Ooni Aderemi served as the permanent chairman of the council of Obas from 1966 to 1980.

His reign as Ooni was remarkably peaceful, with his innovative ideas in business creating a pathway to wealth for a lot of indigenes, especially in the agriculture industry, where he was a business leader himself.

title: Adesoji Aderemi


text:
Cyrus Adler

Cyrus Adler (September 13, 1863 – April 7, 1940 ) was an American educator, Jewish religious leader and scholar.

Early years
Adler was born to merchant and planter Samuel Adler and Sarah Sulzberger in Van Buren, Arkansas on September 13, 1863, but in the next year his parents removed to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and soon he attended the public schools there, and in 1879 he entered the University of Pennsylvania, from where he graduated in 1883. Afterwards, he pursued Oriental studies in Johns Hopkins University, where he was appointed university scholar in 1884, and fellow in Semitic languages from 1885 to 1887. He earned the first American PhD in Semitics from the University in 1887 and was appointed instructor in Semitic languages and promoted to associate professor in 1890. He taught Semitic languages at Johns Hopkins from 1884 to 1893.

Career
In 1877 he was appointed assistant curator of the section of Oriental antiquities in the United States National Museum, and had charge of an exhibit of biblical archaeology at the centennial exposition of the Ohio valley in 1888. He was a commissioner for the world's Columbian exposition to the Orient in 1890, and he passed sixteen months in Turkey, Syria, Egypt, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco securing exhibits. For a number of years he was employed by the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, with a focus on archaeology and Semitics, serving as the Librarian from December 1, 1892 to 1905. In 1895, after years of searching, he located the Jefferson Bible and purchased it for the Smithsonian Institution from the great-granddaughter of Thomas Jefferson.

He was made lecturer on biblical archaeology in the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York, president of the American Jewish Historical Society, U.S. delegate to a conference on an international catalogue of scientific literature in 1898, and honorary assistant curator of historic archaeology and custodian of historic religions in the U.S. national museum.

In 1900, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.

Last years
He was a founder of the Jewish Welfare Board. He was president of Dropsie College for Hebrew and Cognate Learning from 1908 to 1940 and Chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. In addition, he was a founding member of the Oriental Club of Philadelphia. He was involved in the creation of various Jewish organizations including the Jewish Publication Society, the American Jewish Historical Society, the American Jewish Committee (also its president in 1929–1940 ), and the United Synagogue of America. Adler served a variety of organizations by holding various offices. For example, he was on the board of trustees at the American Jewish Publication Society and Gratz College, served as vice-president of the Anthropological Society of Washington, and as member of council of the Philosophical Society of Washington.

Adler married Racie Friedenwald of Baltimore in 1905, when he was 42. They had one child, a daughter named Sarah. From 1911 until 1916, Adler was Parnas (president) of Congregation Mikveh Israel of Philadelphia. He died in Philadelphia, and his papers are held by the Center for Advanced Judaic Studies at the University of Pennsylvania.

Works
Adler was an editor of the Jewish Encyclopedia and in collaboration with Allen Ramsay wrote Tales Told in a Coffee House (1898). He was part of the committee that translated the Jewish Publication Society version of the Hebrew Bible published in 1917. At the end of World War I, he participated in the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.

He was also a contributor to the New International Encyclopedia. His many scholarly writings include articles on comparative religion, Assyriology, and Semitic philology. He edited the American Jewish Year Book from 1899 to 1905 and the Jewish Quarterly Review from 1910 to 1940. He was besides contributions to the Journal of the American Oriental Society, the Proceedings of the American Philological Association, the Andover Review, Hebraica, Johns Hopkins University Circular and numerous reviews.

title: Cyrus Adler


text: Category:Personal documents

title: Category:Personal documents


text:
La vache qui pleure (album)

La vache qui pleure is the ninth album by Kate & Anna McGarrigle, released in 2003. It is named after the prehistoric bas-relief (stone carving) of La vache qui pleure near Djanet in the south of Algeria which is pictured on the album cover. Its title La vache qui pleure (French for The crying cow) may also be a joke with the famous French cheese label La vache qui rit (The laughing cow).

It is the sisters' second full album of French songs, following on from their 1980 album Entre Lajeunesse et la sagesse, while several of their other albums also included a few French songs.

The album does include one English song, "Sunflower", which is a setting of William Blake's poem "Ah! Sunflower". The same song is performed in French ("Ah tournesol"), as a straight translation of the original. Blake's poem is not acknowledged in the credits for either song.

Guest musicians on the album include Joel Zifkin, Lily Lanken (Anna's daughter), and Martha Wainwright (Kate's daughter).

In 2005, the album was given a European release on the Munich label, and a twelfth track, "La complainte du phoque en Alaska" which was written originally by Michel Rivard for Beau Dommage a Montreal based band, was added. That version is currently out of print.

Critical reception
Brendan Kelly, reviewer for Montreal Gazette, wrote on November 22, 2003: "La Vache qui pleure, like most McGarrigles albums, feels like it exists out of time. Some songs sound like they could have been recorded in the 1940s or yesterday."

In his review in The Guardian on April 15, 2005, Robin Denselow wrote: "This new set, with all but one song in French, is a nod to their French-Canadian roots. Kate plays guitars, banjo, piano and violin, Anna adds accordion and the occasional dash of synthesizer, and Martha helps out on harmonies. The production is more gutsy than in the past, the singing and playing are fine as ever, and the songs range from the thoughtful Ce Matin to Petites Boîtes, an unexpectedly refreshing reworking of the well-worn Little Boxes, the Malvina Reynolds song made famous by Pete Seeger."

Also on April 15, 2005, Andy Gill of The Independent wrote: "Presumably named in opposition to the synthetic connotations of the French processed cheese, La Vache Qui Pleure (Crying Cow) features folksy arrangements of Acadian fiddles, accordions and banjos, with the sisters' harmonies adding an Enya-esque gossamer quality to tracks such as "Petite Annonce Amoureuse" and "Sunflower (Ah Tournesol)", where the swelling and subsiding of the backing instruments is like the lapping of an ocean on a distant beach. There's a keen awareness of the plight of powerless outsiders, be they the homesick refugee of "Ce Matin", the natives of Michel Rivard's "La Complainte du Phoque en Alaska", lamenting the way their youngsters leave for the US, or the cow of the title-track, weeping for her lost calf. Most quirkily enjoyable is the reading of Malvina Reynolds' folk standard "Little Boxes (Petites Boites)", rendered as a lolloping cajun waltz of fiddle, accordion and guitars."

Track listing
All songs by Kate & Anna McGarrigle and Philippe Tatartcheff, except where noted.

 * 1) "Petite annonce amoureuse" – 3:58
 * 2) "Ah tournesol" – 2:58
 * 3) "Le bambocheur" (Kate McGarrigle) – 2:22
 * 4) "Hurle le vent" – 3:22
 * 5) "La Vache qui pleure" – 4:08
 * 6) "Rose blanche" (Kate & Anna McGarrigle, Ph. Tatartcheff, A. Bruant) – 4:52
 * 7) "Tant le monde" – 3:35
 * 8) "Ce matin" – 4:43
 * 9) "Dans le silence" – 3:32
 * 10) "Petites boites" (translation of "Little Boxes" by Malvina Reynolds and Graeme Allwright) – 3:36
 * 11) "Sunflower" (Kate & Anna McGarrigle) – 3:25
 * 12) "La complainte du phoque en Alaska" (M. Rivard) – 6:03 (this song only appears on the 2005 Munich release)

Personnel

 * Kate McGarrigle – vocals, harmony vocals, banjo, piano, guitar, accordion, synthesized flutes, violin, drum
 * Anna McGarrigle – vocals, harmony vocals, guitar, accordion, piano, banjar (seven strings banjo), synthesized flutes, synthesizer, keyboards, recorder, bass, omnichord, tambourine
 * Michel Pépin – guitars, bass, mandolin, drums, percussion, harmonica, Hammond B3 organ
 * Martha Wainwright – vocals, harmony vocals, Spanish guitar
 * Michael Jerome Brown – slide guitar
 * Jeff Hill – double bass, bass
 * Frédéric Grenier – double bass
 * Joel Zifkin – violin
 * Butch – drums, percussions on "Ah Tournesol", "Tant Le Monde", "Sunflower"
 * Marc Lessard – drums on "Rose Blanche"
 * John McColgan – drums on "Petite Annonce Amoureuse", "Ce Monde", "Dans Le Silence"
 * Marc-André "Boum Boum" Bellefleur – bass drums
 * Daniel Thonon – hurdy-gurdy
 * Lily Lanken – vocals, harmony vocals
 * Philippe Tatartcheff – recitation on "Hurle le vent"

title: La vache qui pleure (album)


text:
User talk:Poseidon^3

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! --Lst27 ( t a l k )  23:53, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * How to edit a page
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 * How to write a great article
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 * Manual of Style

You are invited to join Stanford's WikiProject!
ralphamale (talk) 22:36, 17 January 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Poseidon^3


text:
La Psychologie de l'Art

La Psychologie de l'Art (The Psychology of Art) is a work of art history by André Malraux. The book offers an explication of Malraux's philosophy of art via the history of Western painting.

It was originally published in three volumes: The Imaginary Museum (1947); The Artistic Creation (1948); and Aftermath of the Absolute (1949). In 1953 a revised, single-volume edition was published as The Voices of Silence. Stuart Gilbert translated all four books into English.

In France, Malraux's works of art history were touchstones of their time and exerted a major influence on (for example) Jean-Luc Godard in his own work of critical art history, Histoire(s) du cinéma.

title: La Psychologie de l'Art


text:
Category:Airlines of Italy

See also: List of airlines and List of defunct airlines

title: Category:Airlines of Italy


text:
Jacob Pavlovich Adler

Jacob Pavlovich Adler (Yiddish: יעקבֿ פּאַװלאָװיטש אַדלער; born Yankev P. Adler; February 12, 1855 – April 1, 1926) was a Jewish actor and star of Yiddish theater, first in Odessa, and later in London and in New York City's Yiddish Theater District.

Nicknamed "nesher hagodol", ("the Great Eagle", Adler being the German for "eagle"), he achieved his first theatrical success in Odessa, but his career there was rapidly cut short when Yiddish theater was banned in Russia in 1883. He became a star in Yiddish theater in London, and in 1889, on his second voyage to the United States, he settled in New York City. Adler soon started a company of his own, ushering in a new, more serious Yiddish theater, most notably by recruiting the Yiddish theater's first realistic playwright, Jacob Gordin. Adler scored a great triumph in the title role of Gordin's Der Yiddisher King Lear (The Jewish King Lear), set in 19th-century Russia, which along with his portrayal of Shakespeare's Shylock would form the core of the persona he defined as the "Grand Jew".

Nearly all his family went into theater; probably the most famous was his daughter Stella, who taught method acting to, among others, Marlon Brando.

Childhood and youth
Adler was born in Odessa, Russian Empire (now Ukraine). Adler's father, Feivel (Pavel) Abramovitch Adler, was a (rather unsuccessful) grain merchant. His mother, née Hessye Halperin, was a tall, beautiful woman, originally from a wealthy family in Berdichev. She became estranged from her family after divorcing her first husband (and leaving behind a son) to marry Adler's father. The marriage to a divorcée cost Feivel Adler (and therefore Jacob Adler) his status as a Kohen (priest). His paternal grandfather lived with them for some eight years; he was a pious man, and the family was much more observant of Jewish religious practices during the time he lived with them. However, according to Adler, the real patriarch of the family was his wealthy uncle Aaron "Arke" Trachtenberg, who would later be the model for his portrayal of roles such as Gordin's Jewish King Lear.

Adler grew up with one foot in a traditional Jewish world and one in a more modern, European one. His granddaughter Lulla Rosenfeld writes, "Of the haskala [Jewish Enlightenment] as an organized system of ideas, he probably knew little or nothing." His education was irregular: as the family fortunes rose and fell, he would be sent to cheder (Jewish religious school) or to a Russian language county school, pulled out of school entirely, or have a private tutor for a few months. He wrote that "the sum of my learning was a little arithmetic, some Russian grammar, and a few French phrases."

He grew up with both Jewish and Christian playmates, but also survived one of the Odessa pogroms around 1862. He played hooky; as a 12-year-old he started going to witness public floggings, brandings, and executions of criminals; later he would develop more of an interest in attending courtroom trials. At 14 he began working in a textile factory, and soon rose to a white collar job there at a salary of 10 rubles a month, which would have been decent even for an adult. Still living at home, he began to frequent the disreputable district of Moldovanka. His first brush with stardom was that he briefly became a boxer, known as Yankele Kulachnik, "Jake the Fist". He soon got bored with boxing, but not with his new connections to the "sons of rich fathers, attorneys without diplomas", etc. A good dancer, he became part of a crowd of young toughs who regularly crashed wedding parties. His local celebrity continued, with a reputation as Odessa's best can-can dancer.

He left the factory, becoming a raznoschik, a peddler; his memoir hints at back-door assignations with "servant girls and chambermaids"; by his own description, his life at this point was just a step from a life of crime. Through his uncle Arke, "a hot theater lover", he became interested in the theater, at first in the beauty of Olga Glebova and the cut of Ivan Kozelsky's clothes, but he had the good fortune to be in one of the great theater cities of his time.

At 17 he became the leader of Glebova's claque, was working as a copyist for lawyers, and going out to a theater, a tavern, or a party every night. He would later draw on his own life at this time for his portrayal of Protosov in Tolstoy's The Living Corpse. Over the next few years he had numerous love affairs, and was prevented from a love marriage with one Esther Raizel because his own dubious reputation compounded the taint of his mother's divorce. He survived another pogrom, but his family was financially ruined by the destruction of their possessions and the theft of their money.

In writing about this period in his memoir, Adler mentions attending and admiring performances by Israel Grodner, a Brody singer and improvisational actor who would soon become one of the founders of professional Yiddish theater. A song of Grodner's about an old father turned away by his children would later be the germ of the idea for The Yiddish King Lear. He writes that he would have become a Brody singer, like Grodner, except "I had no voice". This lack of a singing voice would be a major factor in the direction of his acting career: according to Rosenfeld, although Yiddish theater was long dominated by vaudevilles and operettas, "He was the only Yiddish actor to rely entirely on classics and translations of modern European plays."

Sanitar and Inspector
The outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War brought on universal conscription of young men. At his family's urging, Adler bribed his way into becoming a sanitar, an assistant in the Red Cross Medical Corps. He was selected (apparently on little more than his appearance) by Prince Vladimir Petrovich Meshersky to work at a German hospital in Bender, Moldova, dealing mainly with typhus patients. In his four months there, he became a favorite with the established Jewish families there, and earned a Gold Medal for Outstanding Achievement for his brief service to the Tsar.

Returning to Odessa, he got a job distributing newspapers. This respectable work required getting up at 6 a.m., not good for a carouser. Still, newspaper connection meant that he soon heard of one of the war's other effects: the many Jewish merchants and middlemen war brought to Bucharest were a boon to Abraham Goldfaden's nascent Yiddish theater there. Two of his Odessa acquaintances—Israel Rosenberg, a personable con-man, and Jacob Spivakofsky, scion of a wealthy Jewish family—had become actors there, then had left Goldfaden to found their own company, touring in Moldavia. Adler wrote them to urge them to bring their troupe to Odessa.

Adler managed to leverage a recommendation from Prince Meshersky and another from Avrom Markovich Brodsky—a businessman so successful as to have earned the nickname "the Jewish Tsar"—to get a job as a marketplace inspector for the Department of Weights and Measures, rather unusual for a Jew at that time. His mildly corrupt tenure there gave him good contacts with the police. These would soon come in handy for smoothing over certain problems of a young and unlicensed theater troupe when Rosenberg and Spivakofsky returned from Romania, penniless because the end of the war had meant the collapse of Yiddish theater in the provinces, and ready to start a troupe in Odessa.

Adler aspired to be an actor, but found himself at first serving the troupe more as critic and theoretician, making use of his now-vast knowledge of Russian theater. The first productions (Goldfaden's Grandmother and Granddaughter and Shmendrick) were popular successes, but Adler's own account suggests that they were basically mediocre, and his Uncle Arke was appalled: "Is this theater? No my child, this is a circus."

Acting career
Lulla Rosenfeld's remark that Adler "...rel[ied] entirely on classics and translations of modern European plays" does not quite tell the whole story. On one hand, he was also responsible for recruiting the Yiddish theater's first naturalistic playwright, Jacob Gordin, and he scored a great triumph in the title role of Gordin's Der Yiddisher King Lear (The Jewish King Lear), set in 19th-century Russia. On the other, until his 50s, he was not hesitant to take advantage of his prowess as a dancer, and even occasionally took on roles that called for some singing, although by all accounts (including his own) this was not his forte.

Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Russia
Adler wrote in his memoir that the passion of his future wife Sonya Oberlander (and of her family) for theater, and their vision of what Yiddish theater could become, kept him in the profession despite his uncle's view. When she was cast by Rosenberg opposite Jacob Spivakovsky in the title role of Abraham Goldfaden's darkly comic operetta Breindele Cossack, she pulled strings so that the role of Guberman would be reassigned to Adler.

His success in the role was cut short by the news that Goldfaden, whose plays they were using without permission, was coming with his troupe to Odesa. Goldfaden's own account says he came there at the urging of his father; Adler attributes it to Rosenberg and Spivakovsky's "enemies". Rosenberg, never the most ethical of men, withdrew his troupe from Odesa to tour the hinterland (soon, though, he would come to an accommodation by which his troupe would be an officially recognized touring company attached to Goldfaden's own troupe). (For greater detail on Adler's time with Rosenberg's company, see Israel Rosenberg.)

By his own account, Adler took a leave of absence from his job to travel with Rosenberg's troupe to Kherson, where he made a successful acting debut as the lover Marcus in The Witch of Botoşani. He overstayed his leave, lost his government post, and the decision to become a full-time actor was effectively made for him. Adler was unhappy that under Tulya Goldfaden there were "No more communistic shares, no more idealistic comradeship". Still, under this same Goldfaden regime he had his first taste of real stardom when people in Chişinău camped in the courtyards awaiting performances. Even the police seemed to have "fallen in love" with the troupe, dressing up the actors in their uniforms at riotous parties after shows, while trying on the troupe's costumes themselves.

Unsatisfied with the low pay, in Kremenchuk Adler led an unsuccessful actors' strike. A series of intrigues almost led to a breakup with Sonya, but ultimately led both back into Rosenberg's troupe and led to their marriage in Poltava. When this particular troupe broke up, the Adlers were among the few players to remain with Rosenberg to form a new one that included the actress who later became famous under the name of Keni Liptzin. In Chernihiv, Adler turned down the opportunity to act in a Russian-language production of Boris Gudonov. Around this time Goldfaden appeared again and, after using an elaborate intrigue to demonstrate to the Adlers that Rosenberg had no loyalty to them, recruited them to his own troupe, which at the time appeared to be headed for a triumphant entry into Saint Petersburg.

All that changed with the assassination of Tsar Alexander II. The mourning for the tsar meant there would be no performances in the capital; in addition the political climate of Russia turned sharply against the Jews. Goldfaden's troupe soldiered on for a time—to Minsk (Belarus), to Bobruisk where they played mainly to Russian soldiers, and to Vitebsk, where he and Sonya ended up having to sue Goldfaden for their pay, and left to rejoin Rosenberg, who was playing in a tent theater in Nizhyn. However, matters there proved even worse: Nizhyn soon fell prey to a pogrom. The troupe managed to avoid bodily harm, partly by convincing the rioters that they were a French theater troupe and partly by making judicious use of the money the Adlers had won in court from Goldfaden.

In Łódź, Adler triumphantly played the title role in Karl Gutzkow's Uriel Acosta, the first of a series of roles through which he developed a persona he would later call "the Grand Jew". After Łódź, they landed in Zhytomyr, under an incompetent investor/director named Hartenstein. They thought they had found "a quiet corner" of the Russian Empire in which "to make a bit of a livelihood", but in fact Hartenstein was simply running through his money.

The financial consequences of the collapse of their company were mitigated by a series of three benefit performances, in coordination with the local Russian-language theater company. Sonya returned to Odessa to give birth to their daughter Rivka; Adler stayed on six weeks in Zhytomyr and had sort of a belated apprenticeship with two Russian character actors of national fame, Borisov and Philipovsky. However, he returned to Odesa thinking that he would most likely leave theater behind.

Late in life, when he looked back at his years acting in Adler and Goldfaden's companies, Adler saw it as merely the "childhood" of his career. He describes his thoughts toward the end of this period, "For three years I had wandered in the cave of the Witch in the clown's rags of Shmendrick and what did I really know of my trade?... If someday I return to the Yiddish theater, let me at least not be so ignorant."

Returning to Odesa, he discovered that no one would employ him in any job other than as an actor. In 1882, he put together a troupe of his own with Keni Liptzin, and brought Rosenberg in as a partner. This troupe toured to Rostov, Taganrog, around Lithuania, to Dünaburg (now Daugavpils, Latvia). Aiming to bring the troupe to Saint Petersburg, they brought back their sometime manager Chaikel Bain. They were in Riga in August 1883 when the news arrived that a total ban was about to be placed on Yiddish theater in Russia.

The troupe were left stranded in Riga. Chaikel Bain took ill and died. With some difficulty, passage to London for the troupe was arranged on a cattle ship, in exchange for entertaining the crew. However, about this time Israel Grodner and his wife Annetta reappeared. Adler wanted to include them in the group headed for London. According to Adler, Rosenberg, who played many of the same roles as Israel Grodner, essentially told Adler "it's him or me". Adler attempted to convince him to change his mind, but insisted on including Grodner in the travel party: Adler considered him one of the best actors in Yiddish theater, a great asset to any performances they would give in London, while he felt Rosenberg lacked depth as an actor. He tried to get Rosenberg to come with them to London, but Rosenberg would not budge.

London
Of his time in London, Adler wrote, " if Yiddish theater was destined to go through its infancy in Russia, and in America grew to manhood and success, then London was its school." Adler arrived in London with few contacts. In Whitechapel, the center of Jewish London at that time, he encountered extremes of poverty that he describes as exceeding any he had ever seen in Russia or would ever see in New York. The Chief Rabbi of the British Empire at that time, Dr. Nathan Marcus Adler, was a relative. Adler's father had written him a letter of introduction in Hebrew, but nothing could have been farther from the rabbi's desires than to assist Yiddish-language theater. Nathan Marcus Adler viewed Yiddish as a "jargon" that existed at the expense of both liturgical Hebrew and the English necessary for upward mobility, and his Orthodox Judaism "could not endure so much as a blessing given on stage, for such a blessing would be given in vain"; further, he was afraid that the portrayals of Jews on stage would give aid and comfort to their enemies.

At this time, Yiddish theater in London meant amateur clubs. The arrival of professional Yiddish actors from Russia worked great changes, bringing Yiddish theater in London to a new level and allowing a modest professionalism, though never at much more than a poverty wage. Adler's memoir acknowledges many people who helped him out in various ways. Eventually, with the aid in particular of Sonya's relative Herman Fiedler—a playwright, orchestra leader, and stage manager—the Adlers and the Grodners were able to take over the Prescott Street Club. There they presented generally serious theater to audiences of about 150. Fiedler adapted The Odessa Beggar from Felix Pyat's The Ragpicker of Paris, a tragicomic play written on the eve of the Revolutions of 1848. Adler starred in it, in a role he would continue to play throughout his career.

Two months later, he played Uriel Acosta at the Holborn Theatre to an audience of 500, including the "Jewish aristocrats of the West End". The piety of the London Jews was such that they had to use an (unplayable) cardboard ram's horn so as to avoid blasphemy. Chief Rabbi Adler and his son and eventual successor Hermann Adler were present, and both, especially the younger rabbi, were favorably impressed. There were even mentions in the English-language press.

Playing to small audiences, on tiny stages, in communal troupes where all but the stars had day jobs, and playing only Saturday and Sunday (the pious London Jews would never have tolerated Friday performances), Adler focused on serious theater like never before. However, he and Grodner soon fell out: they wrangled over ideology and over parts, and their verbal duels boiled over into improvised stage dialogue. The Grodners ultimately left to do theater in a series of other locations, notably Paris, but eventually came back to London, where Israel Grodner died in 1887.

By November 1885, Adler had a theatrical club of his own, the Princes Street Club, No. 3 Princes Street (now Princelet Street, E1), purpose-built, financed by a butcher named David Smith. It seated 300; playing every night except Friday, he was earning about £3 s.10 a week, but with a fame well out of proportion to the meagre money. Many of the most prominent figures in Yiddish theater, including Sigmund Mogulesko, David Kessler, Abba and Clara Shoengold, and Sara Heine (the future Sara Adler), gave guest performances when they passed through London.

One of Adler's roles from this period was as the villain Franz Moore in Herman Fiedler's adaptation of Schiller's The Robbers, which introduced Schiller into Yiddish theater. On at least one occasion in 1886, he played both Franz Moore and the play's hero, Franz's brother Karl Moore: in the play they never meet.

In 1886, Adler's daughter Rivka died of croup; Sonya died of an infection contracted while giving birth to their son Abram; meanwhile, he had been carrying on an affair with a young woman, Jenny ("Jennya") Kaiser, who was also pregnant, with his son Charles. Depressed after Sonya's death, he passed up an offer to relocate to the United States, which was taken up instead by Mogulesko and Finkel. In winter 1887, an audience at the Princes Street Club panicked when they thought a simulated stage fire was real; 17 people died in the stampede. While the authorities determined that this was not Adler's fault, and the club was allowed to reopen, the crowds did not return; "the theater," he writes, "was so cold, dark, and empty you could hunt wolves in the gallery."

Adler's affair with Jennya continued; he also took up with a young chorus girl from an Orthodox Jewish family, Dinah Shtettin. His memoir is extremely unclear on the sequence of events, and hints at other affairs at this time. The memoir does make clear that the "hot-blooded" Jennya had little interest in a marriage, while Dinah's father insisted on a marriage, even though he despised Alder and made it clear that he doubted the marriage would last.

Coming to America
With the aid of a small sum of money from his distant relative the Chief Rabbi, Adler got together the money to travel by steerage to New York, with his infant son Abrom, Alexander Oberlander and his family, Keni and Volodya Liptzin, and Herman Fiedler, among others. Adler did not doubt that the rabbi was glad to see Yiddish actors leaving London. In New York, they promptly discovered that neither Mogulesko and Finkel at the Romanian Opera House nor Maurice Heine at the Oriental Theater had any use for them. They headed on to Chicago, where, after a brief initial success, the troupe fell apart due to a combination of labor disputes and cutthroat competition. The Oberlanders managed to start a restaurant; he and Keni Liptzin headed to New York that autumn, where she managed to sign on at the Romanian Opera House; failing to find a similar situation for himself, he returned to London, drawn back to the charms of both Dinah and Jennya.

He did not remain long in London. After some major successes in Warsaw, which was under Austrian rule, he returned to London in the spring of 1889, and then again to New York, this time to play for Heine at Poole's Theater. After an initial failure in The Odessa Beggar (he writes that the New York audience of the time was not ready for "tragicomedy"), he was a success in the melodrama Moishele Soldat, and "a more worthy success" in Uriel Acosta. This gave him the basis to bring Dinah to America. Their marriage didn't last, though the divorce was amicable: she remarried, to Siegmund Feinman. Adler fell out with Heine, initially over business; at this time Heine's marriage was also falling apart, and Sara Heine would eventually become Sara Adler. Adler went on the road with Boris Thomashefsky, who at the time was pioneering the touring circuit for Yiddish theater in America. They played in Philadelphia and Chicago, where word arrived of an opportunity to take over Poole's, Heine having moved on to the Thalia. Adler returned to New York, where he managed also to win Mogulesko and Kessler away from Heine.

New York
Renaming Poole's as the Union Theater, Adler attempted to produce the most serious Yiddish-language theater New York had yet seen in the Yiddish Theater District, with plays such as Scribe's La Juive, Zolotkev's Samson the Great, and Sinckievich's Quo Vadis. However, after Thomashefsky became an enormous popular success in Moses Halevy Horowitz's operetta David ben Jesse at Moishe Finkel's National Theater, the Union Theater temporarily to abandon its highbrow programming and competed head on, with operettas Judith and Holofernes, Titus Andronicus, or the Second Destruction of the Temple, and Hymie in America.

Adler was not content to continue long in this mode, and sought a playwright who could create pieces that would appeal to the Jewish public, while still providing a type of theater he could be proud to perform. He recruited Jacob Gordin, already a well-respected novelist and intellectual, recently arrived in New York and eking out a living as a journalist at the Arbeiter Zeitung, precursor to The Forward. Gordin's first two plays, Siberia and Two Worlds were commercial failures—so much so that Mogulesko and Kessler quit the company—but The Yiddish King Lear, starring Adler and his new wife Sara was such a success that the play eventually transferred to Finkel's larger National Theater. This play (based only very loosely on Shakespeare) played well with the popular audience, but also with Jewish intellectuals who until this time had largely ignored Yiddish Theater, ending for a time the commercial dominance of operettas such as those of Horowitz and Joseph Lateiner. The next year, Gordin's The Wild Man solidified this change in the direction of Yiddish theater.

Over the next decades, Adler would play in (or, in some cases, merely produce) numerous plays by Gordin, but also classics by Shakespeare, Schiller, Lessing; Eugène Scribe's La Juive; dramatizations of George du Maurier's Trilby and Alexandre Dumas, fils' Camille; and the works of modern playwrights such as Gorky, Ibsen, Shaw, Strindberg, Gerhart Hauptmann, Victor Hugo, Victorien Sardou, and Leonid Andreyev. Frequently the works of the great contemporary playwrights—even Shaw, who was writing in English—would be staged in New York in Yiddish years, even decades, before they were ever staged there in English.

Having already famously played Shylock in Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice on the Yiddish stage at the People's Theater, he played the role again in a 1903 Broadway production, directed by Arthur Hopkins. In this production, Adler spoke his lines in Yiddish while the rest of the cast spoke in English. The New York Times review of Adler's performance was not favorable: in particular his naturalistic acting style was not what audiences of the period expected in a production of Shakespeare. Some other reviews (such as that in Theater magazine) were friendlier; in any event the same production was revived two years later.

Lulla Rosenfeld writes that Henry Irving, the great Shylock before that time, played Shylock as "morally superior to the Christians around him... driven to cruelty only by their more cruel persecutions." In contrast, "Adler scorned justification. Total vindication was his aim." In Adler's own words, "Shylock from the first was governed by pride rather than revenge. He wishes to humble and terrify Antonio for the insult and humiliation he has suffered at his hands. This is why he goes so far as to bring his knife and scales into the court. For Shylock, however, the desired climax was to refuse the pound of flesh with a gesture of divine compassion. When the verdict goes against him, he is crushed because he has been robbed of this opportunity, not because he lusts for Antonio's death. This was my interpretation. This is the Shylock I have tried to show." After his two Broadway triumphs, Adler returned to Yiddish theater.

In the wake of the Kishinev pogrom, Adler went back briefly to Eastern Europe in summer 1903, where he tried to convince various family members to come to America. Although he was greeted as a hero, he was only partially successful in convincing people to leave; his mother, in particular, was determined to finish out her life where she was. (His father had died some years earlier.) He persuaded his sister Sarah Adler to follow him to America as her husband had died of heart disease in Verdun in 1897 and she was raising seven children on her own. She emigrated in 1905.

Returning to New York, he and Thomashefsky jointly leased The People's Theater, intending to use it on different nights of the week. Adler, exhausted from his Russian trip, was often leaving his nights unused, and Thomashefsky offered to buy him out for $10,000 on the condition that he would not return to performing in New York. Adler was so insulted that the two did not speak for months, even though at the time they were living across a courtyard from one another, and could see into each other's St. Mark's Place apartments. Adler decided to perform Tolstoy's The Power of Darkness, and decided that he would do his own translation from Russian to Yiddish. The play was a great success, the first successful production of a Tolstoy play in the U.S., and Thomashefsky was so obviously happy for Adler that their friendship was renewed. Adler followed with equally successful productions of Gordin's dramatization of Tolstoy's Resurrection and the Gordin original The Homeless.

In 1904 Adler had the Grand Theater built in what was to be the Yiddish Theater District at the corner of Bowery and Canal Street, the first purpose-built Yiddish theater in New York. His wife Sara had branched out to do her own plays at the Novelty Theater in Brooklyn, and the family had taken up residence in a four-story brownstone, with an elevator, in the East Seventies. (They would later move one more time, to Riverside Drive.) Around this time Lincoln Steffens wrote a piece saying that Yiddish theater in New York had eclipsed English-language theater in quality.

This golden age was not to last. The years 1905–1908 saw half a million new Jewish immigrants to New York, and once again the largest audience for Yiddish theater was for lighter fare. Adler hung on, but the Thomashefskys were making a fortune at the Thalia; plays with titles like Minke the Servant Girl were far outdrawing fare like Gordin's Dementia Americana (1909). It would be 1911 before Adler scored another major success, this time with Tolstoy's The Living Corpse (also known as Redemption), translated into Yiddish by Leon Kobrin.

In 1919–1920, Adler, despite his own socialist politics, found himself in a labor dispute with the Hebrew Actors' Union; he played that season in London rather than New York. A stroke in 1920 while vacationing in upstate New York nearly ended his acting career, although he continued to appear occasionally, usually as part of a benefit performance for himself, often playing Act I of The Yiddish King Lear: the title character remains seated throughout the entire act. In 1924, he was well enough to perform in the title role of a revival of Gordin's The Stranger, inspired by Tennyson's "Enoch Arden": the character is "a sick and broken man", so the Adler was able to integrate his own physical weakness into the portrayal. However, March 31, 1926, he collapsed suddenly, dying almost instantly.

He is buried in Old Mount Carmel Cemetery in Glendale, Queens.

Family
Adler was married three times, first to Sophia (Sonya) Oberlander (died 1886), then to Dinah Shtettin (m. 1887- divorced. 1891) and finally to actress Sara Adler (previously Sara Heine) (m. 1891), who survived him by over 25 years.

His and Sonya's daughter Rivkah (Rebecca) died at the age of 3. Sonya died from an infection contracted while giving birth to their son Abram in 1886. Abram's son Allen Adler (1916–1964) was, among other things, the screenwriter of Forbidden Planet. While still married to Sonya, Adler had an affair with Jenny "Jennya" Kaiser, with whom he had a son, stage actor Charles Adler (1886–1966).

Adler and Dinah Shtettin had a daughter, Celia Adler (1889–1979).

He and Sara Heine had six children: the well-known actors Luther (1903–1984) and Stella Adler (1901–1992) and the lesser-known actors Jay (1896–1978), Frances, Julia, and Florence. Jacob and Stella Adler are both members of the American Theater Hall of Fame.

His sister Sarah/Soore Adler and her seven children emigrated to New York in 1905. His niece, Francine Larrimore, Sarah's daughter, became a Broadway actress, who also appeared in films. He was the great-uncle of actor Jerry Adler.

Memoir
Adler's memoirs were published in the New York socialist Yiddish-language newspaper Die Varheit in 1916–1919, and briefly resumed in 1925 in an unsuccessful revival of that paper; his granddaughter Lulla Rosenfeld's English translation was published only in 1999. The 1916–1919 portion of the memoir gives a detailed picture of his Russian years. The 1925 portion gives a comparably detailed picture of his time in London, although with some evasions around the relative timing of his relationships with his wife Sonya and with Jennya Kaiser and Dinah Shtettin. It contains only a relatively fragmentary description of his New York career. In the English-language book of these memoirs, Rosenfeld attempts to fill the gaps with her own commentary.

Adler writes vividly and with humor. He describes the director Hartenstein as "a young man from Galicia with long hair and short brains, half educated in Vienna, and half an actor", and refers to the poor of Whitechapel as looking as if they "had come out of their mothers already gray and old." Of his early London years, he writes, "We played for a tiny audience, on a stage the size of a cadaver, but we played well, with a drunkenness of happiness."

In a small essay, "Shmendrick, My Mephistopheles", one of the last passages he wrote, Adler describes the last time he saw Shmendrick played, at a memorial for Goldfaden in 1912. Lamenting the choice of play for the memorial—"Goldfaden has written better things"—he nonetheless acknowledges, "that same bitter Shmendrick was our livelihood... I gritted my teeth. I called on the ghosts of Aristophanes, of Shakespeare, of Lope de Vega. I wept and swallowed my own tears... And I cursed the fate that bound me to him... Yet even as I cursed and condemned, the tears rose. For my whole life, my whole past, was before me on that stage... Poor weak first step of our Yiddish theater... I thank you for the happiness you gave us... I thank you Shmendrick—my beloved—my own."

title: Jacob Pavlovich Adler