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Uskmouth

Uskmouth (Aberwysg) is an area to the south of the city of Newport, South Wales.

Location
Uskmouth is effectively in the west of the village of Nash. It is at Uskmouth that the River Usk meets the Severn estuary.

Amenities
It includes part of the Newport Wetlands Reserve, a notable wildlife reserve , with reed beds and grasslands that attract breeding birds such as lapwings, redshanks, oystercatchers, little ringed plovers and ringed plovers, as well as visitors such as wigeons, shovelers, teals, shelducks and pintails, bitterns, hen harriers and short-eared owls. It is part of the Caldicot Levels.

Following storms in the autumn of 1986, a track of human footprints was discovered eroding out of the clays in the intertidal zone in front of Uskmouth Power Station. The footprints were found to contain peat deposits, allowing them to be carbon dated to 4200BC. At the time they were the oldest known human footprints in Britain, but in 2013 footprints made about 800,000 years ago were discovered in Happisburgh, Norfolk.

title: Uskmouth


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Sylva

Sylva may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Sylva (Snarky Puppy album), 2015
 * Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber, a 1664 work by John Evelyn
 * Sylva, a 1960 novel by Jean Bruller
 * Sylva, A Tale of Thirty Three Trees, a novel 2020

People with the given name

 * Sylva Ashworth (1874–1958), an American chiropractor
 * Sylva Kelegian (born 1962), American actress
 * Sylva Koscina (1933–1994), Italian actress
 * Sylva Langova (1921–2010), Czech actress
 * Sylva Lauerová (born 1962), a Czech writer and poet
 * Sylva Macharová (1893–1968), a Czech nurse
 * Sylva Stuart Watson (1894–1984), British theatre manager
 * Sylva Zalmanson (born 1944), a Soviet-born Jewish activist, artist and engineer

People with the surname

 * Buddy DeSylva (1895–1950), American songwriter
 * Carmen Sylva (1843–1916), German writer and poet, nom de plume of Elisabeth of Wied, queen consort of Romania
 * Marguerite Sylva (1875–1957), Belgian mezzo-soprano
 * Rene Sylva (1929–2008), American botanist
 * Timipre Sylva (born 1964), Nigerian politician
 * Tony Sylva (born 1975), Senegalese footballer
 * Vincent Da Sylva (born 1973), Senegalese basketball player

Places

 * Sylva, North Carolina, U.S.
 * Sylva (river), Russia
 * Sylva, Perm Krai, Russia
 * Lake Sylva, on the campus of The College of New Jersey, U.S.

Other uses

 * Sylva Autokits, a British kit car manufacturer
 * Sylva Foundation, a British tree and forestry charity

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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John Halama

John Thadeuz Halama (born February 22, 1972) is a former Major League Baseball pitcher. During his major league career, Halama played with the Houston Astros, Seattle Mariners (–), Oakland Athletics , Tampa Bay Devil Rays , Boston Red Sox , Washington Nationals (2005), and Baltimore Orioles. He bats and throws left-handed.

Houston Astros
Halama made his debut with the Houston Astros in 1998. Prior to that he had attended St. Francis College and Pitched for the Terriers from 1991 to 1994. Halama also attended and graduated from Bishop Ford Central Catholic High School in Brooklyn, New York in 1990.

Seattle Mariners
In midseason 1998, Halama was sent to Seattle along with Freddy García and Carlos Guillén in the same trade that brought Randy Johnson to Houston. Halama won 41 games for the Mariners in a four-year span, with a career high 14 victories in 2000. In 2001, Halama threw the first nine-inning perfect game in the history of the Pacific Coast League.

Oakland Athletics
In 2003, Halama went 3–5 in 35 games for the A's.

Tampa Bay Devil Rays
In 2004, Halama went 7–6 with a 4.70 ERA in 34 appearances, including 14 starts for the Devil Rays.

Boston Red Sox
Halama was signed by Boston as a free agent on December 17, 2004. After appearing in 30 games, Halama was released by the Red Sox on July 17, 2005.

Washington Nationals
Halama was signed by the Nationals on August 5, 2005, and made ten appearances for them, including three starts, before his release on October 2.

Baltimore Orioles
In 2006, he played his last big league season with the Baltimore Orioles, pitching to a 6.14 ERA over 17 contests.

Long Island Ducks
Halama pitched for the Long Island Ducks of the Atlantic League in 2007, leading the league in innings pitched with 167.1, He was later selected by the Southern Maryland Blue Crabs in the 2008 expansion draft.

Cleveland Indians
On June 5, 2008, Halama signed a minor league contract with the Cleveland Indians, and was assigned to the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons. He became a free agent at the end of the season.

Southern Maryland Blue Crabs
At the end of the 2008 season, Halama signed with the Southern Maryland Blue Crabs of the Atlantic League. There he went 8–1 with a 2.38 ERA. After his stint with Gwinnett, Halama rejoined the Blue Crabs in September 2009, and won two games, including the decisive game 5, in the first round of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball playoffs.

Atlanta Braves
On June 13, 2009, the Atlanta Braves purchased Halama's contract from the Southern Maryland Blue Crabs. He started 13 games for the Triple-A Gwinnett Braves, and had a 4–7 record with 90 innings pitched before his release on September 18.

Milwaukee Brewers
Halama signed a minor league contract with the Milwaukee Brewers in November 2009.

On March 16, 2010, Halama was released by the Brewers.

Return to Oakland Athletics
On May 23, 2010, Halama signed a minor league contract with the Oakland Athletics. He was released by the team in September.

Lancaster Barnstormers
Halama pitched for the Lancaster Barnstormers of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball. He was named to the 2012 Atlantic League All Star Team and was named the Starting Pitcher for the Freedom Division.

Retirement
Halama served as the pitching coach for the York Revolution, rivals of his former team, the Lancaster Barnstormers, for the 2013 season.

Major league summary
Spanning a career of seven-plus seasons in the Major Leagues, Halama compiled a 53–44 record with 469 strikeouts and a 4.60 ERA in 860.1 innings pitched.

title: John Halama


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Wikipedia:Featured article candidates/Seattle, Washington

For the current discussion, please see Featured article candidates/Seattle.

Seattle, Washington
Partial self-nom. We've been kicking around the possibility of nominating this for about half a year. I think it's at least very close. Most of what would normally be long lists has been either factored out or turned into prose. Lots of pics. As you can see from the enormous number of blue links, this leads to a rather dense collection of several hundred other Seattle-related articles, most of them far shorter but pretty decent in their own right. -- Jmabel | Talk 18:49, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)

 * I added the Mapit template (combines aerial, topographic, and street maps into one external link box), and fixed the latitude/longitude values listed in the article (they were switched). --[[User:Brian0918|brian0918 talk]] 19:11, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

BTW, I know that one of the things that constantly comes up in this process is references. I've added specific citations for the few statements in the article I thought might be controversial, and a rather thorough set of references for the city's history. Because the article "sits atop a pile" of other, more detailed articles, many of the detailed references are at one remove. However, if there are any particular statements that someone thinks are controversial and require a specific reference to substantiate them, just give the specifics and I can probably track those down. -- Jmabel | Talk 19:38, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)

Mild and conditional oppose (sorry, Joe!). First, I have to say I really like the article overall, and am very pleased at the hard work Jmabel and several others have done to give my old hometown a great and detailed article. My few objections are as follows. First, there are too many 1-line/1-sentence paragraphs: this is especially noticeable in the Utilities section, but they occur elsewhere also. Second, the top of the article is pretty cluttered with a TOC, taxobox, and two photos -- can at least one photo move down in the article? Third, while I admit that the article must of course be brief in many ways as an overview, I think it is occasionally too brief: several sections (the one on education, for example) read in many places much like a recitation of links to allow people to jump to articles with explanatory content...the sentences themselves offer too little information, I think, to make them easily readable (especially given the link density). Finally, the notes at the end of the article about Seattle's existence in TV, film, and novels are very nice, but a little too brief (the absence of Ridley Pearson jumped out at me...perhaps it's the only one, but I think it bears another look). All of these objections are exceedingly minor, I think, and I have every confidence that they will be fixed. Once Now that they are, consider me an enthusiastic supporter. :-) Jwrosenzweig 04:32, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I'll try to take on some of these. Let's see if I can list your issues, so that we have a chance to address them. Tell me if I'm getting any of this wrong.
 * too many 1-line/1-sentence paragraphs, especially in the Utilities section.
 * I've taken my shot at these. Some things were simply more natural as bullet-lists, so I've taken them that way. I added miscellaneous salient facts here and there to get slightly prosier style.
 * Clutter at top of article should be reduced.
 * I think I've dealt with this one now, tell me what you think. That Infobox is a monster, but it appears to be the same for all major U.S. cities. -- Jmabel | Talk 09:57, Dec 21, 2004 (UTC)
 * Education too much of a laundry list
 * I think I've dealt with this, you'll have to tell me if what I did is good enough to meet your standards.
 * Want more on representation of Seattle in popular culture.
 * In particular want mention of Ridley Pearson
 * I don't know Ridley Pearson's work, and our article on him doesn't mention Seattle, so Jay, if you can add what you think is relevant about him, it would be appreciated. -- Jmabel | Talk 08:01, Dec 21, 2004 (UTC)

General question (not just to Jay James): how unacceptable are bulleted lists? Some of these things (like hospitals) seem to me to be inherently lists, and the effort to make them prose just makes for dull clumsy prose instead of a clear, crisp list. We could say something about each hospital but this is already a longish article. -- Jmabel | Talk 09:57, Dec 21, 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't expect that there will always be something to say -- in such cases I think bulleted lists are fine. And I recognize the limitations of the ~40K ceiling.  But I do like very much the work you did to go beyond -- one example that sticks in my head is the paragraph on power in the Utilities section.  You provided several links while simultaneously offering just enough sense of history and importance to make me more interested in selecting those links.  Very well done! Jwrosenzweig 18:42, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

The thing with the link density: we've probably got articles on as good a percentage of what is notable in Seattle as on any one place. Note that almost none of these links are red. I don't see us wanting to lose many of these links, and the article is already about 37K up to 41K as I address these other issues; if we add much more prose, it's going to become too long to be featured, right? -- Jmabel | Talk 10:27, Dec 21, 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree. If anything, prose in this article should be cut down, no? --Lukobe 19:36, Dec 21, 2004 (UTC) (who has also worked on this article)
 * I don't know about others, but when a topic can't legitimately be split up any further (and I don't think Seattle can), I wouldn't object to an article that floats up around 50K or even more (eventually IE will get it sorted out, right? We have to hope so).  Granted, the general issue of "will a reader sit still this long?" still applies.  I can't speak for others though. Jwrosenzweig 18:42, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Object for now. For my sins, I haven't actually worked on this article. Currently, the sports section is just a list of teams - this could certainly be prose, and perhaps a place to mention the Kingdome. And the demographics section could stand to be something other than Rambot data. If I have time, I may try and fix these things myself. --Michael Snow 23:43, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I'll admit, I really don't care about professional sports. Not even a little. I'm not sure I could have named some of these teams, and I've lived here half my life. Is someone else interested in working on that part? -- Jmabel | Talk 04:59, Dec 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * I've reworked it now, and I see the demographics looks better too. I still think the article could still use some more overall polishing to improve the style, but I don't know if that's a specific enough concern to be considered actionable on a featured article nomination. In any case, things have improved enough that I won't formally object at this point. --Michael Snow 08:03, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Can someone explain to me: I see this has now been removed from the FAC page, and I believe I've met all the objections, but I see it is still listed on its talk page only as a Featured Article Candidate, not as a Featured Article. Has this been either accepted or turned down? Is it in limbo? Is there some further step I need to take? -- Jmabel | Talk 23:12, Dec 27, 2004 (UTC)
 * The man to ask, I think, is User:Raul654 - he usually knows about such things. I hope it's just a clerical error, since it looks to me as though the article is ready for FA (at least, after its seven days up it received comments from 5 users, none of whom objected to promotion), but I don't know the process well enough.  Our standards in terms of number of votes may be higher than 5, but if so I'd hope it could stay on the page and receive more attention. Jwrosenzweig 01:37, 29 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * It seems to have been moved to the archived nominations page, which would indicate it was turned down. I'm not an expert on the criteria for promotion either, but I do wonder based on Jwrosenzweig's comment whether it fell short of five users. Not counting Jmabel on the assumption that the nominator is not included in the count, I only find four - myself, Jwrosenzweig, Brian0918, and Lukobe. --Michael Snow 03:08, 29 Dec 2004 (UTC)


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Rastacap

The rastacap or tam is a tall (depending on the user's hair length), round, crocheted cap. It is most commonly associated with the pat as a way for Rastafari (Rastas) and others with dreadlocks to tuck their hair away, but may be worn for religious reasons by Rastafari. It is sometimes erroneously referred to as a "Tam", a different kind of cap loosely ancestral to the rastacap. Other Caribbean terms for the rastacap include: rastafar (sometimes with a silent -r), toppa, toppah, and simply cap or hat.

In construction, the rastacap is similar to the tuque, but much larger. Most commonly crocheted, the hat can also be knit, woven, sewn, or constructed in a number of other ways. Examples with sun-cured palm leaves woven into the hat exist; this yields a semi-rigid design which a skilled islander can form rapidly. Rastacaps range in size and shape, as well as uses. People with dreadlocks and non-dreaded people alike wear rastacaps for fashion, convenience, religion, socio-political statement, and a number of other reasons. Some Rastas also wear rastacaps and other forms of headdress as a religious headcovering. It may also be worn by health and food service and heavy machinery workers with long hair, for workplace safety reasons.

title: Rastacap


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Category:Australia geography stubs

See discussion page for criteria for removing stub tag.

title: Category:Australia geography stubs


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User talk:TheLastWord

You may coincidentally share the same IP address as that person. You might want to leave a message in User talk:AllyUnion with your logged-in name and let him know about this. Adam Bishop 18:51, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:TheLastWord


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Wheeling Suspension Bridge

The Wheeling Suspension Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the main channel of the Ohio River at Wheeling, West Virginia. It was the largest suspension bridge in the world from 1849 until 1851. Charles Ellet Jr. (who also worked on the Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge) designed it and supervised construction of what became the first bridge to span a major river west of the Appalachian Mountains. It linked the eastern and western section of the National Road, and became especially strategically important during the American Civil War. Litigation in the United States Supreme Court concerning its obstruction of the new high steamboat smokestacks eventually cleared the way for other bridges, especially needed by expanding railroads. Because this bridge was designed during the horse-and-buggy era, 2-ton weight limits and vehicle separation requirements applied in later years until it was closed to automobile traffic in September 2019.

The main span is 1010 ft from tower to tower. The east tower rests on the Wheeling shore, while the west tower is on Wheeling Island. The east tower is 153.5 ft above the low-water level of the river, or 82 ft from the base of the masonry. The west tower is 132.75 ft above low water, with 69 ft of masonry. Detailed analysis of the bridge was conducted by Dr. Emory Kemp.

The Wheeling Suspension Bridge was designated a National Historic Landmark on May 15, 1975. It is located in the Wheeling Island Historic District.

History
A charter was granted to the Wheeling and Belmont Bridge Company in 1816 to construct a bridge to extend the National Road (also known as the Cumberland Pike because it began in Cumberland, Maryland) across the Ohio River. Although the U.S. Congress authorized the National Road in 1806, and cities competing for that crossing included Wellsburg, Virginia and Steubenville, Ohio, that bridge connecting Wheeling with Belmont, Ohio was nevertheless completed. The National Road formally reached Wheeling on August 1, 1818, but then ferries took passengers and freight to the other section of the National Road which began in Belmont and continued westward. In 1820 Congress authorized the National Road's extension to St. Louis, Missouri.

Another attempt to charter and construct a bridge across the Ohio River was made more than a decade later. That began in state legislatures and ultimately succeeded in getting the bridge built using new technology. It also produced two rounds of important litigation in the United States Supreme Court, in 1849–1852 and again in 1854–56.

Technology and delays
Since 1820 Congress had spent much money to clear navigation obstacles from the Ohio River, which flows from Pittsburgh down through Wheeling (then in Virginia) to Cincinnati, Ohio and eventually reaches the Mississippi River at Cairo, Illinois slightly downstream of St. Louis, Missouri (which became a major inland commercial center). Goods and produce could thus ship fairly cheaply and quickly down the Ohio River and reach the ocean port of New Orleans, Louisiana. Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky had become a great proponent of internal improvements, in part because the Ohio River drained into the northern part of his state and contributed to the growth of Louisville (as did the Louisville and Portland Canal completed in 1830 to bypass the Ohio River's only major rapids). Both road and navigation improvements helped bring manufactured goods and people to Kentucky, western Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, etc., and as well as allowed produce and natural resources to reach eastern, southern and even international markets. However, President Andrew Jackson had a much stingier view of internal improvements than Senator Clay, preferring to leave their construction to private or individual state interests, if at all.

Meanwhile, ferrying the U.S. mail, as well as passengers and goods across the Ohio river at Wheeling to connect the two sections of the National Road proved cumbersome and expensive. Maintaining the (initially free) National Road also cost money, especially after floods in 1832 left debris, as well as destroyed shore facilities. In 1835 Congress (dominated by Jacksonian Democrats) gave existing sections to the adjoining states, in order to pass on those maintenance costs. In the interim, new steamboat technology helped goods move upstream as well as downstream, and both railroad and bridge technology had also evolved. Nonetheless, navigation on the Ohio River between Wheeling and Pittsburgh remained hazardous at certain times of year (because of ice and debris in winter and spring floods, as well as summer low water).

Pittsburgh and Wheeling both competed to become commercial hubs connecting east and west across the central Appalachian Mountains. To the north, the Erie Canal (completed 1825 between Buffalo, New York on Lake Erie and Albany, New York on the Hudson River) and the Welland Canal (completed 1829 connecting Lake Erie and Lake Ontario bypassing Niagara Falls and creating the St. Lawrence Seaway) proved a commercial boon even to cities some distance away (especially New York City as a seaport, but also Erie, Pennsylvania). Soon, Pennsylvania competed by subsidizing first a short canal ending at Pittsburgh, then railroads connecting Pittsburgh to Philadelphia, which had rail and water connections to New York City and was a major international port in its own right. In 1835, a new incline railroad connected Pittsburgh to Ohio valley produce and goods. The combination of Pennsylvania railroads and canals became known as the "Main Line". In 1846 Pennsylvania's legislature chartered the Pennsylvania Railroad to connect its state capital Harrisburg (which had many connections to Philadelphia) with Pittsburgh. While transappalachian commerce initially boomed in part because canals enabled one man, one boy, a horse and a boat to transport what had previously involved ten men, ten wagons and sixty horses (and the Pennsylvania route was shorter route for most Ohio valley goods and produce than the New York routes), toll revenues proved insufficient. Since 1844 Pennsylvania had been trying to sell its unprofitable investment.

A transappalachian route through Virginia could attract southern shippers. However, Virginia's legislature was dominated by plantation owners (from the coastal east and southern areas) who already had access to cheap river transport for many months every year. Meanwhile, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was chartered in 1827, reached Harpers Ferry in 1834 and soon out-competed the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal (which never reached Ohio) for commercial transport down the Potomac River Valley to Chesapeake Bay. The B&O proved a boon for Baltimore, Maryland. The B&O wanted to connect to Virginia, as well as the Ohio River valley through Parkersburg, but Virginia legislators repeatedly denied it permission to build a line along the Shenandoah and Kanawha valleys. Virginia instead subsidized first the James River Canal, then railroads (eventually, the Virginia Central Railroad into the Shenandoah Valley and the Virginia and Tennessee Railroad and Covington and Ohio Railroad across the Appalachians) through its higher Appalachian mountains (2200 feet in the proposed Virginia canal route vs the Erie Canal that crossed the Appalachians at 650 feet but much further north). Virginia's legislators wanted to direct its commerce towards its capital (Richmond) and its seaport (Norfolk) rather than toward Baltimore. However, Wheeling had become Virginia's second largest city by 1840, and its interests also lobbied to become a B&O terminus, linking the railroad to cheap river transportation. Especially after the B&O reached Cumberland, Maryland in 1842, railroad technology was out-competing the National Road (which had linked to the C&O Canal at Cumberland). The Virginia General Assembly in the 1830s and through the 1840s required the B&O to take a relatively northern route across the Appalachians in the then-Commonwealth and connect at Wheeling. The B&O finally acquiesced after 1847, its threats to move its transappalachian passage to Pittsburgh having proven idle and Pennsylvania having chartered the Pennsylvania Railroad.

While the Wheeling and Belmont Bridge Company languished for nearly two decades, in 1836, it managed to raise sufficient private funds to build a wooden bridge between Zane's Island (officially renamed Wheeling Island in 1902) and the Ohio shore. Nonetheless, a navigation channel still remained between Wheeling and that island.

Pennsylvania legislators for decades blocked federal legislation to authorize (much less subsidize) the proposed Wheeling bridge. In 1836, Federal engineers proposed a suspension bridge with a removable section to enable steamboat smokestacks to clear, but Congress tabled it. In 1838, the U.S. postmaster reported 53 irregularities in mail service around Wheeling between January and April. An 1840 postmaster's report urging a bridge to avoid such mail interruptions got lost. Another proposal requiring hinges on high steamboat smokestacks also initially failed. In 1844, a steamboat packet line began connecting Pittsburgh and Cincinnati (nearly bypassing Wheeling). As traffic on the National Road also languished, Virginia's congressmen finally abandoned their efforts to win federal funding for the Wheeling bridge in early 1847. That year civic boosters instead formed a new company to build the bridge, and the new officers requested proposals in May 1847. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad track to Wheeling was finally completed in 1853, the same year a packet line connected Wheeling and Louisville.

Construction

After these and other delays, in 1847 the legislatures of Virginia and Ohio jointly issued a new Wheeling bridge charter. Charles Ellet and John A. Roebling were invited to submit designs and estimates for a bridge over the east channel of the river to Wheeling Island. Ellett was the chief engineer of the Virginia Central Railroad and in 1853 would build a railroad over the Blue Ridge Mountains at Rock Fish Gap. The new Wheeling bridge would be of a suspension design, since Ellet and Roebling were the foremost authorities. It would also be ninety feet above low water. Their initial calculations relied on the highest smokestacks being about 60 feet, but stack height kept increasing, so the planned bridge came to impede the largest steamboats with high stacks. Ellet received the contract award in 1847 with a bid of $120,000 (Roebling's for a shorter double-span bridge was $130,000), and construction began the same year. The bridge was completed in 1849 for about $250,000.

Supreme Court litigation (1849–1852)
Because the relative legal status of the new steamboat and railroad technologies was unclear, as was the jurisdiction of the United States federal courts over bridges and navigable waters, the litigation concerning the first bridge to cross a major river west of the Appalachian Mountains had great effect. During the previous years, the United States Supreme Court had divided concerning the scope of the federal power in the Commerce Clause, as well as extent of concurrent state powers. In 1847, in U.S. v. New Bedford Bridge Company Justice Levi Woodbury on circuit duty had determined that no federal law defined obstruction of navigable waterways and upheld a drawbridge near the port, and Justice Samuel Nelson had done similarly while a justice of the New York Supreme Court.

The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (through its attorney general Cornelius Darragh) and Pittsburgh interests represented by Edwin M. Stanton and Robert J. Walker sought an injunction against the bridge from the U.S. Supreme Court justice supervising the geographical area, Robert C. Grier, who had been a Pennsylvania state judge in Pittsburgh and surrounding Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. Justice Grier was surprised at this use of equity, especially because it was first brought in the Supreme Court and not before a U.S. district judge. It was also begun on July 28, 1849 during the Supreme Court's summer 1849 recess. Pennsylvania's attorneys argued that the new bridge was a nuisance that obstructed the Ohio River (although anchored on one bank 100 feet above the ground). The Wheeling and Belmont Bridge Company's charter from Virginia required that it not obstruct navigation on the river, and Article IV of the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 labeled the navigable waters leading into the Mississippi and St. Lawrence Rivers "common highways" and required they be "forever free". The Pittsburgh and Cincinnati steamboat line operated new vessels with very high smokestacks which would be damaged by collisions with the bridge, and stopping in Wheeling to transship passengers and freight would be expensive for the company. Pennsylvania also argued harm to its "Main Line" toll revenues. While Virginia never finished its proposed canal and railroad system, the Pennsylvania system never was profitable. It became less so after the Wheeling route became easier, and would become even less used were the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad to construct a track on the bridge or its own bridge nearby. During the litigation voters wanted to sell it, but no deal was finalized.

The Wheeling Bridge Company, represented by Charles W. Russell and U.S. Attorney general Reverdy Johnson (supposedly in a private capacity, but who had denied Pennsylvania's request for his federal office's assistance) argued the bridge helped the U.S. mails (delayed during icy as well as high and low water periods) and also connected military posts. They also argued the public's right to cross the river, as well as Pennsylvania's failure to prove irremediable injury because it had not brought suit during the two years the bridge was under construction and technology also existed to lower steamboat smokestacks (as was done on a canal near Louisville, Kentucky crossed by much lower bridges). Meanwhile, Virginia attorney Alexander H. H. Stuart also tried to convince Pennsylvania's governor William F. Johnston that his state's arguments in this case (if ratified by the U.S. Supreme Court) could jeopardize Pennsylvania's bridges across the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. Other attorneys and engineers (including Ellett) approached the U.S. Congress and Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and Virginia state legislatures. Finally, the Hempfield Railroad was chartered to connect Wheeling and Pittsburgh.

Justice Grier held a hearing in Philadelphia on August 16, 1849, and on August 30 refused the requested injunction to remove the bridge. Instead, he referred the matter to the full court. That heard argument on February 25, 1850, as well as reviewed extensive depositions (361 printed pages). Rather than an opinion, on May 29, 1850, Justice Nelson (over a dissent by Justice Peter V. Daniel who would have refused jurisdiction, in which Chief Justice Taney joined) issued a one-page order appointing Reuben Hyde Walworth (whom President John Tyler had nominated to the Court but the Senate never considered confirming, and who was an expert in equity) as commissioner.

Walworth received considerable scientific and commercial evidence, including a report from U.S. Army engineer William Jarvis McAlpine. However, both parties were dissatisfied with Walworth's 770-page report, issued in December 1851. Pittsburgh was disappointed that Walworth refused to order the bridge removed. Virginia and Ohio interests complained because he found the waterway obstructed and recommended raising the bridge an additional 20 feet—which would cause enormous technical difficulties and additional cost. However, after reviewing both parties' exceptions, receiving another report from McAlpine and hearing more argument on February 23 and 24, the U.S. Supreme Court also refused to order the bridge removed, but instead amended the new required height to 111 feet. The court accepted the bridge company's proposal to study a removable portion as an alternative. Thus, Edwin Stanton won a nearly pyrrhic victory on Pennsylvania's behalf but the bridge remained standing.

Destruction, rebuilding, lobbying and Supreme Court round 2 (1854–1856)
On May 17, 1854 a strong windstorm destroyed the deck of the bridge through torsional movement and vertical undulations that rose almost as high as the towers. Its rebuilding prompted the 1856 litigation. Walworth's report undergirded the Court's decisions in both 1852 and 1856.

Justice Grier issued an injunction against the bridge's rebuilding during the court's normal summer break. The rebuilding continued anyway. Ellet's workmen made temporary repairs in eight weeks (although further improvements by William McComas would take another year). Meanwhile, the bridge company asked Congress to investigate whether the judge had been bribed (an investigation that was quietly dropped when the case resolved), and complained that the injunction violated both Congress's sovereignty and that of Virginia (which had authorized the bridge). Plus, the Ohio legislature petitioned Congress to save the bridge, which the Virginia and Indiana legislatures (and some dissident Pennsylvanians) joined. Through the efforts of Wheeling Congressman George W. Thompson and others, Congress passed a law that designated the bridge a post road before the Supreme Court's 1852 decision could go into effect, and that designation proved the key to the 1856 decision. Meanwhile, the Supreme Court heard a second set of legal arguments concerning the Wheeling Bridge. Justice Nelson then delivered the next opinion of the court, in December, this time upheld the bridge as an exercise of Congressional power over military and postal roads, despite Justice McLean's objection.

Consequences and precedent
In 1859 Ellett's partner William McComas made further improvements. Completion of the B&O Railroad to Wheeling in 1853, and competition from a new steamboat line connecting Wheeling with Louisville proved fatal to both steamboat companies, who soon dismantled their ships or sold them downriver for the Mississippi trade. Furthermore, additional bridges across the Ohio River were proposed for Parkersburg, Bellaire and Steubenville.

A truss pivot drawbridge across the Mississippi River between Davenport, Iowa and Rock Island, Illinois was completed in 1856, over the opposition of steamboat and other interests in St. Louis. They also brought suit, but in a lower court. That initial legal action (defended by lawyer Abraham Lincoln) did not reach the U.S. Supreme Court. However, a case concerning the collision of the disabled steamer Effie Afton and that Illinois/Iowa bridge would do so decades later, and be resolved in 1872

Civil War
During the American Civil War, Union forces generally controlled Wheeling, and the Wheeling Suspension Bridge was never blown up despite its strategic importance. Still, Confederate raids often targeted the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, because of its strategic importance to Union forces, and many smaller Virginia bridges were blown up and rebuilt. Loyal to the Union, Ellet and his son volunteered their services to the U.S. Navy, which used their engineering expertise in designing ironclad vessels, especially rams. Colonel Ellet, who reported directly to Secretary of War Stanton, led the United States Ram Fleet on the Mississippi River during the Battle of Memphis on June 6, 1862. Ellet died of his injuries on June 21, becoming the only Union casualty in what soon proved a crucial Union victory—Memphis surrendering by day's end, the eight-ram Confederate "Cottonclad River Defense Fleet" destroyed (with an estimated 180 Confederate casualties), and the Ellet rams continuing in service under his brother Alfred W. Ellet (who by war's end had become a Brigadier General).

The Restored Government of Virginia was created after the Wheeling Convention (heavily attended by representatives of counties served by the B&O railroad), and ultimately the state of West Virginia was recognized in 1863. Additional Supreme Court litigation concerning West Virginia's constitution would continue until 1871, and Supreme Court litigation concerning apportionment of the debt Virginia had incurred in subsidizing bridge and railroad improvements would not be resolved until 1915.

Later technological improvements
In 1874 William Hildenbrand oversaw additional improvements on the Wheeling Bridge. A 1953 report concerning the suspension cables found them either original or from the 1860 reconstruction. The deck stiffening truss is believed to be from the same period. Auxiliary stay cables were added in 1871–72 to a design by Washington Roebling and Hildebrand.

The bridge company sold the bridge to the city of Wheeling in 1927. Additional repairs were made in 1930.

In 1956, the deck was completely rebuilt, when the road was widened from 16.25 ft to 20 ft and the sidewalks correspondingly narrowed. The road and sidewalk were reconstructed with an open steel grating that reduces wind resistance, and rests on lightened steel floor beams.

Modern weight restrictions and issues

The bridge spans a distance of 1,010 feet (308 m) across the Ohio River and allows barges to pass underneath. It remains the oldest vehicular suspension bridge in the United States still in use and is listed as both a National Historic Landmark and Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.

In the early 1980s, the West Virginia Division of Highways restored the bridge. The bridge remains in active service, but with weight and height restrictions since it was designed before automobiles and trucks were invented. At the time of construction, a horse and buggy was the heaviest live load that would be expected. Currently, the bridge has a (per vehicle) weight limit of 4000 lb, making it unsuitable for trucks, buses, or other heavy vehicles.

On February 17, 2011, a vehicle driving at high speed lost control and crashed into the sidewalk panels on the bridge. The bridge was closed for four to five days, first for inspection, then to repair the panels, as well as other minor repairs. On March 2, 2013, a non-load bearing cable snapped, causing the bridge to be closed until the cable was repaired and detailed inspections were completed.

On March 23, 2016, the bridge was closed to all vehicle and pedestrian traffic after a Greyhound bus attempted to cross the bridge and damaged it. It was reopened to all traffic (within the height and weight limits) after WVDOH inspected the bridge. High vehicles could be subject to crosswinds on the bridge.

In May 2016, the Wheeling police department vowed to begin enforcing the two ton weight and vehicle separations limits on the bridge more strictly. Traffic is advised to keep at least 50 ft between vehicles. Additionally, traffic lights at both ends only allow a certain number of cars onto the bridge at one time.

On September 24, 2019, the West Virginia Department of Transportation indefinitely closed the bridge to vehicular traffic after continued public disregard of weight limit and safety signs. Earlier in the year, the bridge was closed for six weeks after a tour bus - which far exceeded the posted two-ton weight limit - attempted to cross the bridge, only to get stuck under a barrier. The bridge was deemed safe and reopened to traffic in August after officials from the Division of Highways installed a height barrier with hard restraints to attempt to eliminate such overweight crossings. In the time since, operators of additional vehicles over the weight limited continued to ignore the restrictions and have repeatedly driven on the bridge. The West Virginia Division of Highways is currently working on a long-term rehabilitation plan to sustain the bridge far into the future, in the meantime, the bridge remains open to pedestrians and bicyclists.

Wheeling mayor Glenn Elliott requested that the bridge be reopened to motor vehicles, but the Division of Highways denied his request, thus sealing its fate of remaining closed until a permanent solution can be developed against drivers who choose to ignore the limits on the bridge. Even if vehicular traffic is not restored, the bridge will be maintained and preserved. According to the WVDOH, several proposed methods of keeping careless drivers at bay, such as weigh scales and enforcement cameras, are not possible.

title: Wheeling Suspension Bridge


text: User talk:69.40.167.50

title: User talk:69.40.167.50


text:
USS Sea Fox

USS Sea Fox (SS-402), a Balao-class submarine, was a vessel of the United States Navy named for the sea fox, a large shark, also called the thresher shark, which frequents the coast of Europe and the Americas.

Sea Fox was laid down on 2 November 1943 at the Portsmouth Navy Yard in Kittery, Maine; launched on 28 March 1944, sponsored by Mrs. Robert N. Robertson, widow of Lieutenant Robert N. Robertson, who survived the sinking of USS Squalus only to be lost during the war as executive officer of USS Argonaut (SM-1). The submarine was commissioned on 13 June 1944.

First patrol: October–November 1944
Two months after commissioning, Sea Fox departed New London for Hawaii and duty in Submarine Division 282 (SubDiv 282). She arrived at Pearl Harbor on 11 September and, on 4 October, got underway on her first war patrol. On 16 October, she entered her initial patrol area near the Bonin Islands, and remained in the Bonin-Volcano Islands area through 25 October, hunting enemy shipping and serving on lifeguard duty for B-24 Liberator aircraft strikes against Iwo Jima.

On 26 October, she conducted her first attack and damaged an enemy freighter; then proceeded on to the Nansei Shoto in the Ryukyus. There, on 8 November, after firing 11 torpedoes in four attacks, she sank an engines-aft cargoman. Of the 11 torpedoes fired, several broached and one circled and passed over Sea Fox's conning tower. On 15 November, the submarine departed her assigned area and arrived at Majuro on 24 November for refit.

Second patrol: December 1944 – February 1945
On her second war patrol, 20 December 1944 to 5 February 1945, Sea Fox returned to the Nansei Shoto as a unit of Task Group 17.19, a coordinated attack group composed of her, USS Blueback (SS-326), and USS Puffer (SS-268). En route to Saipan to top off with fuel, the submarines and their PC escort picked up survivors of a downed Liberator. On 28 December, the submarines departed the Marianas for the Ryukyus; and, on 1 January 1945, Sea Fox reached her patrol area.

Nine days later, she made her only contact worthy of torpedo fire but, despite two attacks, was unsuccessful. Puffer, to which she reported the contact, later sank the target, Coast Defense Vessel No. 42. In February 1945, while undergoing refit at Guam, five of her crewmembers were killed in a Japanese ambush.

Third and fourth patrols: March – July 1945
Sea Fox's third war patrol, 8 March to 6 May 1945, saw her in the South China Sea–Formosa area. She made six contacts but was able to close and attack only one, a convoy of three merchantmen and four escorts. During that action, conducted in heavy fog on the morning of 1 April, she damaged one of the freighters.

That same day, USS Queenfish (SS-393) sank the "mercy" ship, Awa Maru; and, on 2 April, Sea Fox was ordered into the area to pick up survivors and wreckage to determine the type of cargo Awa Maru had been carrying. Sea Fox located no survivors but found bales of sheet rubber covering the area where the ship had gone down. She took aboard one of the sheets and continued her patrol.

The next day, one of Sea Fox's crew was accidentally shot by another crewman. Efforts to transfer the wounded man to a homeward-bound submarine were thwarted by rough seas, and the patient remained aboard for the duration of the patrol.

In mid-April, Sea Fox was off the northwest coast of Formosa where she encountered a shift in Japanese antisubmarine warfare (ASW) tactics. Patrol planes were numerous at night, precluding recharging. The planes, however, were relatively inactive during daylight hours, and Sea Fox surfaced and recharged accordingly.

On the night of 16–17 April, Sea Fox departed her patrol area. Progress toward Saipan was slowed by a casualty in the bow plane rigging mechanism on 19 April; but, on 26 April, she arrived in the Marianas, and she reached Pearl Harbor on 6 May. Refit took a month, and Sea Fox sailed on 7 June for her last war patrol. Assigned primarily to lifeguard duty during the 53-day patrol, she picked up nine Army aviators near Marcus Island and a tenth in the Nanpō Islands. On 29 July, she completed the patrol at Midway.

1945–1952
The war ended with the completion of refit, and Sea Fox headed toward Pearl Harbor for a two-week visit prior to getting underway for postwar duty with Submarine Squadron 5 (SubRon 5) in the Philippines. Based at Subic Bay, she operated in the Philippine area into 1946; then, on 12 January, got underway to return to the United States.

Sea Fox arrived in San Francisco Bay on 2 February. Overhaul followed; and in mid-May, she returned to Pearl Harbor where she rejoined Submarine Division 52 (SubDiv 52). During the remainder of the 1940s, she was deployed three times: to the central Pacific in the summer of 1946, and to the western Pacific in the winter of 1948 and in the fall of 1949. The end of the latter year also brought a brief assignment to SubDiv 13, but January 1950 saw her a unit of SubDiv 12. Six months later, the Korean War broke out; and Sea Fox's training exercises—mine planting, torpedo approaches, gunnery, and ASW—increased.

On 2 September 1951, the submarine sailed west. A six-month tour in the western Pacific followed during which she supported the United Nations' effort in Korea by providing services to the ASW training group and by patrolling in the northern Sea of Japan. In March 1952, she returned to the Hawaiian Islands to resume local operations and to prepare for a GUPPY IIA conversion.

1953–1970
Decommissioned on 15 October 1952 at Mare Island Naval Shipyard, Sea Fox completed conversion the following spring and was recommissioned on 5 June 1953. In August, she returned to Pearl Harbor and resumed operations—training exercises, special operations, and western Pacific deployments—as a unit of SubDiv 71.

Reassigned to SubDiv 33 at San Diego on 1 July 1955, she became flagship of the division on 1 August and commenced local operations off the southern California coast. A year later, she sailed west for another six-month tour with the 7th Fleet; and, from then until 1969, she continued to rotate between training operations out of San Diego and duty with the 7th Fleet in the western Pacific. From 1964, her tours in WestPac included support of the Allied effort in South Vietnam.

On 21 December 1968, Sea Fox returned to San Diego from her WestPac deployment. Local operations, overhaul, and training exercises followed then she completed her final WestPac tour in the summer of 1970. In November 1970, she was declared unfit for further service. She was decommissioned, her name was struck from the Navy List on 14 December 1970.

TCG Burakreis (S 335)
Sea Fox was sold to Turkey on 14 December 1970 at Hunters Point Navy Yard in San Francisco. The Turkish Navy renamed her TCG Burakreis, after the great Ottoman admiral Burak Reis. She sailed for her new home on 9 April 1971 from San Diego after conducting ASW training. She was commissioned on 8 August 1971.

In 1996, Burakreis was struck from the Turkish Naval rolls.

Honors and awards
As Sea Fox, the submarine earned four battle stars during World War II and four campaign stars for service during the Vietnam War. In 1964 and 1965 Sea Fox was twice awarded the Battle ready designation.

title: USS Sea Fox


text:
Criciúma

Criciúma is a city in the Brazilian state of Santa Catarina. At -28.6775°N, -49.36972°W, it is located 180 km south of Florianópolis, the state capital and around 900 km south of São Paulo. The city is the center of Brazil's flooring and home materials industry, and is the second-largest such center in the world.

City data

 * Foundation: January 6, 1880
 * Population: 217,311 (2020 estimate)
 * Area: 209,8 km2
 * Nearby cities: Siderópolis, Cocal do Sul, Morro da Fumaça, Maracajá, Araranguá, Nova Veneza, Forquilhinha, Içara

The city was founded on January 6, 1880, by Italian immigrants. It has an approximate population of 213,000 inhabitants, and an area of 209.8 km². In April 2004, Criciúma was affected by a tropical cyclone, a phenomenon unheard of in recent South Atlantic history, which caused some damage.

It is the Brazilian capital of coal and ceramic tiles, but also very strong in plastic, textiles (jeans), and chemicals.

Criciúma is 24 km inland from the Atlantic Ocean (Rincão beach) and around 40 km from the mountains of the interior of Santa Catarina state.

Criciúma is also the name of the city's football (soccer) team, which plays in the national league. They have won several championship titles, including a national championship in 1991 (Copa do Brasil). Their colors are white, black and yellow, symbols of the state mineral resources, mainly coal.

Several small towns lie around Criciúma forming a metropolitan area of 250 thousand people. The most important are: Içara (a major producer of honey), Urussanga, Nova Veneza, Siderópolis, Orleans and Araranguá.

The city is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Criciúma. Criciuma's cathedral is Catedral São José.

According to IBGE statistics for 2014, it has 211,369 inhabitants, being the main city of the Carboniferous Metropolitan Region, which has about 600 thousand inhabitants, besides being the most populous city of South Catarinense, the seventh largest in the state of Santa Catarina and the 22nd in the Southern Region of Brazil. Under the Unified Health System, the SUS, Criciúma houses more than 252 thousand registered. It is among the 100 municipalities in Brazil with the best Human Development Index (HDI), calculated as 0.788 in 2010, being the 76th most well-rated municipality in the country and the 14th best evaluated in Santa Catarina that year.

The city is an industrial center in several sectors, among them: confection, packaging, ceramic, plastic and disposable, metalworking, extraction of coal, civil construction and graphic material.

With headquarters in Criciúma, Rede Angeloni is the largest supermarket chain in Santa Catarina and the 10th largest in the country, with 27 stores spread throughout Brazil, the largest hypermarket in the network is located in Criciúma. In addition to having 3 malls, in the service sector - health and education - stands out with three hospitals, two 24-hour care units, the University of Extremo Sul Catarinense, Federal Institute of Santa Catarina and seven other colleges.

Known for being the Brazilian Capital of Coal and Ceramic Coating. In its subsoil it harbors one of the largest mineral reserves of the country. The Visitation Mine Octávio Fontana, allows a view of the historical evolution of the extractive wealth of the city. Colonized by Italians, the city also received Poles, Germans, Portuguese and Arabs at various stages of its development.

Among so many popular festivals that take place in the South, one of them is in Criciúma. The Festival of Ethnicities, which in the first editions was named Quermesse for being held in Nereu Ramos Square, next to St. Joseph's Cathedral, brings together all the ethnic traditions of the region and has as main objectives to promote the manifestations and to integrate the colonizers of Criciúma, thus passing on their cultural history.

Transportation
Criciúma is served by Diomício Freitas Airport located in the adjoining municipality of Forquilhinha and Humberto Ghizzo Bortoluzzi Regional Airport located in Jaguaruna.

Education

 * College Hermann Spethmann

Notable people

 * Valdomiro, football player
 * Patric, football player
 * Paulinho Criciúma, football player
 * Tonho Gil, coach and former footballer
 * Airton Souza, coach and former footballer

Twin towns – sister cities
Criciúma is twinned with:
 * 🇨🇳 Huaibei, China
 * 🇮🇹 Vittorio Veneto, Italy

title: Criciúma


text:
Committee of 100 (United Kingdom)

The Committee of 100 was a British anti-war group. It was set up in 1960 with a hundred public signatories by Bertrand Russell, Ralph Schoenman, Michael Scott, and others. Its supporters used mass nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience to achieve their aims.

History
The idea of a mass civil disobedience campaign against nuclear weapons emerged early in 1960 in discussions between Ralph Schoenman (an activist in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND)), and Hugh Brock, April Carter (both of the Direct Action Committee against nuclear war), Ralph Miliband, Alan Lovell and Stuart Hall. Schoenman approached Bertrand Russell, the president of CND, with the idea. Russell resigned from the presidency of CND in order to form the Committee of 100, which was launched at a meeting in London on 22 October 1960 with a hundred signatures. Russell was elected as president and Michael Randle of the Direct Action Committee was appointed secretary.

Russell explained his reasons for setting up the Committee of 100 in an article in the New Statesman in February 1961:

"The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament has done and is doing valuable and very successful work to make known the facts, but the press is becoming used to its doings and beginning to doubt their news value. It has therefore seemed to some of us necessary to supplement its campaign by such actions as the press is sure to report. There is another, and perhaps more important reason for the practice of civil disobedience in this time of utmost peril.  There is a very widespread feeling that however bad their policies may be, there is nothing that private people can do about it.  This is a complete mistake.  If all those who disapprove of government policy were to join massive demonstrations of civil disobedience they could render government folly impossible and compel the so-called statesmen to acquiesce in measures that would make human survival possible.  Such a vast movement, inspired by outraged public opinion is possible, perhaps it is imminent. If you join it you will be doing something important to preserve your family, compatriots and the world."

Many in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, including some of its founders, supported the Committee of 100's campaign of civil disobedience and in its first year it received more in donations than CND had received in its first year. Several of the early CND's activists, including some members of its executive committee, had been supporters of the Direct Action Committee and in 1958 CND had cautiously accepted direct action as a possible method of campaigning; but, largely under the influence of Canon John Collins, the CND chairman, the CND leadership opposed any sort of unlawful protest, and the Committee of 100 was created as a separate organisation partly for that reason and partly because of personal animosity between Collins and Russell. It has been suggested that this separation weakened the campaign against nuclear weapons.

The Committee's campaign tactic was to organise sit-down demonstrations, which were not to be undertaken without at least 2,000 volunteers pledging to take part. Many eminent people participated in the sit-downs but few of the 100 signatories took part in the Committee's activities. Demonstrators were required to adopt a discipline of non-violence. In a briefing document the Committee of 100 said, "We ask you not to shout slogans and to avoid provocation of any sort. The demonstrations must be carried out in a quiet, orderly way.  Although we want massive support for these demonstrations, we ask you to come only if you are willing to accept this non-violent discipline." Demonstrators were recommended to remain limp if arrested and to refuse to co-operate in any way until inside the police station.

At first, the Committee of 100 differed from CND only in its methods, and they had the same objectives. Within the Committee, however, there were different ideas about civil disobedience, direct action and non-violence. Bertrand Russell saw mass civil disobedience merely as a way of getting publicity for the unilateralist cause. Those from the Direct Action Committee were absolute pacifists (some of them Christians) who followed Gandhi, and they regarded direct action as a way of creating a non-violent society. Ralph Schoenman and others, including the anarchists who later led the organisation, saw direct action as a sort of insurrection that could force the state to give up nuclear weapons. These factions argued among themselves about whether non-violence was a matter of principle or just a tactic and whether the Committee should limit itself to demonstrations or adopt a more thoroughgoing anarchist programme. Nicolas Walter, a prominent member of the Committee, said later that it had been an anarchist organisation from its inception and that the hundred signatories were, in effect, a front.

1961
The Committee's first act of civil disobedience on 18 February 1961 was a sit-down demonstration at the Ministry of Defence in Whitehall, London, to coincide with the expected arrival of USS Proteus (AS-19) on the River Clyde. (Picture) Between 1,000 and 6,000 people took part. Somewhat to the surprise of the Committee, there were no arrests. At the next sit-down demonstration, on 29 April in Parliament Square, the police arrested 826 people. There were also marches and sit-downs against nuclear testing and demonstrations at the US and Soviet embassies in London and at the Polaris submarine base.

On 17 September, Battle of Britain Day, supporters blocked the pierheads at Holy Loch and the approaches to Trafalgar Square. (Picture) The September demonstration is regarded as the high-water mark of the Committee of 100. A week before the demonstration, the hundred committee members were summoned to court without charge under the Justices of the Peace Act of 1361 because they "incited members of the public to commit breaches of the peace" and were likely to continue to do so. The court bound them to a promise of good behaviour for twelve months; thirty-two, including Bertrand Russell, then aged 89, refused and chose to go to prison instead. It is estimated that 12,000 to 15,000 attended the demonstration despite the invocation of the Public Order Act, which effectively made it illegal to be in the vicinity of central London that day. Several thousand sat down and there were 1,314 arrests, but no violence from demonstrators despite allegations of police brutality.

The success of the September demonstration encouraged the Committee to move from symbolic sit-down demonstrations in London to mass direct action at the places where nuclear weapons would be deployed, and they planned simultaneous demonstrations on 9 December to walk on to air force bases at Wethersfield, Ruislip, Brize Norton, Cardiff to sit on the runways and to prevent planes from taking off, and street sit-downs in Bristol, Manchester and York. By this time the authorities had begun to take the Committee of 100 more seriously. The official response had escalated from prosecution for incitement to breach of the peace to prosecution for the much more serious offences of conspiracy and incitement to breach the Official Secrets Act. Six organisers, the "Wethersfield Six", were charged with these offences and five later imprisoned for eighteen months: Ian Dixon, Terry Chandler, Trevor Hatton, Michael Randle, Pat Pottle; and the sixth, Helen Allegranza, to twelve months. (Picture) Bertrand Russell said that he was equally responsible, but the authorities ignored him and concentrated on the six young, unknown Committee of 100 officers. 3,000 military and civilian police were mobilised at Wethersfield. 5,000 demonstrated there and 850 were arrested. The Wethersfield demonstration was regarded by many as a failure  and it was the Committee's last act of large-scale civil disobedience. There were recriminations within the Committee, one internal memorandum saying that its policies had turned it into "a public spectacle, a group isolated from the general body of public opinion and feeling." Herbert Read resigned from the Committee, saying that the action was "strategically foolish". The Committee was weakened by the imprisonment of its officers.

The force used by the police at sit-down demonstrations surprised many of the demonstrators, which, with the Committee's insistence on nonviolence and the use of pre-emptive arrests for conspiracy, discouraged many, and support dwindled. The Committee's plan to "fill the jails" by means of mass civil disobedience, and thus compel the government to respond to their demands, was frustrated by the authorities imprisoning a few important members and ignoring the rest. The harsh sentences on the Wethersfield Six "brought home to the Committee its inadequacy when faced with the might of the State," and some of the Committee's leaders were not willing to "fill the jails", mounting strenuous appeals against conviction or, in the case of Pat Pottle, going on the run.

1962–1968
By 1962, half of the original 100 signatories had resigned and had been replaced. The Committee was in debt and had to face the failure of its mass civil-disobedience campaign. It was dissolved and the campaign was decentralized, thirteen regional committees, each with a hundred members, becoming responsible for organizing demonstrations, with a co-ordinating National Committee. Of the regional committees, the London Committee of 100 was the most active and influential. A national magazine was launched by the London Committee in April 1963, published under the name Resistance from January 1964. Like CND, the Committee of 100 had begun with a self-appointed and unelected leadership, and, like CND, it faced pressure for greater participation by supporters. This re-organisation was intended to involve more people in decision making and to spread demonstrations throughout the country and had been anticipated in the creation of a number of subgroups in December 1961. Although Bertrand Russell opposed it, he wrote that "The Committee has found that its support, named and on file, is so extensive that regional committees are required to accommodate this strength," But supporters became exhausted by the number of demonstrations they attended and "neither London nor the regional committees had their full complement of a hundred."

In March 1962 Russell addressed a sit-down demonstration in Parliament Square against the sentences on the Wethersfield Six. All the 1,172 protesters were arrested, but there was a growing feeling that such demonstrations were becoming an end in themselves and would not now create a mass movement against nuclear weapons. (Contemporary research showed that public support for the unilateralist cause actually declined in the period when the Committee of 100 was most active. ) A sit-down of 7,000 outside the Air Ministry planned for the following September had to be called off because of lack of support, a "public assembly" being held instead.

To underline its opposition to Russian nuclear weapons as well as those of the West, the Committee held a demonstration in Red Square, Moscow, at an international congress of the World Peace Council in the summer of 1962 calling for the abolition of all nuclear weapons and attacking the Soviet system.

From 1962 onwards, the Committee became increasingly radical and extended its campaigns to issues other than nuclear weapons. Peter Cadogan, an officer of the Committee, said it was "trying to go in 12 directions at once", including campaigning for civil liberties in Greece, against Harold Wilson's failure to produce a promised Vietnam peace initiative and against siting London's third airport at Stansted. Diana Shelley, a member of the London Committee of 100, said that as the Committee adopted objectives other than nuclear disarmament it became "less non-violent". In 1963 Russell resigned, though he remained in sympathy with the early aims and activities of the Committee and was careful not to denigrate it publicly. Following his departure, the public image of the Committee deteriorated, many signatories also resigned and "the Committee of 100 ventured even further into the wilderness of libertarian politics".

Members of the Committee were responsible for the Spies for Peace revelations in 1963 about the Regional Seats of Government, a network of secret government bunkers, and later for the escape of George Blake from Wormwood Scrubs Prison.

The Committee's interest in Greek politics was sparked by the banning of a march by the Greek "Bertrand Russell Committee of 100" in Easter 1963, by the expulsion of some of the British Committee of 100's members when they attempted to join the march, and by the murder of Grigoris Lambrakis, a Greek MP and peace activist. Plans to protest against the London visit by King Paul and Queen Frederika in July 1963 were met by official attempts to prevent the demonstrations and draconian prison sentences on demonstrators. The government was criticized in the press for the severity of its treatment of the demonstrators and eventually there were embarrassing climb-downs. Some of the sentences were overturned on appeal and the Home Secretary, Henry Brooke, had to offer financial compensation. One of the demonstrators, Donald Rooum, proved that an offensive weapon had been planted on him and forced a public inquiry that criticized the police and led to the eventual imprisonment of three officers. But a nine-months sentence on Terry Chandler, secretary of the London Committee, was upheld on appeal. Diana Shelley said that the imprisonment of Chandler, "the force which had driven" the Committee throughout the summer, had a profoundly damaging effect. Four years after these events, following the 1967 military coup in Greece, a "non-violent invasion" of the Greek embassy resulted in prison sentences of up to fifteen months for Committee of 100 demonstrators.

The Committee of 100 was wound up in October 1968.

Name
According to Christopher Driver, the name was suggested by Gustav Metzger and Ralph Schoenman, who derived it from the Guelph Council of 100.

Legacy
Before the Committee of 100 came on the scene, civil disobedience on this scale was virtually unknown in Britain, although the researches of its advocates uncovered it as a strand of protest throughout the centuries. The Committee of 100, and comparable movements outside the UK (not least the Civil Rights Movement in the United States), made it a common method of social action, now familiar in environmental, animal rights and peace protests. However, the Committee's strict insistence on nonviolence is rare. The Committee also popularized a new method of organization derived from anarchism and hitherto unfamiliar to those in traditional political parties: without formal membership and based on decentralization and autonomous, self-selected "working groups" rather than elected executive committees.

Original signatories

 * Lindsay Anderson
 * Clare Annesley
 * John Arden
 * Margaretta Arden
 * Pat Arrowsmith
 * Ernest Bader
 * John Berger
 * Eric Boothby
 * Jack Bowles
 * Lord Boyd Orr FRS
 * John Braine
 * Doug Brewood Jnr
 * Oliver Brown
 * Wendy Butlin
 * Jane Buxton
 * April Carter
 * George Clark
 * Major CV Clarke
 * Una Collins
 * Alex Comfort
 * John Crallan
 * Elizabeth Dales
 * J Alun David
 * Shelagh Delaney
 * Francis Deutsch
 * Reuben Fior
 * Hilda Fitter
 * John Fletcher
 * Harold Foster
 * William Gaskill
 * Dorothy Glaister
 * Janet Goodricke
 * Michael Gotch
 * David Graham
 * Bob Gregory
 * Mary Grigg
 * Robin Hall
 * Nicholas Harding
 * Laurie Hislam
 * David Hoggett
 * John Hoyland
 * Martin Hyman
 * Alex Jacobs
 * Augustus John OM
 * Nicholas Johnson
 * Bill Kaye
 * Anne Kerr
 * Dr Fergus King
 * Rev RE Kirby
 * Michael Lesser
 * Ed Lewis
 * Isobel Lindsay
 * Christopher Logue
 * Alan Longman
 * Alan Lovell
 * David Lumsdaine
 * Hugh MacDiarmid
 * Pat McConnell
 * George Melly
 * Gustav Metzger
 * Bernard R Miles
 * Dr Jack Mongar
 * Dr John Morris
 * Roland Muirhead
 * John Neville
 * John Nicholls
 * Mike Nolan
 * Pat O'Connell
 * F O'Hanion
 * John Osborne
 * Colin Painter
 * John Papworth
 * Adam Parker Rhodes
 * Dr John Paulett
 * Malcolm Pittock
 * Joan Pittock
 * Inez Randall
 * Herbert Read
 * Heather Richardson
 * Mary Ringsleben
 * Ernest Rodker
 * EGP Rowe
 * Edith Russell
 * Ralph Schoenman
 * Michael Scott
 * Ivan Seruya
 * Teddy Seruya
 * Peter Digby Smith
 * RW Smith
 * Tony Smythe
 * Robin Swingler
 * Chris Warbis
 * Zebedee Winzer
 * Will Warren
 * Barbara Webb
 * Dr W Weinberg
 * Arnold Wesker
 * Alan White
 * Shifley Wood
 * Biddy Youngday
 * Alastair Yule

Many of the original signatories were later replaced. The list did not include its president, Bertrand Russell, the original officers, Helen Allegranza, Terry Chandler, Ian Dixon, Trevor Hatton, Pat Pottle and Michael Randle, or the later officers, Brian McGee, Jon Tinker, Peter Moule, William Hetherington or Peter Cadogan.

title: Committee of 100 (United Kingdom)


text: User talk:193.188.105.9

title: User talk:193.188.105.9


text:
Aganisia

Aganisia is a small South American genus in the orchid family (Orchidaceae), subfamily Epidendroideae.

The genus was named after the Greek word ‘agnos’ (gratitude), perhaps referring to the sweet scent of its flowers.

These dwarf, epiphytic climbing orchids occur in mountainous or savanna forests and alongside rivers in Trinidad, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname and Peru.

Aganisia produce pseudobulbs and small flowers produced from a creeping rhizome. These flowers generally reach 4 cm in width. Their color varies from a rose-tinted violet to a blue-tinted violet. The flower has a short column foot and an elongate stipe.

They are rarely cultivated.

Species
Four species are currently recognized (May 2014):

 * Aganisia cyanea (Lindl.) Rchb.f. - Blue orchid - Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Brazil
 * Aganisia fimbriata Rchb.f. - Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Guyana, Suriname
 * Aganisia pulchella Lindl. - Trinidad, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Venezuela, Brazil
 * Aganisia rosariana (V.P.Castro & J.B.F.Silva) F.Barros & L.R.S.Guim. - Brazil (Rondônia)

Intergeneric Hybrids

 * xDownsara. = Aganisia x Batemannia x Otostylis x Zygosepalum
 * xHamelwellsara = Aganisia x Batemannianax Otostylis x Zygopetalum x Zygosepalum
 * xMauriceara = Aganisia x Batemanniana x Pabstia x Promenaea x Otostylis x Zygopetalum x Zygosepalum
 * xOtonisia = Aganisia x Otostylis
 * xZygonisia  = Aganisia x Zygopetalum

title: Aganisia


text:
Talk:Mahangu

 * I beleive this should be merged with millet or a separate article on Pearl millet. We do not generally have articles on each language's name for a thing, we have one article under the English name. What language is this word in, by the way? Rmhermen 18:58, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't know what language it comes from, but the word appears to be used in Namibian English. Kappa 01:13, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Is started to do the merge, but then backed reverted my changes, because I couldn't cleanly fit most of this information into pearl millet, but it seems a shame to throw away good material. As an alternative, I'm thinking about moving this article to Pearl millet in Namibia, and redirect mahangu to pearl millet.  What do you think? — Pekinensis 20:34, 9 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Moving to "Pearl millet in Namibia" may be the best alternative. Merging with "Pearl Millet" would result in a misbalance of information, requiring extensive addition of information to "pearl millet" to give a more balanced perspective. 14 Dec 2005

 * Mahangu's word is associated with the local languange Oshiwambo/Oshindonga of northern Namibia and southern Angola. It is a more commonly grown and consumed in Namibia, due to its drier climate, as compared to Angola. Merging the entry with Pearl Millet would be most practical, maybe with an expansion with the contents of this entry, since someone has taken the time and energy making a separate entry.

 * It seems to be common practice to add a section in the main article under a separate subheading in cases like this. I don't see any reason not to merge this into Pearl millet. Waitak 10:17, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mahangu


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Pawtucket Canal

Completed in 1796, the Pawtucket Canal was originally built as a transportation canal to circumvent the Pawtucket Falls of the Merrimack River in East Chelmsford, Massachusetts. In the early 1820s it became a major component of the Lowell power canal system. with the founding of the textile industry at what became Lowell.

The Pawtucket Falls are a mile long series of falls and rapids over which the Merrimack River drops 32 feet. The falls hampered the shipment of inland goods, mostly lumber, to the mouth of the Merrimack and Newburyport, Massachusetts. Newburyport was then one of the largest shipbuilding centers in New England, and a steady supply of wood from New Hampshire was critical to its industry.

The original canal was built by wealthy Boston merchants who formed a limited liability corporation called the Proprietors of Locks and Canals, one of the first of its kind in the United States. However, within a decade of its construction the Middlesex Canal was completed, connecting the Merrimack directly with Boston, Massachusetts. Bringing goods directly to Boston was more advantageous for merchants, and the Pawtucket Canal fell out of favor for inland transport.

The investors in the Boston Manufacturing Company having successfully built upon Francis Cabot Lowell and Paul Moody's work in building a successfully integrated cotton mill at Waltham, Massachusetts on the Charles River were looking for a site that offered more waterpower and the Pawtucket Falls offered what they needed. In 1821 they bought the Proprietors of Locks and Canals and with it the water rights of the Merrimack River upstream from the Pawtucket Falls. The Pawtucket Canal was deepened to become a power canal, and the first of 5.6 miles of canals in the soon to be named City of Lowell, Massachusetts. The first canal built off the Pawtucket Canal was the Merrimack Canal, which powered the Merrimack Manufacturing Company, thus starting the Lowell experiment, and the first planned industrial city in the United States.

The canal is operated today by Boott Hydro, LLC.

authors: ಮಲ್ನಾಡಾಚ್ ಕೊಂಕ್ಣೊ

title: Pawtucket Canal


text: Wikipedia talk:What wikipedia is

title: Wikipedia talk:What wikipedia is


text:
Pyotr Andreyevich Tolstoy

Count Pyotr Andreyevich Tolstoy (Граф Пётр Андреевич Толстой; 1645–1729) was a Russian statesman and diplomat, prominent during and after the reign of Peter the Great. He was the ancestor of all the Counts Tolstoy, including the novelist Leo Tolstoy (September 9 [O.S. August 28], 1828 – November 20 [O.S. November 7], 1910) and Alexei Tolstoy the writer. His wife was Solomonida Timofeevna Dubrovskaya born 1660 and died 1722; he had two sons with her, Ivan (born 1685) and Peter (born 1680). Both his sons died in exile with him the year before his own death. He was, however, survived by many grandchildren: the family was recalled by the Empress Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great in 1760, and had all honors and land restored.

Background
Some historians assume Pyotr Tolstoy to have been an "okolnichy", while others consider he came from a "boyar" background. He served in 1682 as Chamberlain at the court of childless Tsar Feodor III Alekseevich, Tsar 1676–1682. On account of his family relationship with the Miloslavsky family, he miscalculated the strength of the tsarevna Sophia Alekseyevna, (September 17 [N.S. September 27], 1657 – regent of Russia (1682–1689) – July 3 [N.S. July 14], 1704), full sister of Feodor III and third daughter, also,  of Tsar Alexei I of Russia by his first wife, Maria Miloslavskaya and became one of her most energetic supporters, but contrived to join the other, and winning, side just before the final catastrophe.

Peter was the only son of Tsar Alexei I of Russia's second marriage (to Nataliya Kyrillovna Naryshkina), and therefore, was the younger half-brother of childless Tsar Feodor III and of Sophia, temporary regent of Russia. For a long time Peter kept his latest supporter at arm's length. However, in 1697, Tolstoy volunteered to go to Venice to learn Italian and ship-building, and Peter could not resist the subtle flattery implied in such a proposal from a middle-aged Muscovite noble.

Career
In November 1701, Tolstoy was appointed the first regularly accredited Russian ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, known as The Sublime Porte, and in this demanding role, he more than justified the confidence of the most exacting of masters. Even before Poltava, Tolstoy had the greatest difficulty in preventing the Turks from aiding the Swedes. When Charles XII took refuge on Turkish soil, Tolstoy instantly demanded his extradition. This diplomatic blunder only irritated the already alarmed Turks, and on 10 October 1710, Tolstoy was thrown into the Seven Towers, a proceeding tantamount to a declaration of war against Russia. On his release, in 1714, he returned to Russia, was created a senator, and closely associated himself with the omnipotent favourite, Aleksandr Menshikov.

In 1717, his position during Peter's reign was secured once and for all by his successful mission to Naples to bring back the unfortunate tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, (28 February 1690 – by death penalty authorised by one hundred twenty six members of the equivalent of the Russian Duma following the wishes of his father, 7 July 1718, aged twenty-eight), the son of Tsar Peter I whom he may be said to have literally hunted to death.

For this, Tolstoy earned the undying hatred of the majority of the Russian people; but Tsar Peter I naturally regarded it as an inestimable service and loaded Tolstoy with honours and riches, appointing him, moreover, the head of the Secret Chancellery, or official torture chamber, a post for which Tolstoy, nearly eighty years old by then, was by nature eminently fitted, as his vigorous prosecution of the Mons Affair (1724) made clear.

He materially assisted Aleksandr Menshikov to raise the empress consort, to become Catherine I, (deceased less than two years later in 1727), to the throne on the decease of Peter in 1725, and the new sovereign made him a count and one of the six members of the newly instituted Supreme Privy Council (Верховный тайный совет).

Tolstoy was well aware that the elevation of the grand duke Peter II, son of the tsarevich Alexei, grandson of Piotr I would put an end to his own career and endanger his whole family.

Tsar Peter II Alexeyvich, here above, was the son of tsarevich Alexei Petrovich "Romanov", executed at age twenty-eight, the widower at twenty-five of German Princess Charlotte Christine, sister in law of Emperor Charles VI of Austria. Peter II, grandson of Peter I of Russia, was Tsar of Russia aged twelve, for three years, and died aged fifteen.

Therefore, when Menshikov, during the last days of Catherine I, declared in favour of Peter, Tolstoy endeavoured to form a party of his own whose object it was to promote the accession of Catherine's second daughter, the tsarevna Elizabeth. But Menshikov was too strong and too quick for his ancient colleague. On the very day of Empress Catherine I's death (11 May 1727), Tolstoy, now in his eighty-second year, was banished to the Solovetsky Monastery in the White Sea, where he died two years later.

Pyotr Tolstoy is the author of a sketch of the impressions made upon him by Western Europe during his tour in the years 1697–1698 and also of a detailed description of the Black Sea.

Descendants
Not all the later family lineages of nobility bearing the last name of Tolstoy list Pyotr Andreyevich as their ancestor. However, it is among his direct descendants in the male line where we find all the known Tolstoy writers, among them Leo Tolstoy, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, and Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy (the former and the latter having notable descendants as well). There were a number of statesmen and soldiers descending from Pyotr Andreyevich, as Education and Interior Minister Dmitry Tolstoy.

His other notable descendants were such literati as the pioneering Russian philosopher Pyotr Chaadayev and Vladimir Odoyevsky.

title: Pyotr Andreyevich Tolstoy


text:
Ludwig Hassenpflug

Hans Daniel Ludwig Friedrich Hassenpflug (26 February 1794 – 15 October 1862), German statesman, was born at Hanau in Hesse.

Promotions
He studied law at Göttingen, graduated in 1816, and took his seat as Assessor in the judicial chamber of the board of government (Regierungskollegium) at Kassel, of which his father Johann Hassenpflug was also a member, in 1821 he was nominated by the new elector, William II, fustisrat (councillor of justice); in 1832 he became Ministerialrat and reporter (Referent) to the ministry of Hesse-Kassel, and in May of the same year was appointed successively minister of justice and of the interior.

It was from this moment that he became conspicuous in the constitutional struggles of Germany. The reactionary system introduced by the elector William I had broken down before the revolutionary movements of 1830, and in 1831 Hesse had received a constitution. This development was welcome neither to the elector nor to the other German governments, and Hassenpflug deliberately set to work to reverse it. In doing so he gave the lie to his own early promise; for he had been a conspicuous member of the revolutionary Burschen-schaft at Göttingen, and had taken part as a volunteer in the German Campaign of 1813.

Reactionary position
It is unnecessary to enquire into the causes of the change. Hassenpfiug by training and tradition was a strait-laced official; he was also a first-rate lawyer, and his naturally arbitrary temper had from the first displayed itself in an attitude of overbearing independence towards his colleagues and even towards the elector. To such a man constitutional restrictions were intolerable, and from the moment he came into power he set to work to override them, by means of press censorship, legal quibbles, unjustifiable use of the electoral prerogatives, or frank supersession of the legislative rights of the Estates by electoral ordinances.

The story of the constitutional deadlock that resulted belongs to the history of Hesse-Kassel and Germany; so far as Hassenpflug himself was concerned, it made him, more even than Metternich, the Mephistopheles of the Reaction to the German people. In Hesse itself he was known as "Hessens Hass und Fluch" (Hesse's hate and curse). In the end, however, his masterful temper became unendurable to the regent (Frederick William). In the summer of 1837 he was suddenly removed from his post as minister of the interior, and he thereupon left the elector's service.

Service outside Hesse
In 1838 he was appointed head of the administration of the little principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, an office which he exchanged in the following year for that of civil governor of the grand-duchy of Luxembourg. Here, too, his independent character suffered him to remain only a year: he resented having to transact all business with the grand-duke (king of the Netherlands) through a Dutch official at the Hague; he protested against the absorption of the Luxembourg surplus in the Dutch treasury; and, failing to obtain redress, he resigned (1840).

From 1841 to 1850 he was in Prussian service, first as a member of the Prussian Supreme Tribunal (the Preußisches Obertribunal) and then (1846) as president of the high court of appeal (Oberappellationsgericht) at Greifswald. In 1850 he was tried for peculation and convicted; and, though this judgment was reversed on appeal, he left the service of Prussia.

1848 Revolutions
With somewhat indecent haste (the appeal had not been heard) he was now summoned by the elector of Hesse once more to the head of the government, and he immediately threw himself again with zeal into the struggle against the constitution. He soon found, however, that the opinion of all classes, including the army, was solidly against him, and he decided to risk all on an alliance with the reviving fortunes of Austria, which was steadily working for the restoration of the status quo overthrown by the Revolutions of 1848.

On his advice the elector seceded, from the Northern Union established by Prussia and, on September 13, committed the folly of flying secretly from Hesse with his minister. They went to Frankfurt, where the federal diet had been re-established, and on the 21st persuaded the diet to decree an armed intervention in Hesse. This decree, carried out by Austrian troops, all but led to war with Prussia, but the unreadiness of the Berlin government led to the triumph of Austria and of Hassenpflug, who at the end of the year was once more installed in power at Kassel as minister of finance.

Retirement and family
His position was, however, not enviable; he was loathed and despised by all, and disliked even by his master. The climax came in November 1853, when he was publicly horse-whipped by the count of Isenburg-Wächtersbach, the elector's son-in-law. The count was pronounced insane; but Hassenpflug was conscious of the method in his madness, and tendered his resignation. This was, however, not accepted; and it was not until 16 October 1855 that he was finally relieved of his offices. He retired to Marburg, where he died on 15 October 1862. He lived just long enough to hear of the restoration of the Hesse constitution of 1831 (21 June 1862), which it had been his life's mission to destroy.

Of his publications the most important is ''Actenstücke, die landständischen Anklagen wider den Kurfurst/ir/ien hessischen Staatsminister Hassenpflug. Ein Beiträg zur Zeitgeschichte und zum neueren deutschen Staatsrechte, anonym.'' (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1836). He was twice married, his first wife being the sister of the brothers Grimm. His son Karl Hassenpflug (1824–1890) was a distinguished sculptor.

title: Ludwig Hassenpflug


text:
User:Lordscissorhand

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Talk:General of the army

Insignia
Non-logged in user removed the following text from the description of the 5-star general rank insignia: "Within the pentagon of stars is the United States Emblem of the Eagle and shield, the eagle in gold and the shield enamaled." I've done some searching, and can't find any of the insignia which actually had an eagle and shield within them. All seem to merely be a pentagon of 5 stars. Just noting the removal here in case anyone has questions about it. --ABQCat 19:06, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Reason for the rank
The five-star rank was created... to have American officers with ranks equivalent to the field marshals of Britain, to reduce friction over who was allowed to give orders to whom. Is this the real reason the rank was created?

Why I ask:
 * as far as I know, there was only one case of a field marshal serving under an American (4-star) general: Bernard Montgomery under Dwight Eisenhower;
 * Montgomery was promoted to field marshal in September 1944, three months before Ike got his fifth star, and so could still have claimed seniority;
 * no-one seemed to care when Andrew Cunningham served in the rank of Admiral of the Fleet under Eisenhower for nearly eight months in 1943.

Is Montgomery on record as objecting to taking orders from a lower-ranking officer?

Furthermore: I can see why if you promoted Eisenhower, you'd also have to promote George Marshall (Army Chief of Staff) and William Leahy (effectively Chairman of the Joint Chiefs); but why Douglas MacArthur and Chester Nimitz? Is it because Eisenhower was junior to them (by time in rank), and they'd have been put out?

It seems a lot of trouble to go to, if it was just because Montgomery got his baton as a consolation prize for not being Allied Ground Forces Commander.

Was five-star rank really necessary for the command structure? After all, the Americans were quite happy to have army groups commanded by lieutenant generals. — Franey 16:03, 4 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Not really. These ranks have always been seen more as an honour than a necessity. That's why it was so daft getting rid of them from the British hierarchy in the 1990s. Another sacrifice of tradition for no apparent reason. -- Necrothesp 23:02, 27 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Wasn't it also to cut down the pension bill for retiring service chiefs? — Franey 11:40, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Sorry, I should have changed that to "no apparent reason except needless penny-pinching by one of the world's richest countries". Ah well. -- Necrothesp 18:05, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

Mostly ceremonialin the American Army.

Equivalents
I fail to see the point of including equivalents here that are more commonly translated as Field Marshal. If the entire list is added, does this not make it rather pointless having two separate articles? Originally only ranks that directly translated as General of the Army were included. These are not all necessarily the highest ranks in their respective countries (e.g. in France and Russia, where they are effectively 'four-star' ranks), and therefore including all the 'five-star' ranks is not particularly appropriate. If we're going to do this then we should also include all the 'four-star' ranks for consistency, which seems rather silly. -- Necrothesp 23:00, 27 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The first 6 on the list translate exactly as either "General of the Army" or "Army General". The others are in foreign languages translating as various things (Wonsu I think means "Supreme One") with maybe only one or two coming close to Field Marshal.  Literal translations to Field Marshal (such as Generalfeldmarschall are not included for the reason you mention.  The others should remain. -Husnock 07:47, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree with Necrothesp. Is this article supposed to be about army ranks that (a) translate as "General of the Army" or (b) correspond to the U.S. Army rank? If the former, then you should lose everything after Te Ji Shang Jiang; if the latter, you should take out the French and Russian ranks, and you'd still be duplicating the Field Marshal page. (Te Ji Shang Jiang is itself debatable — the only on-line Mandarin dictionary I could actually use translated ji as "wing of an army", so you could argue that the closest rank is the French Général de corps d'armée.)
 * More-or-less literal translations of some of the disputed ranks:
 * Mushir: Counsellor.
 * Jenderal Besar: Grand General.
 * Comandante en Jefe: Commander-in-Chief. (This is a title/officer/dignity held by Castro as head of state. Can it really be considered a rank?)
 * Pradhan Senapati: Chief General. (Held by the Nepalese C-in-C. The Nepalese Army considers this the equivalent to the U.S. General of the Army. However, it is not the highest rank: there is a "six-star" rank of Arirathi — roughly "foremost chariot-rider", translated by the Nepalese as Field Marshal — which I'm assuming is reserved for the king.)
 * I suppose to avoid any implication of British or American bias we could start a page called Five-star ranks that don't translate literally as either Field Marshal or General of the Army. Anyone fancy it? — Franey 10:57, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Mushir was moved out of the article ovr to the Field Marshal list. I see nothing wrong with the list as it stands now.  The ranks are divided nicely between this article and Field Marshal.  And, about the article proposed, that would probably be VFDed due to the long and cumbersome title. -Husnock 11:01, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Really? VFDed? Why? — Franey 11:34, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
 * I will most likely change this to a list page instead of disambig. The literal translations are eye opening.  The Nepal translations I am very impressed with.  Thanks for providing.  Dont take too much offensive at VFDs, thats just the way this place works.  Normally, very long and cumbersome article titles are merged or deleted.  It would be like "United States Presidents who are one point broke a bone while falling down during a sporting event".  An extreme example, to be sure! ;-) -Husnock 12:26, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

I'm afraid the article doesn't now make sense. It says that General of the Army is generally considered equivalent to Field Marshal and then goes on to say that some ranks are considered equivalent to both General of the Army and Field Marshal. Eh? -- Necrothesp 18:05, 28 July 2005 (UTC)
 * I rewrote it. Non-European ranks  and simultaneous equivalents to several European titles is  what the point was. -Husnock 18:37, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

Russian
In Russian it is "General of the Army", not "Army General"--Nixer 20:01, 19 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Correct. But it just depends how you do the translation. Russian uses lots of 'of's: the X of Y of Z of the Russian Federation. Free-translating the rank to Army General - which I do all the time - reinforces its equivalency as a four-star rank, not a five-star. Buckshot06 12:28, 30 October 2007 (UTC)

Equivalent of Field Marshal?
This article says General of the Army "is typically considered the equivalent of Field Marshal" (a five star rank). That's true of the United States, but I don't think it's true of all the other countries that have the rank General of the Army. The United States has a General of the Army rank *in addition to* the rank of General, and they use General as the equivalent of the British rank of General (a four star rank). But I think other countries have General of the Army *instead of* General, and they use General of the Army as the equivalent of the British rank of General.

So first, can someone confirm that my understanding of this is correct for some countries? Second, can someone specify which countries use which system? And third, I propose a rewrite of this article to reflect all this. Or better yet, we could move the equivalent five star ranks to the 5 star rank article and move the rest of the information in this article to the General Officer article, then make General of the Army redirect to the General Officer article. - Shaheenjim 07:11, 15 October 2007 (UTC)
 * The article is very loosely worded and needs a cleanup. For the US, your second sentence statement is true, with the 'six star' General of the Armies above. For others - North Koreans and Cubans and whatnot - it can vary. Buckshot06 12:31, 30 October 2007 (UTC)

who has power
hey i was just wondering in the case of america who has power to appoint the general of the army? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.115.231.137 (talk) 06:51, 11 November 2009 (UTC)

Better keep Field Marshals out of the equation
As you may have noticed, I have kicked out the "Marshal of the GDR". While I realize that the rank of "General of the Army" in the US is commonly understood to be a marshal's rank, it technically isn't one. Furthermore, as Soviet general ranks were exactly analogous to East German ones, you can't add the Marshal of the GDR while keeping the Soviet Army General (which, like the East German Armeegeneral, is an OF-9 four-star rank). It has to be consistent. Either this is a page about the rank "General of the Army / Army General", in which case Field Marshals have to stay out, or it is a page about the US rank with exactly corresponding ranks as per the NATO rank scale, in which case the Soviet equivalent would be the Marshal of the branch, NOT the Army General.--Kurt von Hammerstein (talk) 17:29, 8 April 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:General of the army


text:
Talk:African Christian Democratic Party

Untitled
I have edited the page which made reference to the ACDP as a "far-right political party". In the political sphere this is not true, as the ACDP is Christian Democratic and is centristic of character rather than being left or right in their political stance. Abrie JF Kilian

The following line was removed as the ACDP, up to now only have brief contact with CDPA. ACDP however have firm relationship with the CU of the Netherlands. "Therefore the ACDP party platform is similar to that of the controversial Christian Democratic Party (Australia), which enjoys a cordial relationship with the ACDP."

The political platform of the ACDP is not similar to the ChristenUnie. The ChristenUnie is more liberal and is center-left in social issues. The CU isn't anti-homosexual either, they oppose gay-marriage, but not homosexuality. User:Nicklaarakkers Friday 20 July 2007 19:44 (CEST)

1999 elections
Their own web site says they became the 5th biggest party in 1999, but according to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_general_election,_1999 they became the 6th largest. I have no other references for this. -- leuce (talk) 18:33, 15 March 2009 (UTC)

Non-free tag
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:ARBAY added a non-free tag in December but did not say why. Feel free to put it back if you still think the page is non-free, even after my changes. -- leuce (talk) 18:54, 15 March 2009 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:African Christian Democratic Party