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Constitution of Tennessee

The Constitution of the State of Tennessee defines the form, structure, activities, character, and fundamental rules (and means for changing them) of the U.S. State of Tennessee.

The original constitution of Tennessee came into effect on June 1, 1796, concurrent with the state's admission to the Union. A second version of the constitution was adopted in 1835. A third constitution was adopted in 1870 and is the one still in use today, with subsequent amendments. The constitution is located in Tennessee's State Library and Archives.

1796 constitution
The original Tennessee state constitution was not submitted to the voters for approval, but it was approved by US Congress, in conjunction with the resolution admitting Tennessee as a state. It went into effect on June 1, 1796, when Tennessee entered the Union.

The first constitution was widely criticized as giving the executive, presumably a full-time governor, insufficient authority, and investing too much authority in the legislature a part-time body. That was cited as a primary reason for its replacement.

The 1796 constitution also did not create a state supreme court, providing only for "such superior and inferior courts" as the legislature should create, with judges elected by the legislature for indefinite terms.

In spite of its shortcomings, the original document had its admirers. Thomas Jefferson described Tennessee's as the "least imperfect and most republican of the state constitutions."

1835 constitution
The second Tennessee State Constitution, adopted in 1835, resulted from a state constitutional convention that convened in Nashville on May 19, 1834, with 60 delegates in attendance. William Carter, of Carter County, presided over the 1834 convention.

Antislavery interests petitioned the convention to abolish slavery, which was rejected by the convention delegates. The constitution adopted increased opportunities for citizens to engage in the political process, but it limited suffrage to white males. Similarly to other southern states, such as Virginia, it disfranchised free black men, who had had the right to vote under the 1796 constitution. That followed fears raised by Nat Turner's Rebellion in 1831.

The second constitution provided for a state supreme court, with three judges, with one judge from each grand division of the state. Judges were required to be at least 35 years old and would serve 12-year terms.

The constitution was ratified by voters in March 1835, receiving 42,666 votes for it and 17,691 against it.

1870 constitution
The Tennessee General Assembly, on November 15, 1869, called for an election to be held in December 1869 for two purposes: to determine if a constitutional convention should be called to amend or replace the 1835 constitution and to elect delegates to that convention if the voters determined that it was to be held. The voters decided for the convention, which began on January 10, 1870. The convention adjourned on February 23, 1870, after adopting the constitution and recommending its approval by the voters in a special election, which was conducted on March 26, 1870.

The third document was largely written as a response to the requirement for all ex-Confederates to adopt new constitutions explicitly banning slavery. It contains many provisions that are verbatim holdovers from the two predecessor documents. It is considerably longer than the federal constitution but is not particularly long by the standards of state constitutions. This 1870 document stood unamended until 1953, which, according to the Tennessee Blue Book, was the longest period that any such document had remained in effect without amendment anywhere in the world.

Main provisions
The constitution's preamble is much longer than its counterpart in the federal Constitution. Much of that length is devoted to justifying the authority behind the new constitution: that the new constitution was created under the authority of the constitution of 1835, which was itself created under the authority of the 1796 convention.

Declaration of Rights
Article I, is Tennessee's bill of rights. It mimics many of the US Bill of Rights, but the provisions describing them are generally much lengthier. The provisions in this article state:

"ARTICLE I. Declaration of Rights.

Section 1. That all power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority, and instituted for their peace, safety, and happiness; for the advancement of those ends they have at all times, an unalienable and indefeasible right to alter, reform, or abolish the government in such manner as they may think proper.

Section 2. That government being instituted for the common benefit, the doctrine of nonresistance against arbitrary power and oppression is absurd, slavish, and destructive of the good and happiness of mankind.

Section 3. That all men have a natural and indefeasible right to worship Almighty God according to the dictates of their own conscience; that no man can of right be compelled to attend, erect, or support any place of worship or to maintain any minister against his consent; that no human authority can, in any case whatever, control or interfere with the rights of conscience; and that no preference shall ever be given, by law, to any religious establishment or mode of worship.

Section 4. That no political or religious test, other than an oath to support the Constitution of the United States and of this state, shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under this state.

Section 5. The elections shall be free and equal, and the right of suffrage, as hereinafter declared, shall never be denied to any person entitled thereto, except upon a conviction by a jury of some infamous crime, previously ascertained and declared by law, and judgment thereon by court of competent jurisdiction.

Section 6. That the right of trial by jury shall remain inviolate, and no religious or political test shall ever be required as a qualification for jurors.

Section 7. That the people shall be secure in their persons, houses, papers and possessions, from unreasonable searches and seizures; and that general warrants, whereby an officer may be commanded to search suspected places, without evidence of the fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, whose offences are not particularly described and supported by evidence, are dangerous to liberty, and ought not be granted.

Section 8. That no man shall be taken or imprisoned, or disseized of his freehold, liberties or privileges, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any manner destroyed or deprived of his life, liberty, or property, but by the judgment of his peers, or the law of the land.

Section 9. That in all criminal prosecutions, the accused hath the right to be heard by himself and his counsel; to demand the nature and cause of the accusation against him, and to have a copy thereof, to meet the witnesses face to face, to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor and in prosecutions by indictment or presentment, a speedy public trial, by an impartial jury of the county in which the crime shall have been committed and shall not be compelled to give evidence against himself.

Section 10. That no person shall, for the same offense, be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb.

Section 11. That laws made for the punishment of acts committed previous to the existence of such laws, and by them only declared criminal, are contrary to the principles of a free government; wherefore no ex post facto law shall be made.

Section 12. That no conviction shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture of estate. The estate of such persons as shall destroy their own lives shall descend or vest as in case of natural death. If any person is killed by casualty, there shall be no forfeiture in consequence thereof.

Section 13. That no person arrested and confined in jail shall be treated with unnecessary rigor.

Section 14. That no person shall be put to answer any criminal charge but by presentment, indictment, or impeachment.

Section 15. That all prisoners shall be bailable by sufficient sureties, unless for capital offenses, when the proof is evident, or the presumption is great. And the privilege of the writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended unless when in case of rebellion or invasion, the General Assembly shall declare that public safety requires it.

Section 16. That excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Section 17. That all courts shall be open; and every man, for an injury done him in his lands, goods, person or reputation, shall have remedy by due course of law, and right and justice administered without sale, denial, or delay. Suits may be brought against the state in such manner and in such courts as the Legislature may by law direct.

Section 18. The Legislature shall pass no law authorizing imprisonment for debt in civil cases.

Section 19. That the printing press shall be free to every person to examine the proceedings of the Legislature; or of any branch or officer of the government, and no law shall ever be made to restrain the right thereof. The free communication of thoughts and opinions, is one of the invaluable rights of man, and every citizen may freely speak, write, and print on any subject, being responsible for the abuse of that liberty. But in prosecutions for the publication of papers investigating the official conduct of officers, or men in public capacity, the truth thereof may be given in evidence; and in all indictments for libel, the jury shall have a right to determine the law and the facts, under the direction of the court, as in other criminal cases.

Section 20. That no retrospective law, or law impairing the obligations of contracts, shall be made.

Section 21. That no man's particular services shall be demanded, or property taken, or applied to public use, without the consent of his representatives, or without just compensation being made, therefore.

Section 22. That perpetuities and monopolies are contrary to the genius of a free state, and shall not be allowed.

Section 23. That the citizens have a right, in a peaceable manner, to assemble together for their common good, to instruct their representatives, and to apply to those invested with the powers of government for redress of grievances or other proper purposes, by address or remonstrance.

Section 24. That sure and certain defense of a free people is a well regulated militia; and, as standing armies in time of peace are dangerous to freedom, they ought to be avoided as far as the circumstances and safety of the community will admit; and that in all cases, the military shall be kept in strict subordination to the civil authority.

Section 25. That no citizen of this state, except such as are employed in the army of the United States, or militia in actual service, shall be subjected to punishment under the martial or military law. That martial law, in the sense of the unrestricted power of military officers, or others, to dispose of the persons, liberties, or property of the citizen, is inconsistent with the principles of free government, and is not confided to any department of the government of this state.

Section 26. That the citizens of this state have a right to keep and to bear arms for their common defense; but the Legislature shall have power, by law, to regulate the wearing of arms with a view to prevent crime.

Section 27. That no soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner prescribed by law.

Section 28. That no citizen of this state be compelled to bear arms, provided he will pay an equivalent, to be ascertained by law.

Section 29. That an equal participation in the free navigation of the Mississippi is one of the inherent rights of the citizens of this state; it can not, therefore, be conceded to any prince, potentate, power, person, or persons whatever.

Section 30. That no hereditary emoluments, privileges, or honors, shall ever be granted or conferred in this state.

Section 31. That the limits and boundaries of this state be ascertained, it is declared they are as hereafter mentioned, that is to say: Beginning on the extreme height of the Stone Mountain, at the place where the line of Virginia intersects it, in latitude thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes north; running thence along the extreme height of the said mountain, to the place where Watauga River breaks through it; thence a direct course to the top of the Yellow Mountain, where Bright's road crosses the same; thence along the ridge of said mountain, between the waters of Doe river and the waters of Rock Creek, to the place where the road crosses the Iron Mountain; from thence along the extreme height of said mountain, to the place where Nolichucky River runs through the same; thence to the top of the Bald Mountain; thence along the extreme height of said mountain to the Painted Rock on French Broad river; thence along the highest ridge of said mountain, to the place where it is called the Great Iron or Smoky Mountain; thence along the extreme height of said mountain to the place where it is called Unicoi or Unaka Mountain, between the Indian towns of Cowee and Old Chota; thence along the main ridge of the said mountain to the southern boundary of this state, as described in the act of cession of North Carolina to the United States of America and that all the territory, lands and waters lying west of said line, as before mentioned, and contained within the chartered limits of the state of North Carolina are within the boundaries and limits of this state, over which the people have the right to exercise sovereignty and the right of soil, so far as is consistent with the Constitution of the United States, recognizing the Articles of Confederation, the Bill of Rights and Constitution of North Carolina, the cession act of the said state, and the ordinance of Congress for the government of the territory north west of Ohio; provided, nothing herein contained shall extend to affect the claim or claims of individuals to any part of the soil, which is recognized to them by the aforesaid cession act; And provided also, that the limits and jurisdiction of this state shall extend to any other land and territory now acquired, or that may hereafter be acquired, by compact or agreement with other states, or otherwise, although such land and territory are not included within the boundaries herein before designated.

Section 32. That the erection of safe prisons, the inspection of prisons, and the humane treatment of prisoners, shall be provided for.

Section 33. That slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, are forever prohibited in this state.

Section 34. The General Assembly shall make no law recognizing the right of property in man.

Section 35. To preserve and protect the rights of victims of crime to justice and due process, victims shall be entitled to the following basic rights: (a) The right to confer with the prosecution. (b) The right to be free from intimidation, harassment and abuse throughout the criminal justice system. (c) The right to be present at all proceedings where the defendant has the right to be present. (d) The right to be heard, when relevant, at all critical stages of the criminal justice process as defined by the General Assembly. (e) The right to be informed of all proceedings and of the release, transfer, or escape of the accused or convicted person. (f) The right to a speedy trial or disposition and a prompt and final conclusion of the case after the conviction or sentence. (g) The right to restitution from the offender. (h) The right to be informed of each of the rights established for victims. The General Assembly has the authority to enact substantive and procedural laws to define, implement, preserve, and protect the rights guaranteed to victims by this section.

Section 36. Nothing in this Constitution secures or protects a right to abortion or requires the funding of an abortion. The people retain the right through their elected state representatives and state senators to enact, amend, or repeal statutes regarding abortion, including, but not limited to, circumstances of pregnancy resulting from rape or incest or when necessary to save the life of the mother."

Sections 16 and 27 are among those directly copied from the federal Constitution. Section 8 closely follows the wording of the Magna Carta.

The article's provisions regarding slavery are also significant, as they both prohibit slavery in the same manner as the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and forbid the legislature from making any "law recognizing the right of property in man." Some construe the latter provision as prohibiting any form of indentured servitude.

Less usual declarations
Besides the more common rights, a few other rights are enumerated:

 * Citizens are granted "an unalienable and indefeasible right to alter, reform, or abolish the government in such manner as they may think proper" (Section 1).
 * Imprisonment for civil debt may not be carried out (Section 18).
 * Martial law may never be declared (Section 25)
 * Anyone may travel on the Mississippi River, and the right to do so may not be sold to or barred from anyone (Section 29).

Separation of powers
"Section 2. Article II of the constitution reads that the powers of the government shall be divided into three distinct departments: legislative, executive, and judicial. It is explicit that: No person or persons belonging to one of these departments shall exercise any of the powers properly belonging to either of the others, something considered implicit in the federal constitution or inferred by its interpreters (Sections 1 and 2)."

Legislative branch
The lawmaking power of the state is given to its Legislature, named the General Assembly. The upper house is the Senate and the lower house is the House of Representatives (Section 3).

The basis for legislative representation is population, as determined by the US Census; however the General Assembly can always use other, non-population factors to apportion one house (the Senate) unless the US Constitution is currently authoritatively interpreted to forbid that, as it currently is under Reynolds v. Sims (Section 4).

The lower house is fixed at 99 members, which are to be divided up among counties; if one county has more than one representative (which is guaranteed to happen, as there are 95 counties), the affected counties shall be divided up into districts, causing all representatives to be elected from single-member constituencies. A county may not be split into separate counties to do that (Section 5 and subsection).

The upper house is to be set up in the same manner, but its size is variable, up to a third of the size of the lower house, which was fixed at 99, as noted above. In practice, the Tennessee Senate always had 33 members, the maximum allowed (Section 6 and subsection).

The first election to the Legislature was to take place on the second Tuesday of November 1870 and then every two years, on the first Tuesday after the first Monday, and all such elections shall take place only on that day (Section 7).

Representatives have to be 21 years old, US citizens, state citizens for three years, and county citizens for at least one year before election day (Section 9). Senatorial requirements are different only in that senators must be at least 30 years old. Also, no one from either house may be appointed to any office by the executive or legislative branches unless it is as a "trustee of a literary institution" (Section 10).

Both houses may imprison people (whether a member or not) who disrupts their proceedings (Section 14).

The legislative provisions include the requirement that no bill may be broader than its caption, and it may have only one subject (Section 17). Tennessee courts have interpreted that to mean that no bill can contain non-germane material, and no caption can include the words "and for other purposes" (unlike in Congress). The General Assembly, therefore, can pass no "omnibus" bills.

Also banned were some business practices that had previously gotten the state into trouble, such as allowing municipalities to lend money to railroads for them to pay off bonds on which they had previously defaulted (Section 33) and the election or appointment of people who were still responsible for public money (Section 25).

Section 28 describes the General Assembly's power to levy taxes.

For a municipality to issue bonds or borrow money on behalf of a private business or individual, the passage of a referendum was required, with the unusually stringent provision of a three-quarters majority, but that was to be delayed for ten years in 26 named counties, where the requirement would be a simple majority until then. The period between May 6, 1861 and January 1, 1867 was not to be counted against any statute of limitations, as civil government in much of the state had broken down during that period because of the American Civil War.

Executive branch
Article III allows the governor to serve a two-year term, which was superseded by 1953 amendments. The executive branch is empowered with a line-item veto, but a majority of all members in each house may override the veto, which is the same vote required to enact the bill initially. The governor is the head of the state militia, but he may not exercise that power unless the General Assembly authorizes him to do so when "the public safety requires it" (Section 5).

There are twenty-two departments that operate under the executive branch; the departments are:
 * Department of Agriculture
 * Department of Children's Services
 * Department of Commerce and Insurance
 * Department of Correction
 * Department of Economic and Community Development
 * Department of Education
 * Department of Environment and Conservation
 * Department of Finance and Administration
 * Department of Financial Institutions
 * Department of General Services
 * Department of Health
 * Department of Human Resources
 * Department of Human Services
 * Department of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
 * Department of Labor and Workforce Development
 * Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services
 * Department of Military
 * Department of Revenue
 * Department of Safety and Homeland Security
 * Department of Tourist Development
 * Department of Transportation
 * Department of Veterans Services

Judicial branch
Article VI creates the judiciary, with the Tennessee Supreme Court, the Chancery courts, and others to be "ordained and established" as deemed necessary as well as justices of the peace (Section 1).

The Tennessee Supreme Court is to meet in Nashville, Knoxville, and Jackson. Only two of its five members may be from any one of the state's Grand Divisions (East Tennessee, Middle Tennessee, and West Tennessee) (Section 2). The courts were elected by the people for eight years at a time (Sections 3 and 4), but that has been changed to the Tennessee Plan.

The court then appoints the state "Attorney General and Reporter" for an eight-year term (Section 5).

The General Assembly may remove judges and state attorneys with a two-thirds supermajority of the constitutionally authorized membership in both houses, with each vote for and against being recorded along with the individual reason for his decision. Removal will lie for either official or personal misconduct. The judge or attorney subject to removal must be notified ten days before such a vote (Section 6).

Alternatively, judges and state attorneys may be impeached by a simple majority vote of a quorum of the General Assembly for crimes or misconduct committed solely in their official capacity. Then, the lower house appoints three members to prosecute the impeached, and the senate, presided over by the Chief Justice of the Tennessee Supreme Court, convenes to try the impeached. Conviction requires only a two-thirds supermajority of the number of senators "sworn to try the impeachment," which may be less than a "constitutional" supermajority (Article V).

Judges are also barred from hearing cases of impeachment. Criminal charges after removal from office would result only from a separate trial of fact in the state's ordinary courts.

Other provisions
The constitution has several provisions that are unusual for a state constitution. It mandates only three constitutional officers other than governor: the secretary of state, state treasurer, and comptroller, who are elected by the General Assembly, not the voters as is far more common. Tennessee is the only state other than Hawaii and, arguably, New Jersey in which the governor is the sole office holder elected statewide (the Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey is elected as part of a ticket alongside the governor).

The governor's designated successor is the Speaker of the Tennessee State Senate, elected from among its membership, a provision now found in the constitutions of only a few other states; most now have a full-time lieutenant governor. (The office is referred to as Lieutenant Governor of Tennessee in subsequent statutory law, but not in the constitution.)

General elections for state offices were moved to make them simultaneous with federal elections (November in even-numbered years), with elections for county and judicial offices to be held in August of even-numbered years; that later became the traditional date for primary elections for the statewide offices to be held as well so that the day on which, for example, a sheriff was elected would be the same day as the primary election for governor would be held.

Other provisions included are the procedure for the establishment of new counties and the recognition of three counties previously established by the legislature, in contravention of provisions of the previous constitution. New counties would carry a pro-rata share of the indebtedness of the county or counties from which they were being formed, preventing the formation of new counties as a way of areas getting out from under debt that they had previously incurred.

(That provision nonetheless incited a spate of new counties; ten were established in the next decade, but none have been since, and one of those established was subsequently abolished, and the provisions are such that would make the establishment of any further counties beyond those extremely difficult and unlikely.)

Some current agendas of the era were reflected, as there were provisions allowing county seats to be moved in two counties with only a majority vote of the populace, but a two-thirds majority was required in all others. A county line adjustment between two counties was made between two existing counties, and special provisions made for counties whose formation was already planned at the time as well as for settling definitively the status of others that had already been created without strict adherence to the provisions for the creation of new counties contained in the previous constitution.

There were also provisions forbidding interracial marriages and integrated schools, allowing for a poll tax, preventing interest over 10% from being charged on loans and making this usury per se. All four provisions have been either subsequently formally removed or otherwise invalidated by Supreme Court of the United States decisions and are no longer enforced. Whether the prohibition of former duelists from holding office is valid has apparently not been tested.

Militia
The state's militia is governed by Article VIII, which specifies that all officers are to be elected by those subject to service within their groupings and as the legislature directs (Section 1) but that the governor will appoint his staff officers, who, in turn, appoints their staff officers (Section 2). The legislature is also directed to exempt religious conscientious objectors (Section 3).

Disqualifications
Article IX lists three groups of people who are barred from various privileges:

 * Ministers of any religion may not sit as legislators because they "ought not be diverted from the great duties of their functions" (Section 1).
 * Atheists may not perform any office in the government, but Section 4 of Article I, banning any religious test for any "office of public trust", would make this impossible to enforce (Section 2).
 * Any person involved in a duel may not hold any "honor or profit" under the state's government and is liable to be punished otherwise (Section 3).

The restrictions on ministers and atheists have been deemed to be unenforceable due to the interpretations of the Supreme Court of the United States with regard to the First and the Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution.

 Impeachment

Article V of the Tennessee Constitution states that only the House of Representatives has the power to impeach (Section 1). Impeachment is when an office holder's actions are called into question, so therefore, they face the chances of being removed from office. The process of impeachment it is tried in the Senate, and all senators must be sworn under oath. The chief justice of the Supreme Court presides overall all trials of impeachment unless he is on trial, then the senior associate judge will rule over the court. The office holder can not be convicted without a two-thirds or majority rule from the Senate (Section 2). The House of Representatives must choose three members to prosecute impeachments. Impeachments can not be tried until the Legislature has adjourned sine die, then the Senate can try the impeachment (Section 3). The governor, Supreme Court Judges, inferior court judges, chancellors, attorneys of the state, treasurer, comptroller, and secretary of state are all liable to impeachment if the House of Representative believe they have committed a crime that calls for disqualification or removal from office, but judgement can only be removal of office and disqualification to hold any office after impeachment. The party must be prosecuted to the full extent of the law, and the Legislature has the power to remove penalties imposed on anyone disqualified from filling office by impeachment (Section 4). Justices of the peace, and other civil officers are also liable for indictments in such courts as the Legislature may direct, and if convicted of impeachment they must be removed from office by said court, and will be subject to other punishment as asserted by law (Section 5).

Amendment process
Article XI, Section 3 of the Tennessee State Constitution gives two methods to amend the document:

Legislative method
Under the legislative method, which is a very lengthy process, the General Assembly must pass a resolution, calling for an amendment and stating its wording, and it must do so in three separate readings on three separate days, with an absolute majority on all readings. The resolution does not require the governor's approval.

The amendment must then be published at least six months before the next legislative election, but it is not then placed on the ballot. Instead, once the legislative election is held, the proposed amendment must go another three readings, a three-day voting process. Then, the amendment now requires approval of two-thirds of the legislature on each vote.

Finally, the amendment is placed on the ballot as a referendum, coinciding with the next gubernatorial election. For the amendment to pass, the number of "yes" votes must both be greater than "no" votes and must equal "a majority of all the citizens of the state voting for governor."

Convention method
Under the convention method, the legislature can put on any ballot the question of whether to call a constitutional convention. The question must state whether the convention is limited (to make amendments to the existing constitution) or unlimited (to propose an entirely new constitution). If the convention is limited, the question must state the provisions of the current constitution that are to be subject to amendment, and the subsequent convention, if approved, is limited to considering only the amendments to the provisions that are specified in the call.

The proposed amendments (or new constitution) must then be placed on the ballot and receive a simple majority.

A constitutional convention may not be held more frequently than once every six years.

First amendments
The record length of time for going unamended ended in 1953. In 1952, the legislature called for a convention, and the voters approved it. Voters then approved the recommended amendments. The most noticeable change in the 1953 amendments was a lengthening of the governor's term from two to four years, but no governor could succeed himself anymore. (Until it was subsequently amended again, in 1978, the provision was to establish what critics derisively called "leapfrog government.")

Another provision allowed for the consolidation of a county government with the government of a county's main city, in the four largest counties.

The convention also established precedents that later proved useful. Since no one who served in the 1870 convention, which wrote the constitution, was still alive, many administrative measures had to be decided, such as what rules the convention would function under temporarily until it was organized and adopted its own permanent rules and how a chair was to be elected.

Also, the constitution was decided to be compiled in a manner similar to statutory law, unlike the federal constitution. Thus, that amendments actually replace the language that they alter in the document, and future publications would have amendments integrated into the text rather than appended to it as "Amendment I," "Amendment II," etc. Thus, someone reading the text of the state constitution can, absent a strong historical background, sometimes be confused as to the provisions that are those of the original document and the ones that are the result of later amendment, but some amendments declare themselves to be such within the text of their provisions.

That does prevent a reader of the current constitution from being confused by encountering obsolete provisions that have since been changed and not reading on to the end of the document to establish that fact, which is sometimes done to the federal constitution by those wishing to obscure its current provisions, such as those who assert that the document considers slaves as three-fifths of a person, which has not applied since the American Civil War but is still in the text of the early part of the document. The amendment changes that are not encountered until much later in the text.

Further amendments to the state constitution were proposed and then adopted at conventions, held in 1959 and 1965. Among the most notable are for the establishment of home rule by counties that chose to adopt a charter so they can function in many ways similar to municipalities.

The amendments also allowed legislators to receive a salary besides expense money and extended the terms of state senators from two years to four, but only half of its membership is elected every two years. Another important change was that the frequency of scheduled sessions of the legislature and thus the budget cycle was altered from biennial to annual, but the General Assembly is still limited to a total of fifteen organizational days and ninety legislative days every two year. Sessions extending that time and special sessions extending beyond twenty legislative days result in the legislature being unable to continue to receive its expense per diem.

The poll tax provisions, already rendered moot, were removed. The 1971 convention, dominated by longtime Tennessee politician Clifford Allen, was limited to the establishment of a new system of property tax assessments.

1977 convention and aftermath
The 1977 convention was the broadest call since the original writing of the constitution, in 1870. It was called in part to remove long-unenforceable provisions such as those banning interracial marriage and school desegregation but primarily at the behest of banking interests to remove the 10% cap on interest, which was becoming very problematic in the economic environment of the time. (It had long been circumvented by smaller lenders such as finance companies with tactics such as administration fees, service charges, and payment fees, with tacit legislative approval.)

This convention proved to be very long and contentious and even lasted nearly twice as long as the original one that wrote the 1870 constitution. There were major fights over the adoption of the permanent rules and over who would be the permanent chair. Although that seemed to bode ill, once the convention got on track, it accomplished what many legal scholars see as being a record of largely solid achievement.

A major change was the proposal that the governor could now succeed himself once. A two-term governor was also not barred from any future service in that office in the way that a two-term US President is by the Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution for life, only from a third consecutive term.

Any county and its principal city could vote to consolidate themselves into one "metropolitan government". Only three counties have done so: Nashville and Davidson County; Hartsville and Trousdale County; Lynchburg and Moore County.

Minor other changes included the elimination of the necessity of each county having the archaic (at least for urban counties) offices of constable and cattle ranger. (The provision for rangers was routinely widely ignored; but not the one mandating constables.) The provision limiting sheriffs to three consecutive two-year terms was replaced with one allowing sheriffs an unlimited number of consecutive four-year terms. That provision was called by some wags the "Fate Thomas Amendment", as it seemed to have been passed largely at the behest at the then hugely popular sheriff and political boss of Davidson County, who was otherwise about to be term-limited out of office but achieved re-election under the provisions of the amendment. Eventually, Thomas served federal time for corruption-related offenses.

Some in the mass media derided the convention as having gone out of control, but the primary public reaction was one of apathy. The primary controversy within the convention once it began its actual work, as opposed to its early difficulties, was over a judicial amendment that would have made the state attorney general an office elected by statewide popular vote rather than retaining selection by the Supreme Court, and it would have also eliminated the requirement for the Supreme Court to meet in Knoxville and Jackson, where a new and elaborate building for it had just been completed. Another important provision of the proposed amendment was to repeal the 1870 Constitution's requirement that all judges "shall be elected" in favor of a provision stating that "Justices of the Supreme Court and judges of the Court of Appeals shall be appointed by the Governor from three nominees recommended... by the Appellate Court Nominating Commission.... The name of each justice and judge seeking retention shall be submitted to the qualified voters for retention or rejection... at the expiration of each six year term."

The voters, in a special election held March 7, 1978, solely to ratify the amendments proposed by the convention, voted to remove the archaic provisions and the usury cap and to accept the changes regarding the governor's terms and metropolitan government, but they narrowly turned down the judicial amendment, marking the first time that an amendment put to the voters by a convention had been defeated. Of the 13 proposed amendments, only that one was rejected by the voters.

No further conventions have been held since 1977, but they have been frequently proposed, in part because of the recent spate of state fiscal crises. Some have proposed conventions to determine conclusively whether or not the Tennessee Constitution allows a general, broad-based income tax on wages. It has been suggested by several observers that one reason against the General Assembly requesting future conventions is that they do not desire to create potential new rivals for themselves; as the members themselves cannot be delegates to the convention, in calling for a convention, they are creating a potential new set of politicians campaigning in their same districts and addressing some of the same issues. That occurred to an extent after the 1977 convention, which launched the career, among others, of Memphis attorney Steve Cohen, who was vice president of the convention and later became a prominent progressive Democrat in the Tennessee State Senate, until 2006, when he was elected U.S. Representative from the Ninth District.

Recent amendments
Beginning in the 1990s, amendments were placed on the ballot without a convention being held, using, for the first time, the provisions that allow the General Assembly to propose amendments directly.

In 1998, voters were asked about two amendments. One was the Victims' Rights Amendment, which required prosecutors to stay in touch with crime victims and their families, to explain to them how purported offenses involving them were to be prosecuted, and to notify them when persons who had committed crimes against them were being scheduled for parole or release, among other provisions. The other amendment removed the word "comfortable" from the requirements for minimum standards for prisons. Both of these amendments passed by overwhelming margins in an election marked by a very light turnout. The amendments represented the first changes to the constitution in 20 years.

In 2002, the legislature again proposed two amendments. The first proposal passed, repealing a constitutional ban on all lotteries. The ban had been a carryover from the 1835 document and was widely regarded as a tribute not only to religious fundamentalism but also to the influence of Andrew Jackson, a known lottery opponent, who was in no way averse to other forms of gambling, especially that regarding horse racing. The amendment established the current state lottery.

The other amendment on the 2002 ballot, pushed for by the Tennessee Municipal League (TML), would have eliminated a constitutional provision that set $50 (a large sum in 1870 when the provision was enacted) as the maximum allowable fine for violation of a municipal ordinance. Instead, it would have allowed the legislature to set limits on the fines that municipalities could enact. However, after putting much effort into getting the legislature to put this amendment onto the ballot, the TML put little effort into winning voter approval, and the proposal was largely overlooked during the public debate over the high-profile lottery amendment. Many voters were unaware of the proposal until they were confronted with it on the ballot and so may have turned it down for that reason. It became the first amendment put forward by the General Assembly to be defeated at the polls; it was, other than the proposed 1978 judicial amendment, the only one ever defeated.

In 2006, two additional amendments to the Tennessee State Constitution were passed. The Tennessee Marriage Protection Amendment specifies that only marriages between a man and a woman can be legally recognized in the state of Tennessee. The amendment was approved by 81% of Tennesseans participating in the vote, which was 30.91% of eligible voters that year. A second amendment, authorizing the legislature to enact legislation allowing counties and municipalities to exempt people over 65 from property tax increases, was approved by 83% of voters.

In 2007, the Tennessee House of Representatives unanimously passed a resolution calling for an amendment to establish the right to hunt, fish, and harvest game "subject to reasonable rules and regulations," but the State Senate did not act on the measure during the 2007 legislative session. The Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA) had raised objections to an earlier version of the measure, which had the backing of the National Rifle Association. The TWRA was concerned that the proposal would prevent it from continuing its regulation of hunting and fishing methods as well as efforts to manage fish and game populations.

In 2010, 90% of voters approved the following: "The citizens of this state shall have the personal right to hunt and fish, subject to reasonable regulations and restrictions prescribed by law. The recognition of this right does not abrogate any private or public property rights, nor does it limit the state's power to regulate commercial activity. Traditional manners and means may be used to take non-threatened species."

In 2014, voters approved this amendment: "Nothing in this Constitution secures or protects a right to abortion or requires the funding of an abortion. The people retain the right through their elected state representatives and state senators to enact, amend, or repeal statues regarding abortion, including, but not limited to, circumstances of pregnancy resulting from rape or incest or when necessary to save the life of the mother." This amendment overturns a 2000 Tennessee Supreme Court ruling, Planned Parenthood v. Sundquist.

As well, a ban on income tax being levied against earned income (as opposed to interest and dividends, which are still subject to income tax); a change in the judiciary selection/retention process to make the Tennessee Plan explicitly constitutional; and allowing veterans organizations to host gambling fundraisers all passed in 2014.

The 2022 Tennessee Amendment 1, also known as the "Right-to-Work Amendment", is a right-to-work law amendment that was passed in 2022. The amendment added language to the constitution to make it illegal, along as a constitutional right, for workplaces to require mandatory labor union membership for employees as a condition for employment.

title: Constitution of Tennessee


text:
Abies concolor

Abies concolor, the white fir, concolor fir, or Colorado fir, is a coniferous tree in the pine family Pinaceae. This tree is native to the mountains of western North America, including the Sierra Nevada and southern Rocky Mountains, and into the isolated mountain ranges of southern Arizona, New Mexico, and Northern Mexico. It naturally occurs at elevations between 900 and 3400 m.

It is popular as an ornamental landscaping tree and as a Christmas tree.

Description
This large evergreen conifer grows best in the central Sierra Nevada of California, where the record specimen was recorded as 74.9 m tall and measured 4.6 m in diameter at breast height (dbh) in Yosemite National Park. The typical size of white fir ranges from 25–60 m tall and up to 2.7 m dbh. The largest specimens are found in the central Sierra Nevada, where the largest diameter recorded was found in Sierra National Forest at 58.5 x 8.5 m (1972); the west slope of the Sierra Nevada is also home to the tallest specimen on record, 78.8 m in height. Abies concolor subsp. concolor (Rocky mountain white fir) rarely exceeds 38 m tall or 0.9 m dbh. Large (but not huge) trees in good soil range from 40 to 60 m tall and from 99 to 165 cm dbh in California and southwestern Oregon and to 41 m tall and 124 cm dbh in Arizona and New Mexico. The dead tree tops sometimes fork into new growth.

The gray bark is usually at least 10 cm thick, and brown-hued inside. The leaves are needle-like, flattened, 2.5 – long and 2 mm wide by 0.5 – thick, green to glaucous blue-green above, and with two glaucous blue-white bands of stomatal bloom below, and slightly notched to bluntly pointed at the tip. The leaf arrangement is spiral on the shoot, but with each leaf variably twisted at the base so they all lie in either two more-or-less flat ranks on either side of the shoot, or upswept across the top of the shoot but not below the shoot.

The cones are 6 – long and 4 – broad, green or purple ripening pale brown, with about 100–150 scales; the scale bracts are short, and hidden in the closed cone. The winged seeds are released when the cones disintegrate at maturity about 6 months after pollination.

White fir can live over 300 years.

Subspecies
As treated here, there are two subspecies; these are also variously treated at either the lower rank of variety by some authors, or as distinct species by others:

Botanical collection
White fir was first collected by Augustus Fendler on his expedition to the Santa Fe area of New Mexico in 1846–1847. Fendler's patron George Engelmann, a St. Louis area physician and botanist, then described the plant. This tree was first collected in California by William Lobb on his expedition to California of 1849–1853, after it was overlooked by David Douglas in his 1825–1827 expedition to the Pacific coast region.

The specific epithet concolor means "all one color".

Distribution
This tree is native to the mountains of western North America from the southern Cascade Range in Oregon, south throughout California and into the Sierra de San Pedro Mártir in northern Baja California, and south throughout the Colorado Plateau and southern Rocky Mountains in Utah and Colorado, and into the isolated mountain ranges of southern Arizona, New Mexico, and Northern Mexico. It naturally occurs between 900 and 3400 m above sea level.

Ecology
White fir is very closely related to grand fir (Abies grandis), and intergrades with it in central Oregon. It is also suggested that all of subspecies lowiana has experienced genetic introgression from grand fir. White fir occupies a different niche than grand fir, including dryer and higher elevation sites, being more drought tolerant and having thicker, fire-resistant bark. In Mexico, it is replaced by further close relatives, Durango fir (A. durangensis) and Mexican fir (A. mexicana).

Like grand fir, white fir is more shade tolerant than Douglas fir, but less so than western hemlock and western redcedar. White fir is a climax species, which means the forest has reached complex maturity in forest succession in western coniferous forests of the U.S. White fir and yellow pine (ponderosa pine/Jeffrey pine) have co-existed for millennia in old growth forests throughout their range. In the presence of logging of large diameter trees and exclusion of cleansing wildfires, young trees have become abundant over the past two centuries. White fir had been regarded as a pest in the past by those in the lumber industry, but this opinion has changed. White fir is now one of the most important of all commercial softwoods according to the Western Wood Products Association.

The white fir trait of retaining lower limbs creates an escape route for medium-to-small forest birds (such as spotted owl) from larger flying predators and provides a drip zone around the roots for collecting moisture. The retained limbs can become a fuel ladder that allows flames to climb up to the canopy. Limbing-up white fir, instead of removing medium to large diameter trees, in areas where the public is more likely to start fires can help keep other trees and specifically giant sequoia from experiencing canopy fire. Recent concern for sequoia groves has caused agencies to call for removal of white fir in the Sierra Nevada. While sequoia seedlings and young saplings are highly susceptible to mortality or serious injury by fire; mature sequoias are fire adapted with: fire-resistant bark, elevated canopies, self-pruning lower branches, latent buds, and serotinous cones. The sequoia ecosystem is incomplete without the mixed pine/fir and oak that make up the mid and understory. Giant Sequoia's cones release seeds when the heat of fire triggers them to open while the thick bark protects the inner cambium from fire damage.

This tree is host to fir mistletoe (Phoradendron pauciflorum), a parasitic plant. It is attacked by many types of insects, such as the fir engraver (Scolytus ventralis).

Dependent species
Mature white fir–yellow pine forests support old-growth dependent wildlife species such as California spotted owl (Strix occidentalis occidentalis), Mount Pinos sooty grouse (Dendragapus fuliginosus howardi), and Pacific fisher (Pekania pennanti). The spotted owl and fisher utilize cavities in decadent large-diameter white fir for nesting and denning. The Mount Pinos sooty grouse requires large diameter trees for thermal cover and its winter diet consists of mostly white fir and yellow pine needles. This subspecies of sooty grouse has been extirpated along with a significant number of large diameter white fir from much of its range. Other subspecies of sooty grouse also utilize Douglas fir, which does not occur in the range of Mount Pinos sooty grouse. Squirrel also frequent the tree's branches.

Deer browse the foliage of this species and porcupines chew the bark. Songbirds, grouse, and various mammals eat the seeds.

Uses
White fir and grand fir were used by Native Americans for medicinal use involving powdered bark or pitch to treat tuberculosis or skin ailments. The Nlaka'pamux used the bark to cover lodges and make canoes. Branches were also used as bedding.

White fir is a preferred construction species because of its nail-holding ability, lightness in weight, and resistance to split, twist, and pitch. It is straight-grained, non-resinous, fine-textured, stiff, and strong.

It is popular as a Christmas tree and for Christmas decoration owing to its soft needles, generally excellent needle retention and abundance. It is often marketed as concolor or white fir.

Cultivation
White fir is widely planted as an ornamental tree in parks and larger gardens, particularly some cultivars of subsp. concolor selected for very bright glaucous blue foliage, such as cv. 'Violacea'. The dwarf cultivar 'Compacta', growing to a maximum height and spread of 2.5 m, has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Abies concolor


text:
Whitchurch Bridge

Whitchurch Bridge is a toll bridge that carries the B471 road over the River Thames in England. It links the villages of Pangbourne in Berkshire, and Whitchurch-on-Thames in Oxfordshire – crossing the river just downstream of Whitchurch Lock. It is one of two remaining private toll bridges across the Thames, the other being Swinford Toll Bridge. The bridge has a weight limit of 7.5 tonnes and is a Grade II listed structure. Its 1792-built, now unrelated, residential toll house is also listed.

The bridge is owned and maintained by The Company of Proprietors of Whitchurch Bridge, who are themselves owned by the General Estates Company, who also own Bathampton Toll Bridge across the River Avon to the east of Bath. Tolls currently range from 60p for cars to £4 for vehicles of over 3.5 tonnes. Pedestrians, cyclists and motorcycles cross for free. A pre-paid multiple-use Bridge Card can be bought that provides cost savings on tolls.

The Thames Path crosses the river on Whitchurch Bridge. In the downstream (easterly) direction the path passes along the southern bank of the Thames through Pangbourne Meadow. In the upstream (westerly) direction it takes a more inland route through Hartslock on the north side of the river.

History
A bridge has stood here since 1792 when it replaced a ferry. The structure was renewed in 1852–3, 1902 and most recently in 2014. The original charges ranged from a halfpenny ($1/480$ of a pound) per pedestrian, sheep, lamb, boar, sow or pig to twopence for each wheel of a vehicle and twopence for the drawing animal (though one and a half if an ass), so a $1/24$ of a pound for a horse-drawn four-wheeled vehicle. Horses and persons using the lock for barge hauling were exempt.

The Company of Proprietors of Whitchurch Bridge was promoted by a consortium of ten subscribers, and was authorised by the Whitchurch Bridge Act 1792 (32 Geo. 3. c. 97). Under this act, and the Whitchurch Bridge Act 1988, it has a duty to maintain the bridge "forever in good and sufficient repair" and to replace it if it becomes unsafe. In November 2008 the owners' predicted a renewal was vital within a decade and so announced application to the Department for Transport to double the toll for cars to 40p. This met with more local opposition than registered support. A public inquiry was held in June 2009 and the toll increase was approved in October 2009; the new toll came into force on 26 October 2009.

From October 2013 a complete reconstruction took place, with new and stronger piling and steel spans. The white lattice iron girders of the 1902 structure were refurbished and incorporated in the design. The contractor was Balfour Beatty, the designer Atkins and the project manager Oxfordshire County Council. During reconstruction the bridge was closed to vehicles, but a temporary footbridge was provided. The project was delayed for several months by exceptional flood flows in the Thames and the new bridge was finally opened on 19 September 2014. A blessing ceremony was conducted five days later by the Bishop of Oxford, during which a 1902 De Dion-Bouton was driven across the bridge, carrying Bridge Company directors and a descendant of one of the original bridge promoters of 1792.

As a result of the delays and consequent overspend on the reconstruction, the company proposed a further toll increase and a public enquiry was held on 19 May 2015. It considered 293 written objections but approved the request to increase tolls to 60p for cars and £4 for vehicles weighing more than 3.5 tonnes, on 12 August. In 2019 it was announced that the Company of Proprietors of Whitchurch Bridge had been sold to the General Estates Company, who previously held a minority stake in the company since the late 1920s.

title: Whitchurch Bridge


text: Category:Virginia culture

title: Category:Virginia culture


text:
Viva! Bravo!

'Viva! Bravo!' (1986) is Menudo's 20th album. It is the band's only album in Italian.

It features Charlie Massó, Robby Rosa, Ricky Martin, Raymond Acevedo, and new member Sergio Gonzalez. Sergio replaced Roy Rosselló. According to a book written by Raymond Acevedo's father in 2012 titled "Papi, Quiero Ser Un Menudo," Roy threatened to expose management irregularities to the press and was given a huge sum of money to leave the group due to his behavior as it was deemed by creator Edgardo Diaz as "uncontrollable." At this time, Menudo's management started bending the rules and started allowing members to remain in the group after reaching the age limit. This album contains songs from previous Spanish albums translated to Italian.

Tracks

 * 1) Viva! Bravo! [3:24] - Singer: Charlie Massó
 * 2) Al Di La Che Cosa C'è [4:25] - Singer: Raymond Acevedo (English Version: You And Me All The Way)
 * 3) Baci Al Cioccolato [4:12] - Singer: Robby Rosa (Spanish Version: Sabes a Chocolate)
 * 4) Il Primo Amore [3:11] - Singer: Charlie Massó
 * 5) Dolci Baci [3:35] - Singer: Ricky Martin (Spanish Version: Dulces Besos)
 * 6) Tu Come Stai (Senza me) [4:26] - Singer: Robby Rosa
 * 7) Guardando Il Cielo Ed Un Gabbiano [3:42] - Singer: Raymond Acevedo
 * 8) Vivi La Vita [2:59] - Singer: Charlie Massó
 * 9) Sogni [4:11] - Singer: Robby Rosa (English Version: Hold Me)
 * 10) Acqua Candida [4:17] - Singer: Raymond Acevedo
 * 11) Vicino A Te [3:59] - Singer: Charlie Massó
 * 12) La Più Carina [3:34] - Singer: Sergio Gonzalez

title: Viva! Bravo!


text:
Refrescante

Refrescante, loosely known as Menudo for the portuguese album, is Menudo's 21st and 22nd studio album (17th in Spanish and 3rd in Portugese) released in 1986, featuring Charlie Massó, Robby Rosa, Ricky Martin,  Raymond Acevedo, and Sergio Gonzalez. These are the second and third albums this line-up recorded together This also the first time the group recorded songs made by Brazilian composers, the single "Diga Sim" was written by Ed Willson and Carlos Colla, the song "Alegria" by Michael Sullivan and Paulo Massadas and "Cara ou Coroa" which version was made by Carlos Costa. In Brazil, the Portuguese version of the album was titled "Menudo", and was released 25 June 1986.

The album's second track, "Hoy Me Voy Para México", was re-recorded in English as "I'm Going Back to the Philippines", and was included in their fourth English-language album "In Action", released in 1987. It later became a number one hit in many radio stations across the Philippines.

Track listing
Refrescante
 * 1) Salta La Valla [3:22] - Singer: Charlie Massó
 * 2) Hoy Me Voy Para México [3:26] - Singer: Raymond Acevedo
 * 3) Con Un Beso Y Una Flor [3:27] - Singer: Ricky Martin
 * 4) La Primera Vez [4:11] - Singer: Robby Rosa
 * 5) América [2:54] - Singer: Sergio Gonzalez
 * 6) A Cara O Cruz [3:45] - Singer: Charlie Massó and Robby Rosa
 * 7) Amor, Siempre Amor [3:34] - Singer: Raymond Acevedo
 * 8) Bésame [3:54] - Singer: Robby Rosa
 * 9) Yo Te Quiero Mucho [3:00] - Singer: Ricky Martin (Spanish Only)
 * 10) Amiga Mía [3:01] - Singer: Sergio Gonzalez

Brazilian Track Listing
Menudo
 * 1) Vem Pra Luz Do Sol [3:22] - Singer: Charlie Massó
 * 2) Hoje A Noite Não Tem Luar [3:26] - Singer: Raymond Acevedo
 * 3) Com Um Beijo E Uma Flor [3:27] - Singer: Ricky Martin
 * 4) Segredo [4:11] - Singer: Robby Rosa
 * 5) E Deus Criou A Mulher [2:54] - Singer: Sergio Gonzalez
 * 6) Cara Ou Coroa [3:45] - Singer: Charlie Massó and Robby Rosa
 * 7) Amor Sempre Amor [3:34] - Singer: Raymond Acevedo
 * 8) Apaga As Luzes [3:54] - Singer: Robby Rosa
 * 9) Minha Princesa [3:01] - Singer: Sergio Gonzalez
 * 10) Alegria [3:03] - Singer: Charlie Massó (Portuguese Only)
 * 11) Diga Sim [3:42] - Singer: Robby Rosa

Production

 * Produced By Edgardo Díaz for Padosa América Inc.
 * Arranged & Conducted By Carlos Villa & Alejandro Monroy.
 * Engineered By Carlos Villa & Alejandro Monroy.
 * All songs written by Carlos Villa & Alejandro Monroy.

title: Refrescante


text:
Constant angular velocity

Comparison disk storage.svg, constant angular velocity (CAV) is a qualifier for the rated speed of any disc containing information, and may also be applied to the writing speed of recordable discs. A drive or disc operating in CAV mode maintains a constant angular velocity, contrasted with a constant linear velocity (CLV).
 * Some CD-R(W) and DVD-R(W)/DVD+R(W) recorders operate in ZCLV, CAA or CAV modes.]]

A typical CD-ROM drive operates in CLV mode, in contrast to a floppy or hard disk drive, or gramophone, which operates in CAV mode. In CAV mode, the spindle motor turns at a constant speed, which makes the medium pass by the read/write head faster when the head is positioned at the outside of the disk. In contrast, in CLV mode, the spindle motor speed varies so that the medium passes by the head at the same speed regardless of where on the disk the head is positioned.

If the disk is recorded at the same areal density throughout, then when read or written in CAV mode, the data rate is higher for the outer tracks than for the inner tracks, whereas in CLV mode, the data rate is the same everywhere.

An advantage of CAV mode over CLV is that the drive mechanism is easier to engineer (and less expensive to build). Another advantage is that a device can switch from reading one part of a disk to reading another part more quickly, because in CLV mode, when the device moves the head in or out, it must change the speed of the disc.

Dimensions
In case of a 12 cm standard diameter disc, data at the outermost edge (6 cm from center) is accessed at 2.4 times the speed of data at the inner edge of the data-containing program area (2.5 cm from center).

For a miniature disc with a diameter of 8 cm (radius of 4 cm), the speed ratio of outer to inner data edge is 1.6.

This means that, for example, if a disc is accessed at a constant angular velocity of ×24, the equivalent linear velocity is ×24 while accessed at the outermost edge of the data area while being ×10 at the innermost data area.

Uses
Gramophone records have always used CAV, including CEDs which provide video signals.

Some high-speed CD and DVD drives can use CAV. It allows for shorter access times because the rotation speed (angular velocity) does not need to be changed when the laser seeks across the disc, similarly to the magnetic head of a hard disk drive. With a given angular (rotation) speed, the linear speed at the outermost track is nearly 2.4 times as fast as that of the innermost track.

CAV was used in the LaserDisc format for interactive titles; it was also used with special editions of certain films. CAV allowed for perfect still frames, as well as random access to any given frame on a disc. Playing time, however, was 30 minutes on each side (these discs are also known as "standard play"), as opposed to 60 minutes on each side for CLV-based discs ("extended play").

CAV is used with the Nintendo GameCube Game disc and Wii Optical disc, the original Xbox discs, and Sega's GD-ROM.

Partial constant angular velocity (P-CAV)
If the used media (e.g. DVD-RAM variants) has a linear (writing) speed limitation that can not be attained with physically supported angular (rotation) speeds at the inner edge of the recordable area, the disc writing can start off with a constant angular velocity, until the increasing linear velocity has reached the writing speed limitation of the disc.

At that point, the drive transitions into writing with a constant linear velocity.

title: Constant angular velocity


text:
Can't Get Enough (Menudo album)

Can't Get Enough (1986) is the 23rd album by Menudo. This is their third album in English and features Charlie Massó, Robby Rosa, Ricky Martin, Raymond Acevedo and Sergio Gonzalez. This is the fourth album recorded by this line-up, and would become Charlie's and Robby's last album recorded as members of the group. The songs on this album consist of five brand new songs and four songs from their Refrescante album translated into English.

Tracks

 * 1) Summer In The Streets [3:51] - Robby Rosa
 * 2) We Have A Song [3:46] - Robby Rosa
 * 3) Tell Me How You Feel [3:31] - Raymond Acevedo
 * 4) No One Can Love You More [3:57] - Robby Rosa
 * 5) Old Enough To Love [3:22] - Robby Rosa
 * 6) Jumpin' Over [3:25] - Charlie Massó Salta La Valla
 * 7) I Can't Spend Another Day [3:37] - Ricky Martin Con Un Beso Y Una Flor
 * 8) Stay With Me [4:00] - Robby Rosa Besame
 * 9) Marie (I Need You) [3:09] - Sergio Gonzalez Amiga Mia

title: Can't Get Enough (Menudo album)


text:
Ceremonial oath of the Bundeswehr

There were originally two types of soldiers serving in the Bundeswehr (Federal Defence): regular units and conscripts. Consequently, there were also two types of oaths. Conscripts recited a pledge, since their service was compulsory and not unconditionally voluntary. Regular soldiers recited an oath in its true sense.

Conscripted personnel
Conscript's pledge:

 * "Ich gelobe, der Bundesrepublik Deutschland treu zu dienen, und das Recht und die Freiheit des deutschen Volkes tapfer zu verteidigen."

Translation:

 * "I pledge to loyally serve the Federal Republic of Germany and to courageously defend the right and the liberty of the German people."

Conscripts are allowed to decline taking the pledge, but this forfeits any chance of promotion during service. This refusal does not constitute conscientious objection to military service, since German conscripts are also allowed to render alternative social service in its place.

Professional soldiers and Soldiers for a Time
Oath for other enlisted personnel, non-commissioned officers and officers serving for at least two years (Soldiers For a Time) or for lifetime (professional soldiers):

 * "Ich schwöre, der Bundesrepublik Deutschland treu zu dienen, und das Recht und die Freiheit des deutschen Volkes tapfer zu verteidigen, so wahr mir Gott helfe."

Translation:

 * "I swear to loyally serve the Federal Republic of Germany and to courageously defend the right and the liberty of the German people, so help me God."

The religious adjunct used with the oath was optional, the replacing of "ich gelobe" (I pledge) with "ich schwöre" (I swear) was not.

title: Ceremonial oath of the Bundeswehr


text:
Talk:Grey market

Cannabis in the United States
Recreational cannabis is legal in a number of states, but not in many others. There are black markets in many places, but there are also people who purchase cannabis in states where it is legal and move across borders to states where it is still illegal. Is this an example of a grey market? Beeblebrox (talk) 20:16, 22 December 2022 (UTC)

 * Given the lack of response here, I've taken a swing at adding a section on this unusual situation. Just Step Sideways from this world ..... today 19:47, 1 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Grey market


text:
Sons of Rock

Sons Of Rock (1988) is Menudo's 26th album (and fifth in English).

It featured Ricky Martin, Raymond Acevedo, Sergio Gonzalez, Rubén Gómez and new member Angelo García. This is the first English album the band recorded of all new material, without any previous Spanish songs translated into English. Angelo replaced Ralphy Rodríguez, after just one year of tenure, Rodríguez's parents pulled him off the band citing cruel treatment by management. In late 1988/early 1989, Sons Of Rock was re-released with a new album cover. This time it featured a neon magenta color, as well as a new picture of the group and current line-up: Ricky Martin, Sergio Blass, Rubén Gómez, Angelo García and new member Robert Avellanet replacing Raymond Acevedo.

Track

 * 1) "Sons of Rock" - Sergio Gonzalez (written by Marc Anthony)
 * 2) "Good Lovin'" - Ruben Gomez (written by A. Resnick, R. Clark)
 * 3) "TLC" - Ricky Martin (written by Lynsey de Paul, Terry Britten)
 * 4) "Miss You 'Til Tomorrow" - Raymond Acevedo (written by Papo Gely)
 * 5) "Say Why" - Ricky Martin (written by Papo Gely)
 * 6) "You Got Potential" - Angelo Garcia (written by A. R. Scott, M. Jay)
 * 7) "Nights on Fire" - Ruben Gomez (written by Peter S. Bliss)
 * 8) "999" - Raymond Acevedo (written by D. Danielson, P. Deremer)
 * 9) "To Leave Once More" - Angelo Garcia (written by M. Anthony, P. Gely)
 * 10) "I Will" - Sergio Gonzalez (written by Papo Gely)

title: Sons of Rock


text:
BRW

BRW may refer to:

Transport

 * Blairstown Railway, New Jersey, U.S.
 * Black River and Western Railroad, New Jersey, U.S.
 * Brunswick railway station, Liverpool, England
 * Wiley Post–Will Rogers Memorial Airport, Alaska, U.S.

Other uses

 * BRW (magazine), a defunct Australian business periodical
 * BRW Rich 200, its annual rich list
 * Black and red ware, ancient pottery of South Asia

 * Best Runners of the World, a formidable team of runners in France.

title: BRW


text: Category:Mass media in Virginia

title: Category:Mass media in Virginia


text:
Talk:Bali bomb

to merge with 2002_Bali_terrorist_bombing or delete
 * I'm going to be bold and just redirect this. This looks like a mess of unfounded conspiracy-mongering; it's widely agreed that the Indonesian military is largely run by heartless scumbags, but this story doesn't seem credible. Even the Morning Herald article cited, if this is it (can't find any more credible archives of this paper, unfortunately), calls this an unfounded theory. LexisNexis does turn up a news article from the Australian Associated Press (AAP) for 11-dec-2002 that mentions that the NGO hosting the article above did allege a Jemaah Islamiah-military link. I wouldn't object if someone briefly mentioned this allegation in 2002_Bali_terrorist_bombing, but I'm not going to do it - the allegation didn't get much past this one newswire story as far as I can tell. Cdc 21:24, 8 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bali bomb


text:
Talk:Cancer Research UK

Removed 1
I've removed the section discussing the proportion of the charity's income spent on research per WP:FORUM. Rockpock e  t  17:27, 31 January 2011 (UTC)

Request for changes by CRUK
Cancer Research UK would like to suggest the following edits to its Wikipedia entry:

Add Scottish charity number: (registered charity number in England and Wales: 1089464 and in Scotland: SC041666)

Insert the following paragraph beneath Imperial Cancer Research Fund paragraph:

The Cancer Research Campaign

In the 1920s, a group of doctors and scientists from the ICRF wanted to focus more heavily on clinical research rather than fundamental lab research. They formed a new charity, the British Empire Cancer Campaign, later renamed The Cancer Research Campaign. Decades later, the two organisations would merge, forming Cancer Research UK in 2002.

Under ‘Research’: In the financial year 2009/10 the charity spent £334 million on cancer research projects  (around 65% of its total budget). (Note to Wikipedia editors: The 65% is not representative of how the charity processes donations as it includes retail. For every pound the charity receives, excluding its retail chain, 80 pence is available to spend on its work. In addition to the £334 million on research, in 2009/10 the charity spent a further £14 million on cancer information and advocacy. See the Annual Report and Accounts or p22-23 of the Annual Review . )

The charity funds the work of over 4,000…

Around 40% of the charity’s research expenditure goes on basic laboratory research…

Under ‘Fundraising’: 44,500 regular volunteers

Thank you. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Sarastark1986 (talk • contribs) 18:11, 24 November 2010 (UTC)

 * You're at liberty to make these and any other changes yourself provided you don't turn the article into an advertisement! Conflict of interest is usually only taken to arise when a substantial quantity of material is added or removed by an editor who is involved with the subject, potentially leading to a non-neutral article. That doesn't seem to apply here, especially since you made it clear on the talk page. I'd suggest you use an edit summary along the lines of "factual material plus references added by CRUK staff member - see talk page". That way, if anyone objects they can easily alter it. andy (talk) 18:32, 24 November 2010 (UTC)

Removed 2
I removed the advert written here on the Talk Page. The talk pages are here for a reason to talk and discuss the article not some scam medicine.

Fair use rationale for Image:Logo cancer research uk.png
Image:Logo cancer research uk.png is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 13:40, 8 March 2008 (UTC)

Fundraising Section
I would be grateful for views:

The following edit was criticised as "Extreme POV" (with which I would respectfully disagree), and I would like to suggest a redraft taking into account the criticisms made.

Original: "Cancer Research UK engages for-profit third party telephone fundraising companies to make unsolicited calls to supporters and potential supporters. In 2009, it was widely reported in the national press that great offence was caused to one recipient of such a call who was battling terminal cancer. Following this incident, and a Daily Mirror report on the questionable tactics employed by fund raising companies, Cancer Research temporarily suspended the use of its fundraising agencies GoGen and Pell and Bales, but has since re-engaged telephone fundraisers.[10][11][12][13]"

Upon re-reading, I would agree that the words "questionable tactics" represent POV and ought not feature in the edit. Nevertheless, I do feel that it is a fact worth mentioning that CRUK make use of third party fundraisers, and I would suggest that these third party fundraisers are the main 'face' of the charity for many members of the public.

Are any views held regarding the following redraft, intended to address the criticisms levelled at the original?

Redraft: "Cancer Research UK engages for-profit third party telephone fundraising companies to make unsolicited calls to supporters and potential supporters, which was criticised in the national press in 2009 [insert link to Mirror article etc]. Cancer Research temporarily suspended the use of its fundraising agencies GoGen and Pell and Bales in 2009, but has since re-engaged telephone fundraisers." Wikip-ian-dia (talk) 11:20, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

 * I don't know why you have it in for CRUK. Name me a major charity that does not use third party fund raisers. They all knock on your door, shove tins in your face in the street, telephone you or send unsolicited mail. By mentioning one minor incident, which was immediately tackled by CRUK, you give the impression that they are in some way dodgy. I'll bet that every major charity has had incidents like this, possibly leading to complaints, but don't forget that every UK charity is regulated and if they do anything seriously wrong the regulators come down on them like a ton of bricks. My edit summary said "There are no reliable sources showing that this is significant issue". Now if you can find any comments from the Charities Commission that CRUK engages in shady and underhand tactics that's a whole different story... andy (talk) 13:52, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

I am not seeking to give the impression that CRUK are dodgy, and would disagree that this could be inferred from my redraft. I feel it is reasonable to state the fact that CRUK use third party fundraisers in the article, and the fact that other charities also use third party fundraisers is not sufficient to deny inclusion of the fact that CRUK do. By way of analogy, all football teams have stadia, yet this would not justify the removal of references to the Emirates Stadium from the Arsenal article.

Nevertheless, in order to further minimise the possibility of the section being read in this way, I would propose the following redraft:

"Cancer Research UK engages for-profit third party telephone fundraising companies to make unsolicited calls to supporters and potential supporters. Cancer Research temporarily suspended the use of its fundraising agencies GoGen and Pell and Bales in 2009, but has since re-engaged telephone fundraisers."

I hope this redraft removes any perceived suggestion that there is any issue with CRUK using 3rd party fundraisers, and consequently removes any perceived need for reference to Charity Commission comment on the matter. (Perhaps incidentally, I would also disagree with the statement "if [charities] do anything seriously wrong the regulators come down on them like a ton of bricks").

Finally, I would like to state that I do not "have it in for CRUK". The comment does not assume good faith, which I understand is one of the principles on which Wikipedia is built.

I would be grateful for views on the redraft. Wikip-ian-dia (talk) 12:36, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

 * It was a banal incident with zero consequences. By adding it to the article you indicate that it is noteworthy. Your argument about football stadia is back to front because this discussion is about how readers will interpret that addition of information to an article. The equivalent would actually be something like "Arsenal sell tickets through third parties. After complaints about counterfeiting, Arsenal severed their relationship with one such reseller" - this would give the misleading impression that Arsenal is unusual in the way it sells its tickets, that the club mismanages the process and that some at least of the resellers may be engaged in criminal activity."

BBC - Cancer charity 'tidies' Wikipedia
Cancer Research UK is turning its specialists loose on the internet to get them to tidy up the online encyclopedia - Wikipedia. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-12887075 213.246.85.152 (talk) 14:02, 4 April 2011 (UTC)

 * Anyone can "tidy" wikipedia. andy (talk) 14:09, 4 April 2011 (UTC)
 * Just for the record, Cancer Research UK brought in a team of experienced Wikipedians (including myself) from Wikimedia UK to train them how to engage with Wikipedia and to help them make their first edits. We have stayed in occasional touch since. Just as with any Wikipedia training we deliver, we have included advice on neutrality and conflict of interest policies, and as a result the CRUK staff are well aware of these issues. The training has been openly documented on the Wikimedia UK site. The involvement of Cancer Research UK staff in reviewing and improving Wikipedia articles is clearly a very positive thing for the encyclopedia. They're not merely allowed to contribute; they're welcome to. MartinPoulter (talk) 14:09, 5 January 2013 (UTC)

Infobox date format
The date format in the infobox is inconsistent with the rest of the article and different from the original date format used in the article. This article already used dmy format when the infobox was added (4 February 2002 used in the lead), as it has done since 2006  so the inconsistent date format in the infobox should have been corrected at the time per WP:DATERET. January ( talk ) 07:38, 30 May 2012 (UTC)
 * The date in the infobox currently reads as February 4, 2002 which is US format (see WP:STRONGNAT) and is inconsistent with the date format in the lead, which was there several years before the infobox was added. If no further objections are raised I intend to amend it to show as 4 February 2002. January  ( talk ) 08:58, 1 June 2012 (UTC)

2013/14 Annual Report now out
The CRUK 2013/14 Annual Report is now out. COI issues I think prevent me from updating the figures etc in the article, which are now 3 years out of date (I did update the revenue to last year's previously). All available here Wiki CRUK John (talk) 11:36, 22 July 2014 (UTC)
 * And charity sector press stories: and . Wiki CRUK John (talk) 10:20, 5 August 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on Cancer Research UK. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20110725134828/http://aboutus.cancerresearchuk.org/prod_consump/groups/cr_common/@abt/@gen/documents/generalcontent/cr_043577.pdf to http://aboutus.cancerresearchuk.org/prod_consump/groups/cr_common/@abt/@gen/documents/generalcontent/cr_043577.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20100624083615/http://www.ukcmri.ac.uk:80/press/press_release5.html to http://www.ukcmri.ac.uk/press/press_release5.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 08:50, 7 January 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 4 one external links on Cancer Research UK. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Attempted to fix sourcing for http://www.charitiesdirect.com/charities/top500.php
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120428031840/http://aboutus.cancerresearchuk.org/prod_consump/groups/cr_common/@abt/@gen/documents/generalcontent/cr_075236.pdf to http://aboutus.cancerresearchuk.org/prod_consump/groups/cr_common/@abt/@gen/documents/generalcontent/cr_075236.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120504194150/http://aboutus.cancerresearchuk.org/prod_consump/groups/cr_common/@abt/@gen/documents/generalcontent/cr_075376.pdf to http://aboutus.cancerresearchuk.org/prod_consump/groups/cr_common/@abt/@gen/documents/generalcontent/cr_075376.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20141111111234/http://web-archive-sources.org/cr_075236.pdf to http://web-archive-sources.org/cr_075236.pdf

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 19:36, 9 February 2016 (UTC)

tax decuctible
198.134.51.41 (talk) 20:17, 5 April 2016 (UTC) Is a donation to Cancer Research UK tax deductible in the US?

"Reads like a press release"?
Hi there. Henry from CRUK here - dusting off my user account after a long absence. I'm trying to investigate how we might improve the page so that it no longer has a banner saying it 'reads like a press release'. Happy to work with any passing editors to update the relevant sections, although I'm not sure exactly what needs to change. Am acutely aware of WP:COI policy so don't want to make edits directly. Do message me or otherwise get in touch to discuss. Thanks. HenryScow (talk) 14:31, 3 March 2021 (UTC)
 * User:DGG, you added it, without any explanation here. Please help.  I'm not sure either. The article is a fairly basic explanation of CRUK, in reasonable prose, which is perhaps what makes it read like PR?  So what should we do?  Certainly the sources are mostly primary, so the same info regurgitated by RS media from press releases will probably be regarded as preferable.  Johnbod (talk) 17:36, 3 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Redundant sections, overuse of name, repeatedly saying that what it work on is cancer, general wordiness. Description of leading researchers instead of just links. "Temozolomide" a/c our article has a minor effectiveness, and some of the work listed, and almost all the scientists  were supported by other agencies also
 * 'world's Largest " is not justified by the sources: The Charities Direct ref is for 2009 and only covers the UK. The BBC's "the biggest independent cancer research organisation in the world." is from 2001. And it may not be true, because the ACS figure for 2012 is larger.

 * I fixed only some of this.
 * I know many or probably ,ost other organization articles are no better. I intend to get to them. Maybe ACS next.   DGG ( talk ) 19:14, 3 March 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cancer Research UK


text:
Los últimos héroes

Los Últimos Héroes is Menudo's 28th album (19th in Spanish). It was produced and recorded in Caracas, Venezuela, by Willie Croes (producer and husband of Brazilian-singer Elisa Rego). This album proved to be successful as the album was also under an inspiration for a telenovela miniseries with the same name, with future member Jonathan Montenegro in the show.

It features Sergio Gonzalez, Rubén Gómez, Angelo García, Robert Avellanet, and new member Rawy Torres, who replaced Ricky Martin. This was also the name used by these members years later to reunite for a series of concerts in Puerto Rico and the rest of Latin America in 2002 and 2005. This would be the final album Angelo Garcia would appear in, as he suffered from Appendicitis in 1990 at the young age of 13 and was replaced by César Abreu, and his vocals replaced Angelo's. The album was reissued in 2004 to contain remixes of "Los Últimos Héroes" when the group reunited for a reunion tour of Puerto Rico.

Track listing
Side A
 * 1) "Los Últimos Héroes" – Sergio Gonzalez (Written by Carlos Lara) – 3:46
 * 2) "Sin Tu Amor" – Ruben Gomez (Written by Juan Carlos Pérez Soto) – 3:54
 * 3) "Por Primera Vez" – Rawy Torres (Written by Fernando Osorio) – 3:17
 * 4) "Qué Pena" – Robert Avellanet (Written by Fernando Osorio) – 3:36
 * 5) "Giro" – Angelo Garcia (Written by Juan Carlos Pérez Soto) – 4:42

Side B
 * 1) "Viejos Amigos" – Rawy Torres (Written by Carlos Lara) – 3:57
 * 2) "Ahora Sé" – Robert Avellanet (Written by Fernando Osorio) – 3:14
 * 3) "Déjenme Pasar" – Sergio Gonzalez (Written by Fernando Osorio) – 3:42
 * 4) "No volverá a ocurrir" – Angelo Garcia (Written by Jesús Monarrez) – 3:04
 * 5) "Ven Y Enséñame" – Ruben Gomez (Written by Fernando Osorio) – 3:25

title: Los últimos héroes


text:
I Zwicky 18

I Zwicky 18 is a blue compact dwarf galaxy located about 59 million light years away in the constellation Ursa Major. The galaxy was first identified by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky in a 1930s photographic survey of galaxies.

Age
Studies at the Palomar Observatory some 40 years ago led astronomers to believe that the galaxy erupted with star formation billions of years after its galactic neighbours. Galaxies resembling I Zwicky 18's youthful appearance are typically found only in the early universe. Early observations with the Hubble Space Telescope suggested an age of 500 million years old for I Zwicky 18.

Astronomers have hypothesised the existence of young dwarf galaxies in a cold dark matter-dominated Universe. Dwarfs as young as 500 million years would be, however, much fainter than I Zwicky 18. I Zwicky 18 is thus unlikely to have formed all its stars recently in a cold dark matter Universe.

Later observations with the Hubble Space Telescope found faint and old stars contained within the galaxy, suggesting its star formation started at least one billion years ago and possibly as much as ten billion years ago. The galaxy, therefore, may have formed at the same time as most other galaxies.

Contents
Spectroscopic observations with ground-based telescopes have shown that I Zwicky 18 is almost exclusively composed of hydrogen and helium, the main ingredients created in the Big Bang. The galaxy's primordial makeup suggests that its rate of star formation has been much lower than that of other galaxies of similar age. The galaxy has been studied with most of NASA's telescopes, including the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE), and the James Webb Space Telescope. However, it remains a mystery why I Zwicky 18 formed so few stars in the past, and why it is forming so many new stars right now.

In 2015 a study found a very large region of ionised helium in this small galaxy, which tends to be more frequent in very distant galaxies with low presence of metals. The ionization of helium implies the presence of objects emitting a radiation intense enough to knock electrons off the helium atoms. Scientists therefore hypothesise that I Zwicky 18 must contain Population III stars, which are almost absent in all other galaxies in the local universe.

Distance
Astronomers at the Space Telescope Science Institute in Baltimore, Maryland and the European Space Agency discerned the distance by observing Cepheid variable stars within I Zwicky 18. These massive flashing stars pulse in a regular rhythm. The timing of their pulsations is directly related to their brightness. The team determined the observed brightness of three Cepheids and compared it with the actual brightness predicted by theoretical models. These models were calculated specifically for I Zwicky 18's deficiency in heavy elements, indicating the galaxy's stars formed before these elements were abundant in the universe. The Cepheid distance also was validated through the observed brightness of the brightest red stars older than one billion years.

The Hubble data suggest that I Zwicky 18 is 59 million light-years from Earth. The galaxy's larger-than-expected distance may explain why astronomers have had difficulty detecting older, fainter stars within the galaxy. The faint, old stars in I Zwicky 18 are almost at the limit of Hubble's resolution and sensitivity.

Classification
I Zwicky 18 is classified as a dwarf irregular galaxy and also a blue compact galaxy and a starburst galaxy. I Zwicky 18 is much smaller than our Milky Way and a mere 3,000 light-years across. I Zwicky 18 may still be creating Population III stars—spectroscopy shows that its stars are composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, with heavier elements almost completely absent. The concentrated bluish-white knots embedded in the heart of the galaxy are two major starburst regions where stars are forming at a furious rate. The wispy blue filaments surrounding the central starburst regions are bubbles of gas that have been blown away by stellar winds and supernovae explosions from a previous generation of hot, young stars. This gas is now heated by intense ultraviolet radiation unleashed by a new generation of hot, young stars.

title: I Zwicky 18


text: User talk:84.121.8.224

title: User talk:84.121.8.224


text:
Os Ultimos Herois

Menudo: Edicion Brasil, more commonly known as Os Últimos Heróis, is the 29th album by the band Menudo, and 4th being released in Portuguese after four years. It features Sergio Gonzalez, Rubén Gómez, Robert Avellanet, Rawy Torres, and new member César Abreu, who replaced Angelo García after he left the band due to appendix. This will also be Cesar's only album, as he left the group after only months of his entry. He claimed during an interview with CBS News in 2022 that he did not feel safe in the band, because, according to him, he was bullied while at Menudo. Abreu's family helped get him out of the band. He was replaced by Adrián Olivares, from Mexico, who would be the first non-Puerto Rican member to take part in Menudo as a new cover and title was added, but kept César as the lead vocalist. Some of the songs are from albums Somos Los Hijos del Rock, Sons of Rock, Sombras & Figuras, and Los Últimos Héroes.

The group returned to Brazil after four years since 1986, with Sergio being the only one left from the previous lineup, with changes in the line-up, as well as a radical transformation in the group's visual style (this time in a rock style), but Sérgio was the only one left from the previous line-up. This line-up appeared on several TV programs in October 1990, their songs were mostly playing "Os últimos Heróis" by Sergio, "Quando for grande" and "Primeira Vez" by Rawy, but there was a snippet of the song "Rodo Giro" in which Adrián dubbed César, which happened on Passa ou Repassa with Gugu that year.

Track listing
Side A
 * 1) "Quando for Grande" – Rawy Torres (Written by Miguel Mateos) – 4:23
 * 2) "Minha Lua, Minha Luz" – Ruben Gomez 	(Written by Fernando Riba and Kiko Campos) – 3:52
 * 3) "Rodo, Giro" – Cesar Abreu (Written by Juan Carlos Perez Soto) – 4:37
 * 4) "Agora Eu Sei" – Robert Avellanet (Written by Fernando Osorio) – 3:11
 * 5) "Os Últimos Heróis" – Sergio Gonzalez (Written by Carlos Lara) – 3:19

Side B

 * 1) "Minha Sombra Na Parede" – Sergio Gonzalez (Written by Miguel Mateos) – 4:30
 * 2) "Estamos Em Ação" – Robert Avellanet (Written by Fernando Martín Lupano, Norberto Topini and Patricia Sosa) – 3:27
 * 3) "Doces Dezesseis" – Ruben Gomez (Written by Miguel Mateos) – 3:48
 * 4) "A Força do Rock" – Sergio Gonzalez (Written by Marc Anthony) – 3:40
 * 5) "Serenata Rock and Roll" – Cesar Abreu (Written by Pedro Gely) – 3:17

A later version adds the track "A Primeira Vez", sung by Rawy Torres (written by Fernando Osorio), with a duration of 3:10, as the second track on side B

title: Os Ultimos Herois