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Lâm Ngươn Tánh

Rear Admiral Lâm Ngươn Tánh (18 October 1928, in Sadec, Cochinchina – 11 February 2018) was the last Chief of Naval Operations of the Republic of Vietnam Navy during the Vietnam War.

Biography
In 1974, he took part in the Battle of Hoang Sa between China and South Vietnam.

Lâm Ngươn Tánh gained asylum in the United States after the Fall of Saigon in April 1975 and worked as a naval architect at the Naval Surface Warfare Center, Dahlgren, Virginia. A devout Anti-Communist, he continued to work with Vietnamese exile groups.

Highlights of naval career

 * Saigon Merchant Marine Academy, 1948
 * The Republic of Vietnam Naval Academy, 1952
 * United States Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California, 1958
 * United States Naval Shipyard Management School in Pearl Harbor, 1960
 * United States Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island, 1965
 * United States National Defense Management College in Monterey, California, 1973
 * Commander of RVN Navy Eastern Riverine Forces Command. 1954
 * Commander of RVN Navy Sea Forces Command and Fleet Command, 1955
 * RVN Navy Chief of Staff (two terms) 1963 and 1965
 * Commander of RVN Naval Shore Establishments and Schools Command, 1959
 * Commandant of the Saigon Naval Shipyard, 1960
 * Deputy to the Deputy Chief of General Joint Chief of Staff for Navy Operations, 1965
 * Commandant and Founder of the RVN Armed Forces Political Warfare College, 1965
 * Vice-Chief of Naval Operations, 1970
 * Chief of Naval Operations, 1975 (for over 3 months)
 * His honors include the National Order of Vietnam, fourth Degree of the Republic of Vietnam.

Activities in exile
In April 1975, Lam and his wife left Vietnam after the Fall of Saigon. They eventually settled in King George, Virginia. Lam served the U.S. Defense Department (Department of Navy) for more than 20 years as a naval architect at the Naval Surface Warfare Center in Dahlgren, Virginia.

From 1981 to 1985, he was Secretary General of the Republic of Vietnam Veterans Association. From 1989 to 1991, he founded the Vietnamese Navy General Association and was the first-term Chairman. Since 1997, he has served as the Minister for Foreign Affairs of an exiled anti-communist organization The Government of Free Vietnam. In 2000, he became the Deputy Prime Minister in charge of National Defense. In August 1997, he founded the Free Vietnam Coalition Party and serves on the Member Central Leadership Council. He is the founder of Vietnamese Navy General Association and First Term Chairman. In 2005, he was elected as Prime Minister of The Government of Free Vietnam.

Awards and decorations

 * VPD National Order of Vietnam - Knight BAR.svg Knight of the National Order of Vietnam
 * Vietnam Navy Distinguished Service Order Ribbon-First Class.svg Navy Distinguished Service Order, First Class
 * Vietnam Gallantry Cross, with palm.svg Gallantry Cross with palm
 * Vietnam gallantry cross unit award-3d.svg Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with Palm
 * Vietnam Armed Forces Honor Medal ribbon-First Class.svg Armed Forces Honor Medal, First Class
 * Vietnam Leadership Medal ribbon.png Leadership Medal
 * Vietnam Staff Service Medal ribbon-First Class.svg Staff Service Medal, First Class
 * Vietnam Technical Service Medal ribbon-First Class.svg Technical Service Medal, First Class
 * Vietnam Training Service Medal ribbon-First Class.svg Training Service Medal, First Class
 * Vietnam Civil Actions Medal ribbon-First Class.svg Civil Actions Medal, First Class
 * Vietnam Good Conduct Medal ribbon-Second Class.svg Good Conduct Medal, Second Class
 * Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal ribbon, with 60- clasp.svg Vietnam Campaign Medal
 * Vietnam Military Service Medal ribbon-Second Class.svg Military Service Medal, Second Class
 * Vietnam Navy Service Medal ribbon-Second Class.svg Navy Service Medal, Second Class
 * Vietnam Dedicated Service Medal ribbon-First Class.svg Dedicated Service Medal, First Class
 * Vietnam Psychological Warfare Medal ribbon-First Class.svg Psychological Warfare Medal, First Class

title: Lâm Ngươn Tánh


text: User talk:68.99.53.117

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:68.99.53.117


text:
Talk:Curtiss Robin

Needs more verbage describing the aircraft --Jimwilliams57 02:03, 13 December 2004

External links modified
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title: Talk:Curtiss Robin


text:
Paul D. MacLean

Paul Donald MacLean (May 1, 1913 – December 26, 2007) was an American physician and neuroscientist who made significant contributions in the fields of physiology, psychiatry, and brain research through his work at Yale Medical School and the National Institute of Mental Health. MacLean's evolutionary triune brain theory proposed that the human brain was in reality three brains in one: the reptilian complex, the limbic system, and the neocortex.

Biography
Paul D. MacLean was born in Phelps, New York, the third of four sons of a Presbyterian minister. He received his bachelor's degree in English from Yale University in 1935 and intended to study philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, but after a family illness, spent a year completing pre-medical work in Edinburgh instead. MacLean received his medical degree from Yale in 1940.

During World War II, MacLean served as a medical officer in the United States Army from 1942 to 1946. During his service with Yale's 39th General Hospital Brigade in New Zealand, MacLean worked together with Dr. Averill Liebow to show that the diphtheria bacillus was a cause of tropical ulcers, paving the way for successful prophylaxis and treatment.

After leaving the Army in 1946, MacLean practiced medicine in Seattle, and held a clinical appointment at the University of Washington Medical School. From 1947 to 1949, MacLean was a United States Public Health Service Fellow at Harvard Medical School/Massachusetts General Hospital, studying with Dr. Stanley Cobb. During this time, MacLean did research on psychomotor epilepsy, and published his paper on the "visceral brain", for which he introduced the term "limbic system" in 1952).

In 1949, MacLean joined the faculty of the Yale Medical School with a joint appointment in physiology and psychiatry. During his time at Yale, he also studied the brain mechanisms of emotion with Dr. John Fulton. It was during this period that MacLean began to define his theory of the triune brain which would become the foundation of his research throughout his career.

In 1956, MacLean became associate professor of physiology. He spent a year on a National Science Foundation Senior Postdoctoral Fellowship at the Institute of Physiology in Zürich, Switzerland.

In 1957, MacLean went to the National Institutes of Health as the head of a new section on the limbic system in the Laboratory of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). MacLean received the Distinguished Research Award of the Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease in 1964, and in 1966 gave the Thomas William Salmon Lectures at the New York Academy of Medicine. MacLean also received the G. Burroughs Mider Lectureship Award from the NIH in 1972.

In 1971 MacLean became the Chief of the Laboratory of Brain Evolution and Behavior, NIMH, newly opened in Poolesville, Maryland. MacLean was chief of the Laboratory of Brain Evolution and Behavior from 1971 to 1985. The laboratory was designed for comparative neurobehavioral research on animals in semi-natural conditions. MacLean retired with the NIH honor of senior research scientist, emeritus in the Department of Neurophysiology at NIMH.

MacLean's ideas were popular among popular authors such as Carl Sagan and Arthur Koestler.

Correspondence, photographs, research materials, reports, writings, and audiovisual materials (1936; 1944-1993) held by the National Library of Medicine document the official portion of MacLean's career in brain and behavioral research. He died in Potomac, Maryland on December 26, 2007.

title: Paul D. MacLean


text:
Edward Akufo-Addo

Edward Akufo-Addo (26 June 1906 – 17 July 1979) was a Ghanaian politician and lawyer. He was a member of the "Big Six" leaders of the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) and one of the founding fathers of Ghana who engaged in the fight for Ghana's independence. He became the Chief Justice (1966–70), and later ceremonial President (1970–72), of the Republic of Ghana. He is the father of the current (executive) President of Ghana, Nana Addo Akufo-Addo.

Early life and education
Akufo-Addo was born on 26 June 1906 at Dodowa in the Greater Accra Region to William Martin Addo-Danquah and Theodora Amuafi. Both of his parents were from the southern Ghanaian town of Akropong. He had his primary education at Presbyterian Primary and Middle Schools at Akropong. He continued to Presbyterian Training College, Akropong and Abetifi Theological Training College. In 1929, he entered Achimota College, where he won a scholarship to St Peter's College, Oxford. He studied mathematics, Politics and Philosophy and he went on to graduate with honours in philosophy and politics in 1933.

Pre-political career
Akufo-Addo was called to the Middle Temple Bar, London, UK, in 1940 and returned to what was then the Gold Coast to start a private legal practice a year later in Accra.

Early political career
In 1947, he became a founding member of the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) and was one of the "Big Six" (the others being Ebenezer Ako-Adjei, Joseph Boakye Danquah, Kwame Nkrumah, Emmanuel Obetsebi-Lamptey and William Ofori Atta) detained after disturbances in Accra in 1948. From 1949 to 1950, he was a member of the Gold Coast Legislative Council and the Coussey Constitutional Commission.

Post-independence career
After independence (1962–64), Akufo-Addo was a Supreme Court Judge, one of three judges who sat on the treason trial involving Tawia Adamafio, Ako Adjei and three others after the Kulungugu bomb attack on President Kwame Nkrumah and for doing so was dismissed with fellow judges for finding some of the accused not guilty.

From 1966 to 1970, Akufo-Addo was appointed Chief Justice by the National Liberation Council (NLC) regime, as well as Chairman of the Constitutional Commission (which drafted the 1969 Second Republican Constitution). He was also head of the NLC Political Commission during this same time period.

From 31 August 1970 until his deposition by coup d'état on 13 January 1972, Akufo-Addo was President of Ghana in the Second Republic. Real power rested with the prime minister, Dr Kofi Abrefa Busia. On 17 July 1979, Akufo-Addo died of natural causes.

Personal life
Adeline Yeboakwa Akufo-Addo was the wife of Edward Akufo-Addo and they had four children.

Awards and honors

 * Honorary Doctorate from the University of Oxford in 1971.

title: Edward Akufo-Addo


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Gweek

Gweek (Gwig, meaning forest village) is a civil parish and village in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is situated approximately three miles (5 km) east of Helston. The civil parish was created from part of the parish of Constantine by boundary revision in 1986. The name Gweek is first recorded as Gwyk in 1358 and is derived from the Cornish word gwig, meaning "forest village", cognate with the Welsh gwig and Old Breton guic. Gweek village has a pub, the Black Swan, and a combined shop and post office. The village is also home to the Cornish Seal Sanctuary.

Gweek lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation, with the same status and protection as a National Park.

History
Gweek is at the head of navigation of the Helford River. It has been a port since Roman times and thrived in the Tudor period, with its own Customs House. In the 13th century, the townspeople of Helston bought the rights to the port of Gweek.

During the mining boom, a tin-smelting blowing house operated at the quayside.

In Lewis's Topographical Dictionary of England published in 1848, the village was described as: "GWEEK, a small port, in the hundred of Kerrier, W. division of Cornwall, 3½ miles (E. by S.) from Helston. The pilchard-fishery is carried on extensively, 200 boats being employed in taking the fish, which are cured in the various creeks and coves within the limits of the port. In addition to the fishery, the chief trade consists in the exportation of copper-ore, corn, moorstone, and oysters, and the importation of timber, coal, and limestone."

In an August 1880 edition of The Cornishman newspaper, Gweek (along with Porthleven) was described as a prominent seaport, supplying coal, lime, timber, slate, etc to the neighbouring mines and inhabitants. Timber was unloaded from ships at Merthen Hole and floated up-river to Gweek on barges. The western wharf was owned by Mr Basset of Tehidy.

Musical activities
Gweek has a silver band which performs locally and provides music at some Anglican services in the Gweek Mission Church. The band also organises a yearly "band week". This starts with a concert of three local brass bands in a field overlooking the Helford River. Afterwards, there is a pig roast with stalls and entertainment and at the end of the week a clay pigeon shoot.

The Cornwall Fiddle Orchestra was formed in 2007 by fiddle player Hudson Swan. He was a member of Scottish band, The Tannahill Weavers but now lives in Cornwall and works as a violin teacher for the Cornwall Music Service. The orchestra rehearses weekly at Helston School.

Antiquities
The three-cornered Tolvan Holed Stone is an unusual megalith. It is about 800 metres north of Gweek behind Tolvan Cross Farm.

In literature
Gweek is featured in The Meaning of Liff, a book by Douglas Adams and John Lloyd. A passage in Charles Kingsley's novel Hereward the Wake features Gweek and its neighbouring woods. Kingsley received some of his education at nearby Helston Grammar School.

title: Gweek


text:
Category:Rubiaceae

The Rubiaceae are a family of dicotyledon plants, variously called the madder, bedstraw, or coffee family. There are three subfamilies (Cinchonoideae, Ixoroideae and Rubioideae).

title: Category:Rubiaceae


text:
Abraham Geiger

Abraham Geiger (Hebrew: ʼAvrāhām Gayger; 24 May 1810 – 23 October 1874) was a German rabbi and scholar who is considered the founding father of Reform Judaism. Emphasizing Judaism's constant development through its history and universalist traits, Geiger sought to re-formulate received forms and design what he regarded as a religion compliant with modern times.

Biography
As a child, Geiger started doubting the traditional understanding of Judaism when his studies in classical history seemed to contradict the biblical claims of divine authority. At the age of seventeen, he began writing his first work, a comparison between the legal style of the Mishnah and Biblical and Talmudic law. He also worked on a dictionary of Mishnaic (Rabbinic) Hebrew.

Geiger's friends provided him with financial assistance which enabled him to attend the University in Heidelberg, to the great disappointment of his family. His main focus was centered on the areas of philology, Syriac, Hebrew, and classics, but he also attended lectures in philosophy and archaeology. After one semester, he transferred to the University of Bonn, where he studied at the same time as Samson Raphael Hirsch. Hirsch initially formed a friendship with Geiger, and with him organized a society of Jewish students for the stated purpose of practicing homiletics, but with the deeper intention of bringing them closer to Jewish values. It was to this society that Geiger preached his first sermon (January 2, 1830). In later years, he and Hirsch became bitter opponents as the leaders of two opposing Jewish movements.

At Bonn, Geiger began an intense study of Arabic and the Koran, winning a prize for his essay, written originally in Latin, and later published in German under the title "Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen?" ("What did Mohammed take from Judaism?"). The essay earned Geiger a doctorate at the University of Marburg. It demonstrated that large parts of the Koran were taken from, or based on, rabbinic literature. This book was Geiger's first step in a much larger intellectual project. Geiger sought to demonstrate Judaism's central influence on Christianity and Islam. He believed that neither movement possessed religious originality, but were simply a vehicle to transmit the Jewish monotheistic belief to the pagan world.

At this time, no university professorships were available in Germany to Jews; so, Geiger was forced to seek a position as rabbi. He found a position in the Jewish community of Wiesbaden (1832–1837). There, he continued his academic publications primarily through the scholarly journals he founded and edited, including Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift für jüdische Theologie (1835–1839) and Jüdische Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft und Leben (1862–1875). His journals became important vehicles in their day for publishing Jewish scholarship, chiefly historical and theological studies, as well as a discussion of contemporary events.

By that time, Geiger had begun his program of religious reforms, chiefly in the synagogue liturgy. For example, he abolished the prayers of mourning for the Temple, believing that since Jews were German citizens, such prayers would appear to be disloyal to the ruling power and could possibly spark anti-Semitism. Geiger was the driving force in convening several synods of reform-minded rabbis with the intention of formulating a program of progressive Judaism. However, unlike Samuel Holdheim, he did not want to create a separate community. Rather, his goal was to change Judaism from within.

Reformer
In the Germany of the 19th century, Geiger and Samuel Holdheim, along with Israel Jacobson and Leopold Zunz, stood out as the founding fathers of Reform Judaism. Geiger was a more moderate and scholarly reformer, seeking to found this new branch of Judaism on the scientific study of history, without assuming that any Jewish text was divinely written.

Geiger was not only a scholar and researcher commenting on important subjects and characters in Jewish history – he was also a rabbi responsible for much of the reform doctrine of the mid-19th century. He contributed much of the character to the reform movement that remains today. Reform historian Michael A. Meyer has stated that, if any one person can be called the founder of Reform Judaism, it must be Geiger.

Much of Geiger's writing has been translated into English from the original German. There have been many biographical and research texts about him, such as the work Abraham Geiger and the Jewish Jesus by Susannah Heschel (1998), which chronicles Geiger's radical contention that the "New Testament" illustrates Jesus was a Pharisee teaching Judaism.

Some of Geiger's studies are included in The Origins of The Koran: Classic Essays on Islam's Holy Book edited by Ibn Warraq. Other works are Judaism and Islam (1833), and An Appeal to My Community (1842).

Criticism
Samson Raphael Hirsch devoted a good many issues of his journal Jeschurun to criticizing Geiger's reform stance (published in English as Hirsch, Collected Writings).

Some critics also attacked Geiger's opposition to a Jewish national identity; most notably, he was criticized when he refused to intervene on the behalf of the Damascus affair, a blood libel, in 1840. However, Jewish historian Steven Bayme has concluded that Geiger had actually vigorously protested on humanitarian grounds.

Geiger's rejection of Orthodox Judaism
To Geiger, Judaism was unique because of its monotheism and ethics. He began to identify less with the "rigidity of Talmudic legalism, developed over centuries of ghettoization inflicted by Christian Intolerance ... in medieval Christendom", that defined and confined the existence of Orthodox Judaism in the 19th century in Germany. He believed that, "the Torah, as well as the Talmud, should be studied critically and from the point of view of the historian, that of evolution [and] development". As Geiger grew into his adolescence and young adulthood, he began to establish a more liberal approach to, and understanding of, Judaism than his traditional Orthodox Jewish background dictated. He thus rejected Orthodox Jewish tradition in favor of a liberal outlook.

Conservative Judaism's rejection of Geiger
In 1837, Geiger arranged a meeting of reform-minded rabbis in Wiesbaden for the purpose of discussing measures of concern to Judaism, and continued to be a leader of liberal German rabbinical thought through 1846. When he was nominated as a finalist for the position of Chief Rabbi in Breslau in 1838, a heated controversy sparked between conservative and liberal factions within the Jewish community. Orthodox factions accused Geiger of being a Karaite or Sadducee, and therefore prevented him from being appointed Chief Rabbi. In 1840, however, the Orthodox Rabbi of Breslau died, leading to the secession of the Orthodox faction and the appointment of Geiger as Chief Rabbi.

Throughout his time in Breslau as Chief Rabbi and after, the Positive-Historical School of Rabbi Zecharias Frankel continued to reject Geiger's philosophies. In 1841, he and Frankel clashed at the second Hamburg Temple dispute. When the Jewish Theological Seminary was founded there in 1854, thanks in part to Geiger's efforts, he was not appointed to its faculty, though he had long been at the fore-front of attempts to establish a faculty of Jewish theology. More conservatives regarded Geiger's theological stance as too liberal. Therefore, in 1863, Geiger left Breslau to become a Rabbi of liberal communities in Frankfurt and, later, Berlin. "Ultimately, in 1871, he was appointed to the faculty of the newly founded Reform rabbinical college in Berlin, Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums, where he spent his final years."

A new approach to Reform Judaism
Initially, Reform Judaism grew out of some Jews being uninterested in the "strict observances required of Orthodoxy", and an attempt to alter the appearance and ritual of Judaism to mimic German Protestantism. Geiger, however, turned to a more "coherent ideological framework to justify innovations in the liturgy and religious practice". Geiger argued that, "Reform Judaism was not a rejection of earlier Judaism, but a recovery of the Pharisaic halakhic tradition, which is nothing other than the principle of continual further development in accord with the times, the principle of not being slaves to the letter of the Bible, but rather to witness over and over its spirit and its authentic faith-consciousness."

Geiger's works

 * Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judentume aufgenommen? Bonn, 1833.
 * (translated as Judaism and Islam: A Prize Essay, F. M. Young, 1896).

 * Das Judenthum und seine Geschichte von der Zerstörung des zweiten Tempels bis zum Ende des zwölften Jahrhunderts. In zwölf Vorlesungen. Nebst einem Anhange: Offenes Sendschreiben an Herrn Professor Dr. Holtzmann. Breslau: Schletter, 1865-71.
 * (translated as Judaism and its history: in 2 parts, Lanham [u.a.]: Univ. Press of America, 1985. ISBN 0-8191-4491-6).

 * Nachgelassene Schriften. Reprint of the 1875–1878 ed., published in Berlin by L. Gerschel. Bd 1-5. New York: Arno Press, 1980. ISBN 0-405-12255-1
 * Urschrift und uebersetzungen der Bibel in ihrer abhängigkeit von der innern entwickelung des Judenthums. Breslau: Hainauer, 1857.

Secondary literature

 * Susannah Heschel: Abraham Geiger and the Jewish Jesus. Chicago; London: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1998. (Chicago studies in the history of Judaism). ISBN 0-226-32959-3.
 * Ludwig Geiger: Abraham Geiger. Leben und Werk für ein Judentum in der Moderne. Berlin: JVB, 2001. ISBN 3-934658-20-2.
 * Christian Wiese (ed.) Jüdische Existenz in der Moderne: Abraham Geiger und die Wissenschaft des Judentums (German and English), deGruyter, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-11-024759-6
 * Hartmut Bomhoff: Abraham Geiger - durch Wissen zum Glauben - Through reason to faith: reform and the science of Judaism. (Text dt. und engl.). Stiftung Neue Synagoge Berlin, Centrum Judaicum. Jüdische Miniaturen ; Bd. 45. Berlin: Hentrich und Hentrich 2006. ISBN 3-938485-27-2
 * Jobst Paul (2006): "Das 'Konvergenz'-Projekt – Humanitätsreligion und Judentum im 19. Jahrhundert". In: Margarete Jäger, Jürgen Link (Hg.): Macht – Religion – Politik. Zur Renaissance religiöser Praktiken und Mentalitäten. Münster 2006.ISBN 3-89771-740-9
 * Abraham Geiger and liberal Judaism: The challenge of the 19th century. Compiled with a biographical introduction by Max Wiener. Translated from the German by Ernst J. Schlochauer. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America 5722.
 * Abraham Geiger and liberal Judaism: The challenge of the 19th century. Compiled with a biographical introduction by Max Wiener. Translated from the German by Ernst J. Schlochauer. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America 5722.

title: Abraham Geiger


text:
User talk:Ydyu

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! --Flockmeal 02:05, Dec 13, 2004 (UTC)
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title: User talk:Ydyu


text:
Alamgir II

Mirza Aziz-ud-Din Muhammad (June 6, 1699 – November 29, 1759), better known by his regnal name Alamgir II, was the fifteenth Mughal emperor from 1754 to 1759. He was the son of Jahandar Shah.

Born Mirza Aziz-ud-Din, the second son of Jahandar Shah, was raised to the throne by Imad-ul-Mulk after he deposed Ahmad Shah Bahadur in 1754. On ascending the throne, he took the title of Alamgir and tried to follow the approach of Aurangzeb (Alamgir I). At the time of his accession to the throne he was 55 years old. He had no experience of administration and warfare as he had spent most of his life in jail. He was a weak ruler, with all powers vested in the hand of his vizier, Imad-ul-Mulk.

In 1756, Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded India once again and captured Delhi and plundered Mathura. While the Marathas became more powerful because of their collaboration with Imad-ul-Mulk, and dominated the whole of northern India. This was the peak of the Maratha expansion, which caused great trouble for the Mughal Empire, already weak with no strong ruler. Relations between Alamgir II and his usurping vizier, Imad-ul-Mulk had now deteriorated, their troubled relation would culminate in the murder of Alamgir by Imad-ul-Mulk. Alamgir II's son Ali Gauhar escaped persecution from Delhi, while Shah Jahan III was placed on the throne.

Early life
Alamgir II was born Aziz-ud-Din on 6 June 1699 at Burhanpur and was the second son of Muizz-ud-Din, the son of future Emperor Bahadur Shah (Shah Alam). His mother was a jat, Anup Bai, with little clarity about her existence.

Aziz-ud-Din was 7 when his great-grandfather Aurangzeb died in the Deccan. After the death of his grandfather, Bahadur Shah I, and the war of succession that followed, his father, Jahandar Shah, was defeated, by the next Mughal Emperor, Farrukhsiyar.

Aziz-ud-Din was then imprisoned in 1714 and released in 1754, by the usurping Vizier Imad-ul-Mulk, he perceived Aziz-ud-Din as a frail personality who would not object his regime. Therefore, on 2 June 1754, Aziz-ud-Din was given the title Alamgir II by the vizier out of his own recommendation, as he wanted to follow the centralised approach of Aurangzeb.

Succession to throne
Imad-ul-Mulk hired Maratha mercenaries to do his bidding and put all the imperial revenues into his own pocket and starved Alamgir II's family. He also persecuted Ali Gauhar, the elder son of Alamgir II.

Since then, relations between Alamgir II and Imad-ul-Mulk's regime were so bad that the latter got him assassinated in November 1759.

Reign
After the emergence of Alamgir II the Mughal Empire had impulsively began to re-centralize, particularly when many Nawabs sought the gratification of the Mughal Emperor and his co-ordination regarding their resistance to the Maratha. This development was clearly unwelcome by Imad-ul-Mulk who sought to strengthen his authoritarianism with the undaunted support of the Marathas. His Amir-ul-Umara and Mir Bakhshi continued to be Mirza Ashraf, the son of Khan Dowran VII(a noble in the reign of Farrukhsiyar and Muhammad Shah).

Alliance with the Durrani Emirate
In the year 1755, the acclaimed Mughal viceroy of Punjab, Moin-ul-Mulk died, his widow Mughlani Begum desperately sought the assistance of Ahmad Shah Durrani to halt any succession struggle and to quell the Sikh rebels in the eastern regions.

Ahmad Shah Durrani and his forces then marched into Lahore in the year 1756 and appointed his son Timur Shah Durrani as the new viceroy at Lahore, under the protection of the commander Jahan Khan and also placed Adina Beg as the Faujdar of Doab. Ahmad Shah Durrani then plundered Sikh and Hindu inhabitants in the unstable and outlawed eastern regions of the Punjab.

He then marched towards Delhi, in January 1757, the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II with courtiers such as Shah Waliullah, nobles such as Najib-ul-Daula, and the imperial family went to meet Ahmad Shah Durrani, whose forces then engaged the Marathas in combat and threatened to overthrow and execute the regime of Imad-ul-Mulk.

Ahmad Shah Durrani's relations with the Mughal Emperor, strengthened further when his son Timur Shah Durrani was chosen as the suitor of Alamgir II's daughter Zuhra Begum. Ahmad Shah Durrani himself also married Hadrat Begum the daughter of the former Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah.

Ahmad Shah Durrani returned to Kabul leaving his forces led by his son Timur Shah Durrani consolidating themselves inside the garrisons of Lahore where they founded the Zamzama cannon with the assistance of Mughal Metalsmiths.

He was supported by Mohammad Bahawal Khan II (Nawab Amir of Bhawalpur) and Muhammad Nasir Khan I (Khanate of Kalat).

Siege of Delhi (1757)
In July 1757, the Marathas led by Raghunathrao rejected the alliance established between the Durrani Empire and the Mughal Empire, they were assisted by Imad-ul-Mulk and encamped 30 km opposite to the Red Fort and occupied all the villages by the Jamuna they began to besiege Delhi.

The Marathas fought against Alamgir II's incumbent Mir Bakhshi ("Paymaster") Najib-ul-Daula along with his lieutenants Qutub Shah and Aman Khan and a Mughal Army of 2,500 garrisoned inside the metropolis of Delhi. The angry Maratha set ferries ablaze and stopped food supplies from entering Delhi, while Najib-ul-Daula positioned his heavy artillery outside the vicinity of the Red Fort.

Unable to gain any assistance from Ahmad Shah Durrani, who was engaged in quelling various rebellions near Herat; Najib-ul-Daula surrendered after resisting the combined brigands of Maratha Confederacy for more than five months, he conceded defeat and withdrew to Najibabad. When the Marathas entered Delhi the emperor Alamgir II and his royal family had somehow fled to Bharatpur State. The Marathas looted and plundered the city and the people of Delhi. Mosques and Shrines built by the Mughals were desecrated; and the Peshwa conspired to place Vishwasrao upon the Mughal throne.

Imad-ul-Mulk was reappointed Mir Bakhshi and with the support of the Marathas. Not long after entering Delhi the Marathas encountered a Jat regiment sent by Suraj Mal who now began to claim sovereignty over Delhi. The Jat also plundered Delhi but soon afterwards made it possible for Alamgir II and the Mughal royal family to return to Delhi from Bharatpur.

However, despite losing control of Delhi, Najib-ul-Daula and his associates, such as Qutub Khan and Abdus Samad Khan the Mughal Faujdar of Sirhind, continued to challenge the Maratha Confederacy and its allies during confrontations at Saharanpur and Shahabad Markanda. In response the Marathas sacked the inhabitants of Taraori, Karnal and Kunjpura.

The Maratha attack upon Kunjpura triggered a military response by Ahmad Shah Durrani. Whose forces crossed the sacred rivers of India in search of their Maratha opponents.

Subjects opposing the Maratha Confederacy
In the year 1756, Alamgir II sympathised with the cause of his loyal Nawabs of Kurnool, Cuddapah and Savanur, when their assigned territories were ravaged and plundered until 1757 by the Maratha chieftain Balaji Baji Rao.

Loss of Bengal
Alamgir II grieved the death of Alivardi Khan the famous Nawab of Bengal, who annually pledged 5 million dams to the imperial court. His successor Siraj-ud-Daula was recognised as the next Nawab of Bengal, but he faced internal rivals who refused to consider the Firman granted by Alamgir II to Siraj-ud-Daula. These internal conflicts would lead Siraj-ud-Daula to hastily annex Calcutta from the English East India Company, without the permission of the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II and Salabat Jung. Siraj-ud-Daula was quickly defeated by Clive who recaptured Calcutta and defeated Siraj-ud-Daula during the Battle of Plassey in the year 1757. After the annihilation of his entire army Siraj-ud-Daula fled and was killed by the forces of the treacherous Mir Jafar. The deceased Siraj-ud-Daula's pretensions were criticised in the Mughal imperial court by Ghulam Husain Tabatabai, and Alamgir II refused to recognise Mir Jafar as the next Nawab of Bengal. In response to the imperial court's decision Mir Jafar thus consolidated and alliance with the manipulative Imad-ul-Mulk against the imperial family.

Authority in the Deccan
Throughout Alamgir II's reign French commandant de Bussy and Lally and their allies such as Salabat Jung and Hyder Ali greatly contributed to the advancement of forces in the Deccan opposed to the utter dominance of the Maratha renegades, their achievements had earned them fame throughout the influential circles within the Mughal Empire. In the year 1756, Salabat Jung's forces utilised heavy muskets known as Catyocks, which were attached to the ground, it was known to have fired more rapidly than a cannon. These new weapons would completely reverse fortunes of the Maratha rebels. Soon after the Battle of Plassey, the French commander De Bussy, also entitled Saif-ud-Daula Umdat-ul-Mulk and Mansabdar of 7000, by the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II. He captured the Northern Circars from the British along with his assistant Hyder Jung the "Vakil" (attorney) representing the French within the Mughal Empire and Salabat Jung. However the Northern Circars were retaken by Forde in the year 1758 and De Bussy was recalled to France. Fearing the worst Salabat Jung reconciled with the English East India Company and recognised their protectorate and was soon overthrown by his own brother Nizam Ali Khan.

Nawab of Bhopal
In the year 1758, the Mughal Army of Faiz Mohammad Khan the Nawab of Bhopal was treacherously attacked by his step-mother Mamola Bai who suddenly besieged the Mughal garrison at Fortress of Raisen in 1758, according to the layout of the Marathas. The outraged Mughal Emperor Alamgir II, then issued a Firman supporting Faiz Mohammad Khan was the Nawab of Bhopal the only chosen administrator of Raisen, the emperor also granted the title Bahadur to Faiz Mohammad Khan the Nawab of Bhopal. However the fort remained under the control of Mamola Bai and the renegade Nanasaheb Peshwa. The fortress of Raisen was quickly retaken by Faiz Mohammad Khan in the year 1760, after the tragic assassination of Alamgir II and after Sadashivrao Bhau threatened to ravage Bhopal prior to the Third Battle of Panipat. It is believed that Faiz Mohammad Khan's Sepoy's were among those who had cut off the various supply routes of the Marathas just before the Third Battle of Panipat.

Nawab of Cambay
Najm-ad-Dawla supported British presence in Cambay. Turning much of his estate into an international "safe zone". Although it is likely that he too had to face threats from the Maratha climax.

"Nawab of Mysore"
In 1758, Hyder Ali and his Sepoy captured Bangalore from "Khande Rao of the Maratha Confederacy".

In honour of his achievements during the Carnatic Wars, the king gave him the title "Nawab Haider Ali Khan Bahadur".

Zenith of the Maratha Confederacy

In 1758 the Marathas led by Raghunathrao occupied Lahore after extracted an extortion of imperial wealth from Imad-ul-Mulk, together they conspired the overthrow of young Timur Shah Durrani. Raghunathrao drove out Jahan Khan and Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Durrani. Timur Shah Durrani and his forces were forced to retreat from Lahore to Peshawar under the force of attacks from Sikhs and Marathas. This victory made the belligerent Peshwa, grandiosely sack Delhi, and stated his intentions of placing Vishwasrao on the Mughal throne.

Assassination
Many of his actions had angered the people of India. Fearing a backlash in the summer of the year 1759 Prince Ali Gauhar escaped from Delhi.

Agitated by the daring escape Imad-ul-Mulk and Sadashivrao Bhau reckoned that Alamgir II was about to advance his son Prince Ali Gauhar, to dispossess and overthrow their regime.

After detailed consideration Imad-ul-Mulk and an angry mob of various ethnic groups plotted to murder the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II and the assassinations of prominent members of his family in the winter of 1759.

Aftermath
The defeat of Alamgir II's son-in-law, Timur Shah Durrani by the Marathas in the year 1760, provoked the wrath of Ahmad Shah Durrani, who launched a massive campaign gathering more troops than ever before. In response to Imad-ul-Mulk and Sadashivrao Bhau; Najib-ud-Daula and his firm alliance of principal Muslim nobles in the Mughal Empire and Ahmad Shah Abdali recaptured Delhi and placed it under the nominal authority of Shah Alam II. In the south Hyder Ali and his Mysore Army ferociously attacked the Maratha. Meanwhile, Shah Alam II anticipated the collapse of the Maratha and declared Shuja-ud-Daula his Grand Vizier and Najib-ud-Daula as his honorary Mukhtar Khas (Chief Representative). These developments eventually culminated into rise of religious and political loyalties that eventually clashed at the "Third Battle of Panipat" in the year 1761.

Seven Years' War

In 1756, the Seven Years' War had broken out and Alamgir II was supported by various international belligerents of that war. It was the first global war in which the Mughal emperor had his involvement apart from the boundaries of India. Alamgir II was initially involved in that war because the British were hasty in their attempts to conquer Bengal Subah.

In 1755, De Bussy received letter from new Mughal Emperor Alamgir II requesting French assistance to put down the Maratha Confederacy. Alamgir II asked if it was possible for De Bussy to dispatch a French contingent of 1000 strong to protect the Mughal Empire's capital at Delhi. Alamgir II also promised to pay a hefty sum for the maintenance of the French and even promised to settle disputes in the Carnatic Wars in favour of the French East India Company.

In 1757, Alamgir II had successfully achieved peace between the Durrani Emirate and the Mughal Empire. Alamgir II even secured a matrimonial alliance when Timur Shah Durrani married Gauhar Afroz Begam the daughter of the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II in February 1757 and Ahmad Shah Durrani married Hazrat Begum the daughter of the former Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah in 1757.

in the year 1751, the Swedish East India Company was operating in Surat as a co-belligerent of Alamgir II. They were probably instrumental in assisting the first Nawab of Junagadh. It is believed that Alamgir II even tried to reconcile the English East India Company and the French East India Company before his death in 1759.

Death

The newly appointed Mughal Grand Vizier after Ahmad Shah Durrani's invasion was Najib-ud-Daula who tried to consolidate the remains of the Mughal Empire by uniting distant Faujdars (commanders), Nawab's and Nizams into a common cause against the Marathas. Fearing their wrath the deposed Imad-ul-Mulk aligned himself with the Maratha leader Sadashivrao Bhau and launched an counterattack against Najib-ud-Daula which lasted 15 days and resulted in the defeat of Najib-ud-Daula who was driven north.

Imad-ul-Mulk then feared that the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II would recall Ahmad Shah Durrani, or use his son Prince Ali Gauhar, to dispossess him of his newfound power with the Marathas. Therefore, Imad-ul-Mulk plotted to murder the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II and his family. A few Mughal Princes, including Ali Gauhar desperately managed to escape before assassination. In November 1759, the Mughal Emperor Alamgir II was told that a pious man had come to meet him, Alamgir II, ever so eager to meet holy men, set out immediately to meet him at Kotla Fateh Shah, he was stabbed repeatedly by Imad-ul-Mulk's assassins. The Mughal Emperor Alamgir II's death was mourned throughout the Mughal Empire, particularly by the Muslim populace.

In popular culture

 * In the 2019 Bollywood war epic Panipat, the character of Alamgir II was portrayed by S. M. Zaheer.
 * In the 1994 TV series The Great Maratha the character was portrayed by Arun Bali

title: Alamgir II


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CFTM-DT

CFTM-DT (channel 10) is a television station in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, serving as the flagship of the French-language network TVA. Owned by Groupe TVA, the station has studios on Boulevard de Maisonneuve East and Rue Alexandre de Sève in the Ville-Marie borough of Montreal, and its transmitter is located on Voie Camillien Houde (near Mount Royal).

History
It opened on February 19, 1961, a few weeks after CFCF-TV went on the air for the first time. It was owned by Joseph Alexandre de Sève and his company, Télé-Métropole. At first it relied primarily on kinescopes from RTL, and also from Télé Monte Carlo, but it wasn't long before it settled into a more peculiar and local form. On April 14, 1963, CFTM started sharing programs with CJPM-TV in Chicoutimi (now Saguenay) in the Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean region on the day the latter station signed on. They were joined by CFCM-TV in Quebec City in 1964. This was the informal beginning of TVA, though the network wasn't officially established until September 12, 1971. When de Sève died in 1968, the city government renamed the street in front of CFTM's studios rue Alexandre de Sève in his honour.

CFTM has always been by far the largest station in the TVA network. As such, it dominated the network long before Télé-Métropole bought majority control of TVA in 1990. At one point, CFTM produced as much as 90 percent of TVA's programming. Even today, TVA's network feed is little more than a retransmission of CFTM. Whenever CFTM has to interrupt its programming for breaking news or weather alerts in Montreal, the entire network usually gets interrupted as well.

CFTM-TV was essentially available on satellite beginning November 1, 1981, as TCTV, carried via Cancom by cable television operators across Canada, though not in most major cities. TCTV carried mainly the same programs as CFTM, but with some local news and programming from other TVA affiliates.

The TCTV service ended when the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) approved TVA for a national network license in 1998. Since May 1, 1999, all Canadian cable companies have been required to carry a TVA station. CFTM is the affiliate carried in most markets outside of Quebec — excepting some markets in Northern Ontario, Eastern Ontario and New Brunswick, which have long carried the stations in adjacent markets. The station also provides a time-shifted feed for cable companies in western Canada, delayed three hours after the original broadcast, matching up with Pacific Time.

Digital television and high definition
CFTM received CRTC approval in March 2006 for its request to broadcast digitally on UHF channel 59 and was granted a requested extension to August 31, 2009, to launch this service but the launch never occurred. On July 6, 2009, as part of a license renewal hearing, TVA was granted a second extension in which to launch CFTM-DT.

During the analogue television shutdown and digital conversion, which took place on August 31, 2011, CFTM silenced its analogue transmitter on September 1, 2011, at 12:01 a.m. during a movie's airing and began broadcasting a digital signal a few minutes later on its old analog channel number, 10.

title: CFTM-DT


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Lent (disambiguation)

Lent, in Western Christianity, is the period before the Christian holy day of Easter.

Lent may also refer to:

Christian observances

 * Great Lent, in Eastern Christianity, the period that corresponds to Western Lent
 * Jack o' Lent, an event in Medieval England involving the burning of an effigy of Judas Iscariot made of straw and rags
 * Lent Event, community based Christian social justice movement
 * Lent in Malta, numerous religious traditions, most of them inherited from one generation to the next, that are part of the Paschal celebrations in the Maltese Islands

Places

 * Lent, Ain, a commune in Ain, France
 * Lent, Jura, a commune in Jura, France
 * Lent, Netherlands, a village in the municipality of Nijmegen, Netherlands
 * Lent Township, Chisago County, Minnesota, a township in the U.S.
 * Lent Homestead and Cemetery, a historic cemetery in New York City
 * Lent, Maribor, an old part of Maribor, Slovenia

People with the surname

 * Abraham Lent (1789–1873), Nova Scotia politician
 * Abraham Lent (New York City) (1815–1882), New York politician
 * Arie van Lent (b. 1970), Dutch-German footballer
 * Berkeley Lent (1921–2007), American politician and jurist in the state of Oregon
 * Blair Lent (1930–2009), American author and illustrator of mostly Chinese-themed books
 * Helmut Lent (1918–1944), German night fighter ace in World War II
 * James Lent (1782–1833), U.S. Representative from New York
 * James Lent (Nova Scotia politician) (1753–1838)
 * John Lent (b. 1948), Canadian poet and novelist
 * Michael Lent (visual artist), co-creator and publisher of Toby Room magazine
 * Norman F. Lent (1931–2012), Conservative Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from New York
 * Willis Lent (1904–1959), rear admiral in the United States Navy

Art, entertainment, and media

 * Lent (album), an album by Dallas Crane
 * Lent Festival, arts festival in Lent, Maribor, Slovenia
 * Lent Talks, a series of talks, normally broadcast on BBC Radio in the United Kingdom, to mark the Christian season of Lent
 * The Fight Between Carnival and Lent (1559), an oil-on-panel work painted by Pieter Bruegel the Elder
 * Lent, a 2019 fantasy novel by Jo Walton

Events

 * "Buddhist Lent", a commonly used term for Vassa or Rains Retreat, a three-month annual retreat observed by Theravada practitioners in Burma, which takes place during the wet season
 * Lent term, spring academic term at certain British universities

Sports

 * Lent Bumps or Lents, a set of rowing races held annually in Cambridge

title: Lent (disambiguation)


text:
Category:Gentianales

The Gentianales are an order of flowering plants, included within the asterids, in the lamiids.

title: Category:Gentianales


text:
User talk:Solmstead

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! --Flockmeal 02:06, Dec 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

title: User talk:Solmstead


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Pedro Antonio de Alarcón

Pedro Antonio de Alarcón y Ariza (10 March 1833 – 19 July 1891) was a nineteenth-century Spanish novelist, known best for his novel El sombrero de tres picos (1874), an adaptation of popular traditions which provides a description of village life in Alarcón's native region of Andalusia. It was the basis for Hugo Wolf's opera Der Corregidor (1897); for Riccardo Zandonai's opera La farsa amorosa (1933); and Manuel de Falla's ballet The Three-Cornered Hat (1919).

Alarcón wrote another popular short novel,  ('Captain Poison', 1881). He produced four other full-length novels. One of these novels, El escándalo ('The Scandal', 1875), became noted for its keen psychological insights. Alarcón also wrote three travel books and many short stories and essays.

Alarcón was born in Guadix, near Granada. In 1859, he served in the Hispano-Moroccan War. He gained his first literary recognition with , a patriotic account of the campaign.

Works

 * Cuentos amatorios.
 * El final de Norma: novela (1855).
 * Descubrimiento y paso del cabo de Buena Esperanza (1857).
 * Diario de un testigo de la Guerra de África (1859).
 * De Madrid a Nápoles (1860).
 * Dos ángeles caídos y otros escritos olvidados.
 * El amigo de la muerte: cuento fantástico (1852).
 * El año en Spitzberg.
 * El capitán Veneno: novela.
 * El clavo.
 * El coro de Angeles (1858).
 * La Alpujarra (1873).
 * El sombrero de tres picos: novela corta (1874).
 * El escándalo (1875)
 * El extranjero.
 * El niño de la Bola (1880).
 * Historietas nacionales.
 * Juicios literarios y artísticos.
 * La Alpujarra: sesenta leguas a caballo precedidas de seis en diligencia.
 * La Comendadora.
 * La mujer alta: cuento de miedo.
 * La pródiga.
 * Lo que se oye desde una silla del Prado.
 * Los ojos negros.
 * Los seis velos.
 * Moros y cristianos.
 * Narraciones inverosímiles.
 * Obras literarias de Pedro Antonio de Alarcón. Volumen 2
 * Obras literarias de Pedro Antonio de Alarcón. Volumen 1
 * Obras literarias de Pedro Antonio de Alarcón. Volumen 3
 * Poesías serias y humorísticas
 * Soy, tengo y quiero.
 * Viajes por España.
 * Últimos escritos.

title: Pedro Antonio de Alarcón


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Watts Writers Workshop

The Watts Writers Workshop was a creative writing group initiated by screenwriter Budd Schulberg in the wake of the devastating August 1965 Watts Riots in South Central Los Angeles (now South Los Angeles). Schulberg later said: "In a small way, I wanted to help.... The only thing I knew was writing, so I decided to start a writers' workshop." The group, which functioned from 1965 to 1973, was composed primarily of young African Americans in Watts and the surrounding neighborhoods. Early on, the Workshop included a theatrical component and one of the founders was the actor Yaphet Kotto. The group expanded its facilities and activities over the next several years with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation. Government files later revealed that the Workshop had been the target of covert operations by the FBI. Writers involved in the Workshop include Quincy Troupe, Samuel Harris Jr better known as Leumas Sirrah, Johnie Scott, Eric Priestley, Ojenke, Herbert Simmons, and Wanda Coleman, as well as the poetry group Watts Prophets.

History
The Watts Writers Workshop was begun in September 1965. Founding members were: Ernest Mayhand, Leumas Sirrah, James Thomas Jackson, Birdell Chew Moore, Sonora McKeller, Jimmy Sherman, Johnie Scott, Guadelupe de Saavedra, Harley Mims, Eric Priestley, Alvin Saxon Jr. (Ojenke), Ryan Vallejo Kennedy, and Blossom Powe.

On August 16, 1966, the Workshop was the subject of an hour-long NBC TV documentary, The Angry Voices of Watts, that drew press attention and support from prominent figures across the country, such as James Baldwin, John Steinbeck, Richard Burton, Steve Allen, Abbey Lincoln, Ira Gershwin, and Senator Robert F. Kennedy. In 1967 two anthologies of writing from the group appeared, both edited by Schulberg: From the Ashes: Voices of Watts, and the fall issue of The Antioch Review entitled "The Watts Writers Workshop". In 1968, Watts Poets - A Book of New Poetry & Essays was published, edited by Quincy Troupe.

The National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) awarded a grant of $25,000 awarded to enable the group to establish a meeting space for its writing programs as well as housing for some of the Workshop's members, and a year later gave a second grant of $25,000 in support of expanding the Workshop's programs. The workshop continued to expand. In 1972, television personality Sue Baker organized the teaching of a street dance called Campbellocking within the workshop's theatrical department, forming one of the first street dance groups called "Creative Generation", which was composed of several of the local street dancers who became popular on the television dance show Soul Train.

Harry Dolan, the director of the Watts Writers Workshop, was attempting to keep it going after the loss of federal funding by holding a fundraising dinner in April 1973, but within months the workshop building with its 350-seat theatre was burned down by FBI informant Darthard Perry (a.k.a. Ed Riggs),  who began confessing to his activities in 1975. Perry stated in a 1980 interview with WABC-TV's Like It Is that "funding had been cut to the Workshop, it had been cut out, but it looked like there was a possibility of a grant being given back to the Workshop and if there was no theater there would be no grant."

title: Watts Writers Workshop


text:
Billy Caldwell

Billy Caldwell (March 17, 1782 – September 28, 1841), known also as Sauganash, a variant spelling of Zhagnash meaning British in the Potawatomi language, was a Métis fur trader who was commissioned captain in the Indian Department of Canada during the War of 1812, and fought alongside Tecumseh at the Battle of Frenchtown and likely all the subsequent battles until their defeat at the Battle of the Thames. In 1829 and 1833, he negotiated treaties on behalf of the United Nations of Chippewa, Ottawa and Potawatomi with the United States, as a leader of a Potawatomi and led his band to Trader's Point, Iowa Territory, modern day Council Bluffs. He had worked to gain the boundary long promised by the British between white settlers and Indians, but never achieved it and instead acquiesced to American purchase and Indian removal, leading his followers personally across the Mississippi, as evidenced by his signing of the 2nd Treaty of Prairie du Chien and his inclusion on the Removal Muster Rolls of 1837.

Born in a Mohawk refugee camp near Fort Niagara, Billy was the son of William Caldwell, a Scots-Irish immigrant to North America and a Loyalist British officer during the American Revolutionary War, and a variously Mohawk or Shawnee woman. She is sometimes called the daughter of a Mohawk chief named 'Rising Sun', or, herself named 'Rising Sun'. Due to his British father, French-Canadian step-mother, (Suzanne the daughter of Jacques Baby) and his later Potawatomi wife, he became multilingual, learning English, French, and Potawatomi.

After moving to the United States in 1818, Caldwell became a fur trader and learned Potawatomi, an Algonquian language; he negotiated with numerous tribes in the Lake Michigan area. He gained their respect and also acted as a translator and negotiator between the government and American Indians. In 1829, Caldwell represented the Chippewa, Ottawa and Potawatomi peoples of the United Nations Tribes in negotiating the Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien with the United States. For his work, the US granted him a 1600-acre tract, known as the Caldwell Reserve, along the Chicago River. Eighty acres is included within the Cook County Forest Preserve.

Together with Alexander Robinson, Caldwell also negotiated the 1833 Treaty of Chicago for the United Nations Tribes. The US had appointed the two mixed-race men as chiefs in 1829 to fill vacant positions, to encourage the United Nations Tribes to sign the cessions. The treaty led to the final removal of American Indians from that region, to west of the Mississippi River. In 1835, Caldwell migrated with his people from the Chicago region west to Platte County, Missouri.

As a result of the Platte Purchase in 1836, Caldwell and his band were removed from Missouri to Iowa Territory, to the area of Trader's Point (Pointe aux Poules) on the east bank of the Missouri River. While living at Trader's Point, Caldwell led a band of approximately 2000 Potawatomi. Their settlement became known as Camp Caldwell. In 1841 Caldwell died; scholars believe it may have been because of cholera.

Early life and education
Soon after the American Revolutionary War, Billy Caldwell, was born in 1782 (as documented through two autobiographical letters) in a Mohawk refugee camp near Fort Niagara to a Mohawk woman. His father was William Caldwell, a Scots-Irish immigrant who came to North America in 1773 and served as a Loyalist soldier in the war. Living first in Virginia, in 1774 his father had fought as an officer with Lord Dunmore and was wounded. After recovering, he went to Fort Niagara in New York, where he fought with the partisan Butler's Rangers against Patriot colonists in New York and Pennsylvania.

After the war, Caldwell abandoned Billy and his mother, moving to the Detroit area. He resettled as a Loyalist in Upper Canada, where he was granted land by the British Crown. In addition to clearing land for his own farm, he helped develop the town of Amherstburg, in present-day Ontario.

In 1783, the senior Caldwell married Suzanne Baby (daughter of Jacques Baby dit Dupéron), of French-Canadian descent. They eventually had eight children together. In 1789, when Billy was seven, his father took the boy to live with him and his Canadian wife, who wanted to rear him in the Catholic faith. Billy was given a basic Anglo-Canadian education and became Catholic. Living with his father's family, Billy learned to speak both English and French, after having grown up learning the Iroquoian Mohawk. Although Billy worked on his father's farm as he was growing up, he wanted a different life.

Career
In 1797 at the age of 17, Billy Caldwell entered United States territory for the first time, to learn the fur trade business (he traded for much of his life). He kept his British Canadian loyalties and learned Potowatomi, an Algonquian language, for dealing with the several tribes of that language family near Lake Michigan.

Billy Caldwell Jr. was considered the left hand of the Great Leader Tecumseh, One of North America's greatest European resistance movements.

In 1812, after the Battle of Fort Dearborn, Caldwell at age 32 returned to Canada to enlist in the British service; he looked for his father's help to gain a commission. The senior Caldwell by then was a Lieutenant Colonel and had gained commissions for his sons by Suzanne. The regular army did not accept Billy Caldwell, but he was commissioned as a captain in the Indian Department. By then he had become influential among the Ojibwa, Ottawa and Potawatomi, Algonquian-speaking tribes inhabiting the area around Lake Michigan. Severely wounded in his first combat action, Caldwell Jr. recovered and participated in several more battles along the northern frontier. He was disgusted that the British abandoned their First Nations allies at the Battle of the Thames, when General Proctor made an early retreat before the US forces. By account of natives at the battle, Caldwell was one of the last to see Tecumseh alive, walking away after the battle mortally wounded in the chest. In addition, through this period Caldwell had worked with the British in the hope they would deliver the long-promised boundary between European and First Nations settlement, but each war ended with their ceding more land to the Americans.

In 1814, the Canadians appointed the senior Caldwell as Superintendent of Indians for the Western District, a position for which the younger Caldwell had competed as well. He was appointed second to his father. In 1815 Amherstburg, Ontario's Commandant, Reginald James, suspended Caldwell Sr. because of problems in supplying the Indians; he appointed Billy Caldwell as Superintendent. The Indian Department quickly found that he could not manage the work and "eased him out" the following year, in 1816.

The younger Caldwell inherited a plot of land in early 1818 after his father's death, but decided to return to the US. He settled in the Fort Dearborn area (now Chicago); he had long been recruited by Americans because of his influence with the local tribes. He worked hard to gain the Americans' trust. At the same time he continued to work with a local fur trade firm and became active with the tribes in the area.

He became more politically active and in 1825, Caldwell sought an appointment to become a justice of the peace. In August 1826, Caldwell served as a judge in Peoria County, Illinois's first election. Also in 1826, he was recommended to the Governor of Illinois to hold the Justice of the Peace position for Peoria County. That year, he became an appraiser for the estate of John Crafts, a local trader who died during the year of 1825. In 1827, Caldwell worked for the United States to secure information related to a possible Winnebago uprising.

In 1829, Caldwell became one of several chiefs to represent the United Nations of the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi in negotiations with the United States in the Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien. The US was working on Indian Removal, the process that would be authorized by Congress in 1830. At the same time, their agents were also negotiating with the Winnebago for cessions and removal.

"Through his involvement in the process, he became recognized as a chief of the United Nations," and was so introduced by their spokesmen. Also negotiating as a chief was Alexander Robinson (also known as Chechepinquay or The Squinter), a mixed-race Potawatomi who was Caldwell's long-time friend. He later said that Dr. Wolcott, the US Indian Agent to the United Nations, arranged for both Robinson and Caldwell to be selected as chiefs to fill two vacancies. It was an example of US intervention into tribes' processes for identifying their own leaders. Wolcott wanted to have chiefs who would favor the treaty, fearing that unless all the chiefs' positions filled, the United Nations would not sign. The US granted both Robinson and Caldwell large plots of land under the treaty for their parts in influencing the other chiefs to sign the land cession.

Caldwell was given 1600 acres on the Chicago River. In 1833, he helped found the first Catholic church in Chicago, Saint Mary of the Assumption. It was located at what is now Lake Street west of State Street.

In 1833, together with Robinson, Caldwell was one of the chiefs representing the United Nations of the three tribes in negotiating the Treaty of Chicago. By this, the Potawatomi ceded the "last of their Illinois and Wisconsin lands and their last reservations in Michigan." Caldwell and his band migrated west in 1835, first settling in Missouri west of the Mississippi River. The treaty provided for a $10,000 payment each to Caldwell and Robinson, and a $400 lifetime annuity for Caldwell, with $300 annually for Robinson. Before the US Senate ratified the treaty in 1835, it reduced the lump-sum payments to the men to $5000 each, but left their annuities intact. Robinson and some other Métis remained in Illinois on their private tracts of land, but most of the United Nations Tribes removed to Missouri and then to Iowa.

Caldwell Reserve
The US had awarded Caldwell's Reserve, 1600 acres on the Chicago River, to Sauganash in 1829 as a result of his services in negotiating the Prairie du Chien treaty. In 1833, likely in preparation for their removal beyond the Mississippi River, as well as due to the declining fur trade and disappearance of game, Caldwell began selling off his land by contracting with the land speculator Arthur Bronson from New York. According to his land patent, to be legally binding, each deed had to have a president's endorsed signature upon it.

All unsold parcels were legally to be considered owned by Caldwell's heirs, in trust with the US Bureau of Indian Affairs. The land patent was not completed until 1839, and the deeds did not gain a president's signature until 1841, after Caldwell and his band had left the area for the West.

In all, six land sales took place from Caldwell's Reserve. These land transactions included: 80 acres to George W. Dole and Richard Hamilton in June 1833 for $100; 160 acres to Richard Nicolas, Sarah Amantus, Eleanor Hamilton, and infant heirs of Richard Jo and Diana W. Hamilton in July 1833 for $200; 160 acres to Philo Carpenter in July 1833 for $200; 720 acres to Arthur Bronson in 1833 for $900; 160 acres to Captain Seth Johnson in November 1833 for $200; 80 and 160 acres, respectively, to Julius B. Kingsbury in November 1834 for $300. To date, the Northern 160 acres of Caldwell's Reserve were never legally conveyed for sale with a president's signature of approval. They are included within the Cook County Forest Preserve and the neighborhood of Wildwood being purchased from an adverse possessor.

Marriage and family
Caldwell married La Natte about 1804, who died after the birth of their first child, Alexander. She was the niece of the powerful Potowatomi chief, Mad Sturgeon, Juliette Magill Kinzie in her book Wau-bun refers to the wife of Caldwell as the daughter of Neescotnemeg, referring to Mad Sturgeon, likely a bastardization of the original name. The contemporary words for mad and sturgeon in Potawatomi are nshkadze and namé, respectfully. Combined, these two words sound vaguely like Neescotnemeg. Given his name, Mad Sturgeon was likely from the Fish Doodem. Alexander, the offspring of this union, died in 1832 in his twenties from alcoholism.

Caldwell married again, but his second wife also died within a year after the birth of their first child, of which nothing is known.

Before leaving the Chicago area, Caldwell married a third time, on November 19, 1834. His bride was Saqua (also called Masaqua) LeGrand, likely a Métis woman of mixed native and French descent. There are records via the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago of the couple having three daughters, though there very well could have been more. According to a report made by the Hayes Administration in 1880, he was not known to have any living heirs, and Pe-y-mo

Indian removal

In 1835, Caldwell and his band of Potawatomi left the State of Illinois and relocated in Platte County, Missouri.

In 1836, as a result of the Platte Purchase, Caldwell and his band were removed from this reservation to Trader's Point on the east bank of the Missouri River in the Iowa Territory. The Potawatomi band of an estimated 2000 individuals settled in a main village called "Caldwell's Camp", located where the later city of Council Bluffs, Iowa developed. (This was on the eastern bank of the river, opposite the present-day city of Omaha, Nebraska.)

From 1838 to 1839, Caldwell and his people were ministered to by the notable Belgian Jesuit missionary Pierre-Jean De Smet, based in St. Louis, Missouri. The Jesuit priest was appalled at the violence and desperation that overtook the Potawatomi in their new home, in large part due to the whiskey trade. After De Smet returned to St. Louis, the Catholic mission was abandoned by 1841. Caldwell died on September 28, 1841; scholars believe it may have been from cholera. His wife Masaqua died in the winter of 1843. Together they had one surviving son, Pe-y-mo. Pe-y-mo married and had his own family, and they lived for some time with the Kickapoo in Kansas. In the late nineteenth century, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States.

Legacy and honors

 * The Sauganash Hotel, completed in Chicago in 1831 was named in honor of Caldwell.
 * He was awarded a 1600-acre reserve on the Chicago River, including the confluence of the three tributaries of the North Branch of the Chicago River, which he started selling off in 1833. The reserve is clearly visible in the 1861 Plat of Chicago held at the Library of Congress. The eastern half of the reserve was sold as a chunk of 720 acres, and was subdivided and developed, today representing the neighborhood of Sauganash within Forest Glen. The 80 acres above were sold off separately and developed into the neighborhood of Wildwood. The western 800 acres were seemingly sold off as four parcels of 160 and the two northernmost parcels being 80 acres. The northernmost 80 acres on either side of U.S. Route 14, thus 160 total, never received the official presidential approval needed for the sale to be formalized. This land was purchased by the Cook County Forest Preserve, the eastern section becoming Wildwood, and the western section being part of Caldwell Woods.
 * He is thought to have had many children but none survived him according to a letter written to his half-brother Francis Caldwell in
 * In the removal muster roll of 1837, Billy Caldwell is labelled as being the head of a family of five. Two children were under 10, there was a man and a woman marked as under 25, the woman may have been his last wife and eventual widow: Saqua (Masaqua) LeGrande, his own age marked as over 50.
 * There is a Sauganash Golf Club in Three Rivers, MI., as well as another on his former reserve, both named in his honor.
 * He is the subject of a documentary film, "The Negotiator: Billy Caldwell Documentary," which sold out its June 20, 2024 screening at the Illinois Holocaust Museum.

title: Billy Caldwell


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User talk:Reiki15

What is going on with Politics?
Hello this is my first article and I thought that I might begin by saying that politicians are more crooked than ever these days. In a 1999 issue of World Press the Berlin Based Organization Transparency International stated that politicians are more crooked then ever before. if you really want to see what politics are all about go watch Fahrenheit 911. That's all I have to say.

Reiki15

title: User talk:Reiki15


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T28 super-heavy tank

The T28 Super Heavy Tank was an American super-heavy tank/assault gun designed for the United States Army during World War II. It was originally designed to break through German defenses of the Siegfried Line and was later considered as a possible participant in the planned invasion of the Japanese mainland.

The near 100-ton vehicle was initially designated a heavy tank. It was re-designated as the 105 mm Gun Motor Carriage T95 in 1945, and then renamed in 1946 as the Super Heavy Tank T28.

Only two prototypes were built before the project was terminated.

Name
Initially named Heavy Tank T28 when construction was authorized in 1944, the design did not fit in the usual categories of vehicles leading to reclassification. As it did not have its armament in a revolving turret, Ordnance requested a name change to 105 mm Gun Motor Carriage T95, the change becoming official in March 1945. However, due to its heavy armor and armament—while self-propelled guns in United States service were lightly armored—it was renamed Super Heavy Tank T28 in June 1946 by OCM 37058.<

Development
The T28/T95 was designed to be used for attacking the heavy defenses expected of the Siegfried Line along the western borders of Germany. The 105mm T5E1 gun selected was known to have very good performance against concrete and "expected to be extremely effective at reducing heavy fortifications". By the time the vehicle passed trials, the German Siegfried Line had already been infiltrated and overwhelmed by the Allied forces. As a result, the T28 never left the United States, with the vehicle instead serving as an engineering study and load test vehicle at Aberdeen Proving Ground.

The need for an assault tank was first identified in 1943, Ordnance proposing that 25 vehicles could be ready for operations. A conference in March 1944 between Ordnance Department and Army Ground Forces resulted in agreement to build five. The Pacific Car and Foundry Company were supplied with the design in March 1945, completed final design and had the first hull welded by August. By the time the first tank was completed and ready for combat, the war was over. The plan for five was reduced to two.

As it did not have a turret, but a fixed casemate mount instead for its main armament (as German Jagdpanzers and Soviet Samokhodnaya Ustanovka-designation combat vehicles did), and the 105 mm gun fitted could only elevate from 19.5° to −5° and traverse from 10° right to 11° left of the centerline, the T28 more closely resembled an assault gun, and was redesignated as "T95 Gun Motor Carriage" in 1945, but in June 1946, the vehicle was redesignated again as "Super Heavy Tank T28".

Two prototypes of the T28 were built. They underwent evaluation at the Aberdeen Proving Ground and Fort Knox facilities until 1947. In 1947, one of the T28s was heavily damaged by an engine fire during trials at Yuma Proving Ground and was broken up and sold for scrap. The T28 never went into service due to the obsolete design, high maintenance costs, and the heavy weight, which prevented it from being transported across seas, but was retained to test the "durability of components on such a heavy vehicle". Work on it ended before completion as the War Department decided to stop the development of vehicles of that sort of weight and the T28 program terminated in October 1947. By that point, the T29 and T30 turreted heavy tank designs had been built. The T29 mounted the same gun as the T28 in a conventional rotating turret. The T30 was developed with a larger-caliber gun and more powerful engine. The T29 program was used to test mechanical components for future tank designs.

Design
The original plan was to build five prototype vehicles, with a production total of 25. Its total weight when fully equipped would have reached 95 tons (86 tonnes). To lower ground pressure, instead of two tracks, it used four tracks that projected forward of the hull, each 20 inches (495 mm) wide. The outer tracks could be detached within two hours for rail transport: After removal, they could be fixed together to make a unit that could be towed behind the tank. Due to its extreme weight and low engine power, the T28 had extremely limited obstacle-crossing ability and could not cross any of the portable bridges available at the time, and so was considered impractical in the field and not suitable for production.

The T28 had no conventional turret, with a casemate style hull instead, giving it a comparatively low profile, as the later examples of the fully enclosed Jagdpanzer-family of German tank destroyers, not entirely dissimilar to the 50 short-ton weight German Jagdpanther. Its main armament was a 105 mm T5E1 gun, in a ball-shaped gun mantlet set into the vertical hull front. The traverse was limited to 10° right and 11° left, and elevation from 19.5° to −5°. When traveling, the gun was locked at the maximum elevation. The only other armament was a .50 cal. (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gun on a ring mount above the commander's hatch for anti-aircraft use. The main gun—65 calibres long—had a muzzle velocity of 3,700 feet per second (1,130 m/s), with a range of up to 12 miles (19 km).

The armor was very thick compared to other tanks of the time, up to 12 inches (305 mm) thick on the front. This was considered heavy enough to provide protection from the German 88 mm gun used as tank and anti-tank guns. The lower hull front had 5.25 in (130 mm) of armor, and the sides 2.5 in (64 mm).The suspension system and lower hull were covered with 4-in (100 mm) thick steel skirts. The engine was a gasoline-powered Ford GAF V-8, delivering 500 hp, at 2600 rpm through the Torqmatic transmission; which left the vehicle underpowered, geared down to a top speed of about 8 mph (13 km/h) and greatly limited its obstacle-climbing capability. Although the vehicle was originally to feature the electric transmission of the Medium Tank T23, this was later changed to the mechanical transmission of the Medium Tank T26 due to the unreliability of the system.

Surviving vehicle
In 1974, the last prototype was discovered abandoned in a field at Fort Belvoir, Virginia. Camouflaged in the middle of some bushes, it is unknown where it spent the intervening 27 years. It is the sole remaining example of these tanks and was exhibited at the Patton Museum of Cavalry and Armor in Kentucky. In 2011, it was shipped to its new home at U.S. Army Armor & Cavalry Collection, Fort Moore, Georgia. It was placed in the new Patton Park, which is a plot of 30 acres where nine of the tanks being stored at Fort Moore are now displayed. The vehicle was damaged in January 2017 during transit to another facility for external refurbishment when it broke loose from the M1070 HET carrying it. The transporter failed to negotiate a downhill slope and subsequent turn at a safe speed, causing the securing chains to break and allowing the T28 to slide off the trailer. Despite then rolling into a ditch, only minor repairable damage was sustained to two bogies. The outer track units had been removed.

title: T28 super-heavy tank


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Petur Alberg

Petur Alberg (15 December 1885 – 1940) was a Faroese violin player and songwriter from Tórshavn. He composed the anthem of the Faroes, "Mítt alfagra land", or "Tú alfagra land mítt", as it is usually called.

title: Petur Alberg


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User talk:Fingy

Welcome!

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Joe Lee Wilson

Joe Lee Wilson (December 22, 1935 – July 17, 2011) was an American jazz singer from Bristow, Oklahoma, who lived in Europe since 1977.

Biography
Part African-American and part Creek Native American, Wilson was born in Bristow, Oklahoma, to farming parents Stella and Ellis Wilson.

As his band's name, Joy of Jazz, suggests, Wilson's baritone personified the life-affirming nature of jazz and blues. Seeing Billie Holiday perform in 1951 began his interest in a music-industry career. Moving to Los Angeles at the age of 15, he went to Los Angeles High School, where he majored in music and sang in an a cappella choir. Graduating with honors in 1954, he won a scholarship to the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music, where he studied opera, leaving after a year and then attending Los Angeles Junior College. He began singing with local bands in 1958 and toured the West Coast, where he sat in with Sarah Vaughan, and down to Mexico. Relocating to New York in 1962, he worked with Sonny Rollins, Lee Morgan, Miles Davis, Pharoah Sanders, Freddie Hubbard, and Jackie McLean. During the 1970s, Wilson operated a jazz performance loft in New York's NoHo district known as the Ladies' Fort at 2 Bond Street. His regular band, Joe Lee Wilson Plus 5, featured the alto saxophonist Monty Waters (from Modesto, California) and for several years the Japanese guitarist Ryo Kawasaki, before the latter left to lead his own group. Archie Shepp and Eddie Jefferson were frequent collaborators at these sessions.

He also sang with Eddie Jefferson, Freddie Hubbard, and Kenny Dorham.

Wilson had a minor radio hit from a live radio recording he did on a radio program hosted by Sharif Abdus-Salaam (né Ed Michael) at WKCR-FM, Columbia University, on July 16, 1972. The live shot was released as an album, Livin' High Off Nickels & Dimes, on the short-lived Oblivion Records in New York. Wilson's rendition of Norman Mapp's "Jazz Ain't Nothing But Soul" was a radio hit on New York jazz radio in 1975.

In 1977 he and his English wife Jill Christopher moved to Europe. While based in Paris, Tokyo, and the United Kingdom (for a time living in the London flat of Val Wilmer, before settling in Brighton, Sussex), he recorded regularly with the American pianist Kirk Lightsey, including the Candid recording Feelin' Good. One of Wilson's last albums was an Italian recording with Riccardo Arrighini and Gianni Basso, Ballads for Trane (Philology W707.2).

Wilson was inducted into the Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame in November 2010, where he gave his last public performance. Having had heart surgery in 2009, he died of congestive heart failure at his Brighton home in 2011, aged 75.

Wilson is the subject of a documentary film, Around Joe Lee, by Yves Breux and Brad Scott.

As leader

 * The Great City (Powertree, 1964)
 * Livin' High Off Nickels and Dimes (Oblivion, 1974)
 * What Would It Be Without You (Survival, 1975)
 * Shout for Trane (Trio/Whynot, 1976)
 * Secrets from the Sun (Inner City, 1977)
 * Without a Song (Inner City, 1978)
 * The Shadow (Cheetah, 1990)
 * Feelin' Good! (Big City, 2001)
 * Come and See with Jimmy Ponder (Explore, 2007)

As sideman
With Clifford Jordan
 * Inward Fire (Muse, 1978)

With Mtume
 * Alkebu-Lan - The Land of the Blacks (1972)

With Archie Shepp
 * Things Have Got to Change (1971)
 * Attica Blues (1972)
 * The Cry of My People (1972)
 * A Touch of the Blues (Fluid, 1977)

title: Joe Lee Wilson