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Glottal stop (letter)

The character $\langleʔ\rangle$ called glottal stop, is an alphabetic letter in some Latin alphabets, most notably in several languages of Canada where it indicates a glottal stop sound. Such usage derives from phonetic transcription, for example the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), that use this letter for the glottal stop sound. The letter derives graphically from use of the apostrophe $\langleʼ\rangle$ or the symbol ʾ for glottal stop.

Graphic variants

Where $\langle7\rangle$ is not available, not being in the basic Latin alphabet, it is sometimes replaced by a question mark $\langleʔ\rangle$, which is its official representation in the SAMPA transcription scheme. In Skwomesh or Squamish, $\langle?\rangle$ may be replaced by the digit $\langleʔ\rangle$ (see image).

In Unicode, four graphic variants of the glottal stop letter are available.

 * Unicase $\langle7\rangle$ is provided for the International Phonetic Alphabet and Americanist phonetic notation. It is found in a number of orthographies that use the IPA/APA symbol, such as those of several Salishan languages.
 * A case pair, uppercase $\langleʔ\rangle$ and lowercase $\langleɁ\rangle$, is provided for the orthographies of Athabaskan languages in the Northwest Territories. Uppercase $\langleɂ\rangle$ may be slightly wider than unicase $\langleɁ\rangle$ in fonts that distinguish them.
 * Superscript $\langleʔ\rangle$ that is used in Cayuga, the IPA and the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet.

Other notations
Other common symbols for the glottal stop sound are variants of the punctuation mark apostrophe that was the historical basis of the glottal stop letters. These include the 9-shaped modifier letter apostrophe, $\langleˀ\rangle$, which is probably the most common (and the direct ancestor of $\langleʼ\rangle$), the 6-shaped ʻokina of Hawaiian, $\langleʔ\rangle$, and the straight-apostrophe shaped saltillo of many languages of Mexico, which has the case forms $\langleʻ\rangle$.

Technical transcription

 * Americanist phonetic notation and the International Phonetic Alphabet—unicase ʔ or superscript ˀ
 * Transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages—occasionally unicase ʔ
 * Uralic Phonetic Alphabet—superscript ˀ only

Vernacular orthographies

 * Languages of Canada
 * Chipewyan—uppercase Ɂ and lowercase ɂ
 * Dogrib—uppercase Ɂ and lowercase ɂ
 * Kootenai—unicase ʔ
 * Musqueam language—unicase ʔ
 * Nootka—unicase ʔ
 * Slavey—uppercase Ɂ and lowercase ɂ
 * Nitinaht—unicase ʔ
 * Thompson—unicase ʔ
 * Lushootseed—unicase ʔ
 * Squamish language, where it is sometimes represented with $\langleꞋ ꞌ\rangle$.
 * Tuscarora—uppercase Ɂ and lowercase ɂ

Computing codes
In Unicode 1.0, only the unicase and superscript variants were included. In version 4.1 (2005), an uppercase character was added, and the existing unicase character was redefined as its lowercase. Then, in version 5.0 (2006), it was decided to separate the cased and caseless usages by adding a dedicated lowercase letter. The IPA character is first from left, while the extended Latin alphabet characters are third and fourth from left.

title: Glottal stop (letter)


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Quantum linguodynamics

Quantum linguodynamics
Quantum Linguodynamics was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete. Article already deleted.

I reckon this is original research. At best it is speculative and lacks encyclopedic content, and has no Google hits. Delete as unfounded, despite the battery of external links. Charles Matthews 12:10, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete Doubletalk, to see if we're on our toes. --Wetman 19:58, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete This is hideous and makes no sense. I also highly doubt it exists. The guy who made this needs to be contacted to see if he can make it better. --YixilTesiphon
 * Hey, it's a brunch, isn't it? Sorry, I mean, since even linguodynamics is unknown to Google, it's some private joke at best. Delete -- Hoary 09:47, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Well, looks like it's gone. Good riddance. --YixilTesiphon

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:SgtThroat

Welcome, weary traveller. This is my user page, I will one day write somemtning on it.

title: User:SgtThroat


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File Control Block

A File Control Block (FCB) is a file system structure in which the state of an open file is maintained. A FCB is managed by the operating system, but it resides in the memory of the program that uses the file, not in operating system memory. This allows a process to have as many files open at one time as it wants, provided it can spare enough memory for an FCB per file.

The FCB originates from CP/M and is also present in most variants of DOS, though only as a backwards compatibility measure in MS-DOS versions 2.0 and later. A full FCB is 36 bytes long; in early versions of CP/M, it was 33 bytes. This fixed size, which could not be increased without breaking application compatibility, led to the FCB's eventual demise as the standard method of accessing files.

The meanings of several of the fields in the FCB differ between CP/M and DOS, and also depending on what operation is being performed. The following fields have consistent meanings:

The 20-byte-long field starting at offset 0x0C contained fields which (among others) provided further information about the file:

Further values were used by newer versions of DOS until new information could no longer fit in these 20 bytes. Some preceding "negative offset" bytes were squeezed from reserved spaces in CP/M Zero Page and DOS Program Segment Prefix for storing file attributes.

Usage
In CP/M, 86-DOS and PC DOS 1.x/MS-DOS 1.xx, the FCB was the only method of accessing files. Under DOS a few INT 21h subfunctions provided the interface to operate on files using the FCB. When, with MS-DOS 2, preparations were made to support multiple processes or users, use other filesystems  than FAT or to share files over networks in the future, FCBs were felt to be too small to handle the extra data required for such features and therefore FCBs were seen as inadequate for various future expansion paths. Also, they didn't provide a field to specify sub-directories. Exposing file system related data to user-space was also seen as a security risk. FCBs were thus superseded by file handles, as used on UNIX and its derivatives. File handles are simply consecutive integer numbers associated with specific open files.

If a program uses the newer file handle API to open a file, the operating system will manage its internal data structure associated with that file in its own memory area. This has the great advantage that these structures can grow in size in later operating system versions without breaking compatibility with application programs; its disadvantage is that, given the rather simplistic memory management of DOS, space for as many of these structures as the most "file-hungry" program is likely to use has to be reserved at boot time and cannot be used for any other purpose while the computer is running. Such memory reservation is done using the FILES= directive in the CONFIG.SYS file. This problem does not occur with FCBs in DOS 1 or in CP/M, since the operating system stores all that it needs to know about an open file inside the FCB and thus does not need to use any per-file memory in operating system memory space. When using FCBs in MS-DOS 3 or later, the FCB format depends on whether SHARE.EXE is loaded and whether the FCB refers to a local or remote file and often refers to a SFT entry. Because of this, the number of FCBs which can be kept open at once in DOS 3 or higher is limited as well, usually to 4; using the FCBS= directive in the CONFIG.SYS file, it may be increased beyond that number if necessary. Under DR-DOS, both FILES and FCBS come from the same internal pool of available handles structures and are assigned dynamically as needed.

FCBs were supported in all versions of MS-DOS and Windows until the introduction of the FAT32 filesystem. Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me do not support the use of FCBs on FAT32 drives due to its 32-bit cluster numbers, except to read the volume label. This caused some old DOS applications, including WordStar, to fail under these versions of Windows.

The FCB interface does not work properly on Windows NT, 2000, etc. either – WordStar does not function properly on these operating systems. DOS emulators DOSEMU and DOSBox implement the FCB interface properly, thus they are a way to run older DOS programs that need FCBs on modern operating systems.

Disk Transfer Area
A companion data structure used together with the FCB was the Disk Transfer Area (DTA). This is the name given to the buffer where file contents (records) would be read into/written from. File access functions in DOS that used the FCB assumed a fixed location for the DTA, initially pointing to a part of the PSP (see next section); this location could be changed by calling a DOS function, with subsequent file accesses implicitly using the new location.

With the deprecation of the FCB method, the new file access functions which used file handles also provided a means to specify a memory buffer for file contents with every function call, such that maintaining concurrent, independent buffers (either for different files or for the same file) became much more practical.

Program Segment Prefix & Program Initialisation
Every DOS executable started from the shell (COMMAND.COM) was provided with a pre-filled 256-byte long data structure called the Program Segment Prefix (PSP). Relevant fields within this structure include:

This data structure could be found at the beginning of the data segment whose address was provided by DOS at program start in the DS and ES segment registers. Besides providing the program's command line verbatim at address 0x81, DOS also tried to construct two FCB's corresponding to the first two words in the command line, the purpose being to save work for the programmer in the common case where these words were filenames to operate on. Since these FCB's remained unopened, no problem would ensue even if these command line words did not refer to files.

The initial address for the DTA was set to overlay the area in the PSP (at address 0x80) where the command line arguments were stored, such that a program needed to parse this area for command line arguments before invoking DOS functions that made use of the DTA (such as reading in a file record), unless the program took care to change the address of the DTA to some other memory region (or not use the DTA/FCB functions altogether, which soon became deprecated in favour of file handles).

title: File Control Block


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Shot on goal (ice hockey)

In ice hockey, a shot on goal is a shot that directs the puck towards the net and either goes into the net for a goal or is stopped by the goaltender for a save.

A shot that is deflected wide or blocked by an opponent does not count as a shot on goal; it is recorded as a blocked shot. The player who blocks the shot is credited with a 'blocked shot', and the player who shoots the puck is credited with an 'attempt blocked'.

Shots that sail wide or high of the net, and shots that hit the goalpost or crossbar but do not enter the net, are not counted as shots on goal; they are counted as 'missed shots'. Additionally, if a goaltender stops a puck that is going wide or high anyway, it is recorded as a 'missed shot'. Since it is not counted as a shot on goal, the goaltender does not get credit for a save.

An attempted shot that hits the pipe framing the goal mouth is not counted as a shot on goal, unless the puck goes into the goal without further contact from the team attempting the shot.

Shots on net
A shot on net is any touch of the puck towards the net, that if not for the goaltender intervening, would result in a goal.

Blocked shots do not count. If someone shoots the puck and it's tipped, only the "tip" counts as a shot, and the original shot becomes a "pass".

If a clearing attempt from the other team ends up on net it should be a shot on goal. If someone swats at a rebound and sends it toward the net it should be a shot on goal. Clearing attempts that end up on net should most definitely count and most scorers will count them.

In the case of a partially blocked shot, or a tipped shot that was on net and is tipped off net, these are not supposed to be counted as shots on goal, as only the "final" touch is a "shot" and the final touch sent those pucks wide.

Wrap arounds and stuff attempts can be an issue. If the goalie's pad blocks a wrap around before he gets around far enough, then the puck would go "across" the crease instead of into the net. Therefore, it shouldn't be regarded as a shot on goal.

title: Shot on goal (ice hockey)


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User:Ligiaprado

Brazilian Portuguese Wikipedist.

title: User:Ligiaprado


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Spin label

A spin label (SL) is an organic molecule which possesses an unpaired electron, usually on a nitrogen atom, and the ability to bind to another molecule. Spin labels are normally used as tools for probing proteins or biological membrane-local dynamics using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. The site-directed spin labeling (SDSL) technique allows one to monitor a specific region within a protein. In protein structure examinations, amino acid-specific SLs can be used.

The goal of spin labeling is somewhat similar to that of isotopic substitution in NMR spectroscopy. There one replaces an atom lacking a nuclear spin (and so is NMR-silent) with an isotope having a spin $I ≠ 0$ (and so is NMR-active). This technique is useful for tracking the chemical environment around an atom when full substitution with an NMR-active isotope is not feasible. Recently, spin-labelling has also been used to probe chemical local environment in NMR itself, in a technique known as Paramagnetic Relaxation Enhancement (PRE).

Recent developments in the theory and experimental measurement of PREs have enabled the detection, characterization and visualization of sparsely populated states of proteins and their complexes. Such states, which are invisible to conventional biophysical and structural techniques, play a key role in many biological processes including molecular recognition, allostery, macromolecular assembly and aggregation.

Applications of spin EPR
Spin labelled fatty acids have been extensively used to understand dynamic organization of lipids in bio-membranes and membrane biophysics. For example, stearic acid labelled with aminoxyl spin label moiety at various carbons (5, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14 and 16) with respect to first carbon of carbonyl group have been used to study the flexibility gradient of membrane lipids to understand membrane fluidity conditions at different depths of their lipid bilayer organization.

title: Spin label


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Graham Cairns-Smith

Alexander Graham Cairns-Smith FRSE (24 November 1931 – 26 August 2016) was an organic chemist and molecular biologist at the University of Glasgow. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, where he gained a Ph.D. in Chemistry (1957). He was most famous for his controversial 1985 book Seven Clues to the Origin of Life.

The book popularized a hypothesis he began to develop in the mid-1960s—that self-replication of clay crystals in solution might provide a simple intermediate step between biologically inert matter and organic life. He inspired other ideas about chemical evolution, including the Miller–Urey experiment and the RNA World, all of which are hypotheses that have played important roles in attempts to understand the origin of life.

Cairns-Smith also published on the evolution of consciousness, in Evolving the Mind (1996), favoring a role for quantum mechanics in human thought. He died on 26 August 2016.

Clay hypothesis
The clay hypothesis suggests how biologically inert matter helped the evolution of early life forms: clay minerals form naturally from silicates in solution. Clay crystals, as other crystals, preserve their external formal arrangement as they grow, snap, and grow further. Clay crystal masses of a particular external form may happen to affect their environment in ways that affect their chances of further replication. For example, a "stickier" clay crystal is more likely to silt a stream bed, creating an environment conducive to further sedimentation. It is conceivable that such effects could extend to the creation of flat areas likely to be exposed to air, dry, and turn to wind-borne dust, which could fall randomly in other streams. Thus—by simple, inorganic, physical processes—a selection environment might exist for the reproduction of clay crystals of the "stickier" shape.

There follows a process of natural selection for clay crystals that trap certain forms of molecules to their surfaces that may enhance their replication potential. Complex proto-organic molecules can be catalysed by the surface properties of silicates. When complex molecules perform a "genetic takeover" from their clay "vehicle", they become an independent locus of replication – an evolutionary moment that might be understood as the first exaptation.

Selected publications

 * Reissue of
 * (Paperback reprint of 1982 edition)
 * (Canto reprint of the original 1986 edition)

title: Graham Cairns-Smith


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Party of Free Change

The Party of Free Change (Partidul Liber-Schimbist, PLS) was a satirical political party in Romania, founded by Octavian Andronic and with Ștefan Cazimir as its first president. Its name, message and symbols were overt references and homages to Ion Luca Caragiale, the classical Romanian humorist; building on an inside joke, its agenda praised opportunism and even encouraged members to leave the party. However, the PLS was also criticized for its alleged links with the ruling National Salvation Front (FSN), and for being one of the many groups which split the vote in the general election of 1990 and local ones of 1992. It won a seat in Chamber, taken by Cazimir, and several positions on local councils.

Changes in the electoral legislation signaled the PLS' decline—a rapid one, after Cazimir defected to the Social Democratic Party (PDSR; now PSD) in 1992. No seat was won by the party in the general elections of that year, and, although technically undissolvable according to its statutes, it eventually disappeared before the 1996 election. Theater director Mircea Cornișteanu was its second and last president.

Creation
The PLS began existence shortly after the December 1989 revolution, which toppled the communist regime and restored multiparty democracy. It was founded by editorial cartoonist Octavian Andronic, with a manifesto published on February 6, 1990 in Libertatea daily; literary critic Ștefan Cazimir adhered "by phone" on February 7. The name was adapted from Ion Luca Caragiale's comedy O scrisoare pierdută (1884), which Andronic had just watched on Romanian Television, in the Liviu Ciulei adaptation. In the original text, it already appears as a double entendre: one of the key characters, Nae Cațavencu, declares himself liber schimbist, technically "a supporter of free trade", but this can also be read as "easy changer"—one who changes views or convictions easily, without scruples. One of the main principles of the party was granting the status of honorary membership to anyone who changed their allegiance from one political party to another.

Cazimir, often mistaken as the party founder, had had a political involvement with the Romanian Communist Party and, earlier, the Union of Communist Youth, to which he adhered c. 1949. In December, he had been caught up in the revolutionary events, first as an unwilling participant in the communist counter-manifestation, then as a supporter of the street movement in Bucharest. Overall, the new enterprise was entirely built on his deadpan humor (for which he was already famous) and his deep familiarity with Caragiale's work—he was recognized as a Caragiale expert since the 1960s. During January, Cazimir pondered entering politics as an independent, promising his constituents to "read out from Caragiale as often as possible". Another founding member, Mircea Cornișteanu, produced and directed Caragiale plays, and is described as one of Caragiale's "feverish admirers".

Due to its literary pedigree leading back to the 1880s, the PLS called itself an "historic party". Tributes for the writer extended into other areas of party activity: the PLS motto was Caragiale e cu noi! ("Caragiale is with us!"); its hymn ended with another paraphrase from O scrisoare...: Trădare fie, dar s-o știm și noi! ("Let's have betrayal, but let's be aware of it!"). Its official tribune, founded by Andronic and called Răcnetul Carpaților ("The Roar of the Carpathians", after Cațavencu's fictional gazette), ran fragments from Caragiale's political satire as genuine political news and commentary. Reviving Cațavencu's rhetoric, perceived enemies of the party where addressed as reprobabili ("detestable people"), and allies as venerabili or stimabili ("venerable" or "esteemed people").

The PLS organizing conference took place on February 18 at the People's Art College, on Cosmonauților Street, Bucharest. It was here that Cazimir was made president, with Andronic's blessing—the latter, being chief editor of the independent Libertatea, did not wish to become politically involved. Under Cazimir, the party would not declare its ideology, but parodied serious parties for their quick adoption of "centrism". In this context, it declared itself a party "on the outer edge", because "two cannot be at the center without stifling or crushing each other. Plus, one can get a better perspective from the edge". However, Cazimir claimed, its platform only ever stood out from that of serious groups "in being grammatically correct". While "most other groups cultivate unwitting humor", PLS statutes endorsed "witting humor". This also meant that the PLS "is militating for a reduction of Caragiale's applicability to the present day. This applicability is however endorsed by the other political forces."

1990 performance and controversy
Soon after its official registration on March 1, the PLS was invited by the governing National Salvation Front (FSN) to join Romania's temporary legislature, or Provisional National Unity Council (CPUN). Its one seat there was taken by Cazimir. He remained critical of the FSN and its leader Ion Iliescu, establishing contacts with the Golaniad protest movement (named after golani, "hoodlums", the word used by Iliescu to describe his opponents). As he noted in an April 1990 interview with academic George Pruteanu, he considered himself a "veteran hoodlum" (golan veteran), and suggested that the anti-FSN movement was "too numerous not to be taken into account" (Cazimir's emphasis); according to Pruteanu's marginal comments, part of this statement may have been sarcastic. Also then, Cazimir stated that he was not opposed to the Proclamation of Timișoara, which had asked for the lustration of high-ranking communists, and which the FSN was formally opposing. As he put it, the PLS statues contained a similar provision, barring "people who have held high-ranking central- or local-level positions between January 1, 1980 and December 22, 1989" from applying as members; the same provisions forbade people "compromised by their active support for the former regime", as well as those "lacking in sense of humor" from joining the PLS.

With Cazimir as president, seconded by Gheorghe Boșman, the party held its first congress at Cervantes High School, Bucharest, shortly before the May 1990 general elections. The PLS benefited from the liberal electoral law of that period, which required registrations to have only 251 signatures. Politician and scholar Cristian Preda places the PLS in a category of ephemeral groups created in that interval, alongside a Romanian Democratic Popular Realist Revolutionary Party and a Party of Heroes Killed for the Freedom of Living Heroes Maimed by the Barbarian Bullets. Unlike these highly localized projects, the PLS ran candidates in 26 precincts, and formed small but active county organizations—according to Cazimir, these were mostly run by divorcée ladies.

The PLS received around 0.3% of the vote in both the Chamber of Deputies and Senate elections. Although it failed to win any senatorial mandates, it took a single seat in the Chamber, which went to Cazimir. In his early speeches at Cervantes, Cazimir had joked that they only ran in elections "because I was tired of things going smooth." In his Pruteanu interview, he noted being serious about capturing the vote: "our main effort at the present time is not the recruitment of new members, but the earning of electoral sympathies and trust. Once we will win the votes, we will also bring in new members." Cazimir used his speaking time in Chamber mainly to popularize the sayings of Caragiale and Ion Creangă, as well as his own epigrams. At times, he also expressed mild criticism of the FSN as the party of "dead roses", and commented negatively on the June 1990 Mineriad, braving threats of violence from the Front's working-class electorate.

Various commentators see the PLS as a tool for the FSN's alleged plan to stifle or ridicule serious opposition. In November 1991, columnist Cornel Nistorescu proposed that Cazimir may have taken his seat through electoral fraud carried out by the FSN, and that his activity was meant to glamorize political apathy; this view was endorsed by the staff writers at România Literară, who called Cazimir and his followers the "humorless humorists". Also at România Literară, columnist Alex. Ștefănescu, a member of the opposition National Peasants' Party (PNȚCD), saw it as a "sociological oddity" that "a parody of a party was taken seriously by the voters". Journalist George Baltac believes that the PLS "deliberately" helped the FSN to fragment the PNȚCD's voting weight with "an explosion of minuscule parties." He notes that Cazimir, as a "left-wing intellectual", had a personal relationship with Iliescu. In a 2006 piece, writer Cătălin Mihuleac described the PLS doctrines as an "idiotic jest" (hlizeala idioată), arguing that Caragiale would have never approved of it; he described Cazimir and his group as a toxic influence on Romanian politics. Likewise, commentator Andrei Manolescu argues that "[Cazimir's] humor and irony turned into actual opportunism."

Demise
Although the legislation updated in 1992 provided an election threshold, which harmed its chances, the PLS continued to be active, and staged high-profile stunts. In one such event, its delegation to Brussels made Manneken Pis an honorary party member. The party also contested the February 1992 elections for local councils: it fielded 75 candidates for the General Council of Bucharest (the maximum allowed by law) and endorsed Tudor Popescu as its candidate for Mayor. In the end, it elected several councilors throughout the country, and only one at Bucharest. Successful candidates at Iași included physician René Corneliu Duda.

Cazimir defected to Iliescu's Social Democratic Party (PSD) later that year, and in the elections of September the party's vote share fell to 0.1%, resulting in it losing its single seat in Chamber. Writing in 1999, Ștefănescu suggested that Cazimir had failed to explain his own defection: "at some point he dropped his joking with the PLS and transferred toward [the PSD], a party that has led Romania into a position which is not at all joyful." Interviewed in 2010, Cazimir explained that his entry into the PSD was a continuation of PLS goals. Many other members of the PLS were similarly recruited by the PSD. They included councilor Duda, whose son, Radu Duda, married Margareta of Romania and became titular royal consort of Romania; this paradox was highlighted in the press, which commented on the PSD's staunch republicanism.

The PLS–PSD continuity was highlighted by journalist Dumitru Tinu, who attended the PSD conference of January 1997, where he reported hearing Cazimir "free-changing clowning" (clovnerii liber-schimbiste), played out in front of a new public. Both Pruteanu and Cazimir were elected as PSD parliamentarians in November 2000, but found themselves taking opposite sides on issues such as linguistic protectionism. In discussing the issue, Pruteanu noted that Cazimir was still flippant, a man of derizoriu liber-schimbist ("paltry free-change"). A rump PLS had continued to exist for part of that interval. Cornișteanu, who succeeded Cazimir as ad-interim president, argues that he had "betrayed" the party statues, and notes that he was consequently listed as an "abandoned member". The group was ultimately disbanded in 1996 when new rules required that any party should have at least 10,000 members, or, according to Cornișteanu, when it could no longer support itself financially. Despite publishing a history of the party in 1998, when he was referred to as its "ex-president", Cazimir viewed the PLS as undissolvable. According to him, it still technically existed by 2010, because its own statutory clauses encouraged all members to join other parties.

title: Party of Free Change


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Princess Maker 2

Princess Maker 2 (プリンセスメーカー2) is a 1993 Japanese video game developed by the company Gainax. It is the second installment in the Princess Maker series of social simulation games where the player must act as a parental figure and raise a young girl. The player takes role of a War Hero who raises a girl to the age of 18. At the end of the game, the daughter goes into a line of work; what this work is, how much talent she has for it, her marital life, and her overall happiness all depend on the player's actions throughout the game.

After the initial release for the Japanese PC-9801 personal computer, it has been subsequently released for many other personal computers and Video game consoles. The game has been translated into English, Korean, and Chinese.

Story
The game takes place in a fantasy world roughly modeled after medieval Europe with the starting year is given as 1210 K.D. The player's character is a famous warrior who defended the kingdom from an invasion by Lucifon, the Prince of Darkness (a corruption of Lucifer); consequently, he is known throughout the land as a military hero and receives an annual salary from the palace. One night, he receives a communication from a god whose identity is determined by the birth-date the player selects at the beginning of the game. This god bestows upon the mentioned player a child of the heavens, and it is their duty to raise her from the age of 10 to the age of 18, at which point she will enter a line of work; the most desirable outcome is that of a royal princess.

Gameplay
The daughter has a set of statistics that fluctuate depending on the activities the player assigns to her schedule, including various part-time jobs, schooling, adventure, and free time. It is these statistics that ultimately determine her final occupation, her skill level in her line of work, and her overall happiness in life; her marital fate is also decided, in part, by these statistics. The game also makes use of some invisible statistics to determine the occurrence of certain special events. The player can converse with the girl and she will refer to the player as "father".

The god who visits the father is the daughter's patron god. That patron determines her starting statistics in a way that is loosely related to the god's role in the Roman pantheon; for example, a girl born under Mars begins the game with an advantage in fighting reputation. The player can purchase a pill from a merchant that increases the bust size of the girl.

The game ends after five and a half hours of gameplay when the girl reaches 18 and chooses a future career. High score are given to jobs such as Queen or general, whereas low scores are given to jobs such as barmaid. The game features 74 possible endings.

Development
The game was developed by Gainax, who are also known for the anime series Neon Genesis Evangelion and FLCL. The game is part of a trend of idealized real world simulation games in Japan, such as Tokimeki Memorial. In Japan at this time, most child rearing was done by females in the household since the males tended to be more career focused. Designer Takami Akai explained that "To play this game means to do something you want to but can't", adding that a father would not be allowed to manage his daughter's life because they would complain too much. Akai had thought about giving the player an infant to start the game but decided against it.

Release
The game was first released for the PC-9801 personal computer. By September 1993, the game had sold 30,000 copies and the company had received 10,000 letters from fans. An English language version of the game for DOS was completed but was cancelled in 1996. The version was completed and review copies had been sent out to magazines, however the company producing the English port, IntraCorp, went bankrupt. That version was then subsequently leaked onto the internet, and was sometimes referred to as abandonware. It had later been released for multiple personal computers including the FM Towns, Macintosh, Windows 3.1, Windows 95, Windows Me, as well as many home consoles like the 3DO, PC Engine, Sega Saturn, and PlayStation 2.

In 2001, the second and third games in the Princess Maker series were released for the Sega Dreamcast on a compilation titled Princess Maker Collection. It was ported to Japanese mobile phones in 2005. Along with the original Princess Maker 1, Princess Maker 2 has received a newer "refined" remake for Windows. The graphics are redrawn sound quality of the game have been changed, along with various other elements. Princess Maker 2 Refine was released via Steam in Fall 2016, published by Korean publisher CFK. This version has the option for English, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean language options.

Reception
The game was released to largely critical praise. Next Generation reviewed the PC version of the game, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that "This is the strangest game to hit the U.S. PC market in years, and on a certain level, Ignite should be commended for taking the chance to release it. Whether it can, or maybe even should, find an audience is another matter."

Several reviewers commented on the gender issues of the game. Francesca Reyes writing in Ultra Gameplayers said that while the game does include "thinly veiled sexist allusions", and that it might not be for everyone, she said the game was highly entertaining and praised the game. In contrast, Etsuko Yamashita, a Women's studies professor at Japan Women's University was critical of the game and likening the content of the game to incest. In regards to the game being popular among college and high school males, she remarked "You might think that the younger generation has a better sense of gender equality, but this game proves it's not necessarily true."

Many reviewers praised the game for its originality. Guillermo Vacas of Minami 2000 praised it for being a "manga" style gamed, but was non-violent and educational. Chris Hudak writing in Wired magazine, praised the game for breaking the mold of violent video games on PC at the time. Saying that he had grown attached to his virtual daughter, and that the unique gameplay rewards sensitive paternal players. Both Next Generation and Reyes praised the publisher for publishing such a unique game. Reviewers also praised the visuals. PC Zone magazine called the anime styled art as "eye-catching".

Reviewers also praised the number of endings in the game, saying that it encouraged playing through the game multiple times.

Although most critics praised the game, some were more critical. While Vacas praised the game as addictive and enjoyable, one downside they noted was its sheer complexity, something that could be daunting for first time players. Three reviewers from Famitsu DC were more critical of the Princess Maker Collection, giving it a low score. They said that the games were simply ports, and that while they were new and innovative at the time, they have since become dated. They said that perhaps Princess Maker: Faery Tales Come True might be an easier to game to play instead. Janine Hawkins, writing in Vice was critical of the look of the Refine version of the game, including the lack of dithering in artwork.

Retrospective reviews of the game were also positive. Reviewing the 2016 English Refine release, Hardcore Gamer gave the game a score of 4 out of 5 and called it "absolutely a blast all these years later", although criticizing the translation, which at times said the opposite of what actually happened or left the endings voiced in Japanese without subtitles.

title: Princess Maker 2


text:
Talk:Toyota Cressida

can someone make an automobile info box for this article?
Hi, can someone put an automobile info box in this article with a picture? I can't figure out how to do it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.130.235.33 (talk • contribs) 23:39, 10 March 2006 (UTC)

Dodge Dynasty
The Cressida is similar to a Dodge Dynasty. Whoever keeps putting this up is completely wrong. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Taurus9395 (talk • contribs) 18:51, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

Pictures for 3rd & 4th gen info boxes.
This article needs pictures for the 3rd and 4th gen info boxes. I own a 2nd generation Cressida and have a picture to use, but I don't know how to get it on the site. I tried uploading but I don't think it worked. Can anyone help? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Something14 (talk • contribs) 04:35, 29 September 2006 (UTC)

Weights
I would like to add the weights for each year. I have pics of 5speeds I and friends have owned that I would also like to ad. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86mx73 (talk • contribs) 21:45, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

Cressida & Lexus Connection
"The Cressida also played a large part in the design of the first Lexus models[citation needed], most closely resembling the LS 400. Many parts and ideas from the Cressida were carried over into the original Lexus models[citation needed], which is why these cars look so similar."

I think this statement is highly inaccurate. The Toyota F1 project (which was the code name for the Lexus LS) was started in 1983 and finished in 1989 with the release of the first LS400/Celsior. Any parts shared from the 1989 Cressida (MX83) and the LS400 would have been Toyota using ideas and parts developed from the F1 project for the Cressida, not the other way around as implied by the writer of that paragraph. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Blueck (talk • contribs) 22:51, 20 May 2008 (UTC)

Production dates
The Cressida was actually produced until 1994 in other asian markets and Japan. Also the Cressida came with other engines other than the M series. It also got the G engine and also the 1JZ in its last years (non american market). Kongkit (talk) 02:14, 17 June 2009 (UTC)

Link Deletion
Members from toyotacressida.net keep deleting the jzxproject.com link for personal reasons. Please stop. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.106.34.193 (talk) 01:05, 6 March 2010 (UTC)

Grey import photo
Someone keeps putting "(Japan)" in the captions for the pictures of the X7 and X8 Cressidas although the X8 CLEARLY has NSW plates... It should be "(Australia)." Why is it Japan? 74.212.177.194, 13:39, 29 September 2011 (UTC)

 * Here is the image description: "1988–1990 Toyota Cressida (MX83R) GLX sedan (Japanese grey import), photographed in Sans Souci, New South Wales, Australia." IFCAR (talk) 18:23, 29 September 2011 (UTC)

 * The car does indeed have NSW number plates, indicating that it was photographed and licensed in Australia. However, it is a grey import. This means that its original market was not Australia. Technically, a grey import could have come from any country but in practice a RHD grey import Toyota nearly always comes from Japan. So the caption should show the original market of Japan, not its current location. Japanese market Cressidas tend to have fancier accessories and trim than the Australian market Cressidas.  Stepho  talk 21:32, 29 September 2011 (UTC)

MX75
Anybody heard of the MX75 with 7M-GE ? An anon-Ip added it to Toyota M engine. I thought I new all the variations but this one is new to me. Found only a few aftermarket replacement part companies listing it in South Africa for 1989-1992. http://www.onlinecarparts.co.za/en/engine-system/29539-toyota-cressida-30i-gls-mx75-89-92-eng-7m-ge-24v-140kw-radiator-auto-6-cyl.html Not sure if it s true factory vehicle or some dealers retrofitting excess old stock with newer engines.  Stepho  talk 03:37, 6 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Toyota Cressida


text:
Arab Singaporeans

The majority of the Arabs in Singapore are Hadharem and traced their ancestry to the southern Arabian Peninsula in Hadramaut, Yemen. The valley region was part of a confederacy once ruled by the Queen of Sheba. Hadramaut was mentioned in The Old Testament (Hazra Mavet). Its fertile areas, suitable for cultivation, had beguiled ancient Romans to call it, and all South Arabia in general, Arabia Felix (Happy Arabia).

The history of migration from Hadramaut, following the monsoons of the Indian Ocean, forced the Hadhramis to resettle in various parts of the world: Hyderabad, India (before 1947), Dar-es-Salaam and East Africa as well as Malaya and the Netherlands East Indies.

The Hadhrami population is made up of three distinct social strata: The Gabails, a confederation of clans forming the Al Kathiri tribe, descent from blue blood, including the Bin Talibs, Bin Abdats, Bajrais, and Harharahs. The honorific "Sheikh" (also spelled “Shaikh”) and "Sheikhah" (also spelled "Shaykhah" and "Shaikha") (for men and women respectively) often precede their names.

The Al Kathiri Sultanate had dominion over the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula. The tribes traced their roots to the ancient Banu Hamdan tribes, which reside in the Gulf Arab regions, East African countries, and in the Arab-speaking provinces of Iran such as Khuzestan.

The Confederal Harharah Sultanate reigned over the State of Upper Yafa. The Sultanate had formed a military alliance with the British Aden Protectorate and the Protectorate of South Arabia. Its capital, Mahjaba, was located about 50 km northeast of Habilayn.

The Ba'Alawi sada, who claimed to be the descendants of Muhammad, are known by their singular honorific "Syed" for men and “Sharifah” for women.

The Mashaikhs are commoners whose family names (surnames) often begin with "Ba-" (for example Bafana, Bamadhaj, Bagharib, Bahashwan). However, a 'Ba' at the beginning of a surname may not necessarily denote a commoner as some Gabail tribes have Ba in their surnames.

Hadhrami migration
The early Arab settlers came to Singapore with wealth made in Indonesia. Being already familiar with Malay customs, they were accepted by the Malays living there. In 1824, the population of Singapore was 10,683. Out of this total, there were only 15 Arabs. In 1829, there were 34 Arabs with only 3 Arab women among them. Their population increased as follows:

(Source: Lim Lu Sia, 1987:32)

The census for 1970s and 1980s is not believed to reflect the actual number of Arabs in Singapore. This is because a number of Arabs have been officially registered as “Malay”. After Singapore became an independent country in 1965, the ethnic Malays enjoyed educational benefits granted by the state. Some Arab families then listed the ethnicity of their children to "Malay" to receive these benefits. Because of intermarriage between Malay or Indian Muslim men and Arab women, some Malays and Indians have Arab ancestry. People of Arab descent matrilineally are not officially listed as Arabs as a person's race in Singapore, until 2010, was determined by his father's race.

Contribution to Singapore
The position and contribution of the Arabs to Singapore can be seen when a member of the Aljuneid clan was appointed as a member of the mostly European-dominated Chamber of Commerce in 1837. Two Arabs, Syed Mohamed bin Ahmed Alsagoff and Syed Mohammed bin Syed Omar Alsagoff, served as Municipal Commissioners in 1872–1898 and 1928–1933 respectively.

The Arabs formed their own association in 1946 which still exists today. The objectives then were to promote and enhance Islam as well as the use of Arabic language. By the time the Arab Association Singapore was founded, the Arab traders were the wealthiest community in Singapore. Syed Ali Mohammed Al-Juneid, for instance, donated a large plot of land near Victoria and Arab Streets to Tan Tock Seng’s hospital. He also built public wells across town to provide free water, at a time when none was being supplied by the municipality. The Al-Juneid family – after whom Aljunied Road is named – made large donations to the construction of the Town Hall (now the Victoria Memorial and Concert Hall), while paying for the building of public bridges. The Al-Kaff footbridge on the Singapore River takes its name from another prominent Arab family, which built the first Japanese Gardens opened to the public before World War II (where the Sennett private housing estate is today).

The Arabs were also well known for their contribution to wakaf lands (Arab's land holdings charitable trust). The wakaf land of Syed Mohamed Alsagoff was formed in 1904 to help support efforts for orphanages, mosques and Islamic schools. Today, the Aljuneid Islamic School and the Alsagoff Arab School stand as a legacy of the contribution of the Arab community towards Islamic education in Singapore. Currently, almost the entire area Singapore central business district were once the wakaf lands which the government acquired in the 1970s with only the minimal compensation paid to the owners.

Arab role in trade
The Arabs had played a dominant role in trade in South East Asia since the fifteenth century. When Sir Stamford Raffles founded Singapore in 1819, he attracted the Arab traders to his new city. By 1824, there were 15 Arabs out of a population of 10,683 and Raffles anticipated a rapid growth in Arab immigration. His blueprint for Singapore included plans for an Arab district. In his instructions to a Singapore housing committee in 1822, he stated:

"The Arab population would require every consideration. No situation will be more appropriate for them than the vicinity of the Sultan’s residence..." (Buckley 1902:85)

The first Arabs to arrive in Singapore in 1819 were two wealthy merchants from Palembang, Sumatra. Their numbers gradually increased and by 1846, there were five important Arab merchant houses. The al-Junied [al-junaid] الجنيد family in Singapore grew to be a rich and influential as did the al-Kaffs [al-kāf] الكاف and the al-Saggoffs [al-saqqāf] السقاف. There are streets and even a town council named after them.

The al-Saggoffs were spice traders and became influential by marrying into a royal family from the Celebes. They acquired many properties, like the other Arab families, including the "Perseverance Estate" where they grew lemon grass. The estate is now considered to be the heart of the Muslim community in Singapore. As well as being successful merchants and land owners, the family became involved in civic affairs. The family members, at times, held civic office from the 1870s until 1965. The al-Kaff family arrived here in 1852. All these families lived in mansions of considerable opulence like the al-Kaff house. Today, the building is a restaurant called Alkaff Mansion as a gesture to preserve the name. Other than that, it has no other Hadhrami connection, either in architectural style or ownership.

Arab business domination
The Arabs dominated the businesses in Singapore, principally in oil and trade, during the British colonial period. Arabic culture had a strong influence on the local Malay culture through its religion. This is seen in the Middle Eastern-style architecture of the mosques in Kampong Glam.

In the heyday of Arab prosperity, the Arabs in Singapore maintained close links with Hadhramaut and large amounts of money were sent back to the homeland. The rich built themselves splendid houses, like the Alkaff house. They also sent their sons back to Hadhramaut for periods of time to enhance their identity as Hadhramis. This custom maintained their language and Hadhrami culture. It even resulted in some Malay being incorporated in the spoken Arabic of Hadhramaut (see Hadhrami Arabic). Hadhramaut was regarded as a cultural training ground of the young Arab men and the time spent there was the final preparation for manhood. Upon their return to Singapore, these young men would take their place in the family businesses.

After World War II
During World War II it became impossible for the Hadhramis in Singapore to travel abroad but they continued to do so thereafter. However, after the Rent Control Act came into effect, Hadrami incomes were frozen and it became clear that the wakaf (trust) incomes would not be sufficient for the next generation. It was then that the Arab families took a keener interest in the education of their children. The richer families sent their children to London to study and the children of others spent time working in Aden rather than just going to Hadhramaut. The cultural and linguistic links were still maintained. However, the family incomes continued to decline.

The 1960s
In the 1960s, there came a major change. The independence of South Yemen with a communist government in power put an end to the Singapore Hadramis returning home. At the same time, the economic developments in Singapore made the importance of the English language and of obtaining an education even more essential. The new Arab generation had grown up without speaking Arabic and had lost both its identity and its affiliation with Hadhramaut. Some families, in the oil boom of the 1970s, tried sending their sons to Saudi Arabia or Arab States of the Persian Gulf, but it was not a success. The young men did not like living in Saudi Arabia as their prospects in Singapore were better than on the Arabian peninsula.

Singaporean Arabs census today
Singapore is a cosmopolitan city state made up of various races. The 1990 census shows the Chinese as the majority with around 74% of the population, the indigenous Malays with 14%, the Indians at less than 10% and the balance placed in the category of "others". This "others" category includes, but is not limited to, Filipinos, Eurasians, Vietnamese and Arabs. The census shows Arabs to be around 7,000, but unofficial estimates place the actual number of Arabs at around 10,000.

Arabs and wakaf (waqf وقف ) properties today
The Singapore Hadramis were major landlords, the large families having substantial properties held in trust, which ranged from private family trusts to public charitable trusts. Most of the land in today’s central business district of Singapore was once owned by Hadrami wakafs. These wakafs, bearing the family names, whether private or charitable, gave considerable prestige to the Arab community among the Muslims in Singapore. In recent years, four factors have affected the wakafs and undermined the status of the community. The first three factors have been a direct result of government policies.

Notable Arab Singaporeans
This section contains a list of notable Arab Singaporeans, people with Arab ancestry born or naturalized in Singapore.

Business

 * Syed Abdul Rahman Alsagoff (سـيّـد عـبـد الـرّحـمـن الـسّـقّـاف, Saiyid ʿAbd ar-Raḥman as-Saqqāf): Businessman in the spice trade and philanthropist from Hadhramawt.   He was a descendant of Muhammad, and his son Ahmad was the son-in-law of Hajjah Fatimah.

Entertainment

 * Sheikh Haikel bin Sheikh Salim Bajrai (شيخ هيكل شيخ سليم) (born 1975): Rapper, actor and radio personality.
 * AB Shaik (Shaik Abu Bakar Banafe) A B Shaik is a DJ at Mediacorp's Malay News and Infotainment radio station, Warna 942. He joined the radio industry as a Ria 897 DJ in June 1991. For more than 20 years, since 1995, Shaik has been the resident voice-over talent for hundreds of TV and radio commercials, trailers, and TV documentaries.

From a Producer/Presenter, Shaik helmed Ria 897 as Senior Programme Director (1999-2006) and moved on to be Senior Business Development Manager for Warna/Ria/Oli before he relinquished his appointment to be back as DJ in Warna 942.

Politics

 * Sayyid Abubakr bin Shaikh Al-Kaff (c. 1890–1965), Yemeni pacifist and philanthropist. In 1936, Al-Kaff assisted British colonial administrator Harold Ingrams in brokering a three year truce between warring Qu'aiti and Kathiri tribes.

Armed Forces

 * Syed Mohamed Syed Ahmad Alsagoff (سـيّـد مـحـمّـد سـيّـد أحـمـد الـسّـقّـاف Saiyid Muḥammad Saiyid Aḥmad as-Saqqāf): Commander, Singapore Armed Forces. Born in Singapore, he had his education at the Victoria School. He later joined the Malayan Armed Forces, the predecessor of the Malaysian Armed Forces, rising to the rank of Major-General before his retirement in the 1970s. When Singapore was part of Malaysia from 1963–1965, he was the Commander of the Singapore Armed Forces, holding the rank of Brigadier-General. The Singapore Armed Forces then consisted of the 4th Malaysian Infantry Brigade which had two infantry regiments of about 1,000 soldiers each.

title: Arab Singaporeans


text: User talk:203.177.178.111

title: User talk:203.177.178.111


text:
Tonnele Circle

The Tonnele Circle is an intersection in Jersey City, New Jersey, United States. It is named after Tonnele ["TUN-uh-lee"] Avenue, the north–south road that runs through it.

Entrances and exits
Entrances to and exits from Tonnele Circle are listed clockwise from north:
 * Tonnele Avenue north (U.S. Route 1/9)
 * entrance from Route 139 and Kennedy Boulevard
 * exit to Route 139
 * Tonnele Avenue south
 * entrance from Pulaski Skyway (U.S. Route 1/9)
 * Truck US 1/9
 * exit to Pulaski Skyway (U.S. Route 1/9)

History
Before the Pulaski Skyway was built, the cut through the New Jersey Palisades (now Route 139) ended at Tonnele Circle, where Tonnele Avenue went north and south, and the main road to Newark went west. To the east, just north of the road through the cut, was a connector road to Hudson County Boulevard (now renamed Kennedy Boulevard). When the Skyway was built, the old connection to Tonnele Circle became a left-side exit and entrance ramp to the Circle, with the Skyway passing over the Circle. Right-side exit and entrance ramps were provided between the Skyway and the Circle, with the southbound onramp exiting the circle north of the old road (now TRUCK US 1/9).

On September 14, 1938, a direct ramp, known as the Tonnele Circle Viaduct, opened from the cut, passing over Tonnele Circle, to TRUCK US 1/9. This greatly improved traffic, since southbound (westbound) trucks no longer had to pass through the circle. Northbound (eastbound) trucks still do, but they only cross the Tonnele Avenue south approach, which is relatively minor.

In mid-1952, the circle was rebuilt. Northbound traffic from TRUCK US 1/9 could now go straight through the circle. Also at that time, or possibly earlier, the offramp from Route 139 was moved to the right side, and entered the Circle where the connector to Hudson County Boulevard had. The connector was modified to only go towards the Circle.

The circle was altered in 2005. A ramp was built to permit vehicles heading southbound on Tonnele Avenue to access the Pulaski Skyway without entering the circle. Additionally, ramps around and through the circle were modified to improve traffic flow, and traffic lights were added and recalibrated to reduce the chances of cross traffic being in an intersection simultaneously.

Throughout the early 2010s, the circle was rebuilt. Changes included traffic rebuilding the overpass that carried southbound US 1-9 Truck, relocating the left turn ramp that let US 1-9 traffic to turn onto NJ 139 or U-turn, removing the 1950s era ramp that let Wittepen bridge traffic onto US 1-9 north, narrowing the circle to one lane in most areas, updating signage, lighting, and traffic lights, constructing a new exit to let southbound Us 1-9 traffic onto US 1-9 Truck to the Witpenn bridge, relocating the tonnelle avenue exit on US 1-9 south, and building a new St. Paul's Viaduct and relocateing the overpass entrances to allow NJ 7 traffic to bypass the circle and get on to US 1-9 north from the Wittpenn Bridge.

In 2021, the Tonnele Circle Viaduct was connected to the newly created Wittpenn bridge.

Naming
It is sometimes believed that the circle (and street) gets its name from the Holland Tunnel, since the circle was built for the tunnel. Hagstrom maps even label the circle as Tunnel's Traffic Circle. However, the circle was named after the street, and the street was probably named after a John Tonnele, who died in 1852, or one of his descendants. Information on the Tonnele family is sparse, but at least some of them lived in Jersey City, where the street now runs. The street was named by 1883. There is some confusion about the spelling - whether the name has one 'L' or two - even within Jersey City, and street signs reflect both options. However, the U.S. Postal Service favors "Tonnele," which reflects the spelling of the man after whom the street is named.

title: Tonnele Circle


text:
Bioaugmentation

Biological augmentation is the addition of archaea or bacterial cultures required to speed up the rate of degradation of a contaminant. Organisms that originate from contaminated areas may already be able to break down waste, but perhaps inefficiently and slowly.

Bioaugmentation is a type of bioremediation in which it requires studying the indigenous varieties present in the location to determine if biostimulation is possible. After discovering the indigenous bacteria found in the location, if the indigenous bacteria can metabolize the contaminants, more of the indigenous bacterial cultures will be implemented into the location to boost the degradation of the contaminants. Bioaugmentation is the introduction of more archaea or bacterial cultures to enhance the contaminant degradation whereas biostimulation is the addition of nutritional supplements for the indigenous bacteria to promote the bacterial metabolism. If the indigenous variety do not have the metabolic capability to perform the remediation process, exogenous varieties with such sophisticated pathways are introduced. The utilization of bioaugmentation provides advancement in the fields of microbial ecology and biology, immobilization, and bioreactor design.

Bioaugmentation is commonly used in municipal wastewater treatment to restart activated sludge bioreactors. Most cultures available contain microbial cultures, already containing all necessary microorganisms (B. licheniformis, B. thuringiensis, P. polymyxa, B. stearothermophilus, Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp., Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas, Streptomyces, Saccharomyces, etc.). Activated sludge systems are generally based on microorganisms like bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, rotifers, and fungi, which are capable of degrading biodegradable organic matter. There are many positive outcomes from the use of bioaugmentation, such as the improvement in efficiency and speed of the process of breaking down substances and the reduction of toxic particles in an area.

Soil remediation
Bioaugmentation is favorable in contaminated soils that have undergone bioremediation, but still pose an environmental risk. This is because microorganisms that were originally in the environment did not accomplish their task during bioremediation when it came to breaking down chemicals in the contaminated soil. The failure of original bacteria can be caused by environmental stresses, as well as changes in the microbial population due to mutation rates. When microorganisms are added, they are potentially more suited to the nature of the new contaminant, meanwhile the older microorganisms are similar to the older pollution and contamination. However, this is merely one of many factors; site size is also a very important determinant. In order to see whether bioaugmentation should be implemented, the overall setting must be considered. Also, some highly specialized microorganisms are not capable of adapting to certain site settings. Availability of certain microorganism types (as used for bioremediation) may also be a problem. Although bioaugmentation may appear to be a perfect solution for contaminated soil, it can have drawbacks. For example, the wrong type of bacteria can result in potentially clogged aquifers, or the remediation result may be incomplete or unsatisfactory.

Bioaugmentation of chlorinated solvents
At sites where soil and groundwater are contaminated with chlorinated ethenes, such as tetrachloroethylene and trichloroethylene, bioaugmentation can be used to ensure that the in situ microorganisms can completely degrade these contaminants to ethylene and chloride, which are non-toxic. Bioaugmentation is typically only applicable to bioremediation of chlorinated ethenes, although there are emerging cultures with the potential to biodegrade other compounds including BTEX, chloroethanes, chloromethanes, and MTBE. The first reported application of bioaugmentation for chlorinated ethenes was at Kelly Air Force Base, TX. Bioaugmentation is typically performed in conjunction with the addition of electron donor (biostimulation) to achieve geochemical conditions in groundwater that favor the growth of the dechlorinating microorganisms in the bioaugmentation culture.

Niche fitness
Including more microbes into an environment is beneficial to the speed of the cleanup duration. The interaction and competitions of two compounds influence the performance that a microorganism, original or new, could have. This can be tested by placing a soil that favors the new microbes into the area and then looking at the performance. The results will show if the new microorganism can perform well enough in that soil with other microorganisms. This helps to determine the correct amount of microbes and indigenous substances that are needed in order to optimize performance and create a co-metabolism.

Coke plant wastewater in China
An example of how bioaugmentation has improved an environment, is in the coke plant wastewater in China. Coal in China is used as a main energy source and the contaminated water contains harmful toxic contaminants like ammonia, thiocyanate, phenols and other organic compounds, such as mono- and polycyclic nitrogen-containing aromatics, oxygen and sulfur-containing heterocyclics and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Previous measures to treat this problem was an aerobic-anoxic-oxic system, solvent extractions, stream stripping, and biological treatment. Bioaugmentation has been reported to remove 3-chlorobenzoate, 4-methyl benzoate, toluene, phenol, and chlorinated solvents.

The anaerobic reactor was packed with semi-soft media, which were constructed by plastic ring and synthetic fiber string. The anoxic reactor is a completely mixed reactor while the oxic reactor is a hybrid bioreactor in which polyurethane foam carriers were added. Water from anoxic reactor, odic reactor and sedimentation tank were used and had mix-ins of different amount of old and developed microbes with .75 concentration and 28 degree Celsius. The rate of contaminant degradation depended on the amount of microbe concentration. In the enhanced microbial community indigenous microorganisms broke down the contaminants in the coke plant wastewater, such as pyridines, and phenolic compounds. When indigenous heterotrophic microorganisms were added, they converted many large molecular compounds into smaller and simpler compounds, which could be taken from more biodegradable organic compounds. This proves that bioaugmentation could be used as a tool for the removal of unwanted compounds that are not properly removed by conventional biological treatment system. When bioaugmentation is combined with A1–A2–O system for the treatment of coke plant wastewater it is very powerful.

Petroleum cleanup
In the petroleum industry, there is a large problem with how oilfield drilling pit is disposed of. Many used to simply place dirt over the pit, but it is far more productive and economically beneficial to use bioaugmentation. With the use of advanced microbes, drilling companies can actually treat the problem in the oilfield pit instead of transferring the waste around. Specifically, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can be metabolized by some bacteria, which significantly reduces environmental damage from drilling activities. Given suitable environmental conditions, microbes are placed in the oilpit to break down hydrocarbons and alongside are other nutrients. Before treatment there was a total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) level of 44,880 ppm, which within just 47 days the TPH was lowered to a level of 10,000 ppm to 6,486 ppm.

Failures and potential solutions
There have been many instances where bioaugmentation had deficiencies in its process, including the use of the wrong organism. The implementation of bioaugmentation on the environment can pose problems of predation, nutritional competition between indigenous and inoculated bacteria, insufficient inoculations, and disturbing the ecological balance due to large inoculations. Each problem can be solved using different techniques to limit the possibilities of these problems occurring. Predation can be prevented by high initial doses of the inoculated bacteria or heat treatment prior to inoculation whereas nutritional competition can be settled with biostimulation. Insufficient inoculations can be treated by repeated or continual inoculations and large inoculations are resolved with highly monitored dosages of the bacteria.

Examples include the introduced bacteria fail to enhance the degradation within the soil, and the bioaugmentation trials fail on the laboratory scale, but succeed on the large scale. Many of these problems occurred because the microbial ecology issues were not taken into consideration in order to map the performance of the bioaugmentation. It is crucial to consider the microbes' ability to withstand the conditions in the microbial community to be placed in. In many of the cases that have failed, only the microbes' ability to break down compounds was considered and less their fitness in existing communities and the resulting competitive stress. It is better to identify the existing communities before looking at the strains needed to break down pollutants.

title: Bioaugmentation


text: User talk:24.136.164.101

title: User talk:24.136.164.101


text:
Traffic circles in New Jersey

The U.S. state of New Jersey at one point had a total of 101 traffic circles, 44 of which were part of state roads. However, the number has shrunk as traffic circles have been phased out by the New Jersey Department of Transportation. In the 1920s and 1930s, New Jersey felt that traffic circles were an efficient way for moving traffic through three or more intersecting roads. Built in 1925, the first traffic circle in New Jersey was the Airport Circle in Pennsauken. Many of these interchanges are rotaries in design, as opposed to the more successful modern roundabout. As suburban and rural populations grew New Jersey's traffic circles became outdated. The increased number of drivers on the roads resulted in traffic circles being more likely to hinder traffic than help it. Increased number of vehicles and faster traffic speeds made traffic circles more dangerous and accidents common. Many traffic circles became notorious for having frequent accidents and being confusing, especially for non-locals. Starting around the 1970s, the New Jersey Department of Transportation began phasing out traffic circles. Common methods of eliminating traffic circles are building a road through the circle, adding traffic lights, and the use of grade separation.

Modified traffic circles are intersections where parts or all of the original circle still exist as a major part of the intersection.

title: Traffic circles in New Jersey