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Serbian art

Serbian art refers to the visual arts of the Serbs and their nation-state Serbia. The medieval heritage includes Byzantine art, preserved in architecture, frescos and icons of the many Serbian Orthodox monasteries. In the early modern period, Serbian visual arts began to be influenced by Western art, culminating in the Habsburg monarchy in the late 18th century. The beginning of modern Serbian art is placed in the 19th century. Many Serbian monuments and works of art have been lost forever due to various wars and peacetime marginalizations.

Prehistory
Currently, Europe's oldest known civilization was discovered in Serbia, namely Lepenski Vir and Vinča culture. In Serbia, Archaeological Sites of Exceptional Importance (Serbia) are numerous and have the highest level of state protection under the Law on Cultural Heritage. See: Prehistoric sites in Serbia and Prehistory of Southeastern Europe for artifacts and sculpture found at the archeological sites of Lepenski Vir.

Roman period
Geographically Serbia was always part of the Roman Empire whether it was ruled from Rome or from Byzantium. The Roman ruins are found throughout the Balkan Peninsula.

Medieval Serbian art
We know little of the lives of the painters, craftsmen (engravers, goldsmiths, woodcarvers), builder/architects of medieval Serbia, of their studies, their schools, and their commissions. Slowly, however, we're beginning to learn. But in the course of centuries experience in painting frescoes, miniatures, icons and the iconostasis, there undoubtedly arose arts and crafts workshops where a younger generation of painters and skilled craftsmen could learn the techniques of the masters.

Church architecture developed under the patronage of the medieval Serbian state. The most distinctive piece of medieval Serbian architecture was the Studenica monastery founded by Stefan Nemanja, the founder of the Nemanjić dynasty in 1166. This monastery also featured significant works of art including its Byzantine style fresco paintings. Its church also features extensive sculptures based on Psalms and the Dormition of the Theotokos. UNESCO added this monastery to its list of World Cultural Heritage sites in 1986. It was the model for other monasteries at Mileševa, Sopoćani and the Visoki Dečani. The influence of Byzantine art became more influential after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 in the Fourth Crusade when many Greek artists fled to Serbia. Their influence can be seen at the Church of the Ascension at Mileševa as well as in the wall paintings at the Church of the Holy Apostles at Peć and at the Sopoćani Monastery. Icons and frescoes also formed a significant part of church art. At that time in Raška, Stefan Vladislav who founded at Mileševa a monastery and a church where three of his court painters -- Demetrius, George and Theodore -- worked on wall painting free from the strict canon law tradition. The influence of Byzantine architecture reached its peak after 1300 including the rebuilding of the Our Lady of Ljeviš (ca. 1306–1307) and St. George at Staro Nagoričane as well as the Gračanica monastery. Church decorative paintings and religious arts and crafts also developed further in the period. The most noteworthy painters at the time were Michael Astrapas and Eutychios (fl. 1294-1317), Grigorije (1333), Jovan Teorijan (fl. 1345-1350), Monk Markarije (fl. 1366-1378) and before them, Deacon Jovan (fl. 1266-1271), Rufin (fl. 1271)

Icon of the Holy Virgin Pelagonitissa, dating from 1421, is considered one of the last outstanding achievements of icon painting, a representation of the then still-living Byzantine iconography. Its author Makarije Zograf (1380-1422) worked on the icon in the Church of Transfiguration in the monastery of the village Zrze, near Prilep, and many other Serbian monasteries during the fifteenth century. Makarije Zograf and his brother Metropolitan Jovan Zograf (1380-1422) cared for the monastery endowment until it was transferred to Constantine, the village head (kmet). Also, there was Aleksije (fl. 1350), Hieromonk Grigorije (1380-1420), Monk Joanikije (fl. 1410), but many did not sign their works, but they are not difficult to identify because of their unrivalled quality that cannot be mistaken from another school.

The Visoki Dečani monastery in Metohija was built between 1330 and 1350. Unlike other Serbian monasteries of the period, it was built with Romanesque features by master-builders under the monk Vitus of Kotor. Its frescoes feature 1000 portraits portraying all of the major themes of the New Testament. The cathedral features iconostasis, hegumen's throne and carved royal sarcophagus. In 2004, UNESCO listed the Dečani Monastery on the World Heritage List.

There was a further spate of church building as the Serbian state contracted to the Morava basin in the late 14th century. Prince Stefan Lazarević was a poet and patron of the arts who founded the church at Resava at Morava with the wall paintings having a theme of parables of Christ with the people portrayed wearing feudal Serbian costumes.

Manuscripts were another significant feature of Serbian medieval art. Miroslav's Gospel features lavish calligraphy and miniatures and is a significant artwork as well as a notable work of literature. The Chludov Psalter dating from the 14th century is beautifully decorated and was probably owned by a high-ranking noble. Serbian princes were well known in the 15th century for supporting manuscripts employing scribes and artists to create manuscripts besides icons and frescoes. Lovro Dobričević (1420-1478) of Kotor was a Venetian painter of Serbian origin, though Roman Catholic by confession, who first started to paint in the Serbian Orthodox Savina Monastery in Zeta and Serbian Despotate (now Montenegro) in the mid-15th century.

Later in 19th century, Serbian medieval art was used as inspiration for notable architect Andrey Damyanov who, between 1835 and 1878, along the Vardar and Morava Valleys and Bosnia, built around 40 churches and other buildings. Adapting to the social demand of its Serbian sponsors, Damyanov combined simultaneously traditional elements of the 15th century Morava school with Occidental baroque elements found North of Sava river.

Thanks are due to field scientist and academic Gabriel Millet who was the first to bring Serbian art to the attention of the West in 1919, along with Serbian-American scientist Michael Pupin, who gathered an international team of scholars and public figures to support the preservation of architectural heritage during and after the Great War. In 1918, Sir Thomas Graham Jackson, in Pupin's "Serbian Orthodox Church" on the medieval Serbian churches, refuted the notion that Serbian art was nothing more than a branch of Byzantine art and showed that Serbian art had an original character of its own.

A large number of artistically worthy icons was made in this period.

Fresco paintings
Orthodox fresco painting represents the peak of Serbian medieval art. Its birth went in line with the creation and development of medieval Serbian state, but unlike Serbian state it didn't cease to exist during the Ottoman occupation. While Serbian architecture has seen mixed influences of both Byzantine and medieval Italian states, fresco and icon painting remained deeply rooted in solely eastern byzantine tradition. Frescos were being painted under the patronage of Serbian rulers, as the highest form of religious decorative form. Following the political expansion and military growth, the 13th and 14th century are marked as the period when the biggest amount of newly built or existing sanctuaries have been decorated, mostly by unknown artists. Studenica monastery has been built in 1196 under the patronage of Stefan Nemanja, the founder of Nemanjić dynasty, and ever since it enjoyed the care of Stefan's descendants as the archi-model. Its most representative fresco, The Crucifixion, was made twelve years later, in 1208, on the blue background brought into contrast with golden-yellow of Christ's bare crucified body. In the second half of 14th century an unknown artist painted monumental The Dormition of the Virgin in Sopoćani monastery, which remained the supreme achievement of byzantine painting tradition. However, the most famous Serbian medieval fresco is the Myrrhbearers (or the "White Angel") from the Mileševa monastery, painted in 1235, on the southern wall of the church. It depicts Archangel Gabriel sitting on Christ's grave. The identity of its author is unknown. In the 16th century, the White Angel was over-painted with another fresco, and so was hidden until the 20th century when the fresco was restored. This fresco was sent as a message in the first satellite broadcast signal from Europe to America after the Cuban Missile Crisis, as a symbol of peace and civilization. Later, the same signal, containing the White Angel, was transmitted to space in an attempt to communicate with extraterrestrial life forms. Another notable mention is the fresco of Serbian queen Simonida, in Gračanica monastery, today located on the disputed territory of Kosovo. Born as Simonis Palaiologina, she was a daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) and Irene of Montferrat, and the fourth wife of Serbian king Stefan Milutin (r. 1282–1321). Two celebrated Serbian poems were inspired by the beauty of the fresco. Two dark stains on the places where the queen's eyes were supposed to have created a common belief that her eyes were being carved out by Albanians, hence the well-known strophe by Milan Rakić: Your eyes were gouged out, oh beautiful image, On a pilaster at the approach of night, Knowing that no one would witness the pillage, An Albanian’s knife robbed you of your sight. However, between 1971 and 1976, during the conservation works in the monastery, it was discovered that for centuries the queen's eyes were lying under what actually was (unsuccessfully intentionally damaged) grey layer. Once the patches were removed, Simonida was shown to media with light-blue eyes.

16th and 17th centuries
The Ottoman conquest of Serbia during the 15th century had a negative impact on the visual arts. The Serbs became part of the Rum Millet (Christian community), and were regarded as a lower class (rayah). The Serbian nobility was not integrated into the Ottoman state system, and the Ottoman government abolished the church. As the nobility and church were the main sources of patronage for architects and artists, the early modern period is considered an artistically less productive period in Serbian art. Despite the general trend, notable monuments were built. There was some resumption of artistic endeavor after the restoration of the Serbian Patriarchate in 1557. Zograf Longin (1530-1600) and Georgije Mitrofanović were the leading painters of the late 16th and early 17th century, along with Zograf Jovan, Andrija Raičević, Zograf Radul, Sava Krabulević, Kozma Damjanović, Tripo Kokolja, Zograf Dimitrije, Strahinja of Budimlje, Kyr Georgije and Kyr Kozma. Mitrofanović's work on the church at the Morača Monastery is considered one of his best. Among the icon painters working in the Byzantine tradition in Slavonia were Nikola Klisur (mid-17th century) and Ostoja Mrkojević in the late 17th century.

Baroque (18th century)

Traditional Serbian art was beginning to show some Baroque influences at the end of the 18th century as shown in the works of Nikola Nešković, Teodor Kračun, and Jakov Orfelin. Painting of the early Baroque did not create a homogeneous group of painters. It developed under the Russian-Ukrainian and Southern Balkan basis and the influences that had slowly arrived from Western European art centers. The first generation of Baroque painters nourished on the learnings of the Russian painters Vasilije Romanovich and Jov Vasilijevich, then the trainee of the Kiev Academy of painting, Dimitrije Bačević, Vasa Ostojić, Joakim Marković, Jovan Popović (artist), Amvrosije Janković, Dimitrije Popović, Teodor Stefanov Gologlavac, Hadži-Ruvim Nenadović, and Stefan Tenecki. The work of Balkan icon painters in the Habsburg monarchy throughout the 18th century. Teodor Simonov (born in Moschopolis) worked for the Serbian Orthodox Metropolitanate of Karlovci during the eighth decade of the 18th century. Simonov painted the walls of the church monastery in Stolni Beograd, today's Székesfehérvár in Hungary. The works of Jovan Četirević Grabovan who completed part of his education in Imperial Russia, and returned to the Habsburg monarchy to settle in Osijek in Slavonia where he developed a rich icon-painting activity. The works of others who also came originally from southern parts of the Balkans (once known as Old Serbia) such as Hristofor Žefarović and Janko Halkozović, created in the spirit of the Levant Baroque, relying on the transferred experience of Italian Renaissance art and the Byzantine tradition, which resulted in a distinctive model of Baroque icons. The originator of the more direct rotation on Central European models was Joakim Marković, whose work is linked to the first portraits and Still lifes, and in church painting of historical compositions and heraldic depictions.

High Baroque art was reflected in the firmer cultural orientation towards Vienna, as well as church and school reforms. The changes are visible in the works of Teodor Kračun who in his work represents a significant step towards understanding the actual Central European art. The retrospective Orthodox heritage confronted the emphasized emotionality and the movement as a fundamental element of artistic expression. Scenes are placed in the real world, Christ and Mary are depicted according to the rules of the secular ruler iconography and rely on graphic templates from popular illustrated Bibles. The group of representatives of the High Baroque include Mojsije Subotić, Grigorije Davidović-Obšić, Grigorije Jezdimirović and Lazar Serdanović.

The emergence and development of Late Baroque painting had been determined by the cultural and political changes of the time of Joseph II. Conceptual changes in the era of enlightened and learned man - the Enlightenment - marked the last decade of the 18th century. The learned artist, traveling the European capitals of Art, accepts and implements the ideas of the Enlightenment reforms. Among the artists who took Serbian painting of Central European Late Baroque formulation, Jakov Orfelin and Teodor Ilić Češljar stand out. They are joined by master woodcarvers Marko Gavrilović and his sons, Arsenije and Aksentije Marković and Marko Vujatović. Neoclassicism as the style of the new era, based on the ideas of the Enlightenment, would not jeopardize the ruling Late Baroque conception in the first decades of the next century. Such a sequence is identified in the works of painters Stefan Gavrilović, Jovan Isailović Sr., Georgije Mišković and Mihajlo Živković.

Among the important painters were Nikola Nešković, Teodor Kračun, Teodor Ilić Češljar, Pavel Đurković, Dimitrije Bačević, Georgije Bakalović, Stefan Gavrilović, Jovan Četirević Grabovan, Jovan Pačić, Jovan Stergević and others.

19th-century painting and drawing
Printed magazines with engravings became a popular method of communicating through art, of both religious and irreligious themes. The printing of engravings of figures of prominent Serbian rulers fitted in the ideas of continuity of Serbian statehood. Monasteries on Fruška Gora and other ones in the Metropolitanate of Karlovci issued engraved magazines in which protector saints with monasteries were represented. Graphical arts of the 18th century were the first-class documents of the appearance and condition of monastery buildings before photographs. In the last decades of the 18th century, the written word suppressed visual arts as the main communication activity in religious magazines, with graphical arts becoming more and more used in illustrated books.
 * Religious art

In the first decades of the 19th century a new graphic technique of lithography experience a real boom in the countries of Western Europe. Serbian artists gradually introduced it to the history of national arts in the 19th century. In contrast to modest attempts of scarce individuals, lithography becomes an important branch of Serbian art only with the emergence of Anastas Jovanović. Independent printed magazines on religious themes that prevailed in the 18th century became scarcer in the 19th century, only accounting for a part of the graphic production. As a medium very suitable for spreading political ideas, lithography dominates with national-historical themes. Sketch portraits and templates for lithography were dealt with by many Serbian painters: Jovan Isailović Jr., Jovan Popović, Uroš Knežević, Pavle Simić, Pavle Čortanović, Adam Stefanović, Steva Todorović, Đorđe Krstić, while being technically performed in Pest and Vienna by various lithographers. At the end of the 19th century, popular oleographs appear, as the first reproduction of popular works, most often with motifs from folklife and depictions of historical figures and events.
 * Graphical arts

 * Neoclassicism

Under the influence of the ides of Enlightenment and Rationalism, at the end of the 18th and beginning of 19th century, Serbian art came to leave baroque pictorial poetics and acceptance of the aesthetic ideals of the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts, characterized by eclecticism of different stylistic expressions, of the late baroque to neo-classical. In addition to religious painting, which was still dominant, the portrait gains increasing importance. Portraits complete the picture of the new society created in that time and point to the idea of a permanent memory of individuals within the family or the wider community. The gallery of characters, in addition to church prelates and priests, senior officers, significant places is taken by eminent members of civil society from the first decades of the 19th century: lawyers, university professors, writers, wealthy merchants, and their wives, the status shown by marked clothing and jewelry. Stylistic features of paintings of that era: a balanced composition, precise modelling, rigorous academic drawing, colour of the reduced register, expressed in the works of Arsenije Teodorović, Pavel Đurković, Georgije Bakalović, Jeftimije Popović, Nikola Aleksić, Konstantin Danil, Jovan Isailović Jr., Katarina Ivanović, Dimitrije Avramović, and others.

 * Biedermeier

In the 1830s the Serbian art scene is added by a generation of painters who transferred Biedermeier and Nazarene art programs from Central Europe. As a stylistic expression that deeply permeated the Serbian art at that time, Biedermeier was most suitable for the wide layers of citizens that concerned about themselves, their family and home. In the changed social circumstance in which the middle class had become the bearer of social changes, the family becomes the basic unit of modern society and the main scene of private life. Awareness of family is confirmed and visualized in family portraits, in groups or of some of its members. Family portraits depict the social status of the family, but at the same time, they have a private character and are part of a narrow family cult. In addition to portraits, Biedermeier painting is also focused on the Genre art and Still life. The most important representatives of the Biedermeier expression in Serbian painting are Konstantin Danil, Katarina Ivanović, Dimitrije Avramović and Nikola Aleksić.

 * Romanticism

In the mid-19th century Serbian artistic creativity was marked with the reception of content and design of civil works (Biedermeier), but at the same time the development of a program of historicism. For the penetration of Romanticist conceptions, education and stays of Serbian painters in Vienna and Munich, as well as trips to Italy, were crucial. Social and political conditions contributed to the Romantic expression in Serbian art accomplishing its highest achievements in the late 1860s and beginning of 1870s. In stylistic and thematic view, Romanticism brought notable innovations: greater freedom of strokes and composition, warm colours complemented by the play of light and shadow. Most Serbian artists of that period reflected national-historical content in painting compositions, however, the client needs kept iconography and portrait painting popular. Some examples of notable Romanticist painters include Katarina Ivanović (1811–1882), Đura Jakšić (1832–1878), Pavle Simić (1818–1876), Novak Radonić (1826–1890), Aksentije Marodić, Đura Jakšić, Steva Todorović (1832–1925) and the globe-trotting son of Sava Petrović, Pavel Petrović whose famous work is found in Lima, Peru.

 * Historicism

In accordance with the general ideas of Historicism, as the dominant characteristics of the culture of the 19th century in the European context, the top role in the process of constituting national identity was held by events and figures from national history. They represented a representative of the golden age of the nation, which in Serbian culture of the 19th century was equated with the period of the rule of the Nemanjić dynasty. The idealization of a glorious past, regardless of whether it was based on real facts or myth, was the main tool in the constitution and the homogenization of the nation. This idealized past was directly at the service of the glorification of the present, which emphasized the idea of rebuilding the former Serbian glory. These ideas are directly reflected in the visual art of the epoch - historical compositions, but also patriotic scenes that illustrate the events of the recent past are gaining more and more importance. They praise the nation through the idealization of events and personalities, becoming at the same time engaged means of communication with the aim to awaken national and patriotic feelings. Some examples of notable Historicist painters include Đura Jakšić (1832–1878) and Pavle Simić (1818–1876). The most productive period of visual arts made following the trends of Historicism in Serbian art was 1848—1878.

 * Academicism

In the last decades of the 19th century, Serbian painters began to stay at Munich as a center of education and its Academy of Fine Arts, which compared to the Viennese, was more avant garde and progressive. However, the larger number of them remained faithful to the Vienna Academy where the education system was still based on constitutional education, traditional practices, and technical skills. The highest level of Academicism in Serbian painting of the late 19th century are portraits of Paja Jovanović (1859–1957) and Uroš Predić (1857–1953).

 * Orientalism

Orientalism indicates interest in Oriental scenes in the visual arts of the 19th century. Napoleon's campaign in Egypt, the conquest of Algeria, as well as travel books and other literary descriptions, encouraged the enthusiasm and imagination of artists. Islamic countries of the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa had become the preferred travel destination for many artists. Scenes of squares, bazaars, harem and various folklore events entered European painting. Orientalism rarely had a purely documentary character and more often depicted the enthusiasm of Europeans for beauty, vividness, and allure of the unknown and exotic world. The wild nature and unusual customs, combined with gorgeous colours and light, had become a great inspiration to European artists. During a long period of education, Paja Jovanović, along with classes at the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts, attended the School of historical painting of Leopold Müller, famous for its oriental motifs. There is no doubt that Miller's crucial lessons determined his painting preference. Noting the increased interest of Europe to the events in the Balkans, he travelled during the holidays to Albania, Montenegro, Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia gathering sketches and studies of the life of the Balkan peoples. Precisely these themes brought Paja Jovanović worldwide fame and popularity.

 * Realism

In the last decades of the 19th century, with Serbian painters attending the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich, Realism entered the Serbian art scene. In stylistic view, Realists, succeeding the Romantic agitation, brought calm and order in painting. In Serbian painting Realism never took root in the true sense, in the symbiosis of thematics and techniques. Serbian painters, taught artistically to express in a new form, return to be faced with the difficult solvable problems of adapting the conditions of an economically, socially and culturally underdeveloped environment, which was unwilling to accept new social themes which European Realism advocated. Serbian painters, therefore, continue to paint portraits, religious and historical compositions.

 * Symbolism

As a formulated artistic phenomenon on a European scale, Symbolism was also present at the Munich art scene, where some Serbian painters were formed. Representatives of Symbolism proclaimed turning of the indirect, associative and suggestive mode of expression. They used mythological symbols, dreams, and imagination as a visual language of the soul. Stevan Aleksić is the most notable representative of the period.

Applied art and design
In terms of periodization, monuments can be divided into those from the period of the Principality, period of the Kingdom of Serbia, the monuments from the period of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, as well as those built in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the present-day Republic of Serbia.

Applied art and design through the centuries have evolved in Serbia through crafts. The wealth of forms, the variety of materials with powerful color schemes and ornamentation folk art represented a strong stimulus for the affirmation of applied art, which in the second half of the 19th century, gets its first artists in Serbia. End of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century were marked by the work of individual personalities, each of them made a significant contribution to the development and the history of applied art in Serbia. These were people of different professions and some of them include: Mihailo Valtrović, Vladislav Titelbah, Dragiša Milutinović, Dragutin Inkiostri Medenjak.

Modern visual arts
Kiril Kutlik set up the first school of art in Serbia in 1895. Many of his students went to study in Western Europe, especially France and Germany and brought back avant-garde styles. Nadežda Petrović was influenced by Fauvism while Sava Šumanović worked in Cubism. Other well-known artists of the Avant-Garde movement from 1900 to 1918 were: Anastas Bocarić, Steva Todorović, Paja Jovanović, Marko Murat, Beta Vukanović, Đorđe Krstić, Paško Vučetić, Leon Koen, Svetislav Jovanović, Živko Jugović, Vasa Pomorišac, Adam Stefanović and others. After World War I, the Belgrade School of Painting developed in the capital with some members such as Milan Konjović working in a Fauvist manner, while others such as Marko Čelebonović working in a style called Intimisme based on the use of colours.

Some artists chose to emigrate from the Serbia and the Yugoslavia. Dragoslav Stoyanovitch (1891-1978) took part in the heyday of poster art in Paris in 1910 while Yovan Radenkovitch (1901–1979) left Belgrade for Paris in the 1930s. Radenkovitch befriended Matisse and Vlaminck and adopted a style inspired by Fauvism, before eventually leaving Europe to work in New York and settled in Waterbury, Connecticut, where several of his paintings are still kept in Mattatuck Museum.Stoyanovitch was one of the early poster designers for the Gaumont Film Company and continued with his prolific painting career long after. His war poster, created in 1916, entitled "Filming with the Troops" hangs at the Imperial War Museum in London, and others are at the Gaumont Film Company archives. Despite his productive career, Stoyanovitch's contribution to art has been much overlooked.

Socrealism was the dominant school after World War II with the rise to power of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia under Josip Broz Tito. However, that period did not last long – during the 1960s, Serbian artists started to break free from the constraints of the Communists led by figures such as Petar Lubarda and Milo Milunović. The Mediala group featuring Vladimir Veličković was formed in the 1970s to promote Surrealist figurative painting. Serbian art was split between those basing their works on the traditions of Serbian work such as frescoes and iconography and those exploring international styles.

Naïve art became prominent in the second half of the 20th century, with many notable artists coming from Vojvodina province. Serbian naïve art painters include Dušan Jevtović and Milosav Jovanović.

The first part of 21st century, with young artists like Jovanka Sanijenovic or Simonida Rajčević, marks a predominance of a figurative art linked to realism – a realism "where everything is real and nothing is real – considering contemporary time as needing a return to what is real and concrete, and at the same time social and existential". The Human Rights Logo was created by Serbian graphic designer Predrag Stakić.

Contemporary art
At the beginning of the 1980s in Belgrade was established movement "New Image" painting with Milovan Destil Marković and Vlasta Volcano Mikić (Žestoki), later followed by (Alter imago group) Nada Alavanja, Tahir Lušić, Vladimir Nikolić and later Mileta Prodanović.

Performance art
Maga Magazinović, philosopher and choreographer, was one of the most important figures of contemporary physical practice in Serbia before the Second World War. The emancipation of the body in her work was realized through the application of gymnastics, dance and physical education. During the 1960s and 1970s history of the contemporary dance developed in the framework of performance art, body art and happenings. On the status of the body can meditate in the works of Marina Abramović and Katalin Ladik. The performance art of the eighties was marked by a specific attitude toward ideology. This attitude is manifested in the work within the context of using utopian socialist iconography. During the '90s performance art was focused on the fight against the regime.

Marina Abramović is the most prominent Serbian performance artist. Active for over three decades, she has been described as the "grandmother of performance art." She pioneered a new notion of identity by bringing in the participation of her observers. Her art focuses on the theme of “confronting pain, blood, and physical limits of the body,” while relying on the extent of these discomforts based on the actions of her audience members.

Another performance artists include Gabrijel Savić Ra, Nela Antonović, Lidija Antonović, Predrag Radovančević.

title: Serbian art


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February 2006

 * 1) Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, as you did to Andrew Johnson, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia.   --P e ruvianLlama(spit) 20:31, 31 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) [[Image:Stop hand.png|left|30px]] Welcome to Wikipedia. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our encyclopedia. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks.  Latinus 16:25, 2 February 2006 (UTC)
 * [[Image:Modern_clock_chris_kemps_01.png|left|32px]]You have been temporarily blocked from editing because of your disruptive edits. You are invited to contribute in a constructive manner as soon as the block expires. Tom Harrison Talk 14:12, 9 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia.   -- Rory 0 96 18:41, 27 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, as you did to George H. W. Bush, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia.   —  The KMan  talk   20:30, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

March 2006

 * 1) Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, as you did to Snake, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia.   TigerShark 14:49, 1 March 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) [[Image:Stop_hand.png|left|30px]] This is your last warning.  The next time you vandalize a page, as you did to Bottle rocket, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia.  TigerShark 16:18, 1 March 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) You have been temporarily blocked from editing for vandalism of Wikipedia. Please note that page blanking, addition of random text, deliberate misinformation, privacy violations, and repeated and blatant violation of WP:NPOV are considered vandalism. If you wish to make useful contributions, you may come back after the block expires.   Hall Monitor 18:01, 1 March 2006 (UTC)

April 2006
Thank you for experimenting with the page El Lissitzky on Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. T. J. Day 14:29, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

This IP has been used for vandalism again (24-26 April 2006); so much for the temporary block. Someone really needs to bring corporal punishment back to Unified School District 232.

Your recent edit to Al-Qaeda was reverted by an automated bot that attempts to recognize and repair vandalism to Wikipedia articles. If the bot reverted a legitimate edit, please accept our apologies – if you bring it to the attention of the bot's owner, we may be able to improve its behavior. Click here for frequently asked questions about the bot and this warning. // Tawkerbot2 17:30, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

Thank you for experimenting with the page Michelangelo on Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. A link to the edit I have reverted can be found here: link. If you believe this edit should not have been reverted, please contact me. Knucmo2 19:38, 3 May 2006 (UTC)

Your edit to Jim
Your recent edit to Jim was reverted by an automated bot that attempts to recognize and repair vandalism to Wikipedia articles. If the bot reverted a legitimate edit, please accept my humble creator's apologies – if you bring it to the attention of the bot's owner, we may be able to improve its behavior. Click here for frequently asked questions about the bot and this warning. // Tawkerbot2 19:37, 15 May 2006 (UTC)

Edit to Jacobo Timerman
Thank you for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. --(Mingus ah um 19:50, 15 May 2006 (UTC))

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize a page, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. -- GraemeL (talk) 19:36, 16 May 2006 (UTC)

Your edit to Address (geography)
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You have been temporarily blocked from editing for vandalism of Wikipedia. Please note that page blanking, addition of random text or spam, deliberate misinformation, privacy violations, and repeated and blatant violation of WP:NPOV are considered vandalism. If you wish to make useful contributions, you may come back after the block expires. - O bli (Talk) ? 16:16, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

You have been blocked from editing for a period of 3 months for vandalising Wikipedia. If you wish to make useful contributions, you are welcome to come back after the block expires. --Nlu (talk) 17:02, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

August 22
Welcome to Wikipedia. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our encyclopedia. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the work of others. Thank you. -- K O S | talk 15:37, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

You have been blocked from editing Wikipedia for repeated vandalism. If or when the block expires, feel free to come back, but please make useful contributions instead, and refrain from vandalizing or this account will face longer blocks, and action could be taken against the individual who uses it. -- K O S | talk 15:41, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

2006-08-28
Thank you for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and it has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. --jam es (talk) 13:37, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize a page, as you did to Tora! Tora! Tora!, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. A link to the edit I have reverted can be found here: link. If you believe this edit should not have been reverted, please contact me. Big  top  19:31, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

Block
Blocked You have been blocked for vandalism for 2000 hours. To contest this block, add the text  on this page, along with an explanation of why you believe this block to be unjustified. You can also email the blocking administrator or any administrator from this list. Please be sure to include your username (if you have one) and IP address in your email.

Please do not erase warnings on this page. Doing so is also considered vandalism. K O S | talk 19:35, 31 August 2006 (UTC) K O S | talk  19:35, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

Your edit to Fire
Your recent edit to Fire (diff) was reverted by an automated bot that attempts to recognize and repair vandalism to Wikipedia articles. If the bot reverted a legitimate edit, please accept my humble creator's apologies – if you bring it to the attention of the bot's owner, we may be able to improve its behavior. Click here for frequently asked questions about the bot and this warning. // AntiVandalBot 20:10, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

You have been blocked from editing Wikipedia  as a result of your . You are free to make constructive edits after the block has expired, but please note that vandalism (including page blanking or addition of random text), spam, deliberate misinformation, privacy violations, personal attacks; and repeated, blatant violations of our neutral point of view policy will not be tolerated. --Ed (Edgar181) 20:40, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

March 2007
This is your last warning. The next time you vandalise Wikipedia, as you did to Tom Hanks, you will be blocked from editing. Bsroiaadn 15:21, 8 March 2007 (UTC)
 * If this is a shared IP address, and you didn't make any unconstructive edits, please ignore this warning

 * [[Image:Octagon-warning.svg|left|30px]]You have been blocked from editing Wikipedia  as a result of your . You are free to make constructive edits after the block has expired, but please note that vandalism (including page blanking or addition of random text), spam, deliberate misinformation, privacy violations, personal attacks; and repeated, blatant violations of our neutral point of view policy will not be tolerated.  alphachimp  15:23, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

September 2007
Welcome to Wikipedia. It might not have been your intention, but your recent contribution removed content from. Please be careful when editing pages and do not remove content from Wikipedia without a good reason, which should be specified in the edit summary. Take a look at the welcome page to learn more about contributing to this encyclopedia. If you would like to experiment again, please use the sandbox. -- ArglebargleIV 17:36, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize Wikipedia, you will be blocked from editing. --Knulclunk 15:48, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize Wikipedia, as you did to Zircon, you will be blocked from editing. Your edits have been automatically marked as vandalism and have been automatically reverted. The following is the log entry regarding this vandalism: Zircon was changed by 65.64.97.1 (c) (t) replacing content with 'HELLO' on 2007-09-05T20:56:29+00:00. Thank you. ClueBot 00:56, 6 September 2007 (UTC)

Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia. Your edits appear to constitute vandalism and have been reverted. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox. —DerHexer (Talk) 16:44, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

Regarding your edits to Water pollution:
Your recent edit to Water pollution (diff) was reverted by an automated bot. The edit was identified as adding either test edits, vandalism, or link spam to the page or having an inappropriate edit summary. If you want to experiment, please use the preview button while editing or consider using the sandbox. If this revert was in error, please contact the bot operator. If you made an edit that removed a large amount of content, try doing smaller edits instead. Thanks! // VoABot II 16:44, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

Regarding your edits to Renewable energy in Africa:
Your recent edit to Renewable energy in Africa (diff) was reverted by an automated bot. The edit was identified as adding either test edits, vandalism, or link spam to the page or having an inappropriate edit summary. If you want to experiment, please use the preview button while editing or consider using the sandbox. If this revert was in error, please contact the bot operator. If you made an edit that removed a large amount of content, try doing smaller edits instead. Thanks! // VoABot II 16:45, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

This is your final warning. The next time you vandalize Wikipedia, you will be blocked from editing. —DerHexer (Talk) 17:15, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

Block
If you wish to contribute to this encyclopedia, please create an account and log in Due to, editing by anonymous users from your school, library or institution's IP address  currently disabled. If you are logged in but still unable to edit, please follow these instructions. To prevent abuse, account creation via this address is probably also disabled. If accounts need to be created at school for class projects, please have your teacher or network administrator contact us (with reference to this IP address) at [mailto:unblock-en-l@lists.wikimedia.org unblock-en-l] from an email address listed on your school's website. Alternatively, if you have no Internet access at home, you may [mailto:unblock-en-l@lists.wikimedia.org email us] using your school-issued email address with your preferred username and an account will be created for you. Please ensure that any username you choose is not listed as taken here. Thank you. —Wknight94 (talk) 17:27, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

September 2008
Welcome to Wikipedia. The recent edit you made to Ted Turner has been reverted, as it appears to be unconstructive. Use the sandbox for testing; if you believe the edit was constructive, ensure that you provide an informative edit summary. You may also wish to read the introduction to editing. Thank you. –  iride scent  19:36, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

September 2008
Welcome to Wikipedia. Although everyone is welcome to make constructive contributions to Wikipedia, at least one of your recent edits, such as the one you made to Fishing industry, did not appear to be constructive and has been automatically reverted by ClueBot. Please use the sandbox for any test edits you would like to make, and take a look at the welcome page to learn more about contributing to this encyclopedia. If you believe there has been a mistake and would like to report a false positive, please report it here and then remove this warning from your talk page. If your edit was not vandalism, please feel free to make your edit again after reporting it. The following is the log entry regarding this warning: Fishing industry was changed by 65.64.97.1 (u) (t) blanking the page on 2008-09-19T13:43:24+00:00. Thank you. ClueBot (talk) 13:43, 19 September 2008 (UTC)

Please do not delete content or templates from pages on Wikipedia without giving a valid reason for the removal in the edit summary. Your content removal does not appear constructive, and has been reverted. Please make use of the sandbox if you'd like to experiment with test edits. Theterribletwins1111 (talk) 13:46, 19 September 2008 (UTC)

Please stop. If you continue to blank out or delete portions of page content, templates or other materials from Wikipedia, you will be blocked from editing. Geronimo20 (talk) 22:41, 20 September 2008 (UTC)
 * If this is a shared IP address, and you didn't make the edit, consider creating an account for yourself so you can avoid further irrelevant notices.

Welcome to Wikipedia. The recent edit you made to Death Magnetic has been reverted, as it appears to be unconstructive. Use the sandbox for testing; if you believe the edit was constructive, ensure that you provide an informative edit summary. You may also wish to read the introduction to editing. Thank you.  abf  /talk to me/  13:13, 22 September 2008 (UTC)

Welcome to Wikipedia. Although everyone is welcome to make constructive contributions to Wikipedia, at least one of your recent edits did not appear to be constructive and has been removed. Please use the sandbox for any test edits you would like to make, and read the welcome page to learn more about contributing constructively to this encyclopedia. vandalism diff Tohd8BohaithuGh1 (talk) 19:31, 22 September 2008 (UTC)

The recent edit you made to Luis Miguel constitutes vandalism, and has been reverted. Please do not continue to vandalize pages; use the sandbox for testing. Thank you. ukexpat (talk) 19:33, 22 September 2008 (UTC)

Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia. Your edits appear to constitute vandalism and have been reverted. If you would like to experiment, please use the sandbox.  Acroterion  (talk)  15:05, 24 September 2008 (UTC)
 * If this is a shared IP address, and you didn't make the edit, consider creating an account for yourself so you can avoid further irrelevant notices.

Please do not vandalize pages, as you did with this edit to Sapodilla. If you continue to do so, you will be blocked from editing.

Alexnia (If you reply here, please leave me a message on my talk page.) @ 18:55, 24 September 2008 (UTC)

This is your last warning. You will be blocked from editing the next time you vandalize a page, as you did with this edit to Hail.  abf  /talk to me/  18:58, 24 September 2008 (UTC)

–  iride scent  17:35, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

September 2009
You have been blocked from editing Wikipedia  as a result of your . You are free to make constructive edits after the block has expired, but please note that vandalism (including page blanking or addition of random text), spam, deliberate misinformation, privacy violations, personal attacks; and repeated, blatant violations of our policies concerning neutral point of view and biographies of living persons will not be tolerated. John Carter (talk) 15:07, 28 September 2009 (UTC)

September 2010
Welcome to Wikipedia. The recent edit that you made to the page Weight training has been reverted, as it appears to be unconstructive. Please use the sandbox for testing any edits; if you believe the edit was constructive, please ensure that you provide an informative edit summary. You may also wish to read the introduction to editing for further information. Thank you. The Thing //  Talk  //  Contribs  18:30, 29 September 2010 (UTC)

Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did with this edit to the page Fallout (series). Such edits constitute vandalism and are reverted. Please do not continue to make unconstructive edits to pages; use the sandbox for testing. Thank you. -- Rrburke (talk) 14:43, 30 September 2010 (UTC)

Please stop your disruptive editing. If you continue to vandalize Wikipedia, as you did at Fallout (series), you may be blocked from editing. The reverted edit can be found here. Thank you. Vrenator (talk) 14:44, 30 September 2010 (UTC)

This is the final warning you will receive regarding your disruptive edits. If you vandalize Wikipedia again, as you did at Fallout (series), you may be blocked from editing without further notice. Skidude9950 (talk) 14:45, 30 September 2010 (UTC)
 * If this is a shared IP address, and you didn't make any unconstructive edits, consider creating an account for yourself so you can avoid further irrelevant warnings.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:65.64.97.1


text:
1909 in rail transport

January events

 * January 1 - The Chemins de fer de l'Ouest in France is incorporated into the state-owned Chemins de fer de l'État.
 * January 26 - The Jamestown, Franklin and Clearfield Railroad, a predecessor of the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway, is formed from the merger of four smaller railroads in Pennsylvania.
 * January 29 - The final spike is driven in the construction of the Virginian Railway at Glen Lyn, Virginia.

March events

 * March 7 - The Winona Interurban Electric Railway (Indiana) is forced by its major creditor to begin operations on Sundays, a move resisted by its Sabbatarian founders, including H.J. Heinz and J. M. Studebaker.

April events

 * April 1 - Great Central Railway places turbine steamships on its Grimsby-Rotterdam service.
 * April 4 - Passenger service begins on the Chicago, Lake Shore and South Bend Railroad (predecessor of the Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad) between Hammond, Indiana, and Pullman, Illinois.
 * April 12 - Gary, Indiana, United States: a westbound Chicago, Lake Shore and South Bend Railroad train runs past a meet point and causes a head-on collision with an eastbound train, killing twelve.

May events

 * May 17 - Firemen on the Georgia Railroad strike to protest the hiring of African-Americans.
 * May 26 – Los Angeles Pacific Railroad begins passenger service over the Santa Monica Air Line.

June events

 * June - George Whale retires as Chief Mechanical Engineer of the London & North Western Railway; he is succeeded by Charles Bowen-Cooke.
 * June 19 - Shadyside, Indiana, United States: an eastbound Chicago South Shore & South Bend Railroad train runs past a meet point and causes a head-on collision with a westbound train.

July events

 * July 10 - The Great Northern Railway electrifies the 2.5 mi original Cascade Tunnel, near the summit of Stevens Pass in the Cascade Mountains. This first system and General Electric-built boxcabs are the only three-phase AC railway electrification implementation ever to be used in North America.
 * July 25 - Opening of Tauern Railway Line in Austria.

August events

 * August 30 - Great Western Railway begins using its Fishguard terminus in Wales for boat trains in connection with the Cunard steamships on Atlantic routes as a first port of call.
 * August - Canadian Pacific opens the Spiral Tunnels to traffic on the line through Kicking Horse Pass.

September events

 * September - Robert S. Lovett succeeds E. H. Harriman as president of the Southern Pacific Company, parent company of the Southern Pacific. Lovett also assumes the position of Chairman of the Executive Committee for the railroad.
 * September 17 - Beyer, Peacock & Company of Manchester, England, steam the first Garratt locomotive built to the design of Herbert William Garratt, K1 for the North East Dundas Tramway.

October events

 * October 9 - The Alaska Northern Railroad Company (a predecessor of the Alaska Railroad) purchases the assets of the bankrupt Alaska Central Railway and subsequently extends the line northward another 34 km.
 * October - Blue Nile Road & Railway Bridge completed at Khartoum in Sudan, the longest bridge in tropical Africa at this date.

November events

 * November 1 - A Golden Spike ceremony is held on the Western Pacific Railroad. As no company officials are present, the local track foreman drives the last spike, the track crew shout “Hooray!” and two women walking by with their children kiss each other.
 * November 3 - The Lethbridge Viaduct, one of the largest railway structures in Canada on the Canadian Pacific near Lethbridge, Alberta, opens.
 * November 10 - Louis Brennan successfully demonstrates his gyroscopically-balanced monorail system, which he designed for military use and patented in 1903, at Gillingham, England.
 * November 21 - Kagoshima Line, Mojiko (Kitakyushu), via Hakata (Fukuoka), Kumamoto, Hitoyoshi to Kagoshima route officially completed in Kyushu Island, Japan.

December events

 * December 1 - The London, Brighton & South Coast Railway publicly inaugurates London's first suburban surface railway electrification on its South London line, known as the "Elevated Electric" (overhead wire 6.7 kV a.c. at 25 Hz).
 * December 20 - Henry Fowler is appointed Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Midland Railway of England, succeeding Richard Deeley.

Unknown date events

 * The Nickel Plate Road begins a massive grade separation project in Cleveland, Ohio, to eliminate street grade crossings on the railroad's mainline in the city.
 * Albert Hunt invents the wigwag grade crossing protection signal for the Pacific Electric in Los Angeles, California.
 * Opening of the Jingzhang railway connecting Beijing with Zhangjiakou, first section of the Jingbao railway in northwestern China and the first railway designed and built by Chinese.
 * Reconstruction of Flinders Street railway station in Melbourne, Australia, is completed.

August births

 * August 4 – Isabel Benham, American railroad financial expert, is born (d. 2013).

February deaths

 * February 4 – Thomas Lowry, president of Minneapolis Street Railway 1877-1892, president of Twin City Rapid Transit, president of Soo Line Railroad 1889-1890 and 1892-1909, dies (b. 1843).

March deaths

 * March 13 - William Jackson Palmer, builder of the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad (born 1836).

May deaths

 * May 19 - Henry H. Rogers, American financier who helped finance and build the Virginian Railway (born 1840).

July deaths

 * July 23 - Ernest F. Cambier, Belgian colonial pioneer who established the first Congo railway (born 1844).

September deaths

 * September 9 - E. H. Harriman, executive in charge of both the Union Pacific and the Southern Pacific (born 1848).

October deaths

 * March 24 - Edward Entwistle, first driver of the Rocket locomotive (born 1815).

title: 1909 in rail transport


text: File:Cages (comic book cover).jpg

title: File:Cages (comic book cover).jpg


text:
The Diamond Smugglers

The Diamond Smugglers is a non-fiction work by Ian Fleming that was first published in 1957 in the United Kingdom and in 1958 in the United States. The book is based on two weeks of interviews Fleming undertook with John Collard, a member of the International Diamond Security Organisation (IDSO), which was headed by Sir Percy Sillitoe, the ex-chief of MI5 who worked for the diamond company De Beers.

The IDSO was formed by Sillitoe to combat the smuggling of diamonds from Africa, where, it was estimated, £10 million (£0 in 2024 pounds) worth of gems were being smuggled every year out of South Africa alone. The book expands upon articles Fleming wrote for The Sunday Times in 1957.

Fleming was better known as the author of a series of books about his super-spy creation, James Bond; The Diamond Smugglers is one of two non-fiction books he wrote. It was broadly well-received, although some reviewers commented on the stories not being new.

Synopsis
The Diamond Smugglers is the account of Ian Fleming's meeting with John Collard, a member of the International Diamond Security Organisation (IDSO). The book takes the form of background narrative by Fleming of where the two men met, interspersed with the interview between Fleming and Collard, who is introduced under the pseudonym of "John Blaize".

Collard relates how he was recruited into the IDSO by Sir Percy Sillitoe, the ex-head of MI5, under whom Collard had worked. The book goes on to look at the activities of the IDSO from the end of 1954 until the operation was closed down in April 1957, when its job was complete. Collard explained that the IDSO was set up at the instigation of the Chairman of De Beers, Sir Philip Oppenheimer, after an Interpol report stated that £10 million of diamonds were being smuggled out of South Africa each year, as well as additional amounts from Sierra Leone, Portuguese West Africa, the Gold Coast and Tanganyika.

As well as providing a history of the IDSO's operations, Collard relates a number of illustrative vignettes concerning the diamond smuggling cases he and the organisation dealt with.

Background
Fleming became interested in diamond smuggling after reading an article in The Sunday Times in 1954 concerning the Sierra Leone diamond industry. Philip Brownrigg, an old friend from Eton and a senior exec of De Beers, arranged for Fleming to visit the London Diamond Club to see diamonds being sorted and polished. In 1955 Brownrigg also introduced Fleming to Sir Percy Sillitoe, former head of MI5, who was working for De Beers and investigating the illicit diamond trade through the International Diamond Security Organisation. Fleming met Sillitoe and used much of the research as background material for his fictional Bond novel, Diamonds Are Forever.

Fleming retained an interest in the subject and when Sillitoe suggested to the editor of The Sunday Times, Denis Hamilton, that the paper may want to write a story on the International Diamond Security Organisation, Hamilton offered the story to Fleming. Sillitoe also offered his deputy, retired MI5 officer John Collard, as liaison for Fleming to interview. During World War II, Collard had assisted in the planning of Operation Overlord as part of MI11 and had joined MI5 under Sillitoe at the war's end. Whilst in MI5 he played a major role in the capture and conviction of the atomic spy Klaus Fuchs, before Sillitoe had approached him in 1954 to work for the International Diamond Security Organisation.

Fleming and Collard met in Tangiers on 13 April 1957; Fleming considered Collard to be a "reluctant hero, like all Britain's best secret agents". The pair spent two weeks discussing the issue of diamond smuggling, with Collard explaining what happened in South Africa and Sierra Leone. Fleming would then dictate an average of 5,000 words a day to a secretary.

When the drafts of the books were shown to De Beers they objected to a number of areas and threatened an injunction against Fleming and The Sunday Times, which resulted in much material being removed. The Sunday Times serialised the book over six weeks, starting on 15 September 1957 and finishing on 20 October 1957.

Release and reception
The Diamond Smugglers was published in the UK in November 1957, by Jonathan Cape, was 160 pages long and cost 12 shillings 6d. The book was published in the US on 13 May 1958, by Macmillan and cost $3.50.

Reviews
The book received largely positive reviews. Michael Crampton, writing for The Sunday Times considered it an "exciting and richly fascinating account" and thought Fleming authored a book that "ringing true as fact, is at the same time as highly entertaining as any fiction." The Times Literary Supplement obtained the services of the Earl of Cardigan to review the book. He noted that "the book is put together with a skill one would expect from Mr. Fleming", which leads to something that is "very entertaining reading".

Reviewing for The Observer, Anthony Sampson thought the book had "sparkle", adding that "it is often difficult to remember that we are not listening to his old hero Mr. James Bond." Sampson noted that the book included "several yarns which are worthy of the best spy-stories". The reviewer for The Economist enjoyed the book, but considered that while many of the stories "make good reading ... they are not new". For The New York Times, John Barkham thought that Fleming's foray into non-fiction produced "mixed results". Although he found the subject interesting, the basis in interview resulted in a "choppy book" that was "no more than an interim report".

Attempted film adaptation
Shortly after publication, The Rank Group offered £13,500 (£0 in 2024 pounds) for the film rights to the book, which Fleming accepted, telling them he would write a full story outline for an extra £1,000. Several contemporary newspaper reports referred to the project as "The Diamond Spy". British producer George Willoughby subsequently obtained the rights for the book from Rank and tried to make a film with the actor Richard Todd, eventually commissioning a screenplay from Australian writer Jon Cleary, who finished a script in October 1964 that remained faithful in spirit to Fleming's book while also featuring elements familiar from the James Bond films. Kingsley Amis was also hired as a story consultant; in a letter to author Theo Richmond on 20 December 1965 Amis wrote he was having 'a horrible time' of writing an outline for Willoughby. W.H. "Bill" Canaway, co-author of the screenplay for The Ipcress File, was also hired to work on the script. At one point, film director John Boorman was involved. Despite interest from Anglo-Amalgamated Film Distributors and Anglo Embassy Productions in early 1966, the project was shelved later that year.

title: The Diamond Smugglers


text:
Sheppard Air Force Base

Sheppard Air Force Base is a United States Air Force (USAF) base located 5 mi north of the central business district of Wichita Falls, in Wichita County, Texas, United States. It is the largest training base and most diversified in Air Education and Training Command. The base is named in honor of Texas Senator John Morris Sheppard, a supporter of military preparations before World War II.

The host unit at Sheppard is the 82d Training Wing (82 TRW), which provides specialized technical training and field training for officers, airmen and civilians of all branches of the U.S. military, other Department of Defense agencies and foreign nationals.

The 80th Flying Training Wing (80 FTW), also at Sheppard, conducts the Euro-NATO Joint Jet Pilot Training (ENJJPT) program, a multi-nationally manned and managed flying training program chartered to produce combat pilots for both USAF and NATO. This internationally manned and managed flying training program is the only one in the world.

Brigadier General George T.M. Dietrich III is the commander of the 82d Training Wing and he concurrently serves as the installation commander of Sheppard AFB. Colonel Brad E. Orgeron is the commander of the 80th Flying Training Wing.

Sheppard AFB shares one runway with Wichita Falls Municipal Airport under a joint civil-military arrangement.

History
Sheppard Air Force Base is named in honor of Senator John Morris Sheppard of Texas (1875–1941), chairman of the Senate Military Affairs Committee from 1933 until his death on 9 April 1941. Senator Sheppard helped lead the fight for military preparedness before the attack on Pearl Harbor.

The base began as Sheppard Field on 300 acres (1.2 km2) just south of Kell Field. A Texas cattleman, oilman, and philanthropist, Joseph Sterling Bridwell, sold the land to the United States Army for one dollar.

It was officially opened as a United States Army Air Corps training center on 17 October 1941, following the arrival of the first military members on 14 June. As the Army Air Corps became the Army Air Forces, facilities were completed sufficiently to allow the first class of 22 aviation mechanics to enter training that October; the class graduated 23 February 1942.

During World War II, then-Sheppard Field conducted basic training, and it also trained glider mechanics, technical and flying training instructors and B-29 Superfortress flight engineers. In addition to the basic flying training, the base also provided advanced pilot training.

Sheppard Field reached its peak strength of 46,340 people while serving as a separation center for troops being discharged following World War II from September through November 1945. Sheppard Field was deactivated 31 August 1946 and declared surplus to the War Department's needs. It was transferred to the jurisdiction of the United States Army Corps of Engineers 30 April 1947. Over the next two years the Texas National Guard used the base.

USAF Training Center
Control and accountability for Sheppard Field was transferred to the Department of the Air Force 1 August 1948 and was reactivated 15 August 1948 to supplement Lackland AFB, Texas, as a basic training center renamed as Sheppard AFB. Basic training was discontinued in June 1949, but was resumed from July 1950 to May 1952.

Over the next three decades, three training schools were stationed at the base training students in aircraft maintenance, transportation, communication, civil engineering, aircrew life support and field training.

The aircraft mechanics school was transferred to Sheppard from Keesler AFB, Mississippi in April 1949 to make room for expansion of electronic training at that base. The school was renamed the Department of Aircraft Maintenance Training within the 3750th Technical School. During the Korean War (1950–1953) several airmen from such places as Greece and Turkey were trained as mechanics. Comptroller, transportation, and intelligence training moved to Sheppard from Lowry AFB, Colorado, in the fall of 1954. Communications, refrigeration, air conditioning, and power production operator and repairman training were transferred here from F.E. Warren AFB, Wyoming in 1959. Intelligence training returned to Lowry in February 1962. Training in certain missile systems began at Sheppard in 1957 and was conducted there through September 1985 when Titan II training operations were terminated following that weapon system's retirement.

The 3950th Technical Training Wing was designated the Sheppard Technical Training Center 1 January 1959. It has had two subsequent name changes and is now the 82d Training Wing.

Helicopter pilot training was transferred from Stead AFB, Nevada in October 1965, with H-19, H-43, Bell TH-1F, CH-3C and HH-3E helicopters used for training. Additional training in airborne firefighting was also conducted, given the role of the USAF HH-43 aircraft as a local rescue and aircraft firefighting asset at selected air force bases in the United States and at air bases overseas.

The 3630th Flying Training Wing was activated in 1965, and it assumed the helicopter training program. It began providing undergraduate pilot training in the T-37 and Northrop T-38 Talon for the then-West German Air Force in August 1966. Helicopter training was discontinued in 1971 when the U.S. Army assumed responsibility for training USAF helicopter pilots at Fort Rucker, Alabama.

The 3630th Flying Training Wing also provided undergraduate pilot training for pilots of the Republic of Vietnam Air Force from 1971 to 1975. The Wing designation was changed to the 80th Flying Training Wing on 1 January 1973.

The 80th Flying Training Wing began conducting the Euro-NATO Joint Jet Pilot Training Program in 1981. This one-of-a-kind program includes 13-NATO countries. They are: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. Approval to conduct the program was recently extended through the year 2005.

The Air Force School of Health Care Sciences offered training in dentistry, medicine, nursing (to include flight nurse training), and health-services administration. The population of the base had declined to 3,825 in 1990.

In February 1992, restructuring and downsizing of the USAF caused a realignment and renumbering of units at Sheppard. Some of the training wings were redesignated as groups, and the technical training groups became squadrons.

Strategic Air Command
Between 1960 and 1966 the Strategic Air Command (SAC) had training units stationed at the base that conducted aerospace rescue schools and weather instruction. In addition, The 494th Bombardment Wing, a SAC operational wing of B-52D Stratofortress bombers and KC-135A Stratotanker aircraft, previously designated as the 4245th Strategic Wing, was based at Sheppard from 1963 to 1966.

In July 1969, Detachment 1, 2nd Bombardment Wing, with four B-52 aircraft, became a tenant organization at Sheppard and remained until 1975. These aircraft rotated as part of SAC's dispersal concept and utilized the SAC Alert Facility on the northwest end of the airfield.

BRAC 2005
The DoD proposed a major realignment of the base, as part of the Base Realignment and Closure, 2005 program announced on 13 May 2005. DoD recommended relocating to Eglin AFB, Florida, front-line and instructor-qualified maintenance technicians and logistics support personnel to stand up the USAF's portion of the F-35 Lightning II Initial Joint Training Site there. This recommendation would establish Eglin AFB as the Initial Joint Training Site that would teach entry-level aviators and maintenance technicians how to safely operate and maintain the new F-35. Assuming no economic recovery, this recommendation could result in a maximum potential reduction of 487 jobs (295 direct jobs and 192 indirect jobs) over 2006–2011 in the Wichita Falls, TX, Metropolitan Statistical Area (0.5 percent).

Major commands to which assigned

 * Army Air Forces Technical Training Command, 13 March 1942 – 31 July 1943
 * Army Air Forces Training Command, 31 July 1943 – 1 July 1946
 * Air Training Command, 1 July 1946 – 31 August 1946, 1 August 1948 – 1 July 1993
 * Air Education and Training Command 1 July 1993–present

Major units assigned

 * 62d Base HQ and Air Base Sq, 4 August 1941 – 1 May 1944
 * 3706th AAF Base Unit, 1 May 1944 – 30 September 1946
 * 3706th AAF Base Unit, 15 August 1948 – 28 August 1948
 * 3750th Air Base Gp, 28 August 1948 – 1 January 1973
 * 80th Flying Training Wing, – 1 January 1973–present

82d Training Wing
The host unit on Sheppard Air Force Base is the 82d Training Wing, whose mission makes it the most diversified training base within AETC. It is a non-flying wing that conducts all technical training at Sheppard. The 982d Training Group (982 TRG) provides instruction in a wide range of specialties at Sheppard and also at more than 60 USAF installations worldwide. The 82d Mission Support Group (82 MSG) and the 82 Medical Group (82 MDG) support these organizations. Together with the 80th Flying Training Wing more than 7 million U.S. and allied warriors have been trained.

80th Flying Training Wing
The 80th Flying Training Wing's mission is "To produce NATO pilots with the skills and attitude to succeed in fighter aviation". It is home of the Euro-NATO Joint Jet Pilot Training (ENJJPT) Program. It is a uniquely manned multinational organization with a USAF wing commander and a German Air Force operations group commander in the top two leadership positions. Command and operations officers' positions in the flying training squadrons rotate among the participating nations, while the commander of the 80th Operations Support Squadron is always from the USAF.

Officers from all 13 participating nations fill subordinate leadership positions throughout the wing. Nine nations--Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Turkey, Spain and the United States—provide instructor pilots based on their number of student pilots. Canada, Greece and Spain do not have student pilots in training, but do provide one instructor pilot. The current non-active signatory nations, the United Kingdom and Portugal, do not send student pilots nor do they provide instructor pilots, but retain the right to do so at any time. Operational training squadrons are:

 * 80th OSS "Wizards"
 * 88th Fighter Training Squadron "Lucky Devils" (T-38C)
 * 89th Flying Training Squadron "Banshees" (T-6A)
 * 90th Flying Training Squadron "Boxing Bears" (T-38C)
 * 97th Flying Training Squadron "Madcats" (A.K.A. "Devil Cats")...Air Force Reserve Command Associate Instructor Pilot program (T-6A and T-38C)
 * 459th Flying Training Squadron "Twin Dragons" (T-6A)
 * 469th Flying Training Squadron "Fighting Bulls" (T-38C)

Based units
Flying and notable non-flying units based at Sheppard Air Force Base.

Units marked GSU are Geographically Separate Units, which although based at Sheppard, are subordinate to a parent unit based at another location.

United States Air Force
Air Education and Training Command (AETC)

 * Second Air Force
 * 82nd Training Wing (Host Wing)
 * Headquarters 82nd Training Wing
 * 82nd Comptroller Squadron
 * 82nd Training Group
 * 361st Training Squadron
 * 362nd Training Squadron
 * 363rd Training Squadron
 * 782nd Training Group
 * 364th Training Squadron
 * 365th Training Squadron
 * 366th Training Squadron
 * 982d Training Group
 * 367th Training Support Squadron
 * 372nd Training Squadron
 * 373rd Training Squadron
 * 982d Maintenance Squadron
 * 82nd Medical Group
 * 82nd Aerospace Medicine Squadron
 * 82nd Dental Squadron
 * 82nd Medical Support Squadron
 * 82nd Medical Operations Squadron
 * 82nd Mission Support Group
 * 82d Civil Engineer Squadron
 * 82nd Communications Squadron
 * 82nd Contracting Squadron
 * 82nd Force Support Squadron
 * 82nd Logistics Readiness Squadron
 * 82nd Security Forces Squadron
 * Nineteenth Air Force
 * 80th Flying Training Wing
 * 80th Operations Group
 * 80th Operations Support Squadron
 * 88th Fighter Training Squadron – AT-38C Talon
 * 89th Flying Training Squadron – T-6A Texan II
 * 90th Flying Training Squadron – T-38C Talon
 * 459th Flying Training Squadron – T-6A Texan II
 * 469th Flying Training Squadron – T-38C Talon

Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC)

 * Tenth Air Force
 * 340th Flying Training Group
 * 97th Flying Training Squadron (GSU) – AT-38C Talon, T-38C Talon, T-6A Texan II

Other sources

 * Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office 1961 (republished 1983, Office of Air Force History, ISBN 0-912799-02-1).
 * Ravenstein, Charles A. Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Office of Air Force History 1984. ISBN 0-912799-12-9.
 * Mueller, Robert, Air Force Bases Volume I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982, Office of Air Force History, 1989
 * Ravenstein, Charles A. Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Office of Air Force History 1984. ISBN 0-912799-12-9.
 * Mueller, Robert, Air Force Bases Volume I, Active Air Force Bases Within the United States of America on 17 September 1982, Office of Air Force History, 1989

title: Sheppard Air Force Base


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1910 in rail transport

January events

 * January 1 – American railroad companies in the South, by agreement with the Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen, implement a quota against hiring of African Americans in a larger percentage than are employed on this date.
 * January 3 – Tired of its cars being routed to the Boston and Maine Railroad by mistake, the Brookville and Mahoning Railroad of Pennsylvania changes its name to the Pittsburg and Shawmut Railroad.
 * January 21 – Spanish River derailment: Canadian Pacific Railway's westbound Soo Express passenger train derails as it crosses the bridge over the Spanish River in Northern Ontario, Canada, killing 44 people.
 * January 22 – Rebuilt Flinders Street railway station in Melbourne, Australia, officially opened.

February events

 * February 24 – The Cleveland Short Line Railway, a subsidiary of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway, opens its first 9.73 mi section of track from Rockport to Marcy, Ohio, and a junction with the Lake Erie and Pittsburg Railway.

March events

 * March 1 – The Wellington, Washington avalanche sweeps away two Great Northern Railway passenger trains in the Cascade Mountains, killing 96, making it the worst snowslide accident in United States history.
 * March 4 – Rogers Pass avalanche kills 62 Canadian Pacific Railway workers clearing the line near the summit of Rogers Pass, making it the worst snowslide accident in Canadian history.
 * March 10 – The Minoh Arima Electric Railway line, Umeda Station of Osaka to Takarazuka Station route, is officially completed in Japan. (as predecessor of the Hankyu Takarazuka Line).

April events

 * April 2 – Butzbach-Licher Eisenbahn in Germany opens the section from Bad Nauheim to Rockenberg.
 * April 5 – Opening of the Argentine Transandino Railway, a metre gauge mountain railway partly using the Abt rack system, from Los Andes, Chile, to Mendoza, Argentina, a distance of 251 km, rising to a height of about 3200 m at the summit tunnel and utilising Kitson Meyer locomotives.

May events

 * May 31 – The Union of South Africa is established and with it the Colonial Government railways, the Cape Government Railways, the Natal Government Railways and the Central South African Railways are merged to form South African Railways.

June events

 * June 6 – The US Railroad Safety Appliance Act of 1893 is further extended to mandate that no less than 85% of all railroad cars in an operating train must be equipped with air brakes.

July events

 * July 5 – Opening of Bernina Railway (metre gauge, electrified) from St. Moritz, Switzerland, to Tirano, Italy, crossing the Alps at the highest altitude of a through railway in Europe, 2257 m.
 * July 11 – Construction begins on the Sheridan Railway in Sheridan, Wyoming.
 * July 18 – A passenger train traveling through dense fog hits a stationary locomotive in Richmond, Victoria, Australia, killing nine people on the moving train.
 * July 26 – The London and South Western Railway introduces a new Continental service, Southampton-Havre.

August events

 * August 10 – The Mill Mountain Incline funicular in Roanoke, Virginia, opens for service.
 * August 22 – The first Western Pacific Railroad passenger train to operate over the railroad's entire route from Salt Lake City, Utah, arrives in San Francisco, California.

September events

 * September 21 – A Fort Wayne and Wabash Valley Traction interurban car overruns a meeting point at Kingsland, Indiana, and smashes head on into a northbound interurban. Forty-one people are killed in the worst accident of the interurban era.

October events

 * October 1 – The Great Western Railway of England, abolishes second-class rail fares (first- and third-class remain).
 * October 10 – The Kowloon-Canton Railway (British Section) opens in Hong Kong.

November events

 * November 27 – The Pennsylvania Railroad opens Pennsylvania Station in New York City together with Manhattan Transfer station and the New Jersey side of the railroad's Hudson River tunnels (built by the Pennsylvania Tunnel and Terminal Railroad).

December events

 * December 24 – The Hawes Junction train disaster in Cumbria, England, occurs when a busy signalman forgets about a pair of bank engines which have been waiting at his starting signal and allows an express train into the same block section. Twelve people are killed in the resulting collision and fire.

Unknown date events

 * The city of Cleveland, Ohio, approves a bond measure to pay for the Nickel Plate Road's grade separation project through the densest part of the city.
 * Finnish Railways opens Lanskaya Station in Saint Peterburg, Russia after restructuring by the architect Bruno Granholm.
 * The Yunnan metre gauge railway in China is completed from Laokay to Yunnan-fu by French interests.
 * First section of Moçâmedes Railway opens in Portuguese Angola.
 * Carillon and Grenville Railway closes, the last broad (5' 6") gauge line in Canada.

February births

 * February 27 – Francesco di Majo, designer of the Pendolino (died 2011).

May births

 * May 21 – Robert W. Richardson, American railroad historian (died 2007).

March deaths

 * March 7 – George Whale, Chief Mechanical Engineer of London and North Western Railway 1903–1909 (born 1842).
 * March 24 – Gaston du Bousquet, French steam locomotive designer (born 1839).

July deaths

 * July 20 – Ira G. Rawn, vice president of Illinois Central Railroad until 1909, president of Monon Railroad 1909-1910, dies from an allegedly self-inflicted gunshot wound (born 1855).

August deaths

 * August 2 – Inoue Masaru, Japanese bureaucrat, first Director of Railways, dies on visit to London (born 1843).

title: 1910 in rail transport


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Wikipedia talk:Articles for deletion/Tightlacing

A sincere question: on the project page, a number of people recommend "resolving the conflict". Does this mean that anyone who shows up at Wikipedia, no matter how idiosyncratic his or her views, gets to insert them in an article? I've now worked on a number of controversial articles and I've got no problem with writing an account of widely-held views with which I disagree. But what if someone waaaaay out there wants to advance his views on the evils of microwaved food, or the necessity for twice-daily bowel movements? If he or she is the only person who believes this, exactly how is this opinion worthy of inclusion in an encyclopedia? Zora 18:56, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

''A sincere question: on the project page, a number of people recommend "resolving the conflict". Does this mean that anyone who shows up at Wikipedia, no matter how idiosyncratic his or her views, gets to insert them in an article?'' Not quite. It means anyone who shows up, no matter how idiosyncratic their views, gets to make the argument that these views are held by others and must be represented in the article, to work towards the Neutral point of view. But we are still an encyclopedia: it's not our intent to allow people with a specific agenda to make the article look "their way". That said, you'll find that it's almost never the case that someone is "the only person who believes this". Sometimes, but rarely. If that person can give sources for others expressing this opinion, it's worthy of inclusion, no matter how absurd you think the opinion is. So the question is not: why are we listening to this random nutcase, but: can we show this random nutcase that all sources we have our disposal state view X, and can we convince them to come up with sources that state view Y if they want view Y to have a say in the article? Please read Neutral point of view carefully (it's not an easy or trivial thing) and point your discussion partners to it, as well. If all else fails, ask for Mediation to resolve the conflict. JRM 19:38, 2004 Dec 10 (UTC)


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Save a Horse (Ride a Cowboy)

"Save a Horse (Ride a Cowboy)" is a song written and recorded by American country music duo Big & Rich. It was released in April 2004 as the second single from their debut album Horse of a Different Color. It reached number 11 on the U.S. Billboard US Country chart. The song received wide exposure when ESPN featured the song in commercials for its coverage of the 2004 World Series of Poker. It was also featured in the Boston Legal episode "Death Be Not Proud".

Big & Rich also released a remixed dance version of the song which appeared on their compilation Big & Rich's Super Galactic Fan Pak. They performed this remixed version at the CMT Video Music Awards in 2005. The song was also featured in a Chevrolet commercial that was aired during Super Bowl XLI and the 49th Annual Grammy Awards.

The song appears on the game Karaoke Revolution Country, as well as in the 2012 film Magic Mike. The song also appears in the final episode of The Office.

Content
The song is a fusion of country rock and country rap. The first two verses detail "Big" Kenny Alphin and John Rich's arrival into Nashville, going into a bar, "passing out hundred-dollar bills" and, "buying the bar a double round of Crown." They vow that Nashville is "never gonna be the same." They ride around Nashville on horses, while everyone else says to "save a horse" and "ride a cowboy."

Music video
The music video for the song was filmed in Nashville during the summer of 2004. Big & Rich, other members of the MuzikMafia, including Gretchen Wilson and Cowboy Troy, as well as dancers, marching bands, and other groups of people, parade on the Shelby Street Bridge in Nashville. It was directed by David Hogan. The video caused damage to the bridge including dents and scuff marks, which cost $23,000 in repairs.

One World Gear controversy
In April 2007, the song was parodied by T-shirt manufacturer One World Gear, who began to offer a series of products on CafePress.com featuring variants of the slogan "Save a Horse, Ride a Cowboy", in which the word "cowboy" was replaced with the name of any one of 177 different nationalities, including "American". The version of the T-shirt featuring the slogan "Save a Horse, Ride a Taiwanese" was singled out as "racially discriminatory" and "insulting to Taiwan" by Taiwanese and Hong Kong media.

Chart performance
"Save a Horse (Ride a Cowboy)" debuted at number 58 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of April 24, 2004. It has sold 2.087 million copies as of April 2013.

Personnel
From Horse of a Different Color liner notes.

 * Brian Barnett – drums
 * Big Kenny – vocals
 * Dennis Burnside – keyboards
 * John Rich – vocals, acoustic guitar
 * Adam Shoenfeld – electric guitar
 * Justin Tocket – bass guitar
 * Jonathan Yudkin – fiddle, banjo

title: Save a Horse (Ride a Cowboy)


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James Brown (ecologist)

James Hemphill Brown (born 1942) is an American biologist and academic.

He is an ecologist, and a Distinguished Professor of Biology at the University of New Mexico. His work has focused on 3 distinct aspects of ecology: 1) the population and community ecology of rodents and harvester ants in the Chihuahuan Desert, 2) large-scale questions relating to the distribution of body size, abundance and geographic range of animals, leading to the development of the field of macroecology, a term that was coined in a paper Brown co-authored with Brian Maurer of Michigan State University. and 3) the Metabolic Theory of Ecology. In 2005 he was awarded the Robert H. MacArthur Award by the Ecological Society of America for his work, including his work toward a metabolic theory of ecology. Between 1969 and 2011 he was awarded over $18.4 million in grants for his research.

Education
Brown received a bachelors with honors in 1963 before obtaining his PhD in 1967:
 * Bachelor of Arts, Zoology, 1963, Cornell University
 * PhD, Zoology, 1967, University of Michigan

Honors
Honors James Brown has received include:
 * American Association for the Advancement of Science, Fellow, 1988
 * C. Hart Merriam Award (American Society of Mammalogists) 1989
 * Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1995
 * Eugene P. Odum Award for Education (Ecological Society of America), 2001
 * Marsh Ward for Career Achievement, (British Ecological Society), 2002
 * Robert H. MacArthur Award (Ecological Society of America), 2005
 * Member of the National Academy of Sciences, 2005

Portal
In 1977 Brown, in collaboration with Diane Davidson and James Reichman, started a research project in the Chihuahuan Desert near Portal, Arizona to study competition between rodents and ants and their influence on the annual plant community.

title: James Brown (ecologist)


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User:Wtshymanski

Be Bold. Share your confusion with the world. Wikipedia! The home of the Earth Yeading Test? Where the mighty Winnipeg River flows through downtown Winnipeg.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aXr4VqX8F48

Deep thoughts
19 years, and hundreds of hours wasted....

(The standard for Wikipedia is verifiability, not reality....)

Category:Biography articles without living parameter

Fix ground loop, trim to 1/3rd length - not a handbook, don't need to talk about every application separately.

Notes for Aviation in Canada
Post WWII: Development of ATC system, VOR introduction, radar ('60s), terminal positive control zones (69) CAE JETS system and transponders 80-81

Unions - CATCA for controllers, CALPA for pilots

Bilingual ATC in Quebec - '76-'80 era. Get hold of "Language of the Skies" and summarize in a paragraph or two,

Jet Age - introduction of jet aircraft (Avro Jetliner).

Deregulation, charter air lines, mergers and wind-ups

Table - Passengers carried (domestic, international), ton-km of freight, each decade 1920-2020

Always remember
Even though Manitoba is required to publish all official proceedings in both English and French, English has been declared the only "offical" langauge by sacred Wikipedia consensus. Wikipedia....where the mighty Winnipeg river runs through Winnipeg on its way to the sea. Where the ceramic gas exists. Where the elephant population is booming, and the power factor can be any number you like.

List of schooner barges

 * Alaska, sunk 1907 near Massachusetts
 * Antelope
 * Amboy
 * Anne M. Ash, sunk 1907 near Fire Island New York
 * Ashland, survived sinking of towing vessel, 1902
 * Bala, sunk 1907, New Jersey
 * C.H. Wheeler
 * Darby, sunk 1907, New Jersey
 * David Wallace, grounded 1886
 * Dot, sank 1883
 * E.M.B.A, scuttled 1933
 * Eureka, lost 1886 near Vermillion Point
 * Girard, sunk 1907 near Massachusetts
 * Ironton
 * John Martin
 * Indiana, sank 1858 near Whitefish Point
 * J. M. Hill, struck by lightning 1883
 * Jupiter, lost 1872 near Vermillion Point
 * Landseer, sunk 1907, near New Jersey
 * Madeira (ship)
 * Mayflower (shipwreck)
 * Michigan, sank 1901
 * Melrose
 * Minnedosa (schooner barge)
 * Miztec (schooner barge)
 * Montana, sunk 1907,Rhode Island
 * Moonlight (ship)
 * Niagara, lost 1887 near Whitefish Point
 * Noquebay
 * OliveJeanette
 * Pretoria (ship)
 * R. Hallaran, sank 1900
 * Samuel P. Ely (shipwreck)
 * USS Seneca (SP-1240)
 * Saturn, lost 1872 near Whitefish Point
 * Washington (SP-1241)

Wikiality
You can be a cult with only one member.

Wikipedia's first personal computer(s)

 * ENIAC, 1944
 * Simon (computer), 1950
 * IBM 610, 1957
 * NSA Philco SOLO 1958
 * Programma 101, 1964
 * ECHO IV, 1965
 * Hewlett-Packard 9100A,1968
 * Honeywell_316, 1969
 * Datapoint 2200,1970
 * Kenbak-1, 1971
 * Micral,1973
 * Mark-8, 1974
 * Altair 8800,1975
 * IBM 5100, 1975
 * Xerox Alto, 1973
 * IBM Personal Computer,1981

Editor retention
'' I can make your Wikipedia existence miserable while staying strictly within policies and not using my admin tools. --Ymblanter (talk) 18:37, 14 March 2015 (UTC) ''

Yes. Yes they can. Stanford prison experiment.

Always side with the anonymous asshole instead of the long-term named editor.

Vacuum engineering needs some expansion
Year  Vacuum (Pascal) 16th c        3x10^4   Mine water pumps 1880   10^-1    Sprengle pumps, Edison bulbs 1905    10^-2  Gaede rotary mercury pump 1950's  10^-5 1958    10^-10 10^-12 (experimental)

Nobody loves you unless you play soccer
John Wesley Cockburn (January 9, 1856-November 9, 1924) was a Canadian engineer, entrepreneur and City of Winnipeg alderman. He was responsible for securing development rights on the Winnipeg River to allow the city to build a hydroelectric generating station.

Born in Thorold, Ontario in 1856, Cockburn studied mechanical engineering and worked at hydroelectric developments at Niagara Falls and on the Welland Canal. In 1882 he came to Winnipeg while working for the Canadian Pacific Railway. With a partner, he operated a general store and grocery in Winnipeg. In 1891-1892 he served as a city alderman, and was reelected in 1901 through to 1907.

How many * does it take to make an encyclopedia?
Special:Statistics

title: User:Wtshymanski