text:
Chris Nilan

Christopher John Nilan (born February 9, 1958) is an American former professional ice hockey player and former radio host. Nilan played 688 National Hockey League (NHL) regular season games as a right-wing for the Montreal Canadiens, New York Rangers, and Boston Bruins between 1980 and 1992. He won the Stanley Cup in 1986 with Montreal.

Known as "Knuckles" or "Knux", he was famous for his propensity to fight. He holds a record for most penalty minutes by an American-born player. Nilan's life and career are prominently featured in Alex Gibney's 2011 documentary film The Last Gladiators.

Playing career
Nilan grew up in Massachusetts where he idolized Bobby Orr and dreamed of playing for the Boston Bruins. He played his youth hockey with the Parkway (West Roxbury, Massachusetts) team of the Greater Boston Youth Hockey League (GBYHL), sponsored by the Metropolitan District Commission (MDC). He later played college hockey for the Northeastern University Huskies, from 1976 to 1979, averaging 3.5 penalty minutes per game in his final collegiate season.

Nilan was selected 231st overall in the 1978 NHL Entry Draft, and was best known as a tough-guy for the Montreal Canadiens in the mid 1980s. One of only nine players in National Hockey League (NHL) history to have recorded more than 3,000 career penalty minutes, he holds the records of highest penalty minute average per game at 4.42 minutes per game, the most penalty minutes in a single playoff season at 141, as well as the record for most penalties in a single game; on March 31, 1991, when the Hartford Whalers visited Nilan's Bruins, Nilan was assessed a record ten penalties: six minors, two majors, one misconduct and one game misconduct, for a total of 42 penalty minutes.

Seriously hobbled by repeated injuries, Nilan missed over two hundred games in his final five seasons, and would only play as many as 50 games twice in his final four seasons. He retired after the 1991–92 season. Highlights of his career include winning the Stanley Cup in 1986 with the Canadiens, being named to Team USA for the 1987 Canada Cup, and his controversial selection to the 1991 NHL All-Star Game by his then-coach Mike Milbury (Nilan missed the game with a broken left ankle), which led to changes in how players are selected for all-star games.

Post career
Nilan returned to the Boston area and went into the insurance business after retirement. He spent three years as community relations consultant for John Hancock Insurance before returning to hockey as a coach. He was initially hired as an assistant coach of the New Jersey Devils on August 3, 1995, and remained in that position until May 1996, before becoming a head coach for the Chesapeake Icebreakers of the ECHL.

Nilan was married to Karen Stanley in 1981. They were divorced in 2006. They have two daughters, Colleen and Tara, and one son, Christopher. Karen was a daughter of Theresa Stanley, who was one of notorious crime boss Whitey Bulger's girlfriends.

Today Nilan talks openly about his past problems with alcohol and prescription drugs, as well as battling a heroin addiction. He is involved in numerous social and charitable causes. Nilan also speaks to local students in Montreal about learning from his life experiences and mistakes.

Nilan lived in Oregon for two years, where he met his current girlfriend, Jaime Holtz (who is originally from Kailua-Kona, Hawaii). Chris moved back to Montreal with Jaime in 2011, and they currently reside in Montreal.

He began hosting his own program, Off the Cuff on TSN Radio 690 Montreal, on March 18, 2013, after being a daily phone-in guest on Melnick in the Afternoon for a number of months. The show aired from noon to 3:00 p.m. weekdays local time, also streamed live online. In 2022, he was fired from his Off the Cuff hosting position by Bell Media after he refused to get vaccinated against COVID-19.

Nilan Currently hosts his own Podcast "The Raw Knuckles Podcast"

Awards

 * Won the Stanley Cup in 1986 with the Montreal Canadiens
 * Selected to one NHL All-Star Game: 1991

Regular season and playoffs
Bold indicates led league

title: Chris Nilan


text:
Trakai Voivodeship

Trakai Voivodeship, Trakai Palatinate, or Troki Voivodeship (Palatinatus Trocensis, Trakų vaivadija, Województwo trockie), was a unit of administrative division and local government in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1413 until 1795.

History
Trakai Voivodeship together with Vilnius Voivodeship was established by the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas the Great in 1413 according to the Union of Horodło. Vytautas copied the Polish system of administrative division in order to centralize and strengthen the government. Trakai Voivodeship replaced the former Duchy of Trakai, which was ruled directly by the Grand Duke or his close relative (brother or son). The Duke of Trakai (dux Trocensis) was replaced by appointed officials – voivodes and his deputy castellan.

The voivodeship was divided into four powets: Grodno, Kaunas, Trakai (ruled directly by the voivode), and Upytė. The biggest cities in the voivodeship were Kaunas, Grodno and Trakai.

The western portion of the voivodeship was split off in 1513 by Sigismund I the Old and transferred to the Polish Crown. It was organized as the Podlaskie Voivodeship. In 1793, the counties of Grodno, Sokółka and Wołkowysk one of Nowogródek Voivodeship were merged into Grodno Voivodeship.

After the Union of Lublin the voivodeship, together with the whole Grand Duchy of Lithuania, became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the partitions of the Commonwealth in 1795. Most of the territory became part of the Russian Empire, while territories west of the Neman River – part of the Province of East Prussia.

Voivodes
The Voivode of Trakai (Wojewoda trocki, Trakų vaivada) was one of the most important state offices in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. They were appointed from prominent magnate families and competed only with voivode of Vilnius and Grand Chancellors for power and prestige. Voivodes were the ex officio members of the Lithuanian Council of Lords. Voivodes had their residence in Trakai city, near Galvė Lake, north of the Trakai Peninsula Castle.

List of voivodes

 * Jonas Goštautas (1440)
 * Iwaszko Moniwidowicz (1443–1458)
 * Radvila Astikas (1466–1477)
 * Martynas Goštautas (1480–1483)
 * Jan Zabrzeziński (1498–1505)
 * Olbracht Gasztołd (Albrecht Goštautas) (1519–1522)
 * Konstanty Ostrogski (1522–1530)
 * Stanisław Gasztołd (Stanislovas Goštautas) (1542)
 * Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" Radziwiłł (1590–1604)
 * Janusz Skumin Tyszkiewicz (1626–1640)
 * Piotr Pac (X 1640–VII 1642)
 * Mikołaj Abramowicz (1647–1651?)
 * Marcjan Ogiński (since 1670)
 * Tadeusz Franciszek Ogiński (1770–1783)
 * Józef Mikołaj Radziwiłł (since 1788)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Trakai Voivodeship


text:
E-mu Emax

The Emax was a line of samplers, developed, manufactured, and sold by E-mu Systems from 1986 to 1995. Sold alongside their more expensive Emulator II and III samplers, the Emax line was conceived after the release of the Akai S-612 and Sequential Prophet 2000, and was designed to compete for the lower end of the sampling market.

The name Emax can refer to one of two specific models, the Emax (which was grey), and the Emax II (which was black). The Emax is sometimes referred to as the Emax I or the Emax 1000 to avoid confusion between the two models (although E-mu Systems never referred to it this way, there is an internal control label that says EMAX 1000 inside every unit).

Emax
The original Emax was released in 1986, as a low cost version of the Emulator II. The base model cost $2,995; a rack version was also available for $2,695. Although it was fairly similar to the Emulator II in sampling specifications, the Emax used much more reliable parts, and stored sounds on 3½" floppy disks, as opposed to the more antiquated 5¼" floppy disks that the Emulator used.

Several upgrades were available for the Emax during its lifetime. The Emax HD featured a 20 megabyte hard drive for storing samples. The Emax SE added an additive synthesis engine that let the user create sounds from scratch. The Emax Plus added external SCSI device capability in addition to the other updates.

Sample memory remained the same at 512 KB for all models. SCSI can be retrofitted to second and third revision motherboards and was standard on the final model the Plus. The Emax was discontinued in 1989 and replaced by Emax-II

Emax II
The Emax was replaced in 1989 by the Emax II and Emax II Turbo. Although the Emax II was a true 16-bit sampler with more polyphony, it also used digital filters and components, which sounded noticeably different from the original's analogue filter chips. The Emax II also sported a higher pricetag; a base model cost $3,595, while a fully expanded model could cost as much as $8,000. Nevertheless, the Emax II found a niche among many professionals due to its large and varied sample library, and it enjoyed the longest production run of any E-mu product.

The EMAX II has different versions, labeled between 2201 and 2214, including mono and stereo versions. The Emax II Turbo, released in 1990, added more built-in sample memory (8 Mb from factory) and an internal SCSI Hard Disk.

In 1995, the Emax II was discontinued, replaced by the rackmountable ESi-32, and later the ESI-4000 and the ESI-2000.

Notable users

 * Alphaville - Emax
 * Beastie Boys - on Paul's Boutique
 * Cabaret Voltaire
 * Depeche Mode - all three keyboard players can be seen operating Emax keyboards on their 1989 live film, 101, and Emax II keyboards in the Devotional film.
 * Faith No More
 * Fear Factory
 * Ice MC
 * Johnny Hates Jazz - Emax used on Turn Back the Clock (album)
 * KMFDM - Used an Emax
 * Los Prisioneros
 * Manufacture
 * Mats/Morgan Band - Emax II
 * Minimal Compact
 * Meat Beat Manifesto
 * Mouse on Mars
 * Nine Inch Nails - used an Emax SE extensively on Pretty Hate Machine
 * Die Krupps - Emax II
 * Orbital
 * Saint Etienne - credited with using the Emax on their 1991 album "Foxbase Alpha"
 * Skinny Puppy
 * Steve Roach
 * Tony Toni Tone
 * Little Angels - Jimmy Dickinson used an Emax SE on all Little Angels records including their number 1 Jam (album)
 * Tyske Ludder - Emax II
 * U2
 * Tom Waits - credited with using the Emax on his 1993 album "The Black Rider"
 * The Whispers
 * The Wiggles - credited with using the Emax on their 1991 album "The Wiggles"
 * White Town - Emax II extensively used on Your Woman
 * Krush - used on the 1987 single House Arrest (song)

title: E-mu Emax


text:
Talk:Chernihiv Voivodeship

Gloger, Geografia historyczna
Zygmunt Gloger, Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski. W tekście 63 autentycznych rycin, Kraków 1903

Województwo Czernihowskie.

Czernihów, nad rzeką Desną, dopływem Dniepru, jest jednym z najstarszych grodów słowiańskich na Rusi kijowsko-zadnieprskiej, pierwsza bowiem o nim wzmianka sięga roku 907 z powodu traktatu, zawartego przez Wielkiego księcia Kijowskiego, Olega, z cesarzem bizantyjskim, Leonem. Jarosław kijowski, umierając roku 1054 i dzieląc swe dzierżawy między synów, oddał ziemie siewierskie wraz z grodem czernihowskim Światosławowi. Od śmierci tego Światosława Czernihów bywał nieraz przedmiotem sporów i walk o posiadanie pomiędzy rozrodzonymi książętami domu Ruryka i stanowił podmurze Rusi Siewierskiej przed hordami Połowców, koczujących na stepowem Zadnieprzu. W roku 1238 Czernihów został przez Tatarów zdobyty i spalony, a książę jego, Michał Wsiewołodowicz, pojechał do Złotej Hordy, by wyjednać sobie „jarłyk”, czyli przywilej na księstwo Czernihowskie, lecz został tam (roku 1246) zabity, a ziemia czernihowsko-sierwierska rozdrobniła się na małe dzielnice pomiędzy jego potomków, którzy, tocząc ciągłe pomiędzy sobą walki i wysługując się nieraz Tatarom, doprowadzili kraj do zupełnego upadku. Korzystając z położenia tego, książę litewski, Olgierd (ojciec Jagiełły), zdobył w drugiej połowie XIV wieku ziemie czernihowsko-siewierskie i osadził w ważniejszych jej grodach swoich synów: Dymitra na Czernihowie i Trubczewsku, Korybuta na Bryańsku i Nowogrodzie siewierskim; Starodub zaś oddał synowcowi swemu, Patrycemu Narymuntowiczowi. Odtąd ziemia Czernihowska przez półtora prawie stulecia pozostawała pod panowaniem Litwy.

Upadek Rzeczypospolitych: Nowogrodzkiej i Pskowskiej, w latach 1471–1479, otworzył władcom Moskwy drogę do podboju Rusi litewskiej. Gdy drobni pograniczni książęta czernihowsko-siewierscy zaczęli przechodzić w poddaństwo Moskwy, a skargi i reklamacye króla Kazimierza IV Jagiellończyka okazały się bezskuteczne, zaczęła się w roku 1493 wojna między Iwanem III Wasilewiczem a Litwą, podczas której, gdy hetman litewski, Konstanty z Ostroga, poniósł porażkę i dostał się do niewoli (roku 1499 pod Dorohobużem), większa część grodów czernihowsko-siewierskich, mianowicie Putywl (Puciwił), Nowogródek siewierski, Starodub i Czernihów zostały do Wielkiego księstwa Moskiewskiego przyłączone. Tak tedy po półtorawiekowem panowaniu Litwy, Czernihów dostał się znowu (na lat 119) pod władzę carów państwa Moskiewskiego. Dopiero bowiem rozejmem, zawartym roku 1618 w Dywilinie, szerokie ziemie Rusi zadnieprskiej, a w ich liczbie i Czernihowska, powróciły do Rzeczypospolitej, ale pozostawały przy niej już tylko przez lat 59, to jest do pokoju Andruszowskiego w roku 1667, w którym Czernihów odpadł do Moskwy, co zostało ostatecznie traktatem Grzymułtowskim w roku 1686 potwierdzone.

Ponieważ pokój Dywiliński był tylko zawartym na lat 16 rozejmem po wojnie między Polską i Moskwą, Rzeczpospolita przeto nie uważała za stosowne przed upływem tego czasu tworzyć województwo z ziem czernihowskich, które tymczasem tylko na lat 16 miała sobie zapewnione. Uchwała sejmu z roku 1633 mówi tylko: „Gród i ziemstwo w Czernihowie postanawiamy i kasztelana, podkomorzego i urzędy wszelkie ziemskie, powiatowe, porządkiem koronnym, które potym per electionem iść będą, rozdaliśmy, i posłów 2, których w Czerniechowie obierać będą, naznaczamy”. Dopiero po traktacie Polanowskim, zawartym w roku 1634, uchwalą sejmową z roku 1635 utworzone zostało z księstwa województwo Czernihowskie, podzielone na dwa powiaty: Czernihowski i Nowogrodzki. Uchwała ta brzmi: „Urzędników wszystkich w Nowogródku Siewierskim, tudzież gród i ziemstwo, a sejmik jeden zawsze i popisy w Czerniechowie i kasztelana jednego naznaczamy. Posłów dwu, jako w Czerniechowie ordynowaliśmy, tak z Nowogródka (Siewierskiego) drugich dwu; deputatów jednego z Czerniechowa, a drugiego z Nowogródka naznaczamy”. Starostwa grodowe były dwa: Czernihowskie i Nowogrodzkie, pierwsze z nich należało do wojewody. Senatorów większych do senatu koronnego dostało województwo dwóch, a mianowicie wojewodę i kasztelana czernihowskich. Pierwszym wojewodą czernihowskim mianowany został Marcin Kalinowski „w pamiątkę krwawych zasług jego”; pierwszym zaś kasztelanem został Mikołaj Kossakowski. Za herb na pieczęcie i chorągiew swoją otrzymało to województwo orła czarnego o dwóch głowach pod jedną koroną.

Jak już powyżej nadmieniliśmy, rozejmem Andruszowskim z dnia 30. stycznia 1667 roku oddała Rzeczpospolita Rosyi województwo Czernihowskie, a ustąpienie to stwierdzone zostało ostatecznie traktatem, zawartym przez Krzysztofa Grzymułtowskiego, wojewodę poznańskiego, w dniu 3. maja 1686 roku. Pozostały tylko przy Polsce, na pamiątkę dziejową dla potomnych i z zasady, tytuły urzędników ziemskich, a nawet liczbę tytularnych posłów powiększono z 4 na 6, którymi mogli zostawać obywatele, mający dziedziczne posiadłości ziemskie w województwie Wołyńskiem i zbierać się na wybory i sejmiki we Włodzimierzu na Wołyniu. Ostatnim takim wojewodą tytularnym był Ludwik Wilga od roku 1783, a kasztelanem Felicyan książę Czetwertyński od roku 1792, zaś starostą nowogrodzkim (siewierskim) od roku 1785 uczony Tadeusz Czacki, podkomorzym czernihowskim Hieronim Gostyński, a podkomorzym nowogrodzkim Ignacy Cieszkowski. Zamiłowanie do podobnych tytułów historycznych, choć nie mających już żadnego znaczenia praktycznego, było w Polsce tak powszechnem, że nawet żony takich urzędników in partibus nie zapominały podpisywać się odpowiednio. Krasicka np. na biletach wizytowych z czasów Stanisława Augusta nie omieszkuje tutułować się „posłowa czernihowska”.

Anon comment
The spelling used in diffrent articles seems to be a mess, I think we should use "h" as corresponding to the cyrillic "г" as opposed to "х", unless in Polish it was historiclly spelled diffrent. Either way some one needs to go through all the articles move them and change the spelling to be consistent.

WP:OR
Any there any English sources for current name?

Because English language publishers use: After the Deluge: Poland-Lithuania and the Second Northern War, 1655-1660 By Robert I. Frost Contributor John Elliott, Olwen Hufton, H. G. Koenigsberger, H. M. Scott
 * "palatinate ofChernigov"

or more frequent

"palatine of Chernihiv" The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386-1795: 1386-1795 By Daniel Stone Published by University of Washington Press, 2001 ISBN 0295980931, 9780295980935 374 pages Published by Cambridge University Press, 2004

The Legacy of History in Russia and the New States of Eurasia: The Legacy of History in Russia and the New States of Eurasia By S. Frederick Starr Contributor S. Frederick Starr Published by M.E. Sharpe, 1994 ISBN 1563243520, 9781563243523 313 pages
 * Chernihiv palatinate

A History of Ukraine By Paul Robert Magocsi Published by University of Toronto Press, 1996 ISBN 0802078206, 9780802078209 784 pages
 * Chernihiv palatinate

The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus By Serhii Plokhy Published by Cambridge University Press, 2006 ISBN 0521864038, 9780521864039 379 pages
 * "Chernihiv palatinate"

Palaeoslavica Published by Palaeoslavica, 2002 Item notes: v.10 2002
 * "Chernihiv palatinate"

M0RD00R (talk) 17:02, 8 August 2008 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Chernihiv Voivodeship


text:
Talk:Smolensk Voivodeship

Gloger, Geografia historyczna
Zygmunt Gloger, Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski. W tekście 63 autentycznych rycin, Kraków 1903

Województwo Smoleńskie.

W wieku IX Smoleńsk nad górnym Dnieprem był głównem miastem narodu słowiańskiego Krywiczów. W wieku XI został stolicą udzielnego księstwa, które w wieku XIV stało się hołdowniczem Litwy, w roku zaś 1404 Witołd przyłączył je zupełnie do Wielkiego księstwa i zamienił z czasem na województwo. Za Zygmunta I zdobył Smoleńsk r. 1514 Wielki książę moskiewski, Wasyl Iwanowicz, a król ustąpił go Moskwie traktatem z roku 1522. Odtąd przez lat 89 Smoleńsk należał do Moskwy. W roku 1611 odzyskał go Zygmunt III i przywrócił dawne województwo, które, jako województwo polskie, faktycznie istniało tylko przez lat 56, gdyż w roku 1654, za Jana Kazimierza, opanował Smoleńsk car Aleksy Michałowicz, a rozejm Andruszowski roku 1667 zezwolił na przyłączenie Smoleńska do Rosyi, co ostatecznie potwierdził traktat Grzymułtowskiego w roku 1686.

Senatorów krzesłowych miało to województwo trzech, to jest: biskupa, wojewodę i kasztelana smoleńskich. Dzieliło się na dwa powiaty: Smoleński i Starodubowski. Starostwo grodowe smoleńskie należało do wojewody. Herb województwa jest: laska złota, czyli berło, w tarczy szarej, na chorągwi czerwonej. Jako województwo tytularne dla pamiątki historycznej nie przestało istnieć do końca Rzeczypospolitej, odprawując sejmiki swoje, tak zwane egzulanckie, w Wilnie: województwo w kościele OO. Bernardynów, a powiat Starodubowski u Karmelitów Bosych pod Ostrą Bramą. Na sejmikach tych wybierano z każdego powiatu po dwóch posłów sejmowych i po dwóch deputatów na trybunał. Mundur województwa był kontusz karmazynowy, żupan i wyłogi granatowe. Powiat Starodubowski dla odróżnienia używał kontusza szafirowego, a żupana i wyłogów barwy słomianej. Przedostatnim biskupem tytularnym smoleńskim był znany dziejopis Adam Naruszewicz, a ostatnim Tymoteusz Gorzeński.

title: Talk:Smolensk Voivodeship


text:
Talk:Duchy of Samogita

Gloger, Geografia historyczna
Zygmunt Gloger, Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski. W tekście 63 autentycznych rycin, Kraków 1903

Księstwo Żmudzkie.

(Samogitia).

Już w pierwszej części tej książki powiedzieliśmy, że nazwa Żmudzi pochodzi od litewskiego wyrazu ziemaj – nisko. Stąd lud tamtejszy nazywa siebie Żemajtis – Żmudzinami, a ziemię swoją Ziemajciej, Ziemajczis, czyli krainą niższą od Litwy, położonej w górze Niemna, którą nazywa Aukstote, to jest wyższą, od wyrazu litewskiego auksztas – wysoki.

Ziemia żmudzka graniczyła na północ z krainą pobratymczych Kuronów, t. j. szczepem łotewskim, od którego poszła potem zniemczona nazwa Kurlandyi; na wschód z właściwą Litwą, od której znaczną część granicy stanowiła średnia i dolna Niewiaża (od okolic Upity do Niemna). Na południu dolny Niemen odgraniczał Żmudzinów od pobratymczych plemion Prusów. Ścianę zachodnią stanowił Baltyk, od ujścia Niemna ku północy, aż do ujścia rzeki Świętej w okolicy Połongi. Na tej to przestrzeni mieszkał w pośród odwiecznych lasów, żyjąc z myśliwstwa, rybołówstwa, pszczelnictwa, pasterstwa i dzikich owoców lud ubogi, bez miast, nieznany w dziejach, dopóki nieludzka napaść dwóch zakonów krzyżowych, pruskiego i inflanckiego, które go wzięły we dwa ognie, nie wywiodła go do bohaterskiej walki i nie przywiązała tem silniej do starych wierzeń bałwochwalczych, jakie tu jeszcze do wieku XV i XVI ukrywały się przed światłem wiary Chrystusowej, czyniąc ze Żmudzi ostatni przytułek dla pogaństwa w Europie.

Historya Żmudzi wyłączna – powiada Michał Baliński – niedługa jest, bo tradycye ustne zagubione a podania kronikarskie ciemne lub niepewne. Późniejsze zaś sprawy i walki, a nakoniec cywilizacya chrześcijańska, wspólne i też same, co Litwy, z małymi odcieniami. Ta jednak głównie zachodziła różnica, że książęta litewscy, aby ocalić wyższą Litwę, lub zjednać sobie przyjaźń i posiłki niemieckie we własnych wojnach domowych, oddawali przedewszystkiem Żmudź na pastwę Krzyżaków. Tak np. Witołd ustąpił całą zachodnią Żmudź, to jest trzy czwarte części tego kraju, Zakonowi, od Baltyku po rzekę Dubissę. Tym sposobem Żmudź, gdyby nie Grunwald i połączenie Litwy z Polską, uległaby podobnemu wynarodowieniu, jak plemiona prusko-litewskie w Prusiech krzyżackich, do dolnej Wisły przedtem sięgające. Pokój toruński, w dniu 1. lutego 1411 po wojnie grunwaldzkiej między Wielkim mistrzem Henrykiem Plauen a Jagiełłą i Witoldem zawarty, oddał Żmudź w dożywotnie posiadanie króla polskiego i Wielkiego księcia. Zaraz po unii horodelskiej roku 1413 sam król z Witołdem udali się na Żmudź, aby ją dobrowolnie skłonić do przyjęcia wiary Chrystusowej. Kieżgajłło, uczyniony starostą całego kraju, obok piastowanej godności wojewody wileńskiego, miał czuwać nad zupełnem dokonaniem nawrócenia, wspólnie z ustanowionymi wójtami w 28 włościach, czyli powiatach (traktach), Żmudź składających. Roku 1417 fundowaną została dyecezya Żmudzka. Zatargi atoli o tytuł własności i granice Żmudzi załatwione dopiero zostały ostatecznie z Zakonem pruskim przez traktat w Wielkopolsce, nad jeziorem Mielnem roku 1422 dnia 17. września zawarty, a z Mistrzem inflanckim przez pokój w Chrystmemlu roku 1431. Granice księstwa Żmudzkiego, ustanowione powyższymi traktatami i zachowane w wiekach następnych, przedstawiały tylko nad Baltykiem i Niemnem większe różnice z przyrodzonemi granicami ziemi Żmudzkiej. Zakon pruski pozostał tam w posiadaniu szerokiego mil kilka szmatu Żmudzi, ciągnącego się nad morzem na południe od Połongi i po prawym brzegu dolnego Niemna. Powyżej zaś zaliczony został do księstwa Żmudzkiego dość znaczny klin ziemi na lewym brzegu Niemna, od granicy województwa Trockiego do granicy pruskiej i rzeki Szeszupy, słynny urodzajnością gleby.

Aleksander Jagiellończyk w przywileju swoim z dnia 22. sierpnia 1492 roku, danym Żmudzi, zastrzegł ważne dla jej mieszkańców na wzór polskich swobody, a między temi, że „za Niewiażę” nie będzie wysyłał Dzieckich, t. j. sekwestratorów, że starostę żmudzkiego (wojewodę) i ciwunów (zarządzających powiatami), których sami sobie wybiorą, potwierdzi i t. d. Oświadczając przytem, że Żmudź nie orężem, lecz dobrowolnie z Litwą się połączyła, przypuścił żmudzką szlachtę do wszelkich przywilejów, posiadanych przez litewską. Zygmunt I, mądry i sprawiedliwy władca, a szlachetny opiekun uciśnionych, aby ukrócić nadużycia po wsiach, wydal roku 1529 ustawę dla ludu pospolitego ziemi żmudzkiej, gdzie wyraźnie określone są obowiązki naczelnego Starosty żmudzkiego i ciwunów powiatowych, tak względem szlachty jak kmieci, których zbyteczne ciężary i opłaty zostały zniesione. Temże postanowieniem nakazano dzierżawcom dworów królewskich sumienniejsze postępowanie z ludem wiejskim i nadano stalsze zasady sądownictwu miejskiemu (obacz Zbiór Praw Litewskich, Poznań, roku 1841, strona 131). Zygmunt August poszedł dalej i, chcąc ustalić stosunki szlachty z włościanami, rozmierzyć kraj i rozwinąć gospodarstwo krajowe, nadał Żmudzi dnia 1. kwietnia 1557 r. ustawę ekonomiczną, zwaną Sprawa Włoczna, mocą której Piotr Falczewski, uczeń Andrzeja z Łęczycy, dokonał pod sterem Mikołaja Czarnego Radziwiłła i Eustachego Wołłowicza, za pomocą rozesłanych po kraju mierników i rewizorów, wielkiej reformy w gospodarstwie ziemiańskiem na Żmudzi i Litwie.

Gdy inne dzielnice Litwy przybrały nazwanie „województw” i podział tychże na „powiaty” (nie różniąc się w tem od Korony), konserwatywni Żmudzini pozostawili sobie podług woli swojej „Księstwo Żmudzkie” z podziałem nie na powiaty, ale na „Trakty”. Podział ten pochodził z czasów, nie tak zresztą tu dawnych, kiedy w krainie lasami pokrytej szlaki tylko, czyli gościńce, trakty, łączące z sobą główniejsze punkta, były jedynie zaludnione. Gdy Litwa z województwami przyjęła wojewodów, Żmudź pozostawiła sobie „Starostę żmudzkiego” w tejże, co oni, godności. Starosta sprawował także w imieniu królewskiem władzę sądowniczą z obowiązkiem odbywania cztery razy do roku sądów, do których apelacya szła od ciwunów, zarządzających „traktami”. Traktów tych, czyli powiatów, z których każdy miał swój gródek na wzór kasztelanii piastowskich, posiadało księstwo Żmudzkie 28, a mianowicie: 1) Ejragoła, 2) Wilki, 3) Wielona, 4) Rosienie, 5) Widukle, 6) Kroże, 7) Tendziagoła, 8) Jaswony, 9) Szawle, 10) Wielkie Dyrwiany, 11) Małe Dyrwiany, 12) Berżany, 13) Użwenta, 14) Telsze, 15) Retow, 16) Pojury, 17) Wieszwiany, 18) Korszew, 19) Szadów, 20) Gondinga, 21) Twery, 22) Potumsza, 23) Birżiniany, 24) Połonga, 25) Powendeń, 26) Mendingiany, 27) Korklany i 28) Zokany. Trakt Zapuszczański (zwany po litewsku Użgiris) leżał na lewym brzegu Niemna.

Księstwo Żmudzkie miało senatorów większych, czyli krzesłowych, trzech, którymi byli: biskup, starosta i kasztelan żmudzcy. Starosta żmudzki był mianowany przez króla z wybranych przez szlachtę kandydatów, do czego nawet województwa polskie prawa nie miały. Krzesło jego w senacie Rzeczypospolitej stało między wojewodami: łęczyckim i brzesko-kujawskim. Sejmikowała Żmudź w Rosieniach, obierając trzech posłów na sejm i czterech deputatów na trybunał litewski, to jest po dwóch na kadencyę wileńską i ruską. Pod względem sądowym podzielone zostało Księstwo na dwie części czyli Repartycye: Rosieńską i Telszewską, do Szawel później przeniesioną. Każda z tych dwóch części miała swój oddzielny sąd ziemski i grodzki. Do pierwszej należało traktów czyli powiatów 13, do drugiej 15. Starosta ma jurysdykcyę nad obu grodami: Rosieńskim i Telszewskim.

Herb księstwa Żmudzkiego wyobraża na białej chorągwi Pogoń litewską w polu czerwonem na jednej tarczy, a na drugiej niedźwiedzia czarnego z białą obrożą, wspiętego na tylnych łapach, w polu czerwonem. Żmudź przyjęła za swój mundur sejmowy kontusz szkarłatny z niebieskimi wyłogami i żupan biały.

Księstwo Żmudzkie przed wiekiem XV miast jeszcze nie posiadało. Miedniki, inaczej Wornie (u Krzyżaków Medeniken), z powodu założonej w nich pierwszej katedry biskupiej żmudzkiej, uważane były za stolicę księstwa. Połonga, po litewsku Pałanga, była portem niegdyś sławnym na Bałtyku, potem przez Szwedów kamieniami zarzuconym. Sejmiki i sądy ziemskie, oraz grodzkie, odbywane w Rosieniach, Telszach i Szawlach, wpłynęły na utworzenie się tych główniejszych miast na Żmudzi. Do najdawniejszych, bo już od XIII wieku wspominanych, na Żmudzi osad należały: Miedniki, Rosienie (po litewsku Rosejnej), Kroże (po litewsku Krażej) nad Krożentą, Ejragoła i Wielona nad Niemnem. Ten ostatni gród był w dziejach Żmudzi najwięcej historycznym. W klinie księstwa Żmudzkiego, na lewym brzegu Niemna, na t. zw. Trakcie Zapuszczańskim, leżały stare zameczki: Kidule, Giełgudyszki i Szaki, tudzież nowsze miasteczka: Wierzbołów, Władysławów i wieś kościelna Błogosławieństwo.

Od starych zamków brały nazwę pierwotne powiaty żmudzkie. W roku 1390 spotykamy nazwy następujących siedmiu powiatów: Miednicki, Kołtyniański, Knetowski, Kroski, Widuklewski, Rosieński i Ejragolski. Z tych pierwsze trzy nie były znane w późniejszych czasach. Obok niezbyt licznej szlachty możnej, posiadała Żmudź sporo szlachty szaraczkowej, dziedzicznej, bardzo dawnej, zamieszkującej zaścianki i okolice, których nazwy zwykle od rodowych nazwisk osiadłej w nich szlachty wzięły początek. Tak np. w Rymgajłach mieszkali pierwotnie Rymgajłowie, w Dowborach Dowborowie, w Piłsudach Piłsudzcy, w Jamonciach Jamontowie, w Tyszkach Tyszkowie, w Kondratowiczach Kondratowiczowie i t. d. Gdy podczas sejmu wielkiego uchwalonym został (dnia 6. kwietnia 1789 roku) podatek dochodowy pod nazwą: „Ofiara wieczysta prowincyów obojga narodów na powiększenie sił krajowych”, ułożone zostały w tymże roku księgi skarbowe, z których widzimy, że najwięcej „okolic” czyli wiosek cząstkowej szlachty posiadały powiaty Telszewski i Rosieński. W pierwszym było takich okolic 57, w drugim 37. Z ogólnej liczby 28 małych powiatów żmudzkich, 15 południowo-zachodnich posiadało razem okolic 304, w których znajdowało się gospodarstw szlachty dziedzicznej około 1350. Przecięciowo zatem wypadało na jedną okolicę 4–5 fortun. W największej ze wszystkich okolicy, Towkinławkie, mieszkało szlachty domów 27, w Piłsudach było właścicieli 15, w Janowdowie 16, w Bujwidach siedziało panów Bujwidów 5. Do nazwisk rodzin najliczniejszych w ogóle należały: Godwojsz, Borodzic, Wojdyłło, Syrtowtt, Blinstrub, Strumiłło, Giedmin, Wysocki, Malinowski, Konopiński, Dauksza, Wojzgiałłd, Jagiełło, Skirgajłło, Kierzgajłło i Dąbrowski.

title: Talk:Duchy of Samogita


text:
Talk:Trakai Voivodeship

Gloger, Geografia historyczna
Zygmunt Gloger, Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski. W tekście 63 autentycznych rycin, Kraków 1903

Województwo Trockie.

Żadne z województw litewskich nie miało tak dziwacznie wydłużonej przestrzeni swojej, jak Trockie. Ciągnęło się bowiem pasem miejscami wąskim na mil kilka, ale długim na mil 50, z północy od granic Kurlandyi na południe do Narwi i Podlasia. Granicę północną tego województwa stanowiła Kurlandya i Semigalia, ścianę wschodnią województwo Wileńskie i części Nowogródzkiego; od południa leżało Podlasie; na zachodzie także od rzeki Narwi do Augustowa Podlasie, dalej Prusy książęce i księstwo Żmudzkie aż po Kurlandyę. W powyższych granicach utworzone zostało na sejmie Horodelskim roku 1413 województwo Trockie z dwóch księstw kiejstutowych: Trockiego i Grodzieńskiego. Następnie podzielone zostało na 4 powiaty: Trocki, Kowieński, Upicki i Grodzieński. Pierwsze trzy, od granicy pruskiej przez Niemen do Trok i pasem na północ do Kurlandyi ciągnące się, były tak zwaną Litwą Wyższą (Aukstote), t. j. w górze Żmudzi nad Niemnem położoną. Powiat Grodzieński, jeszcze wyżej leżący, zamieszkały był przez Rusinów, którzy w dolinie Niemna stykali się z plemieniem litewskim przy ujściu Hańczy i wsi Warwiszkach około 4 mile poniżej Grodna. Prócz tego za czasów Kiejstuta część także Podlasia należała do dzielnicy tego księcia, do Rajgrodu po rzeki: Nettę i Biebrzę, jak świadczy rozgraniczenie w roku 1358 między Kiejstutem a Ziemowitem, księciem mazowieckim, w Grodnie zdziałane. Po Kiejstucie od rokn 1388 do 1392 księciem trockim był Skirgielło, a po nim syn Kiejstuta, Witołd, zostawszy wielkim księciem litewskim, powrócił do dziedzin ojcowskich. Utworzone w Horodle województwo Trockie zatrzymało nadal tę północną część Podlasia, która aż w roku 1520, postanowieniem Zygmunta I w Toruniu, przywrócona została do świeżo utworzonego województwa Podlaskiego.

Senatorów większych województwo Trockie posiadało dwóch t. j. wojewodę i kasztelana trockich. Wojewoda siedział w senacie zaraz po kaliskim, a kasztelan między wojewodą sieradzkim i łęczyckim. Pierwszym wojewodą został w roku 1413 Jawnus herbu Zadora, a pierwszym kasztelanem Szymon Sunigajło. Urzędnicy powiatowi ziemscy byli w województwie Trockiem tacy sami jak w Wileńskiem. Ciwun im przewodniczył w powiecie Trockim jak w Wileńskim, a w innych powiatach marszałkowie. Każdy powiat obierał po dwóch posłów na sejm i po dwóch deputatów na trybunał, czyli razem ośmiu posłów i tyluż deputatów. Połowa deputatów zasiadała na kadencyi wileńskiej, a druga połowa na ruskiej. Województwo i powiat Trocki sejmikowały w Trokach, powiat Grodzieński w Grodnie, Kowieński w Kownie, tylko Upicki nie w Upicie, ale w Poniewieżu. Starostw grodowych było cztery: Trockie, Grodzieńskie, Kowieńskie i Upickie. Trockie należało do wojewody.

Herbem województwa Trockiego była Pogoń litewska w czerwonem polu. Powiaty miały chorągwie z taka samą Pogonią, tylko nie czerwone, ale modre, t. j. błękitne. Mundurem sejmowym województwa był kontusz szkarłatny, wyłogi zielone, żupan biały. Poza sejmem szlachta trocka uważała za swoją barwę kontusz granatowy, żupan i wyłogi słomiane, a powiat Upicki: kontusz karmazynowy, wyłogi granatowe, żupan słomiany.

Stolica województwa Troki, Nowe Troki, po łacinie Trocum, wzięły nazwę od litewskiego wyrazu trakas, znaczącego las wytrzebiony, nad jeziorem Trockiem, w uroczem położeniu, dziś z rozwalinami starożytnego zamku gotyckiego władców Litwy. Jezioro, otaczające zamek i tę pierwotna stolicę Litwy, zowie się po litewsku Galwie, od wyrazu Gałwa, znaczącego głowa. Gdy wobec szybkiego wzrostu Wilna w XVI wieku Troki chyliły się do upadku, królowie polscy: Zygmunt I, Zygmunt August i Stefan Batory, wydali mieszczanom mnóstwo przywilejów, aby ich byt podtrzymać, ta jednak pieczołowitość monarchów nie zapobiegła koniecznym przyczynom upadku. Stare Troki, wioska z opactwem Benedyktynów, o pół mili od Nowych Trok, jest miejscem dawniejszej jeszcze stolicy Litwy, niż Wilno, bo posiadała starszy, niż w Wilnie i Nowych Trokach zamek stołeczny wielkich książąt. Województwo Trockie, stawszy się w drugiej połowie wieku XIII i w XIV polem nieustannych walk z Krzyżakami, posiada z owych czasów mnóstwo t. zw. pilokalni, czyli umocnionych wałem i przykopem gór zamkowych, przedstawiających odrębny typ od starosłowiańskich polskich grodzisk. Do ważniejszych takich zamków należały nad Niemnem Punie, które upamiętnił Syrokomla swoim poematem p. n. Margier, także Liszków z rozwalinami kamiennego zamku, Birsztany, Olita i Merecz, któremu Zygmunt August nadał roku 1569 herb Jednorożec. W Mereczu roku 1648 d. 20. maja o pół do drugiej po północy, w podróży z Wilna do Warszawy, zmarł jeden z najlepszych królów polskich, Władysław IV. Grodno, tak nazwane od grodu, czyli zamku, zbudowanego nad Niemnem, było dzielnicą książąt słowiańskich a po zburzeniu jej przez Tatarów, około roku 1241, zajęte zostało przez Erdziwiłła, księcia litewskiego, który zamek tutejszy (drewniany) odbudował. Epoka politycznej i ekonomicznej świetności zaczęła się dla Grodna pod Stefanem Batorym, który tu często przebywał i tu dnia 12. grudnia 1686 roku życie swoje zakończył w sile wieku, bo w 54 roku żywota.

Rv
Reverting nationalist edits. Hrodna was a Belarusian populated city for most of time of this voivodship, therefore the Belarusian name will be used. Grodno could be used for later times when it was Polish-populated. Other cities were Lithuanian-populated, therefore Lithuanian names will be used. The most of area of voivodhsip was Lithuanian-populated also, this is why voivodship will be named in Luthuanian. Also, it was established before the Union of Lublin (one of two voivodships established then, the other being Vilnius voivodship), when Polish language was still not used in Grand Duchy of Lithuania, therefore attempts to rename cities, powiats and voivodship itself to Polish language are wrong. DeirYassin 10:25, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

Name
Nobody denies that Trakai is the name of modern city in Lithuania. But was the entity, formed in 1413 in GDL and exiting until the end of PLC in 1795, known as 'Trakai Voivodeship' ( - 0 Google Print hits)? I think 'Troki Voivodeship' would be more correct ( - 15 Google hits). I'd therefore suggest that this article is moved back to Troki Voivodeship. We should not invent names.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 18:57, 26 September 2007 (UTC)
 * I disagree with the move. First, presented google hits do not show such name as Troki Voivodeship, for instance first book, which allegedly should have such name, in the list (Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest...) do not show any similar name, that book shows is Wilno-Troki county, Wilno Voivodeship in the 20th century context, but not so called Troki Voivodeship, in others  so called "hits" story continues ,  etc. It is prefect example of low skill google search (which is continued and here) in order to justify Polish POV. Should I also say that overwhelming majority of presented "hits" which should have so called  Troki Voivodeship are found in Polish books? Speaking about names invention, yes Poles invented this name from Lithuanian one. Very simple. And polonization of Lithuanian, Belarussian and Ukrainian names without proper arguments match neglect towards WP:POINT. M.K. 11:41, 27 September 2007 (UTC)
 * I would agree with the idea to use the variant "Troki Voivodship" as the title of this article since both Polish and Belarusian (official languages of the GDL after 1696 and prior 1696 respectively) call the centre of the Voivodship similarly: Troki. CityElefant (talk) 13:47, 24 March 2009 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is archived. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was no consensus.--Yannismarou (talk) 13:01, 13 June 2008 (UTC)

Trakai Voivodeship → Troki Voivodeship — Trakai is a modern, Lithuanian name of the city which was known as Troki in the past to its inhabitants and was known as such in English literature. Of course, per our naming guidelines the city should be known in Lithuanian since it is now inhabited by Lithuanian speaking populace. But the voivodeship which existed in the Polish (not Lituanian) speaking Commonwealth (and not in modern Lithuanian speaking Lithuania) was named województwo trockie, not Trakų vaivadija (which is the name variant in modern Lithuanian language, dating to 19th century). To speak of Trakai Voivodeship is as accurate as to speak of modern Stalingrad or the battle of Volgograd. Google Print: "Trakai Voivodship": 0, "Trakai Voivodeship": 0 vs "Troki Voivodship": 1 "Troki Voivodeship": 2) further show that current name is simple OR. --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 11:45, 5 June 2008 (UTC) —Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 11:45, 5 June 2008 (UTC)

Survey

 * Feel free to state your position on the renaming proposal by beginning a new line in this section with  or  , then sign your comment with  . Since polling is not a substitute for discussion, please explain your reasons, taking into account Wikipedia's naming conventions.

 * Nominator support per above rationale.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 16:07, 5 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Support per Piotrus. Space Cadet (talk) 12:57, 5 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Support as per WP:NCGN and the rationale provided by the nominator. --Poeticbent talk  18:45, 5 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Oppose - because the provided rationale does not hold a drop of water. Arguments about Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Polish language usage are rather dubious, and that's why: Why should we use Polonized Lithuanian toponym (since 1337 known as Trakai (in German it was written - Tracken)) for 1413 establishment. Voivodeship was established in sovereign Grand Duchy of Lithuania (PLC was established  circa 150 years later), at the time as Grand Duke was speaking Lithuanian language (not to mention the fact, that Vytautas the Great himself was born in Trakai), as did other rulers of Lithuania for another circa one hundred years since establishment of the voivodeship. Also, let me remind you, that northern part of voivodeship together with it's capital was inhabited by Lithuanian speaking people. The argument about "modern" Lithuanian language does not hold water either - up to this day Lithuanian language is considered one of the most archaic languages in Indoeuropean languages family, and of course, it would be rather easy to find linguistic analysis how the sound of a in Lithuanian word Trakai was morphed into Polish o. Trakas, a singular form of Trakai in Lithuanian means glade. Furthermore, if one would have followed previous discussions, one would easily find out that, Polish language as chancery language in Grand Duchy of Lithuania was adopted only in the very end of 17th century, so I do not see a reason for using Polish transcription of Lithuanian name. And the provided book body count only provides, that there is no English usage tradition. First book speaks about Voivodship of Nowogródek, and does not mention Troki Voivodship at all, besides the fact, that it is about Second Republic of Poland. The last two are written by Polish authors, so they are not exemplary for English use, as it is perfectly right noted by M.K just above.--Lokyz (talk) 20:34, 5 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Your argument would be much better if you could cite a single English language publication supporting the OR "Trakai Voivod(e)ship"... --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 21:58, 5 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Could you cite any English language piplication which supported your proposal ? M.K. (talk) 10:33, 10 June 2008 (UTC)
 * I have cited three, above, several times. Can you cite any English language work to support current title? Not a single cite has been provided so far.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 19:47, 10 June 2008 (UTC)
 * As it was said numerous times, but I will repeat a) this one "source" does not have proposed name at all, it was just blindly counted as such b) remaining two:  Żydzi ziemi bielskiej od połowy XVII w. do 1795 r: studium osadnicze, prawne by Anatol Leszczyński, 1980 and Studia i materiały do dziejów miasta Białegostoku: praca zbiorowa by Jerzy Antoniewicz, Białostockie

Towarzystwo Naukowe, Jerzy Joka, Białostockie Towarzystwo Naukowe  hardly can be called a English language publications... M.K. (talk) 08:36, 11 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Oppose. We been here before. Three pathetic Ghits is no way a proof of "English" usage... Sources using "Trakai":
 * Daniel Stone in PL-LT State, p. 46 "Palatinate of Trakai"
 * Edmundas Rimsa in Heraldry Past to Present, p. 102 "Voivode provinces of Vilnius and Trakai"
 * Zigmantas Kiaupa in The History of Lithuania Before 1795, p. 164 "Palatinate of Trakai"
 * Encyclopedia Lituanica, vol 1, p. 18 "Palatinate of Trakai"
 * Albertas Gerutis in Lithuania: 700 Years, p. 73 "palatinates of Vilnius and Trakai"
 * S.C. Rowell in an article for English Historical Review, "palatine of Trakai"
 * If anything, it could be argued that it was known as "Palatinate of Trakai". Renata (talk) 22:17, 5 June 2008 (UTC)
 * I see you have decided to add hits for voivode (palatine) to boost the results. Well, if we look more carefully... sources using "voivodeship of Troki":
 * "Lithuanian voivodship of Troki, was that scrap of the Grand Duchy"
 * Sources using "Troki voivodship":
 * "Wilno-Troki. Voivodship of Nowogródek"
 * Sources using "Troki voivodeship":
 * "Jewish settlers in royal towns in the western part of the Troki Voivodeship", "estates of his situated in Grodno County, Troki Voivodeship."
 * Sources using "palatinate of Troki":
 * Almost 60 books, see
 * Sources using "voivode of Troki":
 * "the castellan of Wilno, the voivode of Troki, the castellan of Troki, and the starosta of Samogitia were followed by the voivode of Smolensk", "Wilno voivode and Mikolaj Krzysztof Sierotka, voivode of Troki", "and voivode of Troki, near Vilna, from 1522", "and later became Voivode of Troki, and Grand Marshal of Lithuania", "Voivode of Troki"
 * Sources using "palatin of Troki": "Palatin of Troki, Lithuania", "Palatin of Troki since 1788"
 * Without any doubt, Troki is more often used than Trakai in this context. As for palatinate, we have long ago decided that the more correct term is the voivodeship (see old discussions at WikiProject Polish history and geography), hence we have voivodes of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (not palatines) and voivodeships of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (not palatinates).--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 11:14, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Yes, please look carefully. Please count how many of those Ghits are in Polish books with English summaries, how many are published after WWII, and how many are duplicates. Let me know the results. Renata (talk) 12:04, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * There are still more modern English works then yours for Trakai (over half of which is written by Lithuanian authors, not surprisingly). --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 12:17, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * And how many of your Ghits are written by Polish authors? Renata (talk) 13:20, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Support. It seems like Troki is more used in English sources, especially when we scratch English-language works written by Lithuanians. - Darwinek (talk) 12:35, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Oppose Lithuanians, whose one of the political centres it has been since its establishment by Gediminas in the 13th ct. (who certainly named it Trakai ("the glades") and not Troki or Trocken) have never called the city that way. Iulius (talk) 13:04, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * With the exceptions of their educated elites which have been polonized for a few centuries of PLC existence... Lithuanian language was never an official language in the PLC or the Grand Duchy, for example. In other words, majority of educated inhabitants of the Troki Voivodeship spoke Polish, Latin and Ruthenian, not Lithuanian.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 13:43, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Comment Strange enough, Polish was not official language either (not for a single minute). Unless one could prove, that there was some law regulating usage of official and unofficial languages in either one countrys public life before 19th century. Seems very OR'ish to me.--Lokyz (talk) 21:03, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Hah, could you by any means prove that in the 15th - 16th century a significant part of the Voivodeship's ruling classes used Polish as they everyday language? And we are certainly not speaking here about the Voivodeship's rural population (much more numerous than townspeople or nobility) which was overwhelmingly Lithuanian throughout all periods of its existence.Iulius (talk) 10:51, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Oppose per Lokyz and identifiability in the lingua anglica. Deacon of Pndapetzim ( Talk ) 16:31, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * What is this lingua anglica that makes you support the version which is not used in a single English publication? --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 18:15, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Well, Peter, I don't think too many of such details of Lithuanian history are discussed in the said lıngua (and really, I wouldn't rely on google for absolutely everythıng!), but Trakaı is far more ındentıfıable in the said lingua than Trokı, as I'm sure you would agree. ;) Deacon of Pndapetzim ( Talk ) 22:25, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * I don't agree: ~250 hits for Trakai+city vs ~500 hits for Troki+city contradicts you.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 19:46, 10 June 2008 (UTC)
 * How many of those 500+ ghits are in books published after WWII? Less than 50... I think the trend is very clear. Renata (talk) 20:46, 10 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Renata, please - why won't you address the issue that your "Trakai Voivod(e)ship" has 0 ghits, one way or another? Troki Voivodeship may not be very popular, but Trakai Voivodeship is pure OR.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 21:52, 10 June 2008 (UTC)

 * IIRC in other votes you supported most used English versions, why not here ? Looking forward to your answer.--Molobo (talk) 00:36, 7 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Oppose Having tried to stay away from these relentless attempts to keep Wikipedia full of chauvinistic motivated biases with a brief hiatus, I need once again to remind those voting "support" to consider your argument against the fact that the city of Cracow has ben so named in the English language for over 300 years, not Kraków (replete with its diacritic). Yet you insist that Kraków's the way it should be presented in the English version of Wikipedia. And the logic if any, that this argument has against using Trakai, is what? Dr. Dan (talk) 18:00, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Support Troki is the proper name that is used by sources. --Molobo (talk) 00:36, 7 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Could you name an English source?--Lokyz (talk) 01:01, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Oppose I fail to see what difference it makes if there is an English source or not. What matters is, what language did the population of the city speak at the time? In a bilingual state,it is likely that many people, and certainly the nobility, were bilingual. However the name of the city would have been that used by the population which was certainly not Polish. If a 20th century English author decides to use a Polish name for the city because he or she was writing from the Polish perspective, and the city is only mentioned generally, one can not expect a Lithuanian name to be used. I have a firm belief that a reference work should call things they were called by the speakers within the discussed period and not what a less knowledgeable English writer decides it was, or even worse, the work's editor as a matter of expediency--mrg3105 (comms) ♠ ♥ ♦ ♣ 12:46, 7 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Well, town's population even in 19th century was exclusively Lithuanian per 93% . M.K. (talk) 19:39, 7 June 2008 (UTC)
 * However we are not talking about the times of the 19th century Lithuanian National Revival, which (re)Lithuanized city's inhabitants, but about the times 16th-18th century, when the voivodship did exist, and when the town population was mostly polonized (with minorities of possibly German speakers or Jews).--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 20:10, 7 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Really, do you have a secsus of some sort to back your claims? M.K. (talk) 20:19, 7 June 2008 (UTC)P.s. answering to his, quite simple we have Polish one source "Żydzi ziemi bielskiej od połowy XVII w. do 1795"
 * The publication is bilingual, and two more have been cited above. Yes, they were written by Polish authors, but so far you have not found a single English language work - even written by a Lithuanian author - who would think of using "Trakai Voivodeship".--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 20:33, 7 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Is the publication really bilingual, or is this just abstract in English?--Lokyz (talk) 22:24, 7 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the link, from the scraps it is obvious that it is an a translated abstract at the end of the book, not a claimed "bilingual books".--Lokyz (talk) 01:27, 8 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Comment the answer to M.K's question is rather obvious - if Piotrus would have read the article on Lithuanian National Revival, he'd surely would notice that it did happen much later than the census of 1862. This only proves, that someone's beliefs about "utter and throughout" Polonization (and supposed re-Lithuanisation) is rather an example of wishfull thinking, than an established fact.--Lokyz (talk) 20:39, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Weak support. Weak because regardless of what we do, the article will be moved to the Lithuanized version every now and then. Which makes me think that there's no chance we could settle any Lithuania-related issue once and for all.  // Halibutt 10:24, 8 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Oppose - Renata has cited strong and recent scholarship here. From books. So could we consider discussing Commonwealth naming conventions as a whole instead of on a case-by-case basis? Novickas (talk) 01:18, 9 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Strong oppose - provided rationale don't hold water. *) Claims that was known as Troki in the past to its inhabitants, would like to know that trakas means in Polish language, and how is happened that acclaimed linguists suggest that Trakai is authentic and original name. Of course during Polish occupation of the city in 20th century in was know under this name sure... *) But the voivodeship which existed in the Polish (not Lituanian) speaking Commonwealth another "interesting" "argument" Voivodeship was created in 1413 Commonwealth was created only in 1569 and Trkai area was predominately Lithuanian, easy to prove with simple linguistic map... *) To speak of Trakai Voivodeship is as accurate as to speak of modern Stalingrad or the battle of Volgograd. another misinformation, this comparison has nothing to do with Trakai case, as Trakai is original and no doubtable Lithuanian origin name and did not undergone such change as Tsaritsyn > Stalingrad > Volgograd. *) provided Google hints are below criticism as already was noted; just note there are no single English source which would use currently proposed name; btw this provided google hint has nothing to do with proposed name count, as it have name "Voivodship of Nowogródek"  classical example of just counting hints instead looking that they actually state.M.K. (talk) 10:28, 10 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Oppose current title seems in line with naming conventions. Ostap 04:49, 11 June 2008 (UTC)
 * How so? It's not a title used in English literature, nor by local inhabitants in the discussed time period.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 08:20, 11 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Present academic sources which would said that Trakai was not know by local inhabitants. And what does trakas mean in Polsh language? M.K. (talk) 08:29, 11 June 2008 (UTC)
 * YOU want the current name, YOU present sources showing it is used in English and/or known to locals then. So far you have not done either, unlike me, who have shown the Troki variant is used in English and is written in the official language of the Commonwealth.--Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 08:32, 11 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Nope you failed to present any academic sources which suggest was not know by local inhabitants, despite numerical attempts to use this "argument" M.K. (talk) 08:38, 11 June 2008 (UTC)

Discussion

 * Any additional comments:

 * Does this case differ from Free City of Kraków?
 * If so, how?
 * If not, what's sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander; those who insisted on the current spelling for a historic entity there should accept it here. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 22:27, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * The case is simple. While Kraków was known as Kraków for all of its history, Trakai was not known as such for much of it. And while Kraków was known as such during the times of the Free City, Trakai was known as Troki during its time as a Voivodeship. --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus 00:04, 7 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Cracow was known as Cracow in English for a long time; whether it is still is another discussion. In particular, it was so known and discussed in 1815. This will not do. Septentrionalis PMAnderson 22:01, 7 June 2008 (UTC)
 * No P.P., the case may be simple to you, but Kraków was not Kraków for all of its history. Not in the English language, in any case. From 1980 maybe, and by a minority, always without the Polish diacritic. I suppose using your sources and logic, since Litwa has been known as Litwa for all of its history (in Poland), that Lithuania should not be used in English either. Dr. Dan (talk) 18:04, 9 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I would like to hear some clarifications, how the proponents of the term official language understand it's usage in 14th century or even 17th century, i.e. before modern times and before formation of national states. What is the legal basis for claims about official status of the language, and what is the legal result? Like, was the language only one used, and all others were forbiddnen?--Lokyz (talk) 16:24, 11 June 2008 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

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Dignāga

Dignāga (also known as Diṅnāga, c. 480) was an Indian Buddhist philosopher and logician. He is credited as one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic (hetu vidyā) and atomism. Dignāga's work laid the groundwork for the development of deductive logic in India and created the first system of Buddhist logic and epistemology (pramāṇa).

According to Georges B. Dreyfus, his philosophical school brought about an Indian "epistemological turn" and became the "standard formulation of Buddhist logic and epistemology in India and Tibet." Dignāga's thought influenced later Buddhist philosophers like Dharmakirti and also Hindu thinkers of the Nyaya school. Dignāga's epistemology accepted only "perception" (pratyaksa) and "inference" (anumāṇa) as valid instruments of knowledge and introduced the widely influential theory of "exclusion" (apoha) to explain linguistic meaning. His work on language, inferential reasoning and perception were also widely influential among later Indian philosophers. According to Richard P. Hayes "some familiarity with Dinnaga's arguments and conclusions is indispensable for anyone who wishes to understand the historical development of Indian thought."

Early life
Dignāga was born in Simhavakta near Kanchipuram and very little is known of his early years, except that he took Nagadatta of the Pudgalavada school as his spiritual preceptor, before being expelled and becoming a student of Vasubandhu.

Philosophy
Dignāga mature philosophy is expounded in his magnum opus, the Pramāṇa-samuccaya. In chapter one, Dignāga explains his epistemology which holds that there are only two 'instruments of knowledge' or 'valid cognitions' (pramāṇa); "perception" or "sensation" (pratyakṣa) and "inference" or "reasoning" (anumāna). In chapter one, Dignāga writes:

"Sensation and reasoning are the only two means of acquiring knowledge, because two attributes are knowable; there is no knowable object other than the peculiar and the general attribute. I shall show that sensation has the peculiar attribute as its subject matter, while reasoning has the general attribute as its subject matter."

Perception is a non-conceptual knowing of particulars which is bound by causality, while inference is reasonable, linguistic and conceptual. This conservative epistemic theory was in contrast to the Nyaya school who accepted other means of knowledge such as upamāna (comparison and analogy).

Pratyakṣa
Pratyakṣa is a kind of awareness that acquires information about particulars, and is immediately present to one of the senses. This is the topic of the first chapter of the Pramāṇa-samuccaya. For Dignāga, perception is pre-verbal, pre-conceptual and unstructured sense data. In chapter two of the Pramāṇa-samuccaya he writes:

"Sensation is devoid of structure. That cognition in which there is no structure is sensation. What kind of thing is this so-called structure? Attaching a name, a universal and so forth."

According to Dignāga our mind always takes raw sense data or particulars and interprets them or groups them together in more complex ways, compares them to past experiences, gives them names to classify them based on general attributes (samanyalaksana) and so forth. This process he terms kalpana (arranging, structuring). This cognitive process is already different from sensation, which is a simple cognition based only on the immediately present. Thus pratyakṣa is only awareness of particular sense data such as a patch of green color and the sensation of hardness, never awareness of a macroscopic object such an apple which is always a higher level synthesis. For Dignāga, sensation is also inerrant, it cannot "stray" because it is the most basic and simple phenomenon of experience or as he puts it:

"'it is impossible too for the object of awareness itself to be errant, for errancy is only the content of misinterpretation by the mind.'"

Also, for Dignaga, pratyakṣa is mostly phenomenalist and is not dependent on the existence of an external world. It is also inexpressible and private.

Anumāṇa
Anumāṇa (inference or reasoning) for Dignāga is a type of cognition which is only aware of general attributes, and is constructed out of simpler sensations. Inference can also be communicated through linguistic conventions.

A central issue which concerned Dignāga was the interpretation of signs (linga) or the evidence (hetu) which led one to an inference about states of affairs; such as how smoke can lead one to infer that there is a fire. This topic of svārthānumāna (reasoning, literally "inference for oneself") is the subject of chapter two of the Pramāṇa-samuccaya while the topic of the third chapter is about demonstration (parārthānumāna, literally "inference for others"), that is, how one communicates one's inferences through proper argument.

According to Richard Hayes, in Dignāga's system, to obtain knowledge that a property (the "inferable property", sadhya) is inherent in a "subject of inference" (paksa) it must be derived through an inferential sign (linga). For this to occur, the following must be true:

 * 1) The inferential sign must be a property of the subject of the inference. That is, there exists in the subject of inference a property, which is different from the inferable property and which is furthermore evident to the person drawing the inference; this second property may serve as an inferential sign in case it has two further characteristics.
 * 2) The inferential sign must be known to occur in at least one locus, other than the subject of inference, in which the inferable property occurs.
 * 3) The inferential sign must not be known to occur in any other loci in which the inferable property is absent.

Richard Hayes interprets these criteria as overly strict and this is because he sees Dignāga's system as one of rational skepticism. Dignāga's epistemology, argues Hayes, is a way to express and practice the traditional Buddhist injunction to not become attached to views and opinions. According to Hayes, for Dignāga, the role of logic is:

"to counter dogmatism and prejudice. As a weapon in the battle against prejudice that rages in every mind that seeks wisdom--in minds of the vast majority of people who do not seek wisdom, prejudice simply takes full control without a contest-there is nothing as powerful as the kind of reason that lies at the heart of Dignaga's system of logic. For it should be clear that very few of our judgments in ordinary life pass the standards set by the three characteristics of legitimate' evidence. Taken in its strictest interpretation, none of the judgments of any but a fully omniscient being passes. And, since there is no evidence that there exist any fully omniscient beings, the best available working hypothesis is that no one's thinking is immune from errors that require revision in the face of newly discovered realities."

Apohavada and language
Dignāga considered the interpretation of conventional and symbolic signs such as the words and sentences of human language to be no more than special or conventional instances of the general principles of inference or anumana. He takes up several issues relating to language and its relationship to inference in the fifth chapter of his Pramāṇa-samuccaya.

During Dignāga's time, the orthodox Indian Nyaya school and also Hindu Sanskrit grammarians (such as Bhartṛhari) had discussed issues of epistemology and language respectively, but their theories generally accepted the concept of universals which was rejected by most Buddhist philosophers. Influenced by the work of these thinkers as well as by Buddhist philosophers of the Sautrantika school who rejected Hindu theories of universals in favor of nominalism (prajñapti), Dignāga developed his own Buddhist theory of language and meaning based on the concept of "apoha" (exclusion). Hattori Masaaki explains the doctrine thus:

"a word indicates an object merely through the exclusion of other objects (anyapoha, -vyavrtti). For example, the word 'cow' simply means that the object is not a non-cow. As such, a word cannot denote anything real, whether it be an individual (vyakti), a universal (jati), or any other thing. The apprehension of an object by means of the exclusion of other objects is nothing but an inference."

Works
As noted by Hayes, the difficulty in studying the highly terse works of Dignāga is considerable, because none of them have survived in the original Sanskrit and the Tibetan and Chinese translations which do survive show signs of having been done by translators who were not completely certain of the meaning of the work. This difficulty has also led scholars to read Dignaga through the lens of later authors such as Dharmakirti and their Indian and Tibetan interpreters as well as their Hindu Nyaya opponents. Because of this tendency in scholarship, ideas which are actually innovations of Dharmakirti and later authors have often been associated with Dignaga by scholars such as Fyodor Shcherbatskoy and S. Mookerjee, even though these thinkers often differ.

Pramāṇa-samuccaya
Dignāga's magnum opus, the (Compendium of Epistemology, Derge Kanjur no. 4203) and its auto-commentary (Pramāṇasamuccayavṛtti), examined perception, language and inferential reasoning. It presents perception as a bare cognition, devoid of conceptualization and sees language as useful fictions created through a process of exclusion (apoha).

The work has six chapters. Chapter one is on perception (pratyakṣa), chapter on inference for one’s self (svārthānumāna), chapter three on inference for others (parārthānumāna), chapter four discusses reason and examples (hētu-dṛṣṭāna), chapter five deals apoha and chapter six deals with analogy (jāti).

This work exists in two Tibetan translations. The Sanskrit text was initially thought to be lost by modern scholars, but then a manuscript of the commentary by Jinendrabuddhi was discovered. Modern scholars are currently working to extract and reconstruct the Sanskrit text of the Pramāṇasamuccaya from the commentary in which it is embedded.

List of other known works
His other surviving works on reasoning and epistemology include: He also wrote other works of a more religious or scriptural nature:
 * Alambana-parīkṣā (Examination of the Object of Cognition, Derge Kanjur no. 4205) and its auto commentary (Ālambanaparīkṣāvṛtti). This work seeks to prove that ālambanas, the objects of perception, are not real and that consciousness alone is real.
 * Hetucakraḍamaru (The Reason Wheel Drum), considered his first work on formal logic. It may be regarded as a bridge between the older doctrine of trairūpya and Dignāga's own later theory of vyapti which is a concept related to the Western notion of implication.
 * *Hetvābhāsamukha (Introduction to Fallacious Reasoning)
 * Nyāya-mukha (Introduction to Logic), Taisho no. 1628 translated by Xuanzang and T. 1629 by Yijing
 * *Sāmānyalakṣaṇaparīkṣā (Examination of General Characteristics), i.e. Guanzongxiang lun (觀總相論)
 * Trikāla-parikṣa (Examination of tri-temporality)
 * *Upādāyaprajñaptiprakaraṇa or *Prajñaptihetusaṃgrahaśāstra (only available in Chinese as Qushishishe lun 取事施設論)

There are also several works said to be by Dignaga that are now lost:
 * Samantabhadracaryāpraṇidhānārthasaṃgraha (Derge Kanjur no. 4012) - a commentary on the Samantabhadracaryāpraṇidhāna, part of the Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra.
 * Abhidharmakośamarmapradīpa (Derge no. 4095) – a condensed summary of Vasubandhu's seminal work the Abhidharmakośa
 * Āryamañjughoṣastotra (Tibetan: Ḥphags-pa ḥjam-paḥi-dbyans-kyibstod-pa, Derge no. 2712)
 * Prajñāpāramitāpiṇḍārtha (Summary of the Perfection of Wisdom, Derge 3809) - a summary of the Mahayana Aṣṭasāhasrikaprajñāpāramitā, survives in Tibetan and Sanskrit.
 * Guṇaparyantastotraṭīkā (Tibetan: Yon-tam mthaḥ-yas-par bstod-paḥi ḥgrelpa, Derge no. 1156) - a commentary on the Guṇaparyantastotra of Ratnadāsa
 * Miśraka-stotra (Mixed Hymn, Tibetan: Spel-mar bstod-pa shes-bya-ba, Derge no. 1150), it has also been ascribed to a different author: Mātṛceṭa
 * Yogāvatāra (Introduction to Yoga, Tibetan: Rnal-ḥbyor-la ḥjug-pa, Derge no. 4074) - a work on yoga from the perspective of mind-only
 * Hastavālaprakaraṇa (Derge no. 3844 and 3848) it has been wrongly ascribed to Āryadeva;

 * Dvādaśaśatikā
 * *Vaiśeṣikaparīkṣā (Examination of Vaiśeṣika)
 * Vādavidhānaṭīkā - Commentary on Vasubandhu's Vādavidhi
 * Nyāyaparīkṣā (Examination of Logic)
 * *Sāṅkhyaparīkṣā (Examination of Samkhya)
 * Hetumukha (Introduction to Reasoning)
 * Sāmānyaparīkṣā (Examination of Generality), either lost or the same as *Sāmānyalakṣaṇaparīkṣā

Tradition and influence
Dignāga founded a tradition of Buddhist epistemology and reasoning, and this school is sometimes called the "School of Dignāga" or "The school of Dinnāga and Dharmakīrti" (due to the strong influence of Dharmakīrti as well). In Tibetan it is often called "those who follow reasoning" (Tibetan: rigs pa rjes su ‘brang ba); in modern literature it is sometimes known by the Sanskrit 'pramāṇavāda', often translated as "the Epistemological School." Many of the figures in these were commentators on the works of Dinnāga and Dharmakīrti, but some of them also wrote original works and developed the tradition in new directions.

The work of this tradition also went on to influence the Buddhist Madhyamaka school, through the work of figures like Bhāvaviveka (c. 500), Jñanagarbha (700-760), and Śāntarakṣita (725–788). These thinkers attempted to adopt the logical and epistemological insights of Dinnāga and Dharmakīrti to defend the tenets of the Madhyamaka school.

Dignāga's tradition of logic and epistemology continued in Tibet, where it was expanded by thinkers such as Cha-ba (1182–1251) and Sakya Pandita (1182–1251).

Dignāga also influenced non-Buddhist Sanskrit thinkers. According to Lawrence J. McCrea, and Parimal G. Patil, Dignāga set in motion an "epistemic turn" in Indian philosophy. After Dignāga, most Indian philosophers were now expected to defend their views by using a fully developed epistemological theory (which they also had to defend).

title: Dignāga


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Abo-Basha

Abo-Basha

 * Personal family page, nothing notable, no links leading to it -- Night Gyr 06:45, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Oh yawn. There are infinity non-notable backstreet disk-jockeys. Anthony Appleyard 09:03, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Del This doesn't belong here, it's a personal webpage at best
 * Delete. Doesn't belong here. utcursch 10:50, Dec 15, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable. --Spangineer 16:09, Dec 15, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, vanity data dump. Wyss 19:09, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete --fvw *  19:50, 2004 Dec 16 (UTC)
 * vanity Delete Carole a 18:28, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center

University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center (UH Cleveland Medical Center) is a large not-for-profit academic medical complex in Cleveland, Ohio, United States. University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center is an affiliate hospital of Case Western Reserve University and Northeast Ohio Medical University.

UH Cleveland Medical Center is the main campus of University Hospitals. With 150 locations throughout the Cleveland metropolitan area, the University Hospitals health system encompasses hospitals, outpatient centers, and primary care clinics.

UH Cleveland Medical Center is home to world-class clinical and research centers, including cancer care, pediatrics, women's health, orthopedics, spine care, radiology, radiation oncology, neurosurgery, neurology, psychiatry, cardiology, cardiovascular surgery, organ transplantation, and human genetics.

Locations
The main campus of the University Hospitals system is UH Cleveland Medical Center in the University Circle neighborhood of Cleveland, neighboring both Case Western Reserve University and the Cleveland Clinic to the west. The UH Cleveland Medical Center complex comprises the Alfred and Norma Lerner Tower, Samuel Mather Pavilion, Lakeside Hospital, Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, MacDonald Women's Hospital, Seidman Cancer Center, and Hanna Pavilion. In addition to the main campus, UH provides hospital services at 11 regional locations throughout Northeast Ohio.

Main Campus
 * UH Cleveland Medical Center ("Lakeside", "Bolwell", "Humphrey", "Mather")
 * UH Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital ("Rainbow")
 * UH Seidman Cancer Center ("Seidman")
 * UH MacDonald Women's Hospital ("MacDonald")

Regional Hospitals
 * UH Ahuja Medical Center - Beachwood
 * UH Beachwood Medical Center - Beachwood (former Lake Health)
 * UH Bedford Medical Center - Bedford
 * UH Conneaut Medical Center - Conneaut
 * UH Elyria Medical Center - Elyria
 * UH Geauga Medical Center - Chardon
 * UH Geneva Medical Center - Geneva
 * UH Lake West Medical Center - Willoughby (former Lake Health)
 * UH Parma Medical Center - Parma
 * UH Portage Medical Center - Ravenna
 * UH Samaritan Medical Center - Ashland
 * UH St. John Medical Center - Westlake

On April 16, 2021, University Hospitals acquired nearby Lake Health, which operated 10+ facilities.

Former Hospitals

 * Crile General Hospital - Cleveland (changed affiliation to VA)
 * Lakeside Hospital - Cleveland
 * UH St. Michael Hospital - Cleveland
 * UH Marymount Hospital - Garfield Heights (changed affiliation and merged with Cleveland Clinic)
 * UH Richmond Medical Center - Richmond Heights, where inpatient psychiatry was previously housed

Rankings

 * UH Cleveland Medical Center is ranked in the top 25 nationally in Ear, Nose & Throat; Gastroenterology & GI Surgery, Gynecology; Nephrology; and Neurology & Neurosurgery.
 * Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, is ranked #6 nationally for Neonatal Care by the U.S. News & World Report.
 * Among UH Rainbow pediatric specialties, Neonatology, Pulmonology, Diabetes & Endocrinology, Orthopedics, Cancer, and Urology are ranked among the top 25 in the nation.
 * Cleveland Medical Center and Case School of Medicine together form the largest biomedical research center in Ohio.
 * In biomedical research, Case Medical Center ranks among top 15 centers in the United States with approximately $75 million in annual extramural research funding and a further $20 million in various clinical trials.
 * University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center also includes MacDonald Women's Hospital, Ohio's only hospital for women; and Seidman Cancer Center (formerly known as Ireland Cancer Center).

Vision 2010
Vision 2010 was the largest construction and upgrade project in the history of University Hospitals. New construction included a new 200-bed cancer hospital (UH Seidman Cancer Center), upgraded emergency room facilities at CMC, a new neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) at Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, and new construction at other hospital sites. The capital expenditure for this project, according to hospital press releases, was to be approximately US$1 billion. Construction was originally due to be completed by the year 2010, but was not scheduled completed until 2011.

Harrington Project
The Harrington Project for Discovery & Development, launched in 2012, is a $300 million initiative at the University Hospitals whose purpose is to speed the delivery of new drugs and enhance the medical reputations of Cleveland and the Hospitals. It was established through a $50 million gift from the Harrington family and an additional $100 million in support from University Hospitals. The project has three components, the Harrington Discovery Institute (HDI), the Innovation Support Center (ISC), and Biomotiv.

In June 2014, the Harrington Discovery Institute received a $25 million grant from the State of Ohio through the Third Frontier economic development program to further its mission.

Notable alumni and faculty

 * George Washington Crile (1910-1924 Chair of Surgery) - Performed first blood transfusion. Established Lakeside Hospital, and later co-founded Cleveland Clinic
 * Claude Beck (Surgery residency alum; 1924 -1971 Professor of Cardiovascular Surgery - first such position in US)
 * Performed first surgical treatment of coronary artery disease (1935).
 * Performed first defibrillation using machine he built with James Rand (1947)
 * Developed concept of Beck's Triad
 * Started the first CPR teaching course for medical professionals (1950).
 * Peter C. Agre (1978 Internal Medicine alumnus) - co-recipient 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discoveries that have clarified how salts and water are transported out of and into the cells of the body, leading to a better understanding of many diseases of the kidneys, heart, muscles and nervous system.
 * Alfredo Palacio (Internal Medicine alumnus) - President of Ecuador (2005–2007)
 * Peter Pronovost - intensive care physician known globally for his work on patient safety
 * Sanjay Rajagopalan - Division Chief of Cardiovascular Medicine

In popular culture

 * In 2015, the cable network NatGeo broadcast Brain Surgery Live from UH Cleveland Medical Center, the first brain surgery ever televised live in the United States.
 * In 2017, Roger Daltrey of The Who visited cancer patients at the Angie Fowler Adolescent and Young Adult Cancer Institute at UH Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, part of University Hospitals.
 * In 2018, the nationally syndicated program The Doctors featured an in-utero cardiac procedure performed at University Hospitals.

Controversy
University Hospitals faced multiple lawsuits following an incident in March 2018 at its Fertility Center that compromised 4,000+ eggs and embryos stored in liquid nitrogen as the result of an unexpected temperature fluctuation with a tissue cryo storage tank.

In 2021, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, University Hospitals required all workers to be vaccinated against the disease. It later permitted its careworkers to be unvaccinated against COVID due to a federal injunction. The mandate was reinstated following a Supreme Court ruling.


text:
Dean College

Dean College is a private college in Franklin, Massachusetts. It offers bachelor's degrees, associate degrees, and certificates.

History
Dean College was founded by Oliver Dean as a co-educational academy, Dean Academy, in 1865. He gave the school approximately nine acres of land and donated $125,000 towards its construction. The first class at Dean Academy was on October 1, 1866, with 44 students attending at the local Universalist Church.

The main building of the Academy, Dean Hall, was completed in 1868. During the summer of 1872, it was destroyed by a fire, but reconstruction began and finished on June 7, 1874.

The school's name changed twice more, Dean Junior College in May 1941 and then Dean College in May 1994. The school's academic mascot is a bulldog named Boomer.

Campus
The 100 acre campus includes Dean Hall, the college's oldest structure which houses classrooms, radio station Power 88 WGAO, offices, athletics offices, basketball/volleyball gymnasium, the Center for Student Administrative Services (CSAS), Campus Safety, video production studios/classrooms, the president's office and board room, and two floors of student residences.In 2011, Dean College unveiled a new campus center.

Dean has completed over $60 million in campus improvements over the past 10 years, including Dorothy and Glendon Horne '31 Hall, Green Family Library Learning Commons, Morton Family Learning Center, athletic field updates (press box, scoreboards, dugouts), Grant Field renovation, and the Rooney Shaw Center for Innovation in Teaching.

There are 13 different residence halls on campus, including furnished condominiums in downtown Franklin, suite-style living, all-female residence halls, all-male residence halls and co-ed residence halls.

Dean College offers bachelor's degree and associate degree programs within four schools: School of the Arts, Dean R. Sanders '47 School of Business, Joan Phelps Palladino School of Dance, and School of Liberal Arts. Dean also offers part-time continuing studies options to serve students who wish to pursue their education on a part-time basis. Part-time students may also enroll in certificate programs.

Athletics
The school has 16 athletic teams, known as Bulldogs. They participate in Division III of the NCAA in the following sports: • Baseball

• Men's Basketball

• Women's Basketball

• Men's Cross Country

• Women's Cross Country

• Women's Field Hockey

• Football

• Men's Golf

• Women's Golf

• Men's Lacrosse

• Women's Lacrosse

• Men's Soccer

• Women's Soccer

• Softball

• Men's Volleyball

• Women's Volleyball

Upon transition into the NCAA, they accepted membership for all sports into the Great Northeast Athletic Conference except for football.

They accepted membership into the Eastern Collegiate Football Conference. Dean College students also participate in intramural sports.

Notable alumni

 * Richard Belzer, actor, stand-up comedian, and author
 * Broderick Crawford, Academy Award-winning actor
 * Jack Cronin, professional football player
 * Greg Dickerson, sportscaster
 * Zachary Dixon, professional football player
 * Sage Francis, hip hop recording artist and spoken word poet
 * Eddie Grant, lawyer, professional baseball player, U.S. soldier during World War I, and namesake of Grant Field at Dean College
 * William D. Green, business executive
 * Walt Handelsman, editorial cartoonist
 * Gabby Hartnett, professional baseball player
 * Doc Hazelton, professional baseball player and college coach
 * Eric Holtz, basketball coach
 * James Gordon Irving, natural-history illustrator
 * Emilie Baker Loring, romance novelist
 * Andrae Murphy, American football player and coach
 * Kodo Nishimura, Japanese Buddhist monk, and makeup artist
 * Baran Süzer, Turkish businessman
 * Thomas Paolino, politician
 * Lucky Whitehead, professional football player
 * Francis H. Woodward, politician
 * Maury Youmans, professional football player
 * Joe Swan, Guitarist

title: Dean College


text: Talk:Minsk Voivodeship

title: Talk:Minsk Voivodeship


text:
Talk:Mstsislaw Voivodeship

Gloger, Geografia historyczna
Zygmunt Gloger, Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski. W tekście 63 autentycznych rycin, Kraków 1903

Województwo Mścisławskie.

Mścisław (Mscislavia) nad rzeką Wiechrą, wpadającą do niedalekiej Soży, założony został prawdopodobnie pod koniec wieku XII, a nazwany tak od Mścisława Romanowicza z linii smoleńskiej, którego był dzielnicą. Odtąd, wydzierany sobie nawzajem przez rozmaitych książąt, dostał się nareszcie w wieku XIV pod panowanie Litwy i za Olgierda był udzielnem jej księstwem hołdowniczem, w którem panował trzeci syn Olgierda, Langwenis, po chrzcie Symonem nazwany. Dom tych książąt na Mścisławiu dotrwał do czasów Zygmunta I, ale już w roku 1538 rządził księstwem „starosta”. Zwykłą koleją rzeczy „starosta” został przemianowany na wojewodę, a księstwo na województwo, co nastąpiło za Zygmunta Augusta. Pierwszym zaś wojewodą mścisławskim był Jerzy Ościk, herbu trąby. Drugim senatorem krzesłowym tego województwa był kasztelan mścisławski. Województwo nie było podzielone na powiaty, sejmikowało w Mścisławiu, gdzie obierano dwóch posłów na sejm i dwóch deputatów na trybunał. Starostwo grodowe było mścisławskie i sądy ziemskie w Mścisławiu. Województwo Mścisławskie graniczyło na północ z Witebszczyzną i Smoleńszczyzną, na wschód także ze Smoleńszczyzną i innemi ziemiami carstwa (Suraż, Starodub). W dalszym ciągu od południa leżał powiat Rzeczycki województwa Mińskiego, a od wschodu rozdzielała te dwa województwa wpadająca do Dniepru rzeka Druć. Herbem województwa była Pogoń litewska w polu czerwonem na chorągwi żółtej. Mundurem zaś wojewódzkim: kontusz granatowy, wyłogi niebieskie i żupan koloru słomianego, pomimo, że województwo to w roku 1772 przestało istnieć, jako przyłączone do Rosyi w czasie pierwszego rozbioru.

title: Talk:Mstsislaw Voivodeship


text:
Talk:Molecular genetics

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 24 August 2020 and 11 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Imahoney26. Peer reviewers: Cmbio401.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 01:10, 18 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Creason.e.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 04:23, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
please read what's been added and correct anything that needs to be corrected. Kccccc 03:45, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

how to find out a gene for certain genetic disorder.

 * Geez, try OMIM. JFW | T@lk  20:02, 27 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Artificial Intelligence

Isn't there an AI project called MOLGEN that has something to do with mollecular genetics? If so, perhhaps there should be a reference or something? Rorykillhorn 13:04, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

instructor comment
"Molecular genetics studies the genes, which compose DNA, and the hereditary traits the genes carry. These hereditary traits are those traits that pass from generation to generation." This addition only repeats information contained in the first sentence of the original article.

Second paragraph in lead, which you added, does add new information.

Gene therapy: This is the topic of an extensive article in Wikipedia. Wny no reference to it? Your information is different from that provided by that article and a useful supplement, but these topics must be coordinated.

"Many severe medical conditions result in mutations in the person's genes." result in means the opposite of result from. Which do you intend?

"These mutations cause the protien encoded by that gene to malfunction and cells that rely on this protein cannot function properly and cause problems for the whole tissue or organ." Sentence contains spelling and grammatical errors. A spell check in Wikipedia editing window underlines spelling errors in red.

"explore the process of the gene" meaning? "From there," from where? "There are several approaches to gene therapy:..." You follow this with a long quote that lays out the approaches. The quote should not do your work of exposition. A quote is used to present specific wording of the source when that is necessary or to support a point that you have made with textual evidence. Otherwise, you should paraphrase, demonstrating your own comprehension and re-expression of the material. "There have been several set backs in the last 15 years that have restricted further measures on gene therapy. As there are unsuccessful attempts, there continues to be a growing number of successful gene therapy transfers which has furthered the research." Reading this aloud should surface grammatical error, echo, and excessive use of the stylistically weak variants of "there is" "there are." The last sentence in this section is out of logical sequence.

"is the approach which" words without meaning

"Classical gene therapies usually require efficient transfer of cloned genes into the disease cells to the introduced genes are expressed at high levels." read this

"The size of the DNA fragments that can be transferred are very limited," read this

three general techniques"--why "general"?

More "there are"s

"Projects in Molecular Genetics" Only one project is included.

I assume that you understand all the material presented here. It's hard for me to follow some of the descriptions of techniques, but they appear to make sense.

Not dealing with the Gene Therapy article is a serious problem. Otherwise, this can be cleaned up with the edits suggested.

C-

Rudolph2007 16:19, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

Molecular Drive
Is anyone familiar with this concept? It was first promoted by Dover in [Nature] which is not from what I understand a nonsensical journal. This article in Nature "Cryptic simplicity in DNA is a major source of genetic variation" Nature 322, 652 - 656 (14 Aug 1986), Diethard Tautz, Martin Trick, Gabriel A. Dover, refers to it and has four endnotes citing supporting works. See this one, too. It seems to have to so with the way gene conversion, transposition, and unequal crossing over, that all have the same effect, an increase in a gene's frequency within an individual, and explain concerted evolution, independent of drift or natural selection ... I think it also is connected to evo-devo. I do not know enough about it to add anything to this article, but from what I have read it seems relevant and perhaps someone else can address it? Slrubenstein  |  Talk 16:25, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

According to this article, molecular genetics "studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level." But this article seems to have more information on the manipulation of genes than on what the study of the the structure and function of genes at the molecular level has revealed to us about embryology, genetics, or evolution. Can't someone add to this article some of the science, and not just th techniques? Slrubenstein  |  Talk 16:28, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 00:19, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Molecular genetics. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20051012104453/http://www.infobiogen.fr/services/chromcancer/dblinks.html to http://www.infobiogen.fr/services/chromcancer/dblinks.html

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Evaluation of Molecular Genetics - Fall 2019
Molecular Genetics https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics

I have selected this article because it is an area of interest in my graduate program and I am currently taking a class on molecular genetics.

Lead evaluation The lead section’s introductory sentence links two concepts, “molecular biology and genetics,” in hopes of providing an explanation of the field of molecular genetics. The citation source used for that introduction actually has an excellent description of molecular genetics as an ‘investigative approach” that was excluded from the lead section and should be included. The lead section has a contents box to present the article’s individual sections, but doesn’t actually describe the sections. The closing sentence of the lead section delineates the relevance and importance of the study of molecular genetics. Overall, the lead section is very concise, but missing relevant information to clearly explain the study of molecular genetics.

Content evaluation The content may be relevant to the topic, but it comes across as disjointed and incomplete. Particularly in the Technique section, the overarching goal and the rationale for using the individual techniques is not stated. There are techniques missing like RNAi, which is mentioned, but not explained, in a later section on genetic screens that should be included in that section. Gene therapy is quickly summarized in a section but does not discuss the ethics or limitations. Then, there is a section on the Human Genome Project that lists the goals of the project, but not how the information gleaned from that project is being used today.

Tone and balance evaluation While the article trends towards neutrality and doesn’t try to persuade the reader one way or the other, the lack of discussion about the ethics and limitations of gene therapy makes the article biased in favor of gene therapy as an “appealing” and successful technique. One should note that the article does state that gene therapy is “still in development” and “mostly used in research settings”, which also might lead a reader to question the reasons that gene therapy is not widely available to the public.

Sources and references evaluation Some of the facts in the article are backed up by reliable secondary sources, but some article content is missing citations. Within the present citations, two of the sources do not have a working link (6, & 14), one source appears to be the protocol from a Qiagen kit (5), and one appears to be summary notes that one might be given in class and has no source (7). One of the citations references a source that provides an excellent definition of the study of molecular genetics, which should have been used in the lead sentence and was not included (1). That same source then focuses on a philosophical discussion of the concept of molecular genetics for the duration of the article and the discussion is not included in the Wikipedia article. The sources may have been current at the time of the original article production, and although a great deal of research has been conducted since, there is currently a dearth of secondary and tertiary sources that would be valuable in improving this article. However, a summary article on NCBI, “Molecular genetics made simple,” would be a great reference (Kassem et al., 2012). Organization evaluation The article is concise and does seem to utilize verbiage that is comprehensible to the average individual. There are no spelling issues, but multiple grammatical errors are present (e.g. patients should be patient’s). Although multiple sections exist that should be included, the order of the sections might be improved.

Images and media evaluation No images are included in the article to provide pictorial examples of content that might aid comprehension.

Talk page evaluation After the initial comments by the instructor to the student originally writing the article in 2007, there is very little talk about the article and very few edits. Molecular genetics has been rated a C-class article because it requires cleanup in the form of more citations, as well as additional content material. The topic falls under the WikiProject Molecular and Cell Biology/Genetics and has been given top priority for elaboration and improvement. The article discusses some topics covered in our class, like forward and reverse genetic screens as well as techniques used in the laboratory (e.g. molecular cloning, sequence analysis, and RNAi).

Overall evaluation The article’s strength is that it provides a platform for further dissemination of information about the topic. Unfortunately, “this article needs additional citations for verification” and the paragraph on gene therapy should be re-written in the author’s own words (8). This underdeveloped article on molecular genetics could be improved by including more content, with relevant pictures, in a thoughtfully organized manner with relevant citations.

My question: How is molecular genetics an investigative approach to heredity? Johannakhb (talk) 16:10, 10 September 2019 (UTC) Johannakhb

Wiki Education assignment: Molecular Genetics
— Assignment last updated by BurgulaNiharika (talk) 23:01, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Molecular Genetics
— Assignment last updated by Jellyfish829 (talk) 11:29, 13 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Molecular genetics