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Lakandula

Lakandula (Baybayin:, Spanish orthography: Lacandola) was the title of the last lakan or paramount ruler of pre-colonial Tondo when the Spaniards first conquered the lands of the Pasig River delta in the Philippines in the 1570s.

The firsthand account of Spanish Royal Notary Hernando Riquel says that he introduced himself to the Spanish as "Sibunao Lacandola". While his given name has since been interpreted as being "Bunao", the historic meaning of the word Lakan, was a title equivalent to prince or paramount ruler, meaning he was the principal Datu or Prince of his domain.

Along with Rajah Matanda and Rajah Sulayman, Lakan Bunao Dula (or Lakan of Tondo), was one of three rulers who played significant roles in the Spanish conquest of the Pasig River delta polities during the earliest days of the Philippines' Spanish colonial period.

While it is questionable whether "Lakandula" represented a single titular name during his own lifetime, a few of his descendants in the first few generations after his death came to refer to themselves as the "Lakandula of Tondo", taking that name on as a noble title.

Name and title
Over time, the Lakandula's name has come to be written in several ways. However, according to the firsthand account written in Spanish by Hernando Riquel, the royal notary who accompanied Miguel López de Legazpi, the Lord of Tondo specifically identified himself as "Sibunao Lacandola, lord of the town of Tondo" when he boarded Legazpi's ship with the lords of Manila on May 18, 1571. According to Riquel, the lords of Manila introduced themselves as "Rajah Ache the Old and Rajah Soliman the Young, lords and principals of the town of Manila"

In page 13 of "Cracks in the Parchment Curtain", preeminent historian William Henry Scott quotes Riquel's original text, which he found in the Spanish archives under "Archivo General de Indias Seccion Patronato leg. 24, no 24." The relevant part of the text read: "...declaracion llamarse Raha Ache el Viejo y Raha Solimane el Mozo, senores y principales del pueblo de Manila, y Sibunao Lacandola, principal del pueblo de Tondo...(emphasis added)"

Modern historians routinely remove the Filipino word "si", a grammatical article that precede personal names, from recorded names during this era because Spanish writers had not yet learned the local languages and often mistakenly included "si-" in Filipino names. Sibunao thus should be interpreted as "[Ako] si Bunao" = "[I am] Bunao". Historians thus take this to mean that the Lakan introduced himself as "Bunao Lakandula." At the time, Lakandula was assumed to be a regnal name, but as noted below, it was actually his title.

Etymology of "Lakandula"
His title "Lakan" denoted a "paramount ruler" (or more specifically, "paramount datu") of one of the large coastal settlements (known as a "bayan" or "large barangay") of the Tagalog people.

In its current Tagalog form, means "gentleman."

Another common variation of the name is Gat Dula (alternatively spelled as a single word, Gatdula). Historically, the prefix Gat, a shortened version of the Tagalog honorific "Pamagat", meant "nobleman." Hence, Gatdula would literally read "Nobleman of the Palace", meaning essentially the same thing as the Kapampangan version, Lakandula.

This leaves the matter of the addendum "dula" to be settled. While this could not have been a family name such as Filipinos use today, this may not be a satisfactory explanation, since static family names were introduced to the Filipino culture much later, by a decree issued by Governor General Narciso Clavería y Zaldúa on November 11, 1849. Alternatively, rather than a surname per-se, Dula may have referred to a family group or clan, but there does not neem to be any historical evidence to support this postulation. Historian Jose N. Sevilla y Tolentino, theorized that "Dula" was not a personal name at all, but a local word that meant something akin to "Palace." While he may not have ruled from a literal palace, this would have indicated the Lakan's seat of power. As such, the "Lakandula" would have been the local-language title for the "Lord of the Palace" and ruler of Tondo. Analogously, contemporary Rajah Ache was referred to as Rajah Matanda (Old Rajah), while Rajah Sulayman was sometimes referred to as Rajah Muda or Rajamora (Young Rajah).

Historians such as Dery and Scott explain that his given name was Banaw, but they also continue to refer to him by his title, Lakandula or "the" Lakandula. On the other hand, Joaquin explains that the Lakan's given name was Banaw, and proceeds to call him Lakan Dula (separate words) or "the" Lakan Dula throughout his "Manila, My Manila" manuscript. In any case, many contemporary historians continue to ignore the fact that Lakandula was a title, and refer to the last Lakan of Dula (or Lakan of Tondo) as "Lakandula" as if it had been his name. All things considered, the most accurate way to style the historical person's name and title would be "Bunau, Lakan Dula" or "the Lakan of Tondo."

"Lakan" instead of "Rajah"
While he has been erroneously referred to as Rajah Lakandula, the terms "Rajah" and "Lakan" actually have practically the same meaning. In Tondo, the native Lakan title was used, making the use of both "Rajah" and "Lakandula" at the same time both redundant and erroneous. and Filipino historian and national artist for literature Nick Joaquin takes pains to point out that the term Lakan, not Rajah, was used by the rulers of Tondo.

Life before the arrival of the Spanish
Little is known about the early life of Banaw, Lakan Dula, before the arrival of Legazpi. According to National Artist Nick Joaquin "he is presumed to be of native birth," with mixed Sinaunang Tagalog (Dumagat) and Kapampangan ancestry. Joaquin adds that "He was said to be a descendant of King Balagtas."

Joaquin further speculates on the Lakan Dula's religious beliefs: "'Tondo's Lakan Dula may have been unusual in being neither foreign nor Muslim. This was indicated by his use of the native term Lakan instead of the foreign [Muslim] title Rajah. Lakan dula can be presumed . . . to have been reared in the anito cults. One guess is that he converted to Islam, then changed his mind and returned to his native faith.'"

Joaquin also expounds on the economic context of the Lakan Dula's reign over Tondo: "'Tondo had replaced Namayan as the chief port of entry on Manila Bay. Tondo was right on the seaside. This was the advantage it had over Namayan, which was upriver inland. So the merchant ships that came into the bay preferred to unload their goods at the port of Tondo. And now it was the king of Tondo who was responsible for sending the merchandise upriver to the lakeside communities, there to be traded for local products. Tondo was thus the distributing center, or entrepot, on the delta... At the time of [the last] Lakan Dula [in the 1570s], Tondo was at the height of its career as an entrepot….'"

According to Scott (1982), when ships from China arrived at Manila Bay, the Lakan Dula would remove the sails and rudders of their ships until they paid him duties and anchorage fees, and then he would then buy up all their goods himself, paying half its value immediately and then paying the other half upon their return the following year. In the interim, he would trade these goods with peoples further upstream, the end result being that other locals were not able to buy anything from the Chinese directly, but only through the Lakan Dula, who made a considerable profit as a result.

William Henry Scott notes that Augustinian Fray Martin de Rada Legaspi reported that the Tagalogs were "more traders than warriors", and elsewhere notes that Maynila's ships got their goods from Tondo and then dominated trade through the rest of the archipelago. People in other parts of the archipelago often referred to Maynila's boats as "Chinese" (Sina or Sinina) because they came bearing Chinese goods.

Arrival of Legazpi, May 1571
When Miguel Lopez de Legazpi arrived at Manila Bay in May 1571, the Lakan Dula was there to meet him. The two first met on May 17, the day after Legazpi's arrival on the bay, when Rajah Matanda and Lakan Dula boarded Legazpi's ship to discuss terms with him. Part of these discussions specified that the Spanish would not land in Tondo, and would instead land in Manila, which had been burned to the ground the year before. Joaquin suggests that Lakan Dula would "have seen that Legaspi was being practical. Burned down and emptied, Maynila would be a better spot to fortify, being more strategic." In fact, Manila wasn't conquered, but it was occupied through a peace pact that joined Legazpi and the three kings: the Lakan Dula, the (older) Rajah Ache and the (younger) Rajah Sulayman.

On May 18, 1571, the native nobility from the House of Dula of the Lakanate of Tondo -- Rajah Sulayman, Rajah Matanda, and Lakan Dula -- acknowledged the sovereignty of Spain over the islands and proclaimed themselves to be vassals of Spain. On the following day, May 19, Legazpi landed in Manila and took ceremonial possession of the land in the presence of Soliman, Matanda, and Lakan Dula.

Lakan Dula helped establish a house for Legazpi and build a fort for the Spanish, giving them fourteen pieces of artillery and twelve jars of gunpowder, a gift much appreciated by the Spanish, who were running low on ammunition.

Soon after, the Lakan Dula and his sons were baptized as Catholics. Bunao Lakan Dula took on the name "Don Carlos Lacandola" after Charles I of Spain. To celebrate the event, the Spanish discharged Manila's artillery and arquebuses as part of the ceremony.

The Battle of Bangkusay, June 1571
When the Spaniards first came to Manila they were kindly accepted, but over time the natives understood that it had meant subservience to them. It wasn't long before Spanish power in Luzon was challenged. A first battle took place on May 24, 1570, where the natives were defeated. A month later, Tarik Sulayman of Macabebe attacked Manila, convincing Rajah Sulayman to join the battle against Legazpi. Macabebe and Sulayman's forces were defeated, and the Datu of Macabebe was killed in what history would record as the Battle of Bangkusay Channel. (The similarity of names has caused some confusion between these two leaders, but Tarik Sulayman and Rajah Sulayman were different individuals – one survived the battle, and the other did not.)

Lakandula had refused to join Macabebe and Sulayman's coalition, but among the prisoners taken by the Spanish after the battle were two of his nephews and a number of his officers. When questioned, they said that they had been on the scene only as observers, not as combatants. Legazpi let them go to demonstrate his confidence in Lakandula.

Joaquin notes that this was a wise choice on Legaspi's part: "'If he had been playing a double game before, Lakan Dula now became earnest in supporting the Spanish. It may be he who persuaded the fugitive Soliman to surrender and return to the good graces of Legazpi.'"

Expedition to Pampanga and Bulacan, late 1571
Later that year, Legaspi sent Martin de Goiti to spread Spanish rule to the peoples of what are now the provinces of Bulacan and Pampanga, particularly the territories of Lubao with Macabebe, Guagua on September 14, 1571. One month later they conquered Calumpit and Malolos in November 14 of the same year. Legazpi conceded these settlements under Spanish rule. He sent Lakandula and Sulayman with him, because, as one account has it, "if so great a chief should go with him, when the Tagalogs and Pampangos saw that he had given obedience to His Majesty, they would give it also."

The account continues: "'Lacandola agreed to go, and served with two ships provided at his cost, and distinguished himself by performing much service for His Majesty, and went along so the said Pampangos would give him obedience, as in fact they did.'"

These boats were joangas (karakoa), a type of seacraft capable of carrying 300 men each, which, as Dery points out, were common in Maritime Southeast Asia.

Attack by Limahong, 1574
Lakandula's close association with the Spanish continued despite Legaspi's death on August 20, 1572, and his replacement as governor by Guido de Lavezares, who had been the colony's treasurer. The possession of the Islands was unsuccessfully disputed by a rival expedition under the command of Limahong, a Chinese pirate, who had been outlawed by the Celestial Emperor of China. Lakandula was on hand to help repel Limahong when he came to try and sack Manila in 1574. Lakandula was able to raise a rebellion against the Spaniards. The natives of Mindoro Island revolted too but all these disorders were solved by a detachment of soldiers.

Death
Mentions of Lakandula's death are few, but Scott indicates that he died in 1575, "three years after" Legazpi and Rajah Matanda, who both died in 1572.

Lakandula's role as ruler of Tondo was then taken up by his grandnephew, and Rajah Soliman's adopted son, Agustin de Legazpi.

Agustin de Legazpi, who was married to the cousin of Sultan Bolkiah, would lead Tondo as a territory under Spanish rule until he rose up against them in 1587–1588 Revolt of the Lakans, and was deposed and killed as a result.

According to Fray Gaspar de San Agustin in "Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas 1565–1615", as cited by Kimuell-Gabriel (2013), Lakandula had ruled Tondo from an elevated site near Manila bay, facing the shore and fronted by fishermen's dwellings. According to local oral histories, this site eventually became the site of the Sto Niño of Tondo Parish church.

Documentary sources
Primary documentary sources about Lakandula are sparse, so much so that there has been debate about the actual name of the Lakan. Dery identifies three types of sources regarding Lakandula:
 * direct accounts of Legaspi's 1571 conquest, and indirect references from other documents of the period;
 * a record group in the Philippine National Archives collectively referred to as the "Lacandola Documents" containing mostly 18th-century genealogical documents; and
 * folklore, which "suggests prior lineage where documentation definitively identifies only descendants".

Direct accounts and references from period documents
In his "Bibliographic Essay" at the end of his book "Barangay:Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society", William Henry Scott identifies the three accounts directly detailing the events of Lakandula's lifetime:
 * An account written by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi himself;
 * An account by royal notary Hernando Riquel who was part of Legazpi's expedition; and
 * a third account which is anonymous, but which Scott suggests is probably written by royal notary Hernando Riquel.

Scott singles this third account out as particularly useful, because it includes careful observations of the islands and people contacted.

Scott also identifies other accounts that don't directly refer to that occasion, but provide additional information about conditions at the time. These include two accounts of the Magellan voyage, reports from the attacks on Borneo in 1578–79, letters to the king from royal auditor Melchor de Avalos, Reports by later Governors General, passing details in sworn testimony about Augustinian activities (the latter two recorded in Blair and Robertson), Correspondence of Augustinian Fray Martin de Rada, the Relacion accounts of Miguel de Loarca and Juan de Plasencia, and the Boxer Codex, which "can be dated to 1590 on internal evidence."

Children
Lakan Dula was the head of the House of Dula and the most prolific of Luzon's ancient rulers. His descendants are spread out all across the Kapampangan Region during the Spanish colonial era. Genealogical research by Filipino historian Luciano P.R. Santiago indicate that Lakan Dula fathered at least five children:
 * Batang Dula, the eldest son of Lakan Bunao Dula;
 * Don Dionisio Capulong, the Datu of Candaba;
 * Don Magat Salamat, who would later rule Tondo with his cousin Agustin de Legazpi after Lakandula died, and who was then executed by the Spanish in 1588 for his role in the Revolt of the Lakans;
 * Don Felipe Salonga, the Datu of Pulu;
 * Doña Maria Poloin, his only historically recorded daughter, who married Don Juan Alonso Talabos; and
 * Don Martin Lakandula who entered the Augustinian Order as a lay brother in 1590.

Other documentary sources also mention a "Don Luis Taclocmao" (or "Salugmoc"), a supposed son Lakandula of who was killed in the 1603 Chinese rebellion, fighting the Chinese rebels.

Other relations
Local folk legends recount that Mexico-born conquistador Juan de Salcedo fell in love with an 18-year-old noblewoman called "Dayang-dayang Kandarapa", who was said to be the niece of Lakandula.

Later descendants
In 1990, Filipino historian Luciano P.R. Santiago wrote an article for the Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society which details the identities and life stories of some of the descendants of Lakan Dula, mostly based on the "Lacandola Documents," a collection of legal documents held by the Philippine National Archives. Another Filipino historian, Luis Camara Dery, in his 2001 book "A History of the Inarticulate", notes that a purported 1539 document called the "Will of Fernando Malang Balagtas," which, although its exact provenance has been determined to be doubtful, corroborates the information from the Lacandola documents. The Lacandola of Arayat came from one of the grandchildren of Lakan Dula of Tondo named Dola, who is from San Luis, Pampanga. When Dola married, she insisted to use the surname Lacandola for her children to maintain connection with his grandfather from Tondo and partly, to hide from Spanish authorities.She was married to a Spanish mestizo surnamed Reyes.Eventually, the Reyes - Lacandola was married into a Macapagal.

Dery, Scott, and Santiago recount that the privileges accorded to the descendants of Lakan Dula had been discontinued for a while in the aftermath of Lakan Dula's death, because some of the descendants came into conflict with the Spanish authorities. According to Dery, the Balagtas document recounts that these privileges were restored when a Juan Macapagal, who claimed to be a great grandson of Lakan Dula (through Dionisio Capulong's son Juan Gonzalo Capulong), aided the Spanish authorities in suppressing the 1660 Maniago revolt, the 1660-61 Malong revolt, and the 1661 Almazan revolt, performing his role as Master-of-Camp and Datu of Arayat.

In 1758, A Gremio de Lakandulas was created to safeguard the rights and privileges of the Kapampangan descendants of Lakan Dula as assured by the Spanish crown. During the British invasion of 1762–64, the descendants of Lakan Dula, concentrated in the province of Pampanga, formed a company of volunteers to fight the British and were granted autonomy by Governor General Simon de Anda.

Macapagal (rare variant: Makapagal) is a Filipino surname derived from the Kapampangan language. The family claims noble descent from the legitimate grandchildren of Lakandula, the last "王" or King of Tondo "東都" (Dongdu). It is the only known branch of the Seludong's royal family to have survived the Majapahit Empire's invasion, the Sultanate of Brunei's pogrom against native royals, Chinese warlord Limahong's massacres, and the fallout from the Tondo Conspiracy. The family survived due to Martin de Goiti's giving of his Mestiza (Half Aztec and Half-Spanish) daughter in marriage to Batang Dula. As time went on, they incorporated the descendants from the two other royal houses: the house of Rajah Matanda (ऋअज ंअतन्द) and the house of Tariq Suleiman (سليمان). The family then migrated to Pampanga and Northern Samar after the Spanish assumed control of Manila.

By Santiago's genealogical reckoning, prominent Lakan Dula descendants of the 20th century include the former Philippine Presidents Diosdado Macapagal and Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, former Philippine Senate President Jovito Salonga, international stage celebrity Lea Salonga, pioneer Filipino industrialist Gonzalo Puyat, and former Philippine Senate President Gil Puyat.

Legacy

 * The Order of Lakandula is one of the highest honors given by the Republic of the Philippines. It is an order of political and civic merit, awarded in memory of Lakan Dula's dedication to the responsibilities of leadership, prudence, fortitude, courage and resolve in the service of one's people.
 * The BRP Rajah Lakandula (PF-4) was the destroyer escort / frigate and is the only ex-USN Edsall-class destroyer escort that served the Philippine Navy. It was also the flagship of the Philippine Navy from 1981 to 1988. Struck from the Navy List in 1988, it was still in use as a stationary barracks ship in Subic Bay as of 1999.
 * A number of Lakan Dula elementary and secondary schools are named after Lakan Dula, notably in the City of Manila, and the Province of Pampanga, both closely associated with Banaw Lakan Dula.

title: Lakandula


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General-purpose computing on graphics processing units

General-purpose computing on graphics processing units (GPGPU, or less often GPGP) is the use of a graphics processing unit (GPU), which typically handles computation only for computer graphics, to perform computation in applications traditionally handled by the central processing unit (CPU). The use of multiple video cards in one computer, or large numbers of graphics chips, further parallelizes the already parallel nature of graphics processing.

Essentially, a GPGPU pipeline is a kind of parallel processing between one or more GPUs and CPUs that analyzes data as if it were in image or other graphic form. While GPUs operate at lower frequencies, they typically have many times the number of cores. Thus, GPUs can process far more pictures and graphical data per second than a traditional CPU. Migrating data into graphical form and then using the GPU to scan and analyze it can create a large speedup.

GPGPU pipelines were developed at the beginning of the 21st century for graphics processing (e.g. for better shaders). These pipelines were found to fit scientific computing needs well, and have since been developed in this direction.

History
In principle, any arbitrary boolean function, including addition, multiplication, and other mathematical functions, can be built up from a functionally complete set of logic operators. In 1987, Conway's Game of Life became one of the first examples of general-purpose computing using an early stream processor called a blitter to invoke a special sequence of logical operations on bit vectors.

General-purpose computing on GPUs became more practical and popular after about 2001, with the advent of both programmable shaders and floating point support on graphics processors. Notably, problems involving matrices and/or vectors – especially two-, three-, or four-dimensional vectors –  were easy to translate to a GPU, which acts with native speed and support on those types. A significant milestone for GPGPU was the year 2003 when two research groups independently discovered GPU-based approaches for the solution of general linear algebra problems on GPUs that ran faster than on CPUs. These early efforts to use GPUs as general-purpose processors required reformulating computational problems in terms of graphics primitives, as supported by the two major APIs for graphics processors, OpenGL and DirectX. This cumbersome translation was obviated by the advent of general-purpose programming languages and APIs such as Sh/RapidMind, Brook and Accelerator.

These were followed by Nvidia's CUDA, which allowed programmers to ignore the underlying graphical concepts in favor of more common high-performance computing concepts. Newer, hardware-vendor-independent offerings include Microsoft's DirectCompute and Apple/Khronos Group's OpenCL. This means that modern GPGPU pipelines can leverage the speed of a GPU without requiring full and explicit conversion of the data to a graphical form.

Mark Harris, the founder of GPGPU.org, coined the term GPGPU.

Implementations
Any language that allows the code running on the CPU to poll a GPU shader for return values, can create a GPGPU framework. Programming standards for parallel computing include OpenCL (vendor-independent), OpenACC, OpenMP and OpenHMPP.

, OpenCL is the dominant open general-purpose GPU computing language, and is an open standard defined by the Khronos Group. OpenCL provides a cross-platform GPGPU platform that additionally supports data parallel compute on CPUs. OpenCL is actively supported on Intel, AMD, Nvidia, and ARM platforms. The Khronos Group has also standardised and implemented SYCL, a higher-level programming model for OpenCL as a single-source domain specific embedded language based on pure C++11.

The dominant proprietary framework is Nvidia CUDA. Nvidia launched CUDA in 2006, a software development kit (SDK) and application programming interface (API) that allows using the programming language C to code algorithms for execution on GeForce 8 series and later GPUs.

ROCm, launched in 2016, is AMD's open-source response to CUDA. It is, as of 2022, on par with CUDA with regards to features, and still lacking in consumer support.

OpenVIDIA was developed at University of Toronto between 2003–2005, in collaboration with Nvidia.

Altimesh Hybridizer created by Altimesh compiles Common Intermediate Language to CUDA binaries. It supports generics and virtual functions. Debugging and profiling is integrated with Visual Studio and Nsight. It is available as a Visual Studio extension on Visual Studio Marketplace.

Microsoft introduced the DirectCompute GPU computing API, released with the DirectX 11 API.

, created by QuantAlea, introduces native GPU computing capabilities for the Microsoft .NET languages F# and C#. Alea GPU also provides a simplified GPU programming model based on GPU parallel-for and parallel aggregate using delegates and automatic memory management.

MATLAB supports GPGPU acceleration using the Parallel Computing Toolbox and MATLAB Distributed Computing Server, and third-party packages like Jacket.

GPGPU processing is also used to simulate Newtonian physics by physics engines, and commercial implementations include Havok Physics, FX and PhysX, both of which are typically used for computer and video games.

C++ Accelerated Massive Parallelism (C++ AMP) is a library that accelerates execution of C++ code by exploiting the data-parallel hardware on GPUs.

Mobile computers
Due to a trend of increasing power of mobile GPUs, general-purpose programming became available also on the mobile devices running major mobile operating systems.

Google Android 4.2 enabled running RenderScript code on the mobile device GPU. Renderscript has since been deprecated in favour of first OpenGL compute shaders and later Vulkan Compute. OpenCL is available on may Android devices, but is not officially supported by Android. Apple introduced the proprietary Metal API for iOS applications, able to execute arbitrary code through Apple's GPU compute shaders.

Hardware support
Computer video cards are produced by various vendors, such as Nvidia, AMD. Cards from such vendors differ on implementing data-format support, such as integer and floating-point formats (32-bit and 64-bit). Microsoft introduced a Shader Model standard, to help rank the various features of graphic cards into a simple Shader Model version number (1.0, 2.0, 3.0, etc.).

Integer numbers
Pre-DirectX 9 video cards only supported paletted or integer color types. Various formats are available, each containing a red element, a green element, and a blue element. Sometimes another alpha value is added, to be used for transparency. Common formats are:

 * 8 bits per pixel – Sometimes palette mode, where each value is an index in a table with the real color value specified in one of the other formats. Sometimes three bits for red, three bits for green, and two bits for blue.
 * 16 bits per pixel – Usually the bits are allocated as five bits for red, six bits for green, and five bits for blue.
 * 24 bits per pixel – There are eight bits for each of red, green, and blue.
 * 32 bits per pixel – There are eight bits for each of red, green, blue, and alpha.

Floating-point numbers
For early fixed-function or limited programmability graphics (i.e., up to and including DirectX 8.1-compliant GPUs) this was sufficient because this is also the representation used in displays. This representation does have certain limitations. Given sufficient graphics processing power even graphics programmers would like to use better formats, such as floating point data formats, to obtain effects such as high-dynamic-range imaging. Many GPGPU applications require floating point accuracy, which came with video cards conforming to the DirectX 9 specification.

DirectX 9 Shader Model 2.x suggested the support of two precision types: full and partial precision. Full precision support could either be FP32 or FP24 (floating point 32- or 24-bit per component) or greater, while partial precision was FP16. ATI's Radeon R300 series of GPUs supported FP24 precision only in the programmable fragment pipeline (although FP32 was supported in the vertex processors) while Nvidia's NV30 series supported both FP16 and FP32; other vendors such as S3 Graphics and XGI supported a mixture of formats up to FP24.

The implementations of floating point on Nvidia GPUs are mostly IEEE compliant; however, this is not true across all vendors. This has implications for correctness which are considered important to some scientific applications. While 64-bit floating point values (double precision float) are commonly available on CPUs, these are not universally supported on GPUs. Some GPU architectures sacrifice IEEE compliance, while others lack double-precision. Efforts have occurred to emulate double-precision floating point values on GPUs; however, the speed tradeoff negates any benefit to offloading the computing onto the GPU in the first place.

Vectorization
Most operations on the GPU operate in a vectorized fashion: one operation can be performed on up to four values at once. For example, if one color $⟨R1, G1, B1⟩$ is to be modulated by another color $⟨R2, G2, B2⟩$, the GPU can produce the resulting color $⟨R1*R2, G1*G2, B1*B2⟩$ in one operation. This functionality is useful in graphics because almost every basic data type is a vector (either 2-, 3-, or 4-dimensional). Examples include vertices, colors, normal vectors, and texture coordinates. Many other applications can put this to good use, and because of their higher performance, vector instructions, termed single instruction, multiple data (SIMD), have long been available on CPUs.

GPU vs. CPU
Originally, data was simply passed one-way from a central processing unit (CPU) to a graphics processing unit (GPU), then to a display device. As time progressed, however, it became valuable for GPUs to store at first simple, then complex structures of data to be passed back to the CPU that analyzed an image, or a set of scientific-data represented as a 2D or 3D format that a video card can understand. Because the GPU has access to every draw operation, it can analyze data in these forms quickly, whereas a CPU must poll every pixel or data element much more slowly, as the speed of access between a CPU and its larger pool of random-access memory (or in an even worse case, a hard drive) is slower than GPUs and video cards, which typically contain smaller amounts of more expensive memory that is much faster to access. Transferring the portion of the data set to be actively analyzed to that GPU memory in the form of textures or other easily readable GPU forms results in speed increase. The distinguishing feature of a GPGPU design is the ability to transfer information bidirectionally back from the GPU to the CPU; generally the data throughput in both directions is ideally high, resulting in a multiplier effect on the speed of a specific high-use algorithm.

GPGPU pipelines may improve efficiency on especially large data sets and/or data containing 2D or 3D imagery. It is used in complex graphics pipelines as well as scientific computing; more so in fields with large data sets like genome mapping, or where two- or three-dimensional analysis is useful – especially at present biomolecule analysis, protein study, and other complex organic chemistry. An example of such applications is NVIDIA software suite for genome analysis.

Such pipelines can also vastly improve efficiency in image processing and computer vision, among other fields; as well as parallel processing generally. Some very heavily optimized pipelines have yielded speed increases of several hundred times the original CPU-based pipeline on one high-use task.

A simple example would be a GPU program that collects data about average lighting values as it renders some view from either a camera or a computer graphics program back to the main program on the CPU, so that the CPU can then make adjustments to the overall screen view. A more advanced example might use edge detection to return both numerical information and a processed image representing outlines to a computer vision program controlling, say, a mobile robot. Because the GPU has fast and local hardware access to every pixel or other picture element in an image, it can analyze and average it (for the first example) or apply a Sobel edge filter or other convolution filter (for the second) with much greater speed than a CPU, which typically must access slower random-access memory copies of the graphic in question.

GPGPU is fundamentally a software concept, not a hardware concept; it is a type of algorithm, not a piece of equipment. Specialized equipment designs may, however, even further enhance the efficiency of GPGPU pipelines, which traditionally perform relatively few algorithms on very large amounts of data. Massively parallelized, gigantic-data-level tasks thus may be parallelized even further via specialized setups such as rack computing (many similar, highly tailored machines built into a rack), which adds a third layer – many computing units each using many CPUs to correspond to many GPUs. Some Bitcoin "miners" used such setups for high-quantity processing.

Caches
Historically, CPUs have used hardware-managed caches, but the earlier GPUs only provided software-managed local memories. However, as GPUs are being increasingly used for general-purpose applications, state-of-the-art GPUs are being designed with hardware-managed multi-level caches which have helped the GPUs to move towards mainstream computing. For example, GeForce 200 series GT200 architecture GPUs did not feature an L2 cache, the Fermi GPU has 768 KiB last-level cache, the Kepler GPU has 1.5 MiB last-level cache, the Maxwell GPU has 2 MiB last-level cache, and the Pascal GPU has 4 MiB last-level cache.

Register file
GPUs have very large register files, which allow them to reduce context-switching latency. Register file size is also increasing over different GPU generations, e.g., the total register file size on Maxwell (GM200), Pascal and Volta GPUs are 6 MiB, 14 MiB and 20 MiB, respectively. By comparison, the size of a register file on CPUs is small, typically tens or hundreds of kilobytes.

Energy efficiency
The high performance of GPUs comes at the cost of high power consumption, which under full load is in fact as much power as the rest of the PC system combined. The maximum power consumption of the Pascal series GPU (Tesla P100) was specified to be 250W.

Stream processing
GPUs are designed specifically for graphics and thus are very restrictive in operations and programming. Due to their design, GPUs are only effective for problems that can be solved using stream processing and the hardware can only be used in certain ways.

The following discussion referring to vertices, fragments and textures concerns mainly the legacy model of GPGPU programming, where graphics APIs (OpenGL or DirectX) were used to perform general-purpose computation. With the introduction of the CUDA (Nvidia, 2007) and OpenCL (vendor-independent, 2008) general-purpose computing APIs, in new GPGPU codes it is no longer necessary to map the computation to graphics primitives. The stream processing nature of GPUs remains valid regardless of the APIs used. (See e.g., )

GPUs can only process independent vertices and fragments, but can process many of them in parallel. This is especially effective when the programmer wants to process many vertices or fragments in the same way. In this sense, GPUs are stream processors – processors that can operate in parallel by running one kernel on many records in a stream at once.

A stream is simply a set of records that require similar computation. Streams provide data parallelism. Kernels are the functions that are applied to each element in the stream. In the GPUs, vertices and fragments are the elements in streams and vertex and fragment shaders are the kernels to be run on them. For each element we can only read from the input, perform operations on it, and write to the output. It is permissible to have multiple inputs and multiple outputs, but never a piece of memory that is both readable and writable.

Arithmetic intensity is defined as the number of operations performed per word of memory transferred. It is important for GPGPU applications to have high arithmetic intensity else the memory access latency will limit computational speedup.

Ideal GPGPU applications have large data sets, high parallelism, and minimal dependency between data elements.

Computational resources
There are a variety of computational resources available on the GPU:

 * Programmable processors – vertex, primitive, fragment and mainly compute pipelines allow programmer to perform kernel on streams of data
 * Rasterizer – creates fragments and interpolates per-vertex constants such as texture coordinates and color
 * Texture unit – read-only memory interface
 * Framebuffer – write-only memory interface

In fact, a program can substitute a write only texture for output instead of the framebuffer. This is done either through Render to Texture (RTT), Render-To-Backbuffer-Copy-To-Texture (RTBCTT), or the more recent stream-out.

Textures as stream
The most common form for a stream to take in GPGPU is a 2D grid because this fits naturally with the rendering model built into GPUs. Many computations naturally map into grids: matrix algebra, image processing, physically based simulation, and so on.

Since textures are used as memory, texture lookups are then used as memory reads. Certain operations can be done automatically by the GPU because of this.

Kernels
Compute kernels can be thought of as the body of loops. For example, a programmer operating on a grid on the CPU might have code that looks like this:

On the GPU, the programmer only specifies the body of the loop as the kernel and what data to loop over by invoking geometry processing.

Flow control
In sequential code it is possible to control the flow of the program using if-then-else statements and various forms of loops. Such flow control structures have only recently been added to GPUs. Conditional writes could be performed using a properly crafted series of arithmetic/bit operations, but looping and conditional branching were not possible.

Recent GPUs allow branching, but usually with a performance penalty. Branching should generally be avoided in inner loops, whether in CPU or GPU code, and various methods, such as static branch resolution, pre-computation, predication, loop splitting, and Z-cull can be used to achieve branching when hardware support does not exist.

Map
The map operation simply applies the given function (the kernel) to every element in the stream. A simple example is multiplying each value in the stream by a constant (increasing the brightness of an image). The map operation is simple to implement on the GPU. The programmer generates a fragment for each pixel on screen and applies a fragment program to each one. The result stream of the same size is stored in the output buffer.

Reduce
Some computations require calculating a smaller stream (possibly a stream of only one element) from a larger stream. This is called a reduction of the stream. Generally, a reduction can be performed in multiple steps. The results from the prior step are used as the input for the current step and the range over which the operation is applied is reduced until only one stream element remains.

Stream filtering
Stream filtering is essentially a non-uniform reduction. Filtering involves removing items from the stream based on some criteria.

Scan
The scan operation, also termed parallel prefix sum, takes in a vector (stream) of data elements and an (arbitrary) associative binary function '+' with an identity element 'i'. If the input is [a0, a1, a2, a3, ...], an exclusive scan produces the output [i, a0, a0 + a1, a0 + a1 + a2, ...], while an inclusive scan produces the output [a0, a0 + a1, a0 + a1 + a2, a0 + a1 + a2 + a3, ...] and does not require an identity to exist. While at first glance the operation may seem inherently serial, efficient parallel scan algorithms are possible and have been implemented on graphics processing units. The scan operation has uses in e.g., quicksort and sparse matrix-vector multiplication.

Scatter
The scatter operation is most naturally defined on the vertex processor. The vertex processor is able to adjust the position of the vertex, which allows the programmer to control where information is deposited on the grid. Other extensions are also possible, such as controlling how large an area the vertex affects.

The fragment processor cannot perform a direct scatter operation because the location of each fragment on the grid is fixed at the time of the fragment's creation and cannot be altered by the programmer. However, a logical scatter operation may sometimes be recast or implemented with another gather step. A scatter implementation would first emit both an output value and an output address. An immediately following gather operation uses address comparisons to see whether the output value maps to the current output slot.

In dedicated compute kernels, scatter can be performed by indexed writes.

Gather
Gather is the reverse of scatter. After scatter reorders elements according to a map, gather can restore the order of the elements according to the map scatter used. In dedicated compute kernels, gather may be performed by indexed reads. In other shaders, it is performed with texture-lookups.

Sort
The sort operation transforms an unordered set of elements into an ordered set of elements. The most common implementation on GPUs is using radix sort for integer and floating point data and coarse-grained merge sort and fine-grained sorting networks for general comparable data.

Search
The search operation allows the programmer to find a given element within the stream, or possibly find neighbors of a specified element. The GPU is not used to speed up the search for an individual element, but instead is used to run multiple searches in parallel. Mostly the search method used is binary search on sorted elements.

Data structures
A variety of data structures can be represented on the GPU:

 * Dense arrays
 * Sparse matrices (sparse array) –  static or dynamic
 * Adaptive structures (union type)

Applications
The following are some of the areas where GPUs have been used for general purpose computing:

 * Automatic parallelization
 * Physical based simulation and physics engines (usually based on Newtonian physics models)
 * Conway's Game of Life, cloth simulation, fluid incompressible flow by solution of Euler equations (fluid dynamics) or Navier–Stokes equations
 * Statistical physics
 * Ising model
 * Lattice gauge theory
 * Segmentation – 2D and 3D
 * Level set methods
 * CT reconstruction
 * Fast Fourier transform
 * GPU learning – machine learning and data mining computations, e.g., with software BIDMach
 * k-nearest neighbor algorithm
 * Fuzzy logic
 * Tone mapping
 * Audio signal processing
 * Audio and sound effects processing, to use a GPU for digital signal processing (DSP)
 * Analog signal processing
 * Speech processing
 * Digital image processing
 * Video processing
 * Hardware accelerated video decoding and post-processing
 * Motion compensation (mo comp)
 * Inverse discrete cosine transform (iDCT)
 * Variable-length decoding (VLD), Huffman coding
 * Inverse quantization (IQ, not to be confused with Intelligence Quotient)
 * In-loop deblocking
 * Bitstream processing (CAVLC/CABAC) using special purpose hardware for this task because this is a serial task not suitable for regular GPGPU computation
 * Deinterlacing
 * Spatial-temporal deinterlacing
 * Noise reduction
 * Edge enhancement
 * Color correction
 * Hardware accelerated video encoding and pre-processing
 * Global illumination – ray tracing, photon mapping, radiosity among others, subsurface scattering
 * Geometric computing – constructive solid geometry, distance fields, collision detection, transparency computation, shadow generation
 * Scientific computing
 * Monte Carlo simulation of light propagation
 * Weather forecasting
 * Climate research
 * Molecular modeling on GPU
 * Quantum mechanical physics
 * Astrophysics
 * Bioinformatics
 * Computational finance
 * Medical imaging
 * Clinical decision support system (CDSS)
 * Computer vision
 * Digital signal processing / signal processing
 * Control engineering
 * Operations research
 * Implementations of: the GPU Tabu Search algorithm solving the Resource Constrained Project Scheduling problem is freely available on GitHub; the GPU algorithm solving the Nurse scheduling problem is freely available on GitHub.
 * Neural networks
 * Database operations
 * Computational Fluid Dynamics especially using Lattice Boltzmann methods
 * Cryptography and cryptanalysis
 * Performance modeling: computationally intensive tasks on GPU
 * Implementations of: MD6, Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), Data Encryption Standard (DES), RSA, elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)
 * Password cracking
 * Cryptocurrency transactions processing ("mining") (Bitcoin mining)
 * Electronic design automation
 * Antivirus software
 * Intrusion detection
 * Increase computing power for distributed computing projects like SETI@home, Einstein@home

Bioinformatics
GPGPU usage in Bioinformatics:

Molecular dynamics
† Expected speedups are highly dependent on system configuration. GPU performance compared against multi-core x86 CPU socket. GPU performance benchmarked on GPU supported features and may be a kernel to kernel performance comparison. For details on configuration used, view application website. Speedups as per Nvidia in-house testing or ISV's documentation.

‡ Q=Quadro GPU, T=Tesla GPU. Nvidia recommended GPUs for this application. Check with developer or ISV to obtain certification information.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Factor IX

Factor IX, also known as Christmas factor, is one of the serine proteases involved in coagulation; it belongs to peptidase family S1. Deficiency of this protein causes haemophilia B.

It was discovered in 1952 after a young boy named Stephen Christmas was found to be lacking this exact factor, leading to haemophilia. Coagulation factor IX is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.

Physiology

Factor IX is produced as a zymogen, an inactive precursor. It is processed to remove the signal peptide, glycosylated and then cleaved by factor XIa (of the contact pathway) or factor VIIa (of the tissue factor pathway) to produce a two-chain form, where the chains are linked by a disulfide bridge. When activated into factor IXa, in the presence of Ca2+, membrane phospholipids, and a Factor VIII cofactor, it hydrolyses one arginine-isoleucine bond in factor X to form factor Xa.

Factor IX is inhibited by antithrombin.

Factor IX expression increases with age in humans and mice. In mouse models, mutations within the promoter region of factor IX have an age-dependent phenotype.

Domain architecture
Factors VII, IX, and X all play key roles in blood coagulation and also share a common domain architecture. The factor IX protein is composed of four protein domains: the Gla domain, two tandem copies of the EGF domain and a C-terminal trypsin-like peptidase domain which carries out the catalytic cleavage.

The N-terminal EGF domain has been shown to at least in part be responsible for binding tissue factor. Wilkinson et al. conclude that residues 88 to 109 of the second EGF domain mediate binding to platelets and assembly of the factor X activating complex.

The structures of all four domains have been solved. A structure of the two EGF domains and the trypsin-like domain was determined for the pig protein. The structure of the Gla domain, which is responsible for Ca(II)-dependent phospholipid binding, was also determined by NMR.

Several structures of 'super active' mutants have been solved, which reveal the nature of factor IX activation by other proteins in the clotting cascade.

Genetics
Because the gene for factor IX is located on the X chromosome (Xq27.1-q27.2), loss-of-function mutations thereof are X-linked recessive: males experience the disease phenotype much more frequently than females. At least 534 disease-causing mutations in this gene have been discovered. The F9 gene was first cloned in 1982 by Kotoku Kurachi and Earl Davie.

Polly, a transgenic cloned Poll Dorset sheep carrying the gene for factor IX, was produced by Dr Ian Wilmut at the Roslin Institute in 1997.

Role in disease
Deficiency of factor IX causes Christmas disease (hemophilia B). Over 3000 variants of factor IX have been described, affecting 73% of the 461 residues; some cause no symptoms, but many lead to a significant bleeding disorder. The original Christmas disease mutation was identified by sequencing of Christmas' DNA, revealing a mutation which changed a cysteine to a serine. Recombinant factor IX is used to treat Christmas disease. Formulations include:

 * nonacog alfa (brand name Benefix)
 * nonacog gamma (brand name Rixubis)
 * albutrepenonacog alfa (brand name Idelvion)
 * eftrenonacog alfa (brand name Alprolix)
 * nonacog beta pegol (brand name Refixia)
 * coagulation factor IX [recombinant] (Benefix)
 * coagulation factor IX [recombinant] (Idelvion)
 * coagulation factor IX (recombinant), Fc fusion protein (Alprolix)
 * coagulation factor IX [recombinant] (Ixinity)
 * coagulation factor IX [recombinant] (Rebinyn)
 * coagulation factor IX [recombinant] (Rixubis)
 * coagulation factor IX (human) (Alphanine SD)

Some rare mutations of factor IX result in elevated clotting activity, and can result in clotting diseases, such as deep vein thrombosis. This gain of function mutation renders the protein hyperfunctional and is associated with familial early-onset thrombophilia.

Factor IX deficiency is treated by injection of purified factor IX produced through cloning in various animal or animal cell vectors. Tranexamic acid may be of value in patients undergoing surgery who have inherited factor IX deficiency in order to reduce the perioperative risk of bleeding.

A list of all the mutations in Factor IX is compiled and maintained by EAHAD.

Coagulation factor IX is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.

title: Factor IX


text:
Violin spider

Violin spider can refer to:

 * Recluse spider, also known as violin spiders
 * Drymusa, false violin spiders

title: Violin spider


text:
Primate of New Zealand

Primate of New Zealand is a title held by a bishop who leads the Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia. Since 2006, the Senior Bishop of each tikanga (Māori, Pākehā, Pasefika) serves automatically as one of three co-equal Primates-and-Archbishops. Previously, one of these three would be Presiding Bishop and the other two Co-Presiding Bishops; and before that there was only one Primate.

Bishop and Metropolitan
George Selwyn was consecrated Bishop of New Zealand on 17 October 1841: he was the sole bishop over a very large territory, including all New Zealand and very many South Pacific islands. In his lifetime, as the Anglican ministry in New Zealand grew, that one diocese was divided several times: by letters patent dated 22 September 1858, Selwyn was made metropolitan bishop over the other dioceses and called Bishop of New Zealand and Metropolitan. By 1868, New Zealand had seven dioceses, Selwyn had come to be referred to as "the Primate", and the General Synod constitution as amended that year used this term.

Primate and Metropolitan
At the same Synod, Selwyn having announced his intention to resign, a Statute was adopted for the election of the Primate (and Metropolitan) from among the bishops diocesan (who retained their See) and Harper, Bishop of Christchurch was so elected (to take office upon Selwyn's resignation). The same statute created the role of Senior Bishop — being the bishop consecrated first (excluding any former primate), and Acting Primate in certain circumstances. Primates of this era occasionally used the style Archbishop of New Zealand; and gained the archiepiscopal style the Most Reverend between the 5th General Synod (1871) and the 6th (1874). An attempt was made in the 21st Synod (1919) to make the Bishop of Wellington ex officio Primate and Metropolitan; this failed in the 22nd Synod (1922), which did, however, amend the Canons and officially grant the title Primate and Archbishop of New Zealand.

Primate and Archbishop
Throughout the 20th century, the church in New Zealand developed an understanding for the different cultures within it. In 1925, the Diocese of Polynesia began as a missionary diocese of the church. In 1928, the first Bishop of Aotearoa, ministering to the Māori, was consecrated as suffragan bishop to the Bishop of Waiapu. In the 1970s, Melanesia became a separate ecclesiastical province from New Zealand, and the Bishop of Aotearoa became a full-ranking diocesan, with a diocese covering all of New Zealand. Under the primacy of Brian Davis, Polynesia became a fully-fledged diocese and a review of church structures was begun.

In 1992, the General Synod of the church set up five hui amorangi, or regional bishoprics, to serve under the Bishop of Aotearoa. The Church of the Province of New Zealand also adopted its current name, the Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia, to demonstrate its ownership by the three tikanga. The same Synod limited the Primate to a ten-year term, with re-election to one further four-year term.

Primate with Co-Presiding Bishops
The 53rd General Synod (1998) reduced the Primate's term from five General Synods (i.e. 10 years) to three (i.e. 6 years); removed the additional style "Archbishop" from the Primacy in favour of "Presiding Bishop"; and conferred the style "Co-Presiding Bishops / nga Pīhopa Aporei" on the Senior Bishops of the two tikanga besides the Primate's, while enjoining them to work closely with the Primate / te Pīhopa Mātāmua and Presiding Bishop.

The 2004 General Synod passed a further Primacy statute which: reinstated the honorific "Archbishop" (removing "Presiding Bishop") to the Primate; required the elected Primate to resign their other See(s); and, anticipating the coming changes, limited the next Primate's term to two years (renewable once). Whakahuihui Vercoe duly stepped down at the end of that two-year term as Primate in 2006, when the church decided that three bishops shall share the position and style of archbishop, each representing one of the three tikanga, or cultural streams of the church: Te Pīhopatanga o Aotearoa (the Bishopric of Aotearoa, serving Māori), the Dioceses in New Zealand (serving Pākehā), and the Diocese of Polynesia.

Shared Primacy
Further changes to the office of primate were its limitation to a two-year term, to allow for greater participation in leadership, and its establishment as a triumvirate of bishops. For the transitional period between the decision at 2006 General Synod and the completion of the necessary legislation, Turei was Primate and Archbishop, and Moxon and Bryce his Co-Presiding Bishops; but they began to act as if co-equal primates, including use of "Archbishop" and the Most Reverend. Since 2008, Te Pīhopa o Aotearoa, the diocesan Bishop of Polynesia and the Senior Bishop of the New Zealand (i.e. tikanga Pākehā) Dioceses have each — co-equally — been ex officio Primate and Archbishop; each one is elected by a body representing their whole tikanga. Te Hīnota Whānui/General Synod 2020 reaffirmed the three-tikanga and co-primacy arrangements.

title: Primate of New Zealand


text:
Prince Maurits of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven

Prince Maurits Willem Pieter Hendrik of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven (born 17 April 1968) is a member of the Dutch royal family as the eldest son of Princess Margriet of the Netherlands and Pieter van Vollenhoven.

Before the succession of his cousin Willem-Alexander as King, he was a member of the Dutch Royal House and tenth in the line of succession to the Dutch throne. With Willem-Alexander's succession however, he is no longer a member of the Dutch Royal House, and is no longer in line to direct succession to the Dutch throne.

Life and career
Maurits was born on 17 April 1968. His godparents are Princess Christina of the Netherlands, Prince Alois-Konstantin of Lowenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg, Jhr. G. Krayenhof, and The Dutch Merchant Fleet. Van Vollenhoven has three brothers: Bernhard, Pieter-Christiaan, Floris.

In 1987, van Vollenhoven performed military service with the Royal Netherlands Marine Corps and the Royal Netherlands Navy. He graduated at University of Groningen in 1995, where he obtained a MSc degree in Economics. After his study he worked for the Schiphol Airport Authority, where he occupied several positions, including Senior Manager of Passenger Services. From September 2001 to May 2006, the prince worked for Philips (Domestic Appliances and Personal Care) in Amersfoort, where he was in charge of part of the Philishave portfolio.

In May 2006, van Vollenhoven started his own business, The Source, which focuses on innovative concepts for products, services and systems for both business and government. Since 1 May 2013, Maurits is Aide-de-camp to King Willem-Alexander and promoted to the rank of Commander (Dutch: Kapitein-lieutenant ter Zee) in the Royal Netherlands Navy.

Maurits works for Sunrock, a company which invests in solar parks and green energy. In April 2023, he gave an exceptional interview to writer Kemal Rijken at the Amsterdam television channel AT5. The prince criticised the solar energy policy of the municipality of Amsterdam and opened up about other topics.

Marriage and family
In 1989, van Vollenhoven met Marilène (Marie-Helène) van den Broek b. 4 February 1970, the youngest daughter of Hans van den Broek and Josee van Schendel. Their civil marriage ceremony was in Apeldoorn on 29 May 1998, followed by a religious ceremony on 30 May. He was the first grandchild of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands who married.

Together, the couple has three children: By Royal Decree of 26 May 1998, the children of van Vollenhoven bear the surname "van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven", without titles.
 * Anastasia (Anna) Margriet Joséphine van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven (Amsterdam, 15 April 2001) - the first legitimate great-grandchild of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard,
 * Lucas Maurits Pieter Henri van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven (Amsterdam, 26 October 2002),
 * Felicia Juliana Bénedicte Barbara van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven (Amsterdam, 31 May 2005).

Upon the abdication of Queen Beatrix, which took place on 30 April 2013, it was confirmed that the children of Princess Margriet and Pieter van Vollenhoven would no longer be eligible to succeed to the throne, and that they would also cease to be members of the Royal House according to The Membership of the Royal House Act.

Titles and styles

 * 1968–present: His Highness Prince Maurits of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven


text:
Martín de Goiti

Martín de Goiti (c. 1534 – 1575) was a Spanish conquistador and one of the soldiers who accompanied the Spanish voyage of exploration to the East Indies and the Pacific in 1565, in search of rich resources such as gold, spice and settlements. They were seeking to find a route to the islands were the previous Spanish expeditions led by Ferdinand Magellan had landed in 1521, and Ruy López de Villalobos in 1543.

From his base in Mexico City, he led the expedition to Manila in the Philippines, ordered by the Spanish general Miguel López de Legazpi in 1569. He then engaged in warfare against the native chieftains Rajah Sulayman, Rajah Matanda and Rajah Lakandula and fought the natives in order to established European settlements.

The Battles for Manila (1570 – 1575)
The Spaniards arrived in the island of Luzon on 8 May, 1570, and camped on the shores of Manila Bay for several weeks, while forming an alliance with the native tribes. On 24 May, 1570, disputes and hostility erupted between the two groups. The Spaniards occupied the city of Tondo where they were greeted by thousands of tribal warriors. There, they defeated most of Rajah Sulayman's, Rajah Matanda, and Rajah Lakandula's tribes. The Spaniards marched their armies towards the Pasig River, and occupied the settlements in Manila on 6 June, 1570 and burned them.

Guerrilla warfare broke out following the battle, which continued for about ten months. The Spaniards fortified themselves in the area and constructed their military barracks of Fort Santiago, which became their outpost for trade with Mexico. The Spaniards gained control of the settlements on 24 June, 1571, after the arrival of López de Legazpi in Manila, who agreed to a peace agreement sealed by betrothing one of his half-caste (Half Aztec and Half Spanish) daughters to Batang Dula, heir apparent of Rajah Lakandula.

The Spanish colonization paved the way for the establishment of Manila as a permanent settlement and capital city of the Spanish East Indies. He later explored Pampanga, Pangasinan and founded several Spanish settlements in Luzon between the periods of 1571-1573. De Goiti, along with other soldiers were granted with estates called haciendas, for the lands they had conquered, by King Philip II of Spain.

In 1574, De Goiti fought in the war against an invasion of about 6,500 Chinese sea pirates who had sailed from the South China Sea. Their leader, Limahong, laid siege on the Spanish settlements in Manila. De Goiti was killed by these pirates. Most of the Spanish reinforcements came from Vigan and Cebu. De Goiti's second in command, Juan de Salcedo left Ilocos Sur, after hearing the news and traveled to Manila where he discovered their settlements had been ceded to the pirates. Salcedo's forces attacked and drove the pirates out of Manila. Limahong and his fleets retreated to Pangasinan where they re-organize their forces.

In 1575, Salcedo's army marched north to Pangasinan, in pursuit of the pirates, and besieged them for three months. There the pirates surrendered to the Spaniards.

Legacy
De Goiti's remains are laid to rest on a knight's tomb inside the San Agustin Church, in Intramuros in the Philippines.

title: Martín de Goiti


text:
Talk:Suspension of judgment

Untitled
from VfD:

To me, this is not even a common phrase, let alone an accurate definition. Deb 11:33, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Signed dictdef. Geogre 14:52, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: Folks, I know it's an important term, but only if there is a discussion of it.  As nominated, it's a very poor dictdef.  An article would be cool, but a definition that has no context or discussion is not. Geogre 05:06, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Geogre, "incompleteness" is not a valid grounds for deletion. 209.91.180.147
 * As nominated, it wasn't incomplete: it was a wholly inappropriate dictdef. I see that it has been rewritten entirely by VfD voters.  It's courteous to tell people when one does that.  Nevertheless, the rewrite is not just a dictdef.  As I said, "as nominated," it's a poor dictdef.  I'm not changing my vote because I don't yet think the article is a discussion, though it's not explicitly a dictionary definition. Geogre 16:59, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Neither is "not being a discussion" a grounds for deletion. mydogategodshat 18:06, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Sure it is: it's under "dictionary definitions."  Of course, if you think an encyclopedia article is a dictionary entry, or a map, or a music file.... Geogre 20:02, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I suggest you take a look at deletion policy. Being a definition is not grounds for deletion, neither is incompleteness nor is "not being a discussion". Only those definitions with no potential to become an article are possible candidates for deletion (or more correctly, moving to Wikiquotes). mydogategodshat 20:57, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Can only be a dictionary definition. Well?  What's the difference between a definition and not a definition?  I mean other than a picture or a tune?  Discuss the term, place it in its historical context, trace its development.  So, yes, dictdef is a reason for deletion, and discussion is what keeps it from being a dictdef.  Geogre 22:49, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * If your not prepared to follow Wikipedia policy, you should not be editing these pages. mydogategodshat 19:07, 14 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Nonsensical definition. Katefan0 15:37, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep - Important concept in science and human affairs - The definition makes sense to me. mydogategodshat 21:21, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. It is indeed a term used in law, but it doesn't need an article. Even if it did deserve an article, it would only be a short entry in Wiktionary. [[User:David_Johnson|David Johnson [ T|C ] ]] 00:06, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Strong keep. Key philosophical concept.  --[[User:Tony Sidaway|Tony Sidaway|Talk]] 01:42, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * And another extreme keep. —[[en:RaD Man|RaD Man (talk)]] 05:14, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep current article Kappa 08:04, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep and allow for organic growth. [[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 17:25, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Concur -- Jmabel | Talk 00:49, Dec 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * Concur. Edeans 06:33, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Concur --Szabo 02:34, Dec 17, 2004 (UTC)

end moved discussion

Style
I am not an experienced editor, but I don't think this is appropriate encyclopedia style: Rather than prejudging people based on generalizations, preconceptions, or other forms of incomplete information, we should judge individuals only when we have adequate information about that individual., not only is the language inappropriate, but also a moral suggestion should not be included in an encyclopedia article. - 29.10.2008

Cornerstone
The author of this article appears to have had an affinity for the word "cornerstone". — Timwi 22:54, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

confusing
I have read the article and still have no clue on what it talks about. I propose the tag to be added Pictureuploader 07:36, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

 * "The opposite of suspension of judgment is premature Hati setan usually shortened to Hati busuk, or in some philosophical systems such as Pyrrhonism the opposite is dogma." This sentence should be deleted... 31.124.115.86 (talk) 09:29, 25 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Changed to "The opposite of suspension of judgement is premature judgement, usually shortened to prejudice." — Rgdboer (talk) 02:07, 28 November 2022 (UTC)

Proposed Merger with Epoche
Epoche and suspension of judgement are certainly closely related and plausibly could work combined in one article. They mean slightly different things. Epoche really means "suspension", not "suspension of judgment". Its meaning is closer to suspension of belief rather than suspension of judgment. It can also mean suspension of thought. Hence, combining these articles may be tricky.Teishin (talk) 14:04, 9 February 2019 (UTC)

 * I think that they're different enough topics to justify seperate articles. I'm expanding this to prevent an AFD of a notable topic due to it not having any citations before I got to it.Rap Chart Mike (talk) 15:20, 6 June 2019 (UTC)

 * There doesn't seem to be much interest in pursuing this matter one way or another. I'd recommend keeping the articles separate. Can we just take down the notice to discuss the matter? Teishin (talk) 17:39, 6 June 2019 (UTC)

 * Done. I'm getting a lot of work done here anyway so I think this article might be worth keeping. Rap Chart Mike (talk) 17:49, 6 June 2019 (UTC)
 * When I'm done expanding this I might just boldly merge them here and see if it sticks. They're distinct but the epoche article is a tiny thing and could be fit in. Rap Chart Mike (talk) 17:51, 6 June 2019 (UTC)
 * You know what? I'm going to do it. Here we go. Rap Chart Mike (talk) 17:53, 6 June 2019 (UTC)

 * That merger was both unexpected and does not seem to work. I think this change should be reverted. Teishin (talk) 19:57, 6 June 2019 (UTC)

Please read WP:PYRAMID as the article has moved § Law and § Science to the bottom, while the general reader may find these aspects of suspension of judgement of more value than the philosophical material preceding them. — Rgdboer (talk) 21:55, 6 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Giving it a read today, not a thing I was aware of. Will adjust the article based on my interpretation of it. Thanks Rap Chart Mike (talk) 12:11, 7 June 2019 (UTC)
 * I suggest the first adjustment should be to revert the merger, as that's a major factor in the problem Rgdboer points out. Teishin (talk) 12:21, 7 June 2019 (UTC)
 * I think that the important information is first, per the inverted pyramid idea now that I've read it. It also says that many encyclopedia articles are not written like that. Having said that, if someone else were to reorganize the article I'm not going to pick a fight about it.
 * I'm not going to revert the merger for two reasons: There was no interest in the discussion until it was done and looking at it the epoche topic integrates just fine as a sub topic in philosophy. Of course, that doesn't mean that someone else won't revert it but I think there should be a further discussion about it before that happens. Rap Chart Mike (talk) 12:39, 7 June 2019 (UTC)
 * That you and I were the only ones who commented on the issue does not mean that there was "no interest in the discussion." And before you made those changes I had said on both 9 Feb and 6 June I thought the articles should be kept separate, and before you mand the change, you, Rap Chart Mike, said the same thing. You said on 15:20, 6 June 2019 (UTC) "I think that they're different enough topics to justify seperate articles." So, there was both a discussion and both people in it said not to merge.Teishin (talk) 12:49, 7 June 2019 (UTC)

Epoche not even mentioned
Epoche redirects here, but this article does not mention epoche at all. So a reader (such as me), who does not know what epoche means, is lost. Even if it is a stopgap before a merger, please briefly define epoche and explain how it relates to suspension of judgment. Mgnbar (talk) 05:57, 7 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Mention is made of Epoché in § Philosophy. The redirect here was left over from a reverted merge. Correction today for redirect. Thank you for the alert. — Rgdboer (talk) 23:52, 7 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Oh, I see now. Thanks. Mgnbar (talk) 03:35, 8 July 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Suspension of judgment


text:
Self-abasement

Self-abasement is humiliating oneself when one feels lower or less deserving of respect.

Self-abasement might have a religious aspect for those seeking humility before God, perhaps in the context of monastic or cenobitic lifestyle.

It also has a sexual and fetish aspect for those people who enjoy erotic humiliation and other related BDSM practices.

Examples of self-abasement practices include self-flagellation, bondage, torture, public humiliation (including online humiliation).

In psychology, self-abasement is associated with shame (rather than guilt) and involves the reduction of the subject's self-esteem. The notion of self-abasement can be said to be based in Freudian psychoanalysis. Fear may also result in self-abasement.

title: Self-abasement


text:
Third Epistle to the Corinthians

The Third Epistle to the Corinthians is an early Christian text written by an unknown author claiming to be Paul the Apostle. It is also found in the Acts of Paul, and was framed as Paul's response to a letter of the Corinthians to Paul. The earliest extant copy is Papyrus Bodmer X, dating to the third century. Originally written in Koine Greek, the letter survives in Greek, Coptic, Latin, and Armenian manuscripts.

Content and theological background
The text is structured as an attempt to correct alleged misinterpretations of the earlier First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians, of which the author (usually called "pseudo-Paul") has become aware due to the (similarly pseudepigraphic) Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul, which is paired with Paul's response as a single correspondence. According to the preceding part of the Acts of Paul, when the letter was written Paul was in prison, on account of Stratonice, the wife of Apollophanes. The epistle seems to attack themes associated with Gnostic Christianity and docetism, albeit loosely. 3 Corinthians emphasizes the importance of the flesh: that the Incarnation of Jesus had been as a real flesh-and-blood person, rather than a divine apparition or spirit that only appeared to suffer. Jesus will "redeem all flesh through his own flesh", and "by his own body Jesus Christ saved all flesh." Against Gnosticism, the letter condemns those who "assert that heaven and earth and all that is in them are not a work of God", an apparent attack on the Gnostic belief that the material world was the work of a different god, the Demiurge.

Before the Bodmer X papyrus was discovered, it was generally assumed that 3 Corinthians had been written as part of the Acts of Paul. The Bodmer X version, however, is older than the oldest surviving copies of the Acts of Paul, and has only the Epistle of the Corinthians and Paul's response. It does not include the narrative introductions to each letter seen in later works or the rest of the Acts of Paul. Additionally, the correspondence does not entirely line up with the events described elsewhere: the correspondence indicates that heresy is a major problem in Corinth, while the narrative makes no such claim when Paul arrives in the city; Paul is instead pleased with the progress of the believers. Cleobius is presented as an arch-heretic stirring up trouble in the correspondence, yet in the narrative he is a spirit-filled Christian. This has caused most scholars to believe that the epistle predated the Acts of Paul, and the Acts of Paul was compiling and merging existing letters and stories rather than creating a single combined work.

Authorship
Scholars do not accept the epistle's claimed authorship of Paul for a number of reasons. While the epistle contains a number of Pauline themes and similar phrasings taken from First and Second Corinthians, it varies from Paul in ways difficult to square with his authorship. Notably, Paul draws a sharp distinction in his undisputed letters between "flesh" (sarx) and "body" (soma). To Paul, flesh is the negative aspects of human sin and temptation that are left behind; but the body of Christians will be resurrected. In 3 Corinthians, however, flesh is given an unambiguous positive connotation: the flesh of believers will be resurrected, in contradiction to Paul's claim that "flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God". The letter places no importance on the death of Jesus and omits any discussion of Jewish Law, popular themes for Paul to discuss, eschewing them for themes seen nowhere else in Paul's work such as the story of the bones of the prophet Elisha.

Canonicity
In the Western Roman Empire, the epistle was not included in the Biblical canon that was formed in the 4th century AD. It was relegated to New Testament apocrypha. In early traditions of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Syriac Orthodox Church, Aphrahat (c. 340) treated it as canonical and Ephrem the Syrian (d. 373) apparently accepted it as canonical, because he wrote a commentary on it. The Doctrine of Addai includes it, but it was not included in the Syriac Peshitta translation of the Bible (but nor were 2–3 John, 2 Peter, Jude, or Revelation, which are almost universally recognized as canonical, see also Antilegomena). The only place 3 Corinthians survived as part of the canon into the medieval age was in the Armenian Apostolic tradition. Although part of the Oskan Armenian Bible of 1666, it was in an Appendix to the Zohrab Armenian Bible of 1805 which follows the Vulgate canon, and it is not currently considered part of the Armenian Orthodox New Testament. It was not part of the canon list of Anania Shirakatsi in the 7th century but is part of the canon lists of Hovhannes Imastaser (11th century), Mekhitar of Ayrivank (13th century) and Gregory of Tatev (14th century).

According to the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia: "The ancient Syrian (Edessene) Church revered as canonical a Third Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians, which is accompanied by a letter from the pastors of that Church, to which it is an answer. But about the beginning of the fifth century the Syrian Church fell under the influence of the Greek, and in consequence the spurious letter gradually lost its canonical status. It was taken up by the neighbouring Armenians and for centuries has formed a part of the Armenian New Testament. Latin and Greek writers are completely silent about this pseudograph, although Greek and Latin copies have been found. It was obviously suggested by the lost genuine Pauline letter referred to in I Cor. v, 9; vii, 1. It was composed by a presbyter about 160–170, and is a disguised attack on some of the leading errors of Gnosticism. This correspondence long had an independent circulation, but recently it has been proved that the document was incorporated into the Acts of St. Paul (q.v.)."

title: Third Epistle to the Corinthians


text:
Howard Thurman

Howard Washington Thurman (November 18, 1899 – April 10, 1981) was an American author, philosopher, theologian, Christian mystic, educator, and civil rights leader. As a prominent religious figure, he played a leading role in many social justice movements and organizations of the twentieth century. Thurman's theology of radical nonviolence influenced and shaped a generation of civil rights activists, and he was a key mentor to leaders within the civil rights movement, including Martin Luther King Jr.

Thurman served as dean of Rankin Chapel at Howard University from 1932 to 1944 and as dean of Marsh Chapel at Boston University from 1953 to 1965. In 1944, he co-founded, along with Alfred Fisk, the first major interracial, interdenominational church in the United States.

Early life and education
Howard Thurman was born in 1899 in Florida in Daytona Beach. He spent most of his childhood in Daytona, Florida, where his family lived in Waycross, one of Daytona's three all-black communities.

He was profoundly influenced by his maternal grandmother, Nancy Ambrose, who had been enslaved on a plantation in Madison County, Florida. Nancy Ambrose and Thurman's mother, Alice, were members of Mount Bethel Baptist Church in Waycross and were women of deep Christian faith.

Thurman's father, Saul Thurman, died of pneumonia when Howard Thurman was seven years old. After completing eighth grade, Thurman attended the Florida Baptist Academy in Jacksonville, Florida. One hundred miles from Daytona, it was one of only three high schools for African Americans in Florida at the time.

In 1923, Thurman graduated from Morehouse College as valedictorian. In 1925, he was ordained as a Baptist minister at First Baptist Church of Roanoke, Virginia, while still a student at Rochester Theological Seminary (now Colgate Rochester Crozer Divinity School). He graduated from Rochester Theological Seminary in May 1926 as valedictorian in a class of twenty-nine students.

From June 1926 until the fall of 1928, Thurman served as pastor of Mount Zion Baptist Church in Oberlin, Ohio. In the fall of 1928, he moved to Atlanta, Georgia, where he had a joint appointment to Morehouse College and Spelman College in philosophy and religion. During the spring semester of 1929, Thurman pursued further study as a special student at Haverford College with Rufus Jones, a noted Quaker philosopher and mystic. He enjoyed praying and going to church which provided him part of his education.

Marriage and family
Thurman married Katie Kelley on June 11, 1926, less than a month after graduating from seminary. Katie was a 1918 graduate of the Teacher's Course at Spelman Seminary (renamed Spelman College in 1924). Their daughter Olive was born in October 1927. Katie died in December 1930 of tuberculosis, which she had probably contracted during her anti-tuberculosis work. On June 12, 1932, Thurman married Sue Bailey, whom he had met while at Morehouse, when Sue was a student at Spelman. Their daughter Anne was born in October 1933. Sue Bailey Thurman was an author, lecturer, historian, civil rights activist, and founder of the Aframerican Women's Journal. She died in 1996.

Career
Thurman was selected as the first dean of Rankin Chapel at Howard University in the District of Columbia in 1932. He served there from 1932 to 1944. He also served on the faculty of the Howard University School of Divinity.

Thurman traveled broadly, heading Christian missions and meeting with world figures. In 1935-36 he led a six-month delegation of African-Americans invited to India for meetings. At Bardoli they spoke with Mahatma Gandhi, who asked "persistent, pragmatic questions" about the Black American community and its struggles. Training for satyagraha was discussed, its difficulties in the extreme addressed.

When Thurman asked Gandhi what message he should take back to the United States, Gandhi said he regretted not having made nonviolence more visible as a practice worldwide and remarked "It may be through the Negroes that the unadulterated message of nonviolence will be delivered to the world".

In 1944, Thurman left his tenured position at Howard to help the Fellowship of Reconciliation establish the Church for the Fellowship of All Peoples also known as The Fellowship Church in San Francisco. He served as co-pastor with a white minister, Alfred Fisk. Many of their congregants were African Americans who had migrated to San Francisco from Oklahoma, Texas, and Arkansas for jobs in the defense industry. The church helped create a new community for many in San Francisco.

Thurman was invited to Boston University in 1953, where he became the dean of Marsh Chapel (1953–1965). He was the first black dean of a chapel at a majority-white university or college in the United States. In addition, he served on the faculty of Boston University School of Theology. Thurman was also active and well known in the Boston community, where he influenced many leaders. Thurman was the minister delivering the sermon at Marsh Chapel on Good Friday April 20, 1962; the famous Good Friday double-blind psychedelic experiment by Walter Pahnke using psilocybin to assess whether a religious environment influenced a mystical experience.

After leaving Boston University in 1965, Thurman continued his ministry as chairman of the board and director of the Howard Thurman Educational Trust in San Francisco until his death in 1981.

Thurman was a prolific author, writing twenty books on theology, religion, and philosophy. The most famous of his works, Jesus and the Disinherited (1949), deeply influenced Martin Luther King Jr. and other leaders, both black and white, of the modern Civil Rights Movement.

Thurman had been a classmate and friend of King's father at Morehouse College. King visited Thurman while he attended Boston University, and Thurman in turn mentored his former classmate's son and his friends. He served as spiritual advisor to King, Sherwood Eddy, James Farmer, A. J. Muste, and Pauli Murray.

At Boston University, Thurman also taught Reb Zalman Schachter-Shalomi, who cited Thurman as among the teachers who first compelled him to explore mystical trends beyond Judaism.

Death
Howard Thurman died due to a lingering illness on April 10, 1981, in San Francisco, California. He was 81 years old.

Honors and legacy
Thurman was named honorary Canon of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York City, in 1974.

The Ebony Magazine called Thurman one of the 50 most important figures in African-American history. In 1953, Life rated Thurman among the twelve most important religious leaders in the United States.

In 1986, Dean Emeritus George K. Makechnie founded the Howard Thurman Center at Boston University to preserve and share the legacy of Howard Thurman. In 2020, the Howard Thurman Center for Common Ground moved to a larger space occupying two floors in the Peter Fuller Building at 808 Commonwealth Avenue. The Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center at Boston University holds the Howard Thurman Papers and the Sue Bailey Thurman Papers, where they are catalogued and available to researchers.

The Howard Thurman Papers Project was founded in 1992. The Project's mission is to preserve and promote Thurman's vast documentary record, which spans 63 years and consists of approximately 58,000 items of correspondence, sermons, unpublished writings, and speeches. The Howard Thurman Papers Project is located at Boston University School of Theology.

Howard University School of Divinity named their chapel the Thurman Chapel in memory of Howard Thurman.

Howard Thurman's poem 'I Will Light Candles This Christmas' has been set to music by British composer and songwriter Adrian Payne, both as a song and as a choral (SATB) piece. The choral version was first performed by Epsom Choral Society in December 2007. An arrangement for school choirs, which can be performed in one or two parts with piano accompaniment, was first performed in December 2010.

Books

 * The Greatest of These (1944)
 * Deep River: Reflections on the Religious Insight of Certain of the Negro Spirituals (1945) [also published as The Negro Spiritual Speaks of Life and Death (same year)]
 * Meditation for Apostles of Sensitiveness (1948)
 * Jesus and the Disinherited (1949)
 * Deep is the Hunger: Meditations for Apostles of Sensitiveness (1951)
 * Christmas Is the Season of Affirmation (1951)
 * Meditations of the Heart (1953)
 * The Creative Encounter: An Interpretation of Religion and the Social Witness (1954)
 * The Growing Edge (1956)
 * Footprints of a Dream: The Story of the Church for the Fellowship of All Peoples (1959)
 * Mysticism and the Experience of Love (1961)
 * The Inward Journey: Meditations on the Spiritual Quest (1961)
 * Temptations of Jesus: Five Sermons Given By Dean Howard Thurman in Marsh Chapel, Boston University, 1962 (1962)
 * Disciplines of the Spirit (1963)
 * The Luminous Darkness: A Personal Interpretation of the Anatomy of Segregation and the Ground of Hope (1965)
 * The Centering Moment (1969)
 * The Search for Common Ground (1971)
 * The Mood of Christmas (1973)
 * A Track to the Water's Edge: The Olive Schreiner Reader (1973)
 * The First Footprints (1975)
 * With Head and Heart: The Autobiography of Howard Thurman (1979)
 * For the Inward Journey: The Writings of Howard Thurman (1984) (selected by Anne Spencer Thurman)

Edited collections

 * Fluker, Walter Earl; et al., eds. The Papers of Howard Washington Thurman, Vol. 1: My People Need Me, June 1918-March 1936. Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2009.
 * Fluker, Walter Earl; et al., eds. The Papers of Howard Washington Thurman, Vol. 2: Christian, Who Calls Me Christian? April 1936-August 1943. Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2012.
 * Fluker, Walter Earl; Eisenstadt, Peter; and Glick, Silvia P., eds. The Papers of Howard Washington Thurman, Vol. 3: The Bold Adventure, September 1943-May 1949. Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2015.
 * Fluker, Walter Earl; et al., eds. The Papers of Howard Washington Thurman, Vol. 4: The Soundless Passion of a Single Mind, June 1949-December 1962. Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2017.
 * Fluker, Walter Earl; et al., eds. The Papers of Howard Washington Thurman, Vol. 5: The Wider Ministry, January 1963–April 1981. Columbia: Univ. of South Carolina Press, 2019.
 * Fluker, Walter Earl and Tumber, Catherine, eds. A Strange Freedom: The Best of Howard Thurman on Religious Experience and Public Life. Boston: Beacon Press, 1998.
 * Smith, Jr., Luther E. Howard Thurman: Essential Writings. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2006.

title: Howard Thurman