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Yasunao Tone

Yasunao Tone (刀根 康尚) is a multi-disciplinary artist born in Tokyo, Japan and working in New York City. He graduated from Chiba University in 1957 with a major in Japanese Literature. An important figure in postwar Japanese art during the sixties, he was active in many facets of the Tokyo art scene. He was a central member of Group Ongaku and was associated with a number of other Japanese art groups such as Neo-Dada Organizers, Hi-Red Center, and Team Random (the first computer art group organized in Japan). Tone was also a member of Fluxus and one of the founding members of its Japanese branch. Many of his works were performed at Fluxus festivals or distributed by George Maciunas’s various Fluxus operations. Relocating to the United States in 1972, he has since gained a reputation as a musician, performer and writer working with the Merce Cunningham Dance Company, Senda Nengudi, Florian Hecker, and many others. Tone is also known as a pioneer of “Glitch” music due to his groundbreaking modifications of compact discs and CD players.

Early life in Tokyo
While in high-school Tone became interested in Japanese Avant-Garde poetry and prose of the 1920s and 30s. After entering the Literature program at Chiba National University, where he was enrolled from 1953-1957, Tone’s interest in literature expanded to a more general interest in the modernism of the interwar period. During this time, Tone was particularly influenced by Assistant Professor Tsuneyoshi Shigenobu and the instructor Isamu Kurita. Under Shigenobu’s guidance, Tone and his classmates translated Maurice Blanchot’s La Part du feu over a two-year period. Kurita, on the other hand, taught Tone about Bataille as well as introduced him to critics and poets of his own generation such as Yoshiaki Tōno, Kōichi Iijima and Makoto Ōoka. Tone, meanwhile, continued to seek out prewar Japanese avant-garde culture in journals such as “Shi to Shinron,” “Ge.Gjgjgam.Prr.Gjmgem,” “Bara●Majutsu●Gakusetsu,” and “Fukuikutaru Kafu-yo” and through the work of Tomoyoshi Murayama and his Mavo group. Tone then wrote his thesis on Dada and Surrealism, interviewing many of the prominent figures of the 20th century avant-garde in Japan in the process such as Katsue Kitazono, Shūzō Takiguchi, Kōichi Kihara and Sansei Yamanaka.

Group Ongaku and Other Early Artistic Activity
In the late 1950s, Shūko Mizuno, Tone’s classmate at Chiba University enrolled at the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music (Tokyo Geijutsu Daigaku, abbrev. Geidai) and began musically improvising with classmate Takehisa Kosugi. Kosugi played a tape for Tone and asked him to join their sessions. Tone was affected by Kosugi’s gesture, who seemed to show no regard for Tone’s lack of formal musical training. He joined their group, buying a saxophone from Kosugi and a Sony open reel tape recorder. Mieko Shiomi, Genichi Tsuge, Mikio Tohima and Yumiko Tanno also joined, making Tone the only member not enrolled at Geidai. Mizuno’s house became an important meeting place for the group. The group’s experimental endeavors were further informed by the young ethnomusicologist Fumio Koizumi, who became a part-time faculty member at Geidai in September 1959. As historian William Marotti describes, “The different ‘ethnic’ instruments were each bound to a complex performance tradition outside of a western orchestral frame—and thus provided a variety of rich alternatives to the latter’s conceptual dominance of music with its particular, narrow, and oppressive systematicity.” Tone recounts influence by Noh music, Indian music, Jazz musicians like Ornette Coleman and Eric Dolphy and Kabuki music, among others. According to his own account, Tone saw music as lagging behind the experimentation present in other art forms of the time and therefore providing a rich ground for the transformative capacity of art.

Tone also wrote about the group, first in August of 1960 where he emphasized the role of chance and their endeavoring in “an experiment concerning an absolutely new music.” At this time, the group also decided upon its name as “Group Ongaku,” “ongaku” meaning “music” in Japanese. As Marotti points out, this emphasis on chance was part of Tone's and the group’s exploration of a Surrealist-inspired automatism in opposition to artistic egoism. The group’s improvisational approach to collective art making therefore had wider theoretical consequences for the social import of art. Inseparable from this work is its contextualization within the massive protests against the renewal of U.S.-Japan Security treaty (abbreviated as Anpo), as seen in their performance from the van of Tone’s family’s business during the Anpo protests.

Among his early influences, Tone has cited Concrete Music, John Cage’s experiments with sound, Jackson Pollock’s action painting, and Art autre/Art informel. A former literature major, Tone became a fixture within the Japanese contemporary art scene. Tone was involved with the Neo Dadaism Organizers group, attending and sometimes participating in their events such as those conducted at Masunobu Yoshimura’s “White House” in Shinjuku, In the early sixties he became involved with the international Fluxus movement. For example, his 1961 score Anagram for Strings was published and distributed by George Maciunas’s Fluxus Editions in 1963. This work was Tone’s first graphic score, and it was performed during the first Fluxus festival, a 1962 tour around Europe. Dasha Dekleva describes the score, writing that it “is populated with small white and black circles and dots, and with random whole numbers (positive and negative) along the top and left edges. The realization of the piece involves drawing a line across the score and using basic arithmetic calculations that determine how a series of downward glissando is to be performed.” Among other shorter scores, Anagram for Strings was translated to English by Yoko Ono. In another 1961 work, Days, Tone recorded himself counting to past one hundred at a low volume. He then played the recording back at a high volume, re-recording it. This process was repeated multiple times until the distortion has completely obscured the sound to unintelligibility. In 1961 Tone also produced Geodessy For Piano in which he “experimented with the inevitable indeterminacy of a precise execution of sounds,” according to art historian and curator Alexandra Munroe. In this work, Tone stood elevated on a ladder above an open piano. He then took various handheld objects such as a tennis ball or cork and dropped them one-by-one onto the exposed strings. Tone would also modify the method by ascending or descending the ladder to increase or decrease the distance from which the objects were dropped.

1962 saw a multitude of notable events in Tone’s oeuvre, including his first solo concert “One-man Show by Composer” in February. The concert occurred at the former Minami Gallery space with assisting performers seated on tatami mats on the floor. Compositions performed here include Anagram, Smooth Event, Silly Symphony and Drastic, in which the performer took a large amount of laxatives and performed on the drums until they had to use the bathroom. 1962 also saw the Yamanote Line Incident, by Natsuyuki Nakanishi, Jirō Takamatsu and Hiroshi Kawani. Tone and Kosugi also participated, although they performed on a different spot along the circular loop of the Yamanote train line than the other group. Tone and Kosugi were supposed to meet up with the primary group at Ikebukuro, but the primary group ended their performance prematurely when Nakanishi became too nervous to continue. Tone and Kosugi, on the other hand, completed the circuit of the Yamanote line, playing mobile tape players so that the sounds from the tapes and the sounds from around the train lines intermingled.

Tone’s first submission to the progressive Yomiuri Independent Exhibition, an annual exhibition that had become a hotbed of experimental artistic activity and discourse, also occurred in 1962. This submission was titled Tēpu Rekōdā (Tape Recorder). The work was initially a reel to reel tape recorder which, after some uncertainty, he painted in hopes of making it a more acceptable submission to the art exhibition. Unhappy with this, he placed this entire tape recorder inside of a big white cloth bag that belonged to Kosugi. The result was an amorphous cloth form that would occasionally produce strange sounds on the thirty to forty minute loop. The following year, the final year of the Yomiuri Independent, Tone produced Something Happened (1963). Acquiring the stereotype mold of the Yomiuri newspaper (the exhibition sponsor) published that day, Tone rendered the news in plaster. Other works from this period were more performative, such as Catch Water Music (1965), a collaboration with Tatsumi Hijikata, in which Tone threw water from a balcony onto the stage below. Around this time Tone also frequented the events at the Sōgetsu Art Center. It was here that Tone met Nam June Paik, who had been working in Tokyo with Shūya Abe between Summer of 1963 and Spring of 1964.

Criticism and theory
Tone was also a prolific and important writer and theorist of art. In his 1961 “Toward Anti-Music,” for example, he describes a progression in Western music from “musical tone” to “abstract music.” From here is outlines its logical successor as “concrete music” in European musique concrète and American “indeterminate music,” invoking John Cage. He writes, “They focused on concrete sonority (i.e., actual sound of instruments) in a rejection of the abstract musical tone.” In conclusion he notes that while these developments have certainly inspired experimental music in Japan, Japanese artists must not assimilate concrete music as “novel techniques.” “[W]e are making a fresh start after realizing that Japanese ‘avant-garde’ music always appropriated new Western trends only to imitate their techniques,” he declares. The text gives some insight into the aims of his concurrent activities with Group Ongaku activities that Tone and how they might diverge (through an emphasis on group improvisation, for example) from the European precedents of musique concrète and “indeterminate music.”

Tone’s influence through his writing and theory may also be detected when art historian Reiko Tomii credits him with helping to solidify the term “gendai bijutsu” (contemporary art) to indicate the new idiom of postwar art in Japan as distinct from other terms such as “kindai bijutsu” (modern art) or “zen’ei” (avant-garde). This articulation of a new idiom received textual form in “Chronology: Five Decades of Contemporary Art, 1916-1968” in 1972. For this text, Tone, along with Naoyoshi Hikosaka and Yukio Akatsuka, compiled a history of Japanese contemporary art, published in Bijutsu Techo. Tone was an important friend and influence upon Hikosaka, an important progenitor of conceptualism in Japan. Tone’s role as an influential theorist for young Japanese contemporary artists can be observed in his relationship Hikosaka more generally, to whom he introduced the works of Fluxus and John Cage as well as the philosophy of Edmund Husserl. It was Tone who also suggested that Hikosaka use latex as the material for his important 1970 Floor Event piece instead of the conventional art material of plaster, and who assisted in the work by pressing the shutter button on the 35 millimeter camera as Hikosaka brushed the latex over the floor of his home. Tone was one of the five original artists of Hikosaka’s “Bikyōtō Revolution Committee,” a continuation of “Bikyōtō,” a radical, leftist student protest group at Tama Art University.

In 1970 Tone compiled and published a book of his writing titled Gendai geijutsu no isō.

Jury Event: Tone Prize Exhibition
In September 1964, Tone published an ad in “Ongaku Geijutsu” magazine that read, “Call for Entries: 1st Tone-Prize Composition.” Details read:

“Tone Prizes are given to all entries.

Deadline: October 1.

Certificates will be mailed in lieu of official announcement in early October.

There is no restriction on form or content. However, phenomena will not be accepted for they are impossible to present; instead please submit texts, etc. For further details, please contact: Yasunao Tone, 11 Asakusa Shōtenchō, Taitō-ku, Tokyo.

Announcement of Prizes

Works that receive Tone Prizes automatically qualify for the following individual prizes, which will be presented at a concert as Sogetsu Hall in late November.

Prizes include: Kosugi Prize, Ichiyanagi Prize, Okuyama Prize, Ono Prize, Akasegawa Prize, Nakanishi Prize, Takiguchi Prize, Takeda Prize, Ishizaki Prize, Shinohara Prize, Kobayashi Prize, Hijikata Prize, etc.

Performed and juried by: Kosugi Takehisa, Ichiyanagi Toshi, Okuyama Jūnosuke, Yoko Ono, Akasegawa Genpei, Nakanishi Natsuyuki, Takiguchi Shuzo, Takeda Akimichi, Ishizaki Koichiro, Shinohara Ushio, Hijikata Tatsumi, etc.

Cocurrence [sic] event 1964 Tokyo”

The exhibition was conceived of Tone in response to the closure of the Yomiuri Independent, which was, according to Tomii, “the principle forum of anti-Art” and whose closure “prompted discussion of the dependency of vanguard artists on the corporate-sponsored ‘independent.’” One entry to the Tone Prize Exhibition was Hi-Red Center’s canonical Cleaning Event (1964), a work that Tone participated in himself.

Activity in the United States (1972-Present)
In 1972, Tone went to Mills College in Oakland to perform at the event “Repetition and Structure: Works of Yasunao Tone 1961-1964.” What Tone had intended as a trip away from Tokyo, stopping in France, the Bay Area of California and New York, turned into a permanent residence when Tone decided to move to New York during that same trip.

He was soon asked by David Behrman, director of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company, to do some composing for the following year’s season. Tone created a piece for a two-day Cunningham event, Clockwork Video (1974), which used a pulley system to put in motion three turntables. The first turned at a rate of one revolution per second, the second one per minute, and the last turntable one per hour. He then placed a video camera on the turn table to capture the interior of the Cunningham Studio, which had a stage on one side and was mirrored on the other. By placing the turn tables by the mirrored side, the footage captures the real space about half of the time while capturing its reflection for the other half. The piece was accompanied by a text Tone wrote, compositing a Michel Foucault text on Gilles Deleuze and Tone’s own essay, “On Looking at Photography” (Shashin o miru koto ni tsuite). A later version of the piece captured a female nude body in three sections: head, torso, and legs. Projections of the respective sections rotated in intervals of one second, one minute and one hour, aligning at the completion of the hour. Tone titled the work Clockwork Video à la Magritte.

Another work prominently featured by Cunningham’s dance company was Geography and Music, performed from 1979 to 1987. The work was commissioned by the American Dance Festival in Durham for Cunningham’s Roadrunners. The piece comprised a text, a notation for two amplified string instruments (derived from the tablature of ninth-century Chinese pipa music, and a gated audio system. The work features the reading of passages from a late 10th century Chinese encyclopedia, describing various foreign places and people.

Around this time, Tone became influenced by the work of East Asian Studies Scholar Shizuoka Shirakawa and his 1970 book Kanji in particular. The book ethnographically traces the development of kanji characters. Inspired by Jacques Derrida’s Of Grammatology, Tone began a process of translating kanji characters into sound. This would prove to be a rich avenue for Tone’s experimentation in sound seen in works like Musica Iconologos and ''Musica Simulacra. Musica Iconologos'' (1993) converted two poems from the Shih Ching, China’s earliest poetic anthology, into sound. Tone describes the process for producing his album Musica Iconologos as such: “first, the material source of the piece was derived from the poetic text of ancient China and each character of the text was converted into photographic images according to the ancient form of the Chinese characters which are closer to images than the modern form. I scanned the images and digitized them, thus the images were transformed simply into 0’s and 1’s. Then, I obtained histograms from the binary codes and had the computer read the histograms as sound waves; thus I got sound from the images.” For example, “Solar Eclipse in October,” a poem composed of 262 early Chinese characters was turned into half an hour of experimental, chance-driven sound. A similar method was employed for Musica Simulacra, debuted in 2003, which took the Man’yoshu collection of poems of the 7th and 8th centuries as its source material. This particular project shows Tone’s multi-disciplinary concern in that it necessitated study of the obscure grammatology of the characters used (and sometimes invented) in the writing of the Man’yoshu anthology. With the original poem in mind, a relationship/pattern can be established between words and sound events. The repetition of a word is highlighted and traceable to an analogue waveform. Tone used these analog patterns, in addition to an artificial three-part structures, in 'Musica Iconologs' to reduce the listeners awareness off repetition. His collaboration with Florian Hecker, Palimpsest, also transliterated Japanese Man'yōshū poems to sound. As Tone notes, Musica Iconologos was developed specifically for the medium of compact disc. He writes, “I had received an offer to publish a CD; however, none of my pieces were suitable for recording. Certain formal elements of the pieces—spatial movement of sound, contrasting acoustic sound with amplified sound, and the use of visuals—made the pieces simply unrecordable. So I had to create something totally devoid of live performance, something that only the CD as a medium could produce.” Because the musician’s hand is removed in Musica Iconologos, it can only be played and never performed. The compact disc as a means of dissemination and presentation were therefore integral to the production of the work itself.

Tone began manipulating compact discs to achieve uniquely mangled sounds in 1984. Tone's CD-player-based works employ a process of "de-controlling" the device's playback so that it randomly selects fragments from a set of sound materials. Tone has stated that the error-correction functionality of modern CD players has made it hard to continue to use this technique and, for this reason, he continues to use older equipment. Tone placed scotch-tape with small perforations on CD-roms of classical and popular music, causing the player to misread and information on the CD. The result was a unpredictable sonic distortion, uniquely generated by Tone’s intervention into the CD player’s specific technological mechanisms. Tone recounts discovering the process in an interview:

“I called my audiophile friend, who owned a Swiss-made CD player, and asked him about it. It was a simpler method than I suspected. I bought a copy of Debussy’s Preludes and brought it to my friend’s place. By his engineer friend’s suggestion, we simply made many pinholes on its of Scotch tape and stuck it on the bottom of a CD. I had many trials and errors. I was pleased [with] the result, because the CD player behaved frantically and out of control. [It] was a perfect device for performance.”

In March 1986, Tone performed Music for 2 CD Players at the Experimental Intermedia Foundation in New York using this method. According to Tone, Cage sat in the front row and “several minutes after the beginning of the performance he laughed loudly, over and over, until the end.” After finishing the piece, Cage immediately came up to Tone and shook his hand. The technique is also used in his 1997 album, Solo for Wounded CD.

Always active in the United States with avant-garde music artists, he has been awarded a CAPS Grant in multi-media, a 2004 Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists Award, a New York State Council on the Arts commission grant for flutist Barbara Held, a National Endowment for the Arts grant for collaborative work with Blondell Cummings and Senga Nengdi, and a New York Foundation for the Arts Fellowship in performance/emerging forms. Tone has performed at the Kitchen, the Experimental Intermedia Foundation, P.S.1. Guggenheim Museum SOHO, and the Chicago Art Club among other notable venues. He has been included in several institutional group exhibitions at venues such as The Whitney Museum of Art in New York, The Yokohama Triennale 2001 in Yokohama, and the Moderni in the Casselo Museum in Turin. Music festivals featuring Tone include All Tomorrow’s Parties in London, Sonic Light in Amsterdam, and Spectacle Vivante at the Centre Pompidou in Paris. In 1979 he was given the CAPS grant in multi-media and the Ars Electronica Golden Nica Prize in 2002. In 2023 his work was celebrated with a mini-retrospective at Artists Space in New York City that was curated by Danielle A. Jackson.

Selected discography

 * (1993) Yasunao Tone : Musica Iconologos (Lovely Music) CD
 * (1997) Yasunao Tone : Solo for Wounded CD (Tzadik) CD
 * (2001) Yasunao Tone : Wounded Man'Yo #38-9/2001 (Alku) 3" CD
 * (2003) Yasunao Tone : Yasunao Tone (Asphodel Records) CD
 * (2004) Yasunao Tone & Hecker: Palimpsest (Mego) CD
 * (2011) Yasunao Tone : MP3 Deviations #6+7 (Editions Mego) CD
 * (2011) Yasunao Tone : MP3 Deviations #8 (Editions Mego) LP
 * (2013) Yasunao Tone & Russell Haswell : Convulsive Threshold (Editions Mego) CD
 * (2017) Yasuano Tone : AI Deviation #1, #2 (Editions Mego) LP =

title: Yasunao Tone


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Phelonion

The phelonion (Greek: φαιλόνιον, plural, φαιλόνια, phailónia; Latin: paenula, Russian: Фело́нь - Felón’) is a liturgical vestment worn by a priest of the Byzantine Christian tradition. It is worn over the priest's other vestments and is equivalent to the chasuble of Western Christianity.

History
Like the chasuble, the phelonion was originally a sort of poncho, a conical round vestment with a hole in the middle for the head, which fell to the feet on all sides. It derived from the Roman civilian paenula, and it was made of wool, silk, or linen. Unlike the chasuble, it was worn at all liturgical functions, not only at the celebration of the Mass or Divine Liturgy. It was in use as early as the sixth century for priests, bishops, and also minor orders. It can be seen in the mosaics in Ravenna and the Euphrasian Basilica in Porec. The phelonion is depicted in the Menologion of Basil II, dating to 1000 AD. It shape evolved, and was folded above the elbows to free the arms and hands.

In its present form (dating from about the 15th century) the front is largely cut away (from about the waist down) to facilitate the movements of the priest's hands. In Russia the longer front remained common until quite recent times. The use of the phelonion is not limited to the Divine Liturgy but is specified for any major liturgical function. It is also called phenolion (φαινόλιον; plural phenolia φαινόλια) in some books.

Polystavrion
Originally the bishops wore a phelonion identical to that worn by priests and it could be of any solid color. Starting before the 11th century, a special phelonion, called the polystavrion or polystaurion ("many crosses") phelonion developed for certain prelates, and it was made of cloth that was either woven or embroidered with a pattern of multiple crosses. The oldest surviving sources depicting the polystavrion as used by bishops are certain manuscripts from the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. The first author to mention it, Joannes Zonaras, declares its use was allowed not only for the four Orthodox patriarchs (Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem), but also for the exarchs of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, that is the bishops of Caesarea, Ephesus, Thessaloniki, and Corinth. The twelfth century canonist Theodore Balsamon deemed it strictly reserved for the patriarch. No polystavrion has survived from the Byzantine period, and it was gradually supplanted by the sakkos. In his writings around 1400, Symeon of Thessalonica allows it to be used by all metropolitans. Between the 12th and 15th century, the polystavrion obtained great importance, and is often seen in monumental paintings and frescos.

The polystavrion was the first case of vestement that differentiated the rank of a see. Before, the highest ranking patriarch and a rural bishop would have both worn the plain phelonion with the omophorion. Strict enforcement of who was allowed to wear the polystavrion was exemplified by a 1370 letter from Philotheus I, Patriarch of Constantinople to Aleksei bishop of Novgorod in which he prohibits Aleksei from wearing it, since the right to wear the polystavrion was given to Aleskei's predecessor as a personal favor.

The polystavrion was initially developed as a symbol of higher rank, but gradually was extended to all bishops. This phenomenon was later repeated with the sakkos and the mitre, which also started off as worn only by the highest-ranking patriarchs and then trickled down to the rest of the hierarchy.

Styles
There are two main styles of phelonion. Byzantine- or Greek-style phelonia are tailored to fit over the shoulders, while Russian-style phelonia (Фелонь, felon) have a high, stiffened collar that covers the back of the head. There is also a shortened phelonion (Фелончик, felonchik) that is worn by a reader at his tonsuring. This small phelonion is still worn by altar servers in Old Believers churches. The Greek-style phelonion is, generally speaking, worn by those with a historical and geographical closer tie with the Patriarch of Constantinople, which would include most Eastern Orthodox Christians in the Middle East, Greece, the Balkans, Romania, Bulgaria, as well as Greek-Catholics and Orthodox in western Ukraine.

The Russian-style phelonion is used by the Russian Orthodox, Ukrainian Autocephalous, Ukrainian Orthodox (Moscow Patriarchate), Polish Orthodox churches, as well as the Orthodox Church in America. There is also a version used by some Ukrainian and Bulgarian Orthodox which is half-way between the Russian and Greek styles.

A bishop who wishes to serve a Divine Liturgy as a priest (i.e., without the special rites and prayers of the Hierarchical Divine Liturgy) will sometimes vest in a phelonion instead of his sakkos, but with the omophorion around his neck. This is also done in the Liturgy of St. James.

In Oriental Orthodoxy, the phelonion is often only clasped at the neck, and is thus more open than the Byzantine-style, resembling a Western cope. Its various names are phanolion (Coptic), paynā (Assyrian), phayno (Syriac Orthodox), šurdzar (Armenian) and kāppā (Ethiopian). These are worn by bishops as well as priests (the sakkos is not worn by priests).

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title: Phelonion


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History of street lighting in the United States

The history of street lighting in the United States is closely linked to the urbanization of America. Artificial illumination has stimulated commercial activity at night, and has been tied to the country's economic development, including major innovations in transportation, particularly the growth in automobile use. In the two and a half centuries before LED lighting emerged as the new "gold standard", cities and towns across America relied on oil, coal gas, carbon arc, incandescent, and high-intensity gas discharge lamps for street lighting.

Oil lamp street lighting
The earliest street lights in the colonial America were oil lamps burning whale oil from the Greenland or Arctic right whales of the North Atlantic, or from sperm whales of the South Atlantic, South Pacific, and beyond. Lamplighters were responsible for igniting the lamps and maintaining them. As early as the 1750s, inventor Benjamin Franklin of Philadelphia introduced innovations in oil lamp design, such as using two woven wicks to siphon oil from a reservoir, and flat panes of glass which could be easily replaced and were cheaper than blown glass bowls.

In Boston, a citizens' committee led by John Hancock installed more than 300 oil lamps from England in 1773. The year before, a newspaper editorial had called for a system of public lamps to prevent crime and protect citizens at night. The glass globes were placed on posts ten feet high and spaced fifty feet apart along the street, following the system used in London. These early street lights were "more suggestive than real"; in practice, pedestrians moved from one pool of light to another, walking through shadow in between.

In New York, more than 1,600 oil lamps were in use as city street lights in 1809. The city had started using spermaceti oil, which burned more brightly than candles, in its street lamps from as early as 1792. Philadelphia was close behind during this period, with 1,100 street lamps.

Gas street lighting
Gas lamps gradually started replacing oil street lamps in the United States, beginning in the first quarter of the 19th century. The first street in the world to be illuminated by gaslight was Pall Mall in London, starting in 1807. The first US city to use gas street lights was Baltimore, starting in 1817. In 1816, artist Rembrandt Peale had demonstrated the use of gas lamps to light exhibits at the Peale Museum in Baltimore, displaying what The Federal Gazette and Daily Advertiser called "the beautiful and most brilliant light". The following year, a group of investors formed the Gas Light Company of Baltimore, which was authorized by the municipal government to lay pipes to use coal gas to light public streets.

Although both New York and Philadelphia experimented with gas street lighting around this time, the sophistication of their existing oil-based lighting systems meant that those cities were slower to replace the street lamps they already had with technology that was still unproven. By 1835, New York, Philadelphia, and Boston had also built the requisite infrastructure of piped networks connected to manufacturing gas plants (MGPs) to supply gas light to shopping boulevards, wealthy residential neighborhoods, and major thoroughfares. That year, only 384 of New York City's 5,660 street lamps were gaslights. Chicago turned on its first hundred-odd gaslights on September 4, 1850.

Gas light was up to ten times brighter than light from oil lamps, but by present-day standards, the lights appeared "distinctly yellow and not very bright". In 1841, British author James Silk Buckingham observed that New York City's street lights were inadequate: “The lamps are so far apart and so scantily supplied with light that it is impossible to distinguish names or numbers on the doors from carriages or even on foot without ascending the steps." By 1893, New York City had 26,500 gas street lights and only 1,500 electrical lights.

Arc lamps
The first public demonstration of outdoor electrical lighting in the US was in Cleveland, Ohio, on April 29, 1879. Inventor Charles F. Brush had been perfecting the dynamo arc light, which could produce a glow equivalent to 4,000 candles in a single lamp. For the demonstration, which drew a crowd of thousands, Brush positioned twelve 2,000-candlepower lamps on towers around Cleveland's Public Square (then known as Monumental Park), and fully illuminated it with electric light.

The first municipal government to purchase and install the Brush arc lighting system was the city of Wabash, Indiana. On March 31, 1880, Wabash became "the first town in the world generally lighted by electricity," as four 3,000-candlepower Brush lights suspended from the flagstaff on top of the Wabash County Courthouse were switched on, flooding the neighborhood with light. According to an eyewitness, "The people, almost with bated breath, stood overwhelmed with awe." The journalist reported that he had been able to read a newspaper, held up to the light, from one street away; from two blocks away, he could still read the headlines; from four blocks away he could make out the advertisements.

Demand for the Brush street lighting system grew quickly, as it provided higher-quality light for one-third the cost of gas lamps. In 1880, Brush conducted a demonstration in New York City, erecting 23 arc lamps along Broadway. As a result, Brush won several city contracts including contracts for lighting Union Square and Madison Square, where towers were erected for the arc lamps. On major thoroughfares such as Broadway, arc lamps were placed on lampposts at 250-foot intervals; by 1886, approximately 30 miles of thoroughfares in New York City were lit by arc lamps. On Fifth Avenue, however, arc lamps were dismantled after residents complained that the wires connecting the fixtures were "unsightly", and most of the street "returned to the gloom of gas." By 1893, New York City had 1,535 electric arc street lights.

In New Orleans, arc lamps were used for street lighting starting in 1881. In 1882, the New Orleans Brush Lighting Company installed one hundred 2,000-candlepower arc lamps along five miles of wharf and riverfront; by 1885, New Orleans had 655 arc lights. In Chicago, arc lamps were used in public street lighting starting in 1887. At first, arc lamps were only used on Chicago River bridges, but by 1910, they were used more widely on major Chicago streets.

Incandescent lights
During the first two decades of the 20th century, there was intense competition among providers of various forms of street lighting, including carbon arc lamps; incandescent lamps; traditional coal gas lamps; and gasoline and naphtha street lamps. Incandescent lamps were initially developed primarily for indoor use, but major technology breakthroughs in 1907 and 1911 perfected the use of tungsten filaments. From 1911 onward, electric incandescent lamps with tungsten filaments became an increasingly popular choice among municipal utilities for public street lighting.

In 1919, San Francisco introduced tungsten bulbs on Van Ness Avenue, between Vallejo and Market Street, replacing gas mantles and arc lamps. The city used two 250-candlepower tungsten lamps per column, on sixteen columns for every block. According to The Electrical Review: “Under the old system of lighting it was dangerous for a pedestrian to attempt to cross the street because of the heavy automobile traffic. Now the entire street is flooded with evenly distributed light and the appearance of the street as well as the public safety has been greatly enhanced." By 1917, the number of incandescent filament lamps used in street lighting had reached 1,389,000 across the United States, while the number of arc lamps had started to decline.

Mercury vapor lamps
By the mid-20th century, increasing motorization necessitated better illumination, particularly in business districts where there was more mixing of cars and pedestrians, as well as along commercial thoroughfares. Streets needed to be illuminated more evenly, and a minimum level of lighting needed to be maintained throughout the night. Street lighting became a major expense for US cities, which sought to control costs in various ways. From the point of view of a municipal lighting department, the fact that incandescent lamps "radiate with very low efficiency, producing relatively little light at visible wavelengths", made them less and less attractive for public street lighting.

Mercury vapor streetlights started to be used more widely in the United States after 1950, mainly due to their cost efficiency. By then, the lifespan of mercury vapor lamps had been extended to 16,000 hours, and they could provide up to 40 lumens per watt, whereas incandescent lamps could only deliver 16 to 21 lumens. The first large street installation of mercury vapor lamps in the United States was in Denver, Colorado, on Park Avenue, where they were used together with incandescents. In 1964, nearly 39 percent of street lights in the US were mercury vapor, while incandescents accounted for 60 percent. By 1973, the use of incandescent outdoor lamps was rapidly declining, while the production of mercury vapor lamps soared.

Sodium vapor lamps
Low-pressure sodium vapor street lights produce a strong monochromatic yellow light, which also reveals more detail to the human eye, even at low levels of luminance. In the 1930s, sodium vapor lamps were not efficient enough to make them a compelling alternative to incandescents. However, because they enhanced visual acuity, they were recommended for safety lighting in tunnels, on bridges, and at "cloverleaf" interchanges on express highways.

In the US, street lights using sodium vapor were first installed on a rural highway near Port Jervis, New York, in 1933. In 1938, a study of sodium vapor light use at selected intersections in Chicago claimed that the new lighting had helped to reduce the number of accidents in those areas. Lamp manufacturers started to promote sodium vapor lamps for "crime fighting", a marketing strategy that backfired when cities such as Newark and New Orleans rejected sodium vapor, to avoid publicly stigmatizing high-crime neighborhoods.

When the availability of high-pressure sodium vapor lamps coincided with the rise of social unrest in the mid-1960s, lamp manufacturers once again promoted the potential for sodium vapor lighting to enable better street surveillance. High-pressure sodium lamps produced a distinct "yellow/orangeish light", brighter than mercury vapor light, which has been described as a "harsh metallic blue" in hue. During the OPEC oil embargo, Mayor Richard J. Daley announced a plan to make Chicago "the first large U.S. city to have sodium vapor lamps on all residential streets", replacing 85,000 mercury vapor streetlights. Although a December 1973 article in the Chicago Tribune was optimistic about the "more cheerful, brighter, gold-colored vapor lamps", the newspaper's own architecture critic worried about the "eerie, ominous quality of sodium vapor illumination". In 1976, the large-scale installation of sodium vapor lamps began on Chicago's arterial streets.

In the end, the most critical factor in favor of sodium vapor lamps was their cost. In 1980, the annual operating cost for the average incandescent lamp was $280; for mercury vapor lamps, it was $128; and for low-pressure sodium vapor lamps, it was $60 a year. Meanwhile, high-pressure sodium vapor lamps cost only $44 a year to operate, with a standard life expectancy of 15,000 hours, which also helped to lower labor and maintenance costs. According to the Edison Tech Center, sodium vapor lamps are "the most ubiquitous lamp for street lighting on the planet."

Light emitting diodes
In recent years, efforts to make street lighting more energy efficient have focused on using light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to replace high-pressure mercury (HPM), metal halide (MH), and high-pressure sodium (HPS) luminaires. LEDs also produce a whiter light, and can be installed as part of a centrally managed system with further energy saving controls, such as part-night lighting and dimming. Although the up-front costs of installing LED fixtures is significant, municipalities switching to LED street lighting generally expect to recoup their investment through reductions in ongoing electricity and maintenance costs. Many of the early projects in the United States also benefitted from economic stimulus block grants.

In 2007, the city of Ann Arbor, Michigan, announced plans to become "the first US city to convert all of its downtown streetlights to LED technology." The city replaced 120-watt bulbs which lasted only two years with 56-watt LEDs that would last a decade, and expected to reduce its public lighting energy use by half. However, for the first two years, DTE Energy continued to bill Ann Arbor at the same rate as before, because the street lights were not metered, and electricity charges were estimated based on past use. Under the direction of the state utility regulator, DTE Energy eventually revised its rates for Ann Arbor based on the expected energy use for "experimental lighting technology", and credited the city retroactive to the installation. As of January 2011, the city of Ann Arbor had switched 1,400 of its 7,000 streetlight fixtures to LEDs, and saved approximately $200,000, including reduced maintenance costs.

Towers
Many cities across the United States experimented with tall tower structures to deliver light to entire city neighborhoods, similar to the arc lamp installation at the Wabash County Courthouse in Indiana. In 1802, Benjamin Henfry erected an oil-based "thermolamp" on a tall column in Richmond, Virginia, which failed to cast as much light as he had hoped for. In Washington, DC, city planners considered using the Washington Monument as a tower platform for lighting, but rejected the idea after placing test lamps on the Smithsonian Institution and United States Capitol buildings.

Municipalities that adopted tower lighting or "moontowers" for a period included Akron, Aurora, Austin, Buffalo, Chattanooga, Denver, Detroit, Elgin, Evansville, Fort Wayne, Hannibal, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Louisville, Minneapolis, Mobile, San Francisco, and San Jose. Most of these cities erected only one or two towers, before falling back on traditional lamppost lighting. One exception was Los Angeles, which erected 36 towers, fifteen of which were 150-feet tall and equipped with three 3,000-candlepower arc lamps each. Another exception was Detroit, which attempted to use 122 towers to illuminate 21 square miles of the city. Although the tower lighting in Detroit provided "uniform carpets of light", it was ineffective in providing sufficient lighting for high-traffic areas and routes. After five years, Detroit began to dismantle its towers.

As of October 2021, the only lighting towers that remain in the United States are in Austin, Texas. The city of Austin purchased 31 of Detroit's used moonlight towers in 1894. Seventeen of those towers, erected in Austin in 1895, continue to function as working lighting towers today.

Induction lighting
In 2009, PSE&G in New Jersey became the first utility in the US to use induction fluorescent lamps to replace mercury vapor lamps, in 220 municipalities. The induction lamps were expected to last 100,000 hours before requiring maintenance and consume 30 to 40 percent less electricity, thereby saving an estimated $1 million annually. The induction lamps also provide a whiter light, and contain less mercury.

Following extensive field tests, the City of San Diego decided in 2010 to replace 10,000 of its high-pressure sodium (HPS) streetlights with cobra-head induction luminaires. Astronomers from the nearby Palomar Observatory had objected to replacing the HPS lamps with light sources with higher color temperatures, which would increase light pollution and interfere with their research. One of the key findings of the field assessment was that LED luminaires became more expensive and less efficient at lower color temperatures. The City of San Diego has standardized on induction lighting for street lights, but uses low-pressure sodium (LPS) lamps within a 30-mile radius of the observatory.

Urban Light
Urban Light at the entrance to the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) Center, Los Angeles, is an assemblage of historical street lights taken from actual usage in Southern California in the form of a 2008 sculpture by Chris Burden.


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Scout sign and salute

The three-finger salute is used by members of Scout and Guide organizations around the world when greeting other Scouts and in respect of a national flag at ceremonies. In most situations, the salute is made with the right hand, palm face out, the thumb holding down the little finger. There are some variations of the salute between national Scouting organizations and also within some programme sections.

A "half-salute", known as the Scout sign, is also used in certain situations. The hand is still held palm facing out, and the thumb holding the little finger, but the hand is held at the shoulder instead. Other organizations with historical ties to Scouting such as Scouts Royale Brotherhood and Alpha Phi Omega use it as well.

Meaning of the three fingers
In his book, Scouting for Boys, Robert Baden-Powell chose the three-finger salute for Scouts to represent the three aspects of the Scout Promise:
 * 1) Honour God and Country
 * 2) Help Others
 * 3) Obey the Scout Law

Cub Scouts' two-finger salute
Cub Scout sections can use a two-finger salute, depending on the national Scouting organization they belong to. This is done to represent the two rules of the original Cub Scout / Wolf Cub law. The salute is performed with the right hand.

In The Wolf Cub's Handbook, Baden-Powell wrote: "Why two fingers? Well, you know what a Wolf's head looks like with two ears cocked up. It is used as the badge of the Wolf Cub. Your two fingers in the salute are the two ears of the Wolf."

Salute or sign?
Originally, Baden-Powell intended for Scouts to salute each other in greeting when they first saw each other for the first time using the "secret sign", or half-salute. This was regardless of whether the Scouts knew each other or not. Officers, such as Patrol Leaders, Scoutmasters, or members of the armed forces, were to be saluted with a full-salute.

Full-salutes were also required at the hoisting of the Union Flag, the playing of the national anthem, or at funerals.

Canada
In Scouts Canada the salute is rendered vertically, palm out similar to British Army/Commonwealth salutes, except if the member is a Sea Scout where it is palm in/angled down (traditionally, to hide your 'dirty hands' from the ship's captain). Beaver Scouts in Canada use a variant of the two-fingered sign with the fingers bent forwards forming "teeth". When they move up to Cub Scouts part of the ceremony sometimes includes a Scouter straightening the fingers to change from the Beaver to Cub sign.

Switzerland, Belgium and Germany
The half-salute is used by Swiss Scouts when shaking (left) hands with other Scouts or leaders on greeting or parting.

Additional meaning of the thumb holding down the little finger as explained in Switzerland and Germany: the big and strong protects the weak and little.

To greet each other, German-speaking Scouts often say 'Gut Pfad', which can literally be translated to 'Good Path'. This comes from the German term for 'scout', which is 'Pfadfinder'.

United Kingdom
The Scout Association uses the three-fingered Scout sign for all sections, including Cub Scouts. The two-fingered Cub salute was abandoned by the Scout Association following a recommendation by the Advance Party Report in 1966, that "there should be only one salute for the whole Movement". The Scout sign is used while making or reaffirming the Beaver Scout, Cub Scout or Scout Promise and at no other time. The Scout salute is the same but held to the forehead rather than vertically, and is used to salute the Union Flag, section/group colours, or at funerals or the National Anthem. The Baden-Powell Scouts' Association uses both the three and two fingered salutes. Girlguiding only uses the guide sign (half salute), though historically the full salute was used.

Outdoor Service Guides (formerly Baden Powell Service Association)
As a member of WFIS and part of the international Traditional Scouting movement. the Scout sign and salute differs by section in the OSG-US. The Timberwolf (cub) section uses the two-finger (spread) salute, and the two finger Scout salute as defined in the 1938 PO&R, while the Pathfinder (scout) and Rovers use the traditional three-finger sign and salute.

Boy Scouts of America
Cub Scouts use the two finger Scout sign and salute—the sign is presented with the fingers apart to represent the ears of Akela the wolf. Scouts BSA, Venturers and Sea Scouts use the three finger sign and salute. The Scout sign is performed with the upper arm parallel to the ground and the forearm vertical, forming a right angle at the elbow. The Scout sign is used when reciting any of the ideals of the BSA such as the Scout Oath and Scout Law. It is also used to gain the attention of the group.

The salute is rendered in the American style with the palm in and is only used to salute the flag of the United States. Early BSA protocol required Scouts to salute each other, but this was discontinued in 1972.

Girl Scouts of the USA
As a member of WAGGGS, the Girl Scouts of the USA use the three-fingered sign at shoulder height. The three fingers represent the person's own spiritual beliefs, other people and the Girl Scout Law. This differs from the 1913 version where the first finger represented God and Country.

Worldwide
All World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts members share the three fingered sign, with the palm facing out held at shoulder height, elbow by the side and the thumb holding the little finger. This is used in numerous situations of respect including when making or reciting the Promise, receiving awards, honouring a flag, honouring the dead and meeting other Girl Guides and Girl Scouts. In the latter case, it may be used in conjunction with the left handshake.

title: Scout sign and salute


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Luschka's joints

In anatomy, Luschka's joints (also called uncovertebral joints, neurocentral joints) are formed between uncinate process or "uncus" below and uncovertebral articulation above. They are located in the cervical region of the vertebral column from C3 to C7. Two lips project upward from the superior surface of the vertebral body below, and one projects downward from the inferior surface of vertebral body above. They allow for flexion and extension and limit lateral flexion in the cervical spine.

Pathological processes that can occur in these joints include degenerative changes or hypertrophic arthritis, resulting in foraminal stenosis and nerve compression. Foraminal stenosis at this joint is the most common cause of cervical nerve root pressure.

They were characterized by Hubert von Luschka in 1858.

title: Luschka's joints


text: Template:Mathematician-stub

title: Template:Mathematician-stub


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User talk:Helohe

de.wikinews
AS: In Bearbeitung gelöscht

Hallo Helohe, ich habe den AS: In Bearbeitung gelöscht; da ich annehme, Du hast den Artikel vergessen (eine Woche ohne Bearbeitung). Falls nicht: Er wird sich noch eine Zeit lang unter de:n:Die Rolle der deutschen Politik bei der aktuellen Debatte um die CIA-Flüge finden. Gruß -- Cesimbra 12:53, 23. Dez. 2005 (CET)

Link
http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0608140 (QM)

und der zweite

http://arxiv.org/abs/math/0608450 (Gleichungen)

und noch einer:

Perspectives in  Mathematical and  Computational Music  Theory

http://www.epos.uni-osnabrueck.de/music/templates/buch.php?id=48&page=/books/m/ma_nl004/pages/28.htm

http://cgi.ebay.ch/Leitz-Leica-Summicron-R-90mm-f2-3-cam-E55-11219_W0QQitemZ320042817829QQihZ011QQcategoryZ3341QQrdZ1QQcmdZViewItem

WP:CTM election notice
WikiProject Contemporary music   Hi and hello! We are currently electing our first coordinator, see Election: Coordinator for 2010. If you are interested in being a candidate, or would like to ask questions of the candidates, please take a look. Nominations are open until Sunday 3 January. You can see more information about this at WikiProject Contemporary music/Coordinator. P.S. You are currently listed on the project participants list. Are you still active on the project? If so, please reconfirm your name on the Members list. Thanks and good editing!

Proposed deletion of List of longest non-repetitive piano pieces

The article List of longest non-repetitive piano pieces has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "This article is overlistification and original research - no references on why these works are notable for their length"

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion.

Precious anniversary
--Gerda Arendt (talk) 21:55, 26 July 2022 (UTC)

Edit warring at Musk
Your recent editing history shows that you are currently engaged in an edit war; that means that you are repeatedly changing content back to how you think it should be, when you have seen that other editors disagree. To resolve the content dispute, please do not revert or change the edits of others when you are reverted. Instead of reverting, please use the talk page to work toward making a version that represents consensus among editors. The best practice at this stage is to discuss, not edit-war; read about how this is done. If discussions reach an impasse, you can then post a request for help at a relevant noticeboard or seek dispute resolution. In some cases, you may wish to request temporary page protection.

Being involved in an edit war can result in you being blocked from editing—especially if you violate the three-revert rule, which states that an editor must not perform more than three reverts on a single page within a 24-hour period. Undoing another editor's work—whether in whole or in part, whether involving the same or different material each time—counts as a revert. Also keep in mind that while violating the three-revert rule often leads to a block, you can still be blocked for edit warring—even if you do not violate the three-revert rule—should your behavior indicate that you intend to continue reverting repeatedly. ~ HAL  333  13:58, 18 November 2022 (UTC)

title: User talk:Helohe


text: File:Cx heide jujyfruits.jpg

title: File:Cx heide jujyfruits.jpg


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Talk:Lizzie Borden

Added something to the article
in the chapter about television, i added the episode of The Practice but my English is not that perfect so if anyone can rewrite it in a better way that will be good enough for the English wikipedia, that would be great, thanks. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.179.117.32 (talk) 00:57, 23 January 2016 (UTC)

Why are there two inflation adjustments?
I'm curious why the listing for Andrew Borden says both the 2021 and 2022 inflation adjustments. We really only need the most recent. I'm thinking of doing away with the 2021 unless there's a reason for it to be there? The Introvert Next To You (talk) 20:20, 21 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Personally, I would remove the 2022 figure, which was added manually and is not a result of the inflation template. Since inflation equivalents are provided multiple times in the article, all for 2021, they should all be the same. Schazjmd   (talk)  20:36, 21 August 2022 (UTC)

Split to Borden murders
What do you think about splitting some of this content to a separate article about the Borden murders? The murders themselves have been written about by dozens of researchers and authors over the years and it is quite strange that we do not have a standalone article about them.--16:01, 29 May 2024 (UTC) User:Namiba 16:01, 29 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Lizzie Borden doesn't have any notability outside the murders, so a rename might be possible, but a split would probably not be useful. AnonMoos (talk) 17:56, 29 May 2024 (UTC)
 * There are quite a number of sources which discuss her life, even if the the murders take up a central place. The article cites many of them.--User:Namiba 19:04, 29 May 2024 (UTC)
 * That's irrelevant. EEng 06:45, 30 May 2024 (UTC)
 * This is a very bad idea. The two topics are inextricably linked, and best presented together, because someone arriving to learn about one would almost certainly want to learn something about the other. Splitting would require duplication of material, and ongoing coordination of the two articles, to no apparent benefit. The only way this would make sense would be if the combined article becomes so large as to be unwieldy. We can start discussing that when the article's about 3X its current size. EEng 06:45, 30 May 2024 (UTC)

so we all know about this right, plus shes my fav
this is about lizzie borden my favorite unsoled murder anways her theme song rame" lizzie borden took an ax give her mother 40 whakes when she saw what she done.. gave her father 41" 2601:548:8200:1FA0:9015:10C2:9E89:570F (talk) 09:03, 7 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lizzie Borden


text:
Head-mounted display

A head-mounted display (HMD) is a display device, worn on the head or as part of a helmet (see helmet-mounted display for aviation applications), that has a small display optic in front of one (monocular HMD) or each eye (binocular HMD). HMDs have many uses including gaming, aviation, engineering, and medicine.

Virtual reality headsets are a type of HMD that track 3D position and rotation to provide a virtual environment to the user. 3DOF VR headsets typically use an IMU for tracking. 6DOF VR headsets typically use sensor fusion from multiple data sources including at least one IMU.

An optical head-mounted display (OHMD) is a wearable display that can reflect projected images and allows a user to see through it.

Overview

A typical HMD has one or two small displays, with lenses and semi-transparent mirrors embedded in eyeglasses (also termed data glasses), a visor, or a helmet. The display units are miniaturized and may include cathode ray tubes (CRT), liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), liquid crystal on silicon (LCos), or organic light-emitting diodes (OLED). Some vendors employ multiple micro-displays to increase total resolution and field of view.

HMDs differ in whether they can display only computer-generated imagery (CGI), or only live imagery from the physical world, or combination. Most HMDs can display only a computer-generated image, sometimes referred to as virtual image. Some HMDs can allow a CGI to be superimposed on real-world view. This is sometimes referred to as augmented reality (AR) or mixed reality (MR). Combining real-world view with CGI can be done by projecting the CGI through a partially reflective mirror and viewing the real world directly. This method is often called optical see-through. Combining real-world view with CGI can also be done electronically by accepting video from a camera and mixing it electronically with CGI.

Optical HMD
An optical head-mounted display uses an optical mixer which is made of partly silvered mirrors. It can reflect artificial images, and let real images cross the lens, and let a user look through it. Various methods have existed for see-through HMD's, most of which can be summarized into two main families based on curved mirrors or waveguides. Curved mirrors have been used by Laster Technologies, and by Vuzix in their Star 1200 product. Various waveguide methods have existed for years. These include diffraction optics, holographic optics, polarized optics, and reflective optics.

Applications
Major HMD applications include military, government (fire, police, etc.), and civilian-commercial (medicine, video gaming, sports, etc.).

Aviation and tactical, ground

In 1962, Hughes Aircraft Company revealed the Electrocular, a compact CRT(7" long), head-mounted monocular display that reflected a TV signal in to transparent eyepiece.   Ruggedized HMDs are increasingly being integrated into the cockpits of modern helicopters and fighter aircraft. These are usually fully integrated with the pilot's flying helmet and may include protective visors, night vision devices, and displays of other symbology.

Military, police, and firefighters use HMDs to display tactical information such as maps or thermal imaging data while viewing a real scene. Recent applications have included the use of HMD for paratroopers. In 2005, the Liteye HMD was introduced for ground combat troops as a rugged, waterproof lightweight display that clips into a standard U.S. PVS-14 military helmet mount. The self-contained color monocular organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display replaces the NVG tube and connects to a mobile computing device. The LE has see-through ability and can be used as a standard HMD or for augmented reality applications. The design is optimized to provide high definition data under all lighting conditions, in covered or see-through modes of operation. The LE has a low power consumption, operating on four AA batteries for 35 hours or receiving power via standard Universal Serial Bus (USB) connection.

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) continues to fund research in augmented reality HMDs as part of the Persistent Close Air Support (PCAS) Program. Vuzix is currently working on a system for PCAS that will use holographic waveguides to produce see-through augmented reality glasses that are only a few millimeters thick.

Engineering
Engineers and scientists use HMDs to provide stereoscopic views of computer-aided design (CAD) schematics. Virtual reality, when applied to engineering and design, is a key factor in integration of the human in the design. By enabling engineers to interact with their designs in full life-size scale, products can be validated for issues that may not have been visible until physical prototyping. The use of HMDs for VR is seen as supplemental to the conventional use of CAVE for VR simulation. HMDs are predominantly used for single-person interaction with the design, while CAVEs allow for more collaborative virtual reality sessions.

Head Mounted Display systems are also used in the maintenance of complex systems, as they can give a technician a simulated x-ray vision by combining computer graphics such as system diagrams and imagery with the technician's natural vision (augmented or modified reality).

Medicine and research
There are also applications in surgery, wherein a combination of radiographic data (X-ray computed tomography (CAT) scans, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) imaging) is combined with the surgeon's natural view of the operation, and anesthesia, where the patient vital signs are within the anesthesiologist's field of view at all times.

Research universities often use HMDs to conduct studies related to vision, balance, cognition and neuroscience. As of 2010, the use of predictive visual tracking measurement to identify mild traumatic brain injury was being studied. In visual tracking tests, a HMD unit with eye tracking ability shows an object moving in a regular pattern. People without brain injury are able to track the moving object with smooth pursuit eye movements and correct trajectory.

Gaming and video
Low-cost HMD devices are available for use with 3D games and entertainment applications. One of the first commercially available HMDs was the Forte VFX1 which was announced at Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in 1994. The VFX-1 had stereoscopic displays, 3-axis head-tracking, and stereo headphones. Another pioneer in this field was Sony, which released the Glasstron in 1997. It had as an optional accessory a positional sensor which permitted the user to view the surroundings, with the perspective moving as the head moved, providing a deep sense of immersion. One novel application of this technology was in the game MechWarrior 2, which permitted users of the Sony Glasstron or Virtual I/O's iGlasses to adopt a new visual perspective from inside the cockpit of the craft, using their own eyes as visual and seeing the battlefield through their craft's own cockpit.

Many brands of video glasses can be connected to modern video and DSLR cameras, making them applicable as a new age monitor. As a result of the glasses ability to block out ambient light, filmmakers and photographers are able to see clearer presentations of their live images.

The Oculus Rift is a virtual reality (VR) head-mounted display created by Palmer Luckey that the company Oculus VR developed for virtual reality simulations and video games. The HTC Vive is a virtual reality head-mounted display. The headset is produced by a collaboration between Valve and HTC, with its defining feature being precision room-scale tracking, and high-precision motion controllers. The PlayStation VR is a virtual reality headset for gaming consoles, dedicated for the PlayStation 4. Windows Mixed Reality is a platform developed by Microsoft which includes a wide range of headsets produced by HP, Samsung, and others and is capable of playing most HTC Vive games. It uses only inside-out tracking for its controllers.

Virtual cinema
Some head-mounted displays are designed to present traditional video and film content in a virtual cinema. These devices typically feature a relatively narrow field of view (FOV) of 50–60°, making them less immersive than virtual-reality headsets, but they offer correspondingly higher resolution in terms of pixels per degree. Released in 2011, the Sony HMZ-T1 featured 1280x720 resolution per eye. In approximately 2015, standalone Android 5 (Lollipop) based "private cinema" products were released using various brands such as VRWorld, Magicsee, based on software from Nibiru.

Products released as of 2020 featuring 1920×1080 resolution per eye included the Goovis G2 and Royole Moon. Also available was the Avegant Glyph, which incorporated 720P retinal projection per eye, and the Cinera Prime, which featured 2560×1440 resolution per eye as well as a 66° FOV. The rather large Cinera Prime used either a standard support arm or an optional head mount. Expected to be available in late-2021 was the Cinera Edge, featuring the same FOV and 2560×1440 resolution per eye as the earlier Cinera Prime model, but with a much more compact form factor. Other products available in 2021 were the Cinemizer OLED, with 870×500 resolution per eye, the VISIONHMD Bigeyes H1, with 1280x720 resolution per eye, and the Dream Glass 4K, with 1920x1080 resolution per eye. All of the products mentioned here incorporated audio headphones or earphones except for the Goovis G2, the Cinera Prime, the VISIONHMD Bigeyes H1, and the Dream Glass 4K, which instead offered an audio headphones jack.

Remote control
First-person view (FPV) drone flying uses head-mounted displays which are commonly called "FPV goggles". Analog FPV goggles (such as the ones produced by Fat Shark) are commonly used for drone racing as they offer the lowest video latency. But digital FPV goggles (such as produced by DJI) are becoming increasingly popular due to their higher resolution video.

Since 2010s, FPV drone flying is widely used in aerial cinematography and aerial photography.

Sports
A HMD system has been developed for Formula One drivers by Kopin Corp. and the BMW Group. The HMD displays critical race data while allowing the driver to continue focusing on the track as pit crews control the data and messages sent to their drivers through two-way radio. Recon Instruments released on 3 November 2011 two head-mounted displays for ski goggles, MOD and MOD Live, the latter based on an Android operating system.

Training and simulation
A key application for HMDs is training and simulation, allowing to virtually place a trainee in a situation that is either too expensive or too dangerous to replicate in real-life. Training with HMDs covers a wide range of applications from driving, welding and spray painting, flight and vehicle simulators, dismounted soldier training, medical procedure training, and more. However, a number of unwanted symptoms have been caused by prolonged use of certain types of head-mounted displays, and these issues must be resolved before optimal training and simulation is feasible.

Performance parameters

 * Ability to show stereoscopic imagery. A binocular HMD has the potential to display a different image to each eye. This can be used to show stereoscopic images. It should be borne in mind that so-called 'Optical Infinity' is generally taken by flight surgeons and display experts as about 9 meters. This is the distance at which, given the average human eye rangefinder "baseline" (distance between the eyes or Interpupillary distance (IPD)) of between 2.5 and 3 inches (6 and 8 cm), the angle of an object at that distance becomes essentially the same from each eye. At smaller ranges the perspective from each eye is significantly different and the expense of generating two different visual channels through the computer-generated imagery (CGI) system becomes worthwhile.
 * Interpupillary distance (IPD). This is the distance between the two eyes, measured at the pupils, and is important in designing head-mounted displays.
 * Field of view (FOV) – Humans have an FOV of around 180°, but most HMDs offer far less than this. Typically, a greater field of view results in a greater sense of immersion and better situational awareness. Most people do not have a good feel for what a particular quoted FOV would look like (e.g., 25°) so often manufacturers will quote an apparent screen size. Most people sit about 60 cm away from their monitors and have quite a good feel about screen sizes at that distance. To convert the manufacturer's apparent screen size to a desktop monitor position, divide the screen size by the distance in feet, then multiply by 2. Consumer-level HMDs typically offer a FOV of about 110°.
 * Resolution – HMDs usually mention either the total number of pixels or the number of pixels per degree. Listing the total number of pixels (e.g., 1600×1200 pixels per eye) is borrowed from how the specifications of computer monitors are presented. However, the pixel density, usually specified in pixels per degree or in arcminutes per pixel, is also used to determine visual acuity. 60 pixels/° (1 arcmin/pixel) is usually referred to as eye limiting resolution, above which increased resolution is not noticed by people with normal vision. HMDs typically offer 10 to 20 pixels/°, though advances in micro-displays help increase this number.
 * Binocular overlap – measures the area that is common to both eyes. Binocular overlap is the basis for the sense of depth and stereo, allowing humans to sense which objects are near and which objects are far. Humans have a binocular overlap of about 100° (50° to the left of the nose and 50° to the right). The larger the binocular overlap offered by an HMD, the greater the sense of stereo. Overlap is sometimes specified in degrees (e.g., 74°) or as a percentage indicating how much of the visual field of each eye is common to the other eye.
 * Accommodation support – HMDs that support matching the accommodation and vergence distances of the eyes are more comfortable than those that do not.
 * Distant focus (collimation). Optical methods may be used to present the images at a distant focus, which seems to improve the realism of images that in the real world would be at a distance.
 * On-board processing and operating system. Some HMD vendors offer on-board operating systems such as Android, allowing applications to run locally on the HMD, and eliminating the need to be tethered to an external device to generate video. These are sometimes referred to as smart goggles. To make the HMD construction lighter producers may move the processing system to connected smart necklace form-factor that would also offer the additional benefit of larger battery pack. Such solution would allow to design lite HMD with sufficient energy supply for dual video inputs or higher frequency time-based multiplexing (see below).

Support of 3D video formats

Depth perception inside an HMD requires different images for the left and right eyes. There are multiple ways to provide these separate images:
 * Use dual video inputs, thereby providing a completely separate video signal to each eye
 * Time-based multiplexing. Methods such as frame sequential combine two separate video signals into one signal by alternating the left and right images in successive frames.
 * Side by side or top-bottom multiplexing. This method allocated half of the image to the left eye and the other half of the image to the right eye.

The advantage of dual video inputs is that it provides the maximum resolution for each image and the maximum frame rate for each eye. The disadvantage of dual video inputs is that it requires separate video outputs and cables from the device generating the content.

Time-based multiplexing preserves the full resolution per each image, but reduces the frame rate by half. For example, if the signal is presented at 60 Hz, each eye is receiving just 30 Hz updates. This may become an issue with accurately presenting fast-moving images.

Side-by-side and top-bottom multiplexing provide full-rate updates to each eye, but reduce the resolution presented to each eye. Many 3D broadcasts, such as ESPN, chose to provide side-by-side 3D which saves the need to allocate extra transmission bandwidth and is more suitable to fast-paced sports action relative to time-based multiplexing methods.

Not all HMDs provide depth perception. Some lower-end modules are essentially bi-ocular devices where both eyes are presented with the same image. 3D video players sometimes allow maximum compatibility with HMDs by providing the user with a choice of the 3D format to be used.

Peripherals

 * The most rudimentary HMDs simply project an image or symbology on a wearer's visor or reticle. The image is not bound to the real world, i.e., the image does not change based on the wearer's head position.
 * More sophisticated HMDs incorporate a positioning system that tracks the wearer's head position and angle, so that the picture or symbol displayed is congruent with the outside world using see-through imagery.
 * Head tracking – Binding the imagery. Head-mounted displays may also be used with tracking sensors that detect changes of angle and orientation. When such data is available in the system computer, it can be used to generate the appropriate computer-generated imagery (CGI) for the angle-of-look at the particular time. This allows the user to look around a virtual reality environment simply by moving the head without the need for a separate controller to change the angle of the imagery. In radio-based systems (compared to wires), the wearer may move about within the tracking limits of the system.
 * Eye tracking – Eye trackers measure the point of gaze, allowing a computer to sense where the user is looking. This information is useful in a variety of contexts such as user interface navigation: By sensing the user's gaze, a computer can change the information displayed on a screen, bring added details to attention, etc.
 * Hand tracking – tracking hand movement from the perspective of the HMD allows natural interaction with content and a convenient game-play mechanism

title: Head-mounted display


text:
Onegin (1999 film)

Onegin is a 1999 British-American romantic drama film based on Alexander Pushkin's 1833 novel in verse Eugene Onegin, co-produced by British and American companies and shot mostly in the United Kingdom. Onegin is Martha Fiennes' directorial debut and stars her brother Ralph Fiennes in the role of Yevgeny (Eugene) Onegin, Liv Tyler as Tatiana and Toby Stephens as Lensky. Two other Fiennes siblings were involved in the project: Magnus Fiennes wrote the music and Sophie Fiennes appeared in a minor role.

Plot
In early 19th century Russia, a bored St. Petersburg socialite named Onegin inherits his uncle's estate in the country. There, he meets a neighbouring landowner and aspiring poet, Lensky, and a widowed mother and her two daughters. The poet is engaged to the elder daughter Olga. Her sister, Tatiana (Tanya), writes Onegin a passionate love letter but he turns her down because of her youth and inexperience. He instead dances with her sister, which the jealous Lensky interprets as flirtation, and challenges his friend to a duel. The duel is arranged to take place in a secluded place by a local lake, and unknown to the participants, Tatiana secretly witnesses the duel from a safe distance. She observes Lensky taking the first shot and missing, followed by Onegin taking careful aim and disposing of Lensky with a shot to his opponent's head.

Onegin departs from his country estate. Six years later, he returns to St Petersburg, he encounters Tatiana, the woman whom he spurned, who is now a woman of refinement and married to a prince. Onegin immediately sees Tanya as desirable, and falls in love with her. He begs her forgiveness for his past behaviour. Tanya refuses Onegin, explaining to him that he has missed his chance with her; she will be faithful to her husband. He receives her rejection with despair.

Reception
Onegin received mixed reviews.

It received praise for its production values and performances, but criticism was leveled at the pacing and writing. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times said, "There is a cool, mannered elegance to the picture that I like, but it's dead at its center. There is no feeling that real feelings are at risk here." Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian wrote, "An earnest but worthwhile attempt to render the Russian writer's tragic and romantic verse novel of 1833 for the screen... we are estranged from the distinctively comic savour of the original. But there still remains much that is worthwhile in this high-minded adaptation." On the more positive side though, Derek Elley of Variety said "“Onegin” may not appeal to more cynical viewers unprepared to take the emotional leap of faith the movie demands."

Awards
Martha Fiennes received the Best Director Award at the Tokyo Film Festival and the London Film Critics Circle's award for Best Newcomer. Onegin was also nominated for Best British Film at the British Academy Film Awards and Liv Tyler received the Golden Aries prize for Best Foreign Actress from the Russian Guild of Film Critics.

title: Onegin (1999 film)


text: Category:Chinese constellations

title: Category:Chinese constellations


text:
USS Scamp

USS Scamp has been the name of more than one United States Navy ship, and may refer to:

 * USS Scamp (SS-277), a submarine commissioned in 1942 and reported missing in 1944
 * USS Scamp (SSN-588), a submarine in commission from 1961 to 1988

title: USS Scamp


text:
User:Phieferboy

Phieferboy (1979- )

I'm a Mechanical Engineer living in Cupertino, California, USA. I think Wikipedia is fascinating. I'm a major lurker and minor participant. My wholly sophomoric attempts at articles consist of the following:

Bob_the_Tomato

Larry_the_Cucumber

They got blended into a greater VeggieTales article, which is cool.

What can I say? I dig on the VeggieTales.

title: User:Phieferboy