text:
Down to the Sea in Ships (1922 film)

Down to the Sea in Ships is a 1922 American silent romantic drama film about a 19th-century Massachusetts whaling family. Directed by Elmer Clifton, the film stars William Walcott, Marguerite Courtot, and Clara Bow. The film's title comes from Psalm 107, verses 23–24.

Plot
Captain Charles W. Morgan (William Walcott) is a well-respected businessman who owns a fleet of whaling ships in the Quaker town of New Bedford, Massachusetts. He is very close to his shy, obedient daughter, Patience (Marguerite Courtot), and tells her that she must marry a man who is a whaler and a Quaker, like him. His son and daughter-in-law were lost ten years before while on a whaling expedition; eventually, their baby, his granddaughter Dot (Clara Bow), was found "in a chest on a raft bundled in sail cloth." He has raised her ever since. Dot is a mischievous, rebellious child, who wants to be a whaler when she grows up, an ambition that is not acceptable for a female among her people.

One day, a childhood friend of Patience's, Allan Dexter (Raymond McKee) arrives in town, recently back from college. He and Patience renew their acquaintance and fall in love. He goes to ask Captain Morgan for permission to marry Patience, but Captain Morgan turns him out of the house, informing him that he is not a suitable husband for her because he is neither a Quaker nor a whaler.

Meanwhile, Samuel Siggs (J. Thornton Baston), an effeminate Chinese man masquerading as a white man, connives to steal Captain Morgan's ships to transport African gold. He dresses up as a Quaker and acquires a position of authority in Morgan's business by pretending to be an experienced whaler. After spying Morgan's pretty daughter Patience, he also plans to finagle his way into marrying her. Learning of Dexter's love for her, he has his fellow con artist Jake Finner (Patrick Hartigan), "fearless, lawless and godless", drug the young man's drink and has him kidnapped, tied up, and placed on the next outgoing whaling vessel, hoping never to see him again. Also on the ship is Dot, who has dressed as a boy and stowed away below deck. Because of their disappearance, it is rumored that Dexter and Dot joined the Oregon Wagon Train and have gone west together.

Miles out to sea, Dexter is untied and immediately put to work. Wanting to prove himself to Morgan, he decides to put all his effort into working long hard hours to win his chance to harpoon a whale, which would make him an accomplished whalesman. Meanwhile, Jake Finner, who has killed the captain and taken over the ship, finds Dot, discovers she is a girl, and attacks her. Because he has been treating the men on board like slaves, they mutiny against Finner, appointing Dexter as captain, while Dot's friend Jimmie, the cabin boy, rescues her from Finner's clutches.

After harpooning a whale and learning why he was Shanghaied, Dexter arranges to have the vessel return to port. Meanwhile, Captain Morgan has fallen ill, fears that he is dying, and commands Patience to marry Siggs as his last wish. She reluctantly agrees. Dexter arrives just in time to save Patience, and the lovers are reunited at the end.

Production
The film contains semi-documentary footage of whalers at work, and was shot on historic locations in Massachusetts, New England, most notably in New Bedford, and at the Apponegansett Meeting House and Elihu Akin House in Dartmouth. The film's title cards are notable for having quotes from Herman Melville's Moby-Dick and Alexander Starbuck's History of the American Whale Fishery.

The authenticity of the whaling scenes are noted in the opening screen credits, which praise the bravery of both A.G. Penrod and Paul H. Allen, the cameramen, "who, in small boats, stood by their cameras at the risk of their lives to photograph the fighting whales."

The Charles W. Morgan was one of the whaling ships used in the film.

Reception
The film's premiere was September 25, 1922 at the Olympia Theater in New Bedford, Massachusetts and was in general distribution from March 4, 1923.

It was very popular with audiences, playing for 22 weeks straight in New York City. Critics gave it low marks, but several went out of their way to praise Bow's performance.

Remake
The film's title was used for, but was not related to, a film by Twentieth Century Fox in 1948 and released in 1949. The 1949 version was directed by Henry Hathaway, starring Richard Widmark, Lionel Barrymore and Dean Stockwell.

title: Down to the Sea in Ships (1922 film)


text:
Carlton, Cambridgeshire

Carlton is a village and civil parish near the eastern boundary of the county of Cambridgeshire in the east of England. It is in the district of South Cambridgeshire. In 2001 the parish had a population of 166.

There are some pictures and a description of the church at the Cambridgeshire Churches website.

History
On 1 April 1974 the parish was renamed from "Carlton cum Willingham" to "Carlton".

Notable residents
The most famous historical resident of Carlton was the scholar, diplomat, and author Sir Thomas Elyot. He died and was buried in Carlton in 1546.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Carlton, Cambridgeshire


text:
William J. H. Boetcker

William John Henry Boetcker (1873–1962) was an American religious leader and influential public speaker. Born in Hamburg, Germany, he was ordained a Presbyterian minister soon after his arrival in the United States as a young adult. Boetcker was ordained in Brooklyn, New York. He quickly gained attention as an outspoken opponent of organized labor and was instrumental in the founding of the Citizens Industrial Association, later making a professional career of public speaking, and is sometimes considered the forerunner of such contemporary "success coaches" as Anthony Robbins. He is widely credited with coining the phrase, "A man is judged by the company he keeps, and a company is judged by the men it keeps, and the people of Democratic nations are judged by the type and caliber of officers they elect.”

The Ten Cannots
An outspoken political conservative, Rev. Boetcker is perhaps best remembered for his authorship of a pamphlet entitled The Ten Cannots, originally published in 1916, that emphasizes freedom and responsibility of the individual on himself. It is often misattributed to Abraham Lincoln. The error apparently stems from a leaflet printed in 1942 by a conservative political organization called the Committee for Constitutional Government. The leaflet bore the title "Lincoln on Limitations" and contained some genuine Lincoln quotations on one side and the "Ten Cannots" on the other, with the attributions switched. The mistake of crediting Lincoln for "The Ten Cannots" has been repeated, notably by Ronald Reagan in his address to the 1992 Republican National Convention in Houston, and by John Kasich on Fox News Sunday in 2015.

There are several minor variants of the pamphlet in circulation, but the most commonly accepted version appears below:

 * You cannot bring about prosperity by discouraging thrift.
 * You cannot strengthen the weak by weakening the strong.
 * You cannot help little men by tearing down big men.
 * You cannot lift the wage earner by pulling down the wage payer.
 * You cannot help the poor by destroying the rich.
 * You cannot establish sound security on borrowed money.
 * You cannot further the brotherhood of man by inciting class hatred.
 * You cannot keep out of trouble by spending more than you earn.
 * You cannot build character and courage by destroying men's initiative and independence.
 * And you cannot help men permanently by doing for them what they can and should do for themselves.

Boetcker also spoke of the "Seven National Crimes":

 * I don't think.
 * I don't know.
 * I don't care.
 * I am too busy.
 * I leave well enough alone.
 * I have no time to read and find out.
 * I am not interested.

title: William J. H. Boetcker


text:
Atoroidal

In mathematics, an atoroidal 3-manifold is one that does not contain an essential torus. There are two major variations in this terminology: an essential torus may be defined geometrically, as an embedded, non-boundary parallel, incompressible torus, or it may be defined algebraically, as a subgroup $$\Z\times\Z$$ of its fundamental group that is not conjugate to a peripheral subgroup (i.e., the image of the map on fundamental group induced by an inclusion of a boundary component). The terminology is not standardized, and different authors require atoroidal 3-manifolds to satisfy certain additional restrictions. For instance:
 * gives a definition of atoroidality that combines both geometric and algebraic aspects, in terms of maps from a torus to the manifold and the induced maps on the fundamental group. He then notes that for irreducible boundary-incompressible 3-manifolds this gives the algebraic definition.
 * uses the algebraic definition without additional restrictions.
 * uses the geometric definition, restricted to irreducible manifolds.
 * requires the algebraic variant of atoroidal manifolds (which he calls simply atoroidal) to avoid being one of three kinds of fiber bundle. He makes the same restriction on geometrically atoroidal manifolds (which he calls topologically atoroidal) and in addition requires them to avoid incompressible boundary-parallel embedded Klein bottles. With these definitions, the two kinds of atoroidality are equivalent except on certain Seifert manifolds.

A 3-manifold that is not atoroidal is called toroidal.

title: Atoroidal


text:
Chris Clarke (footballer, born 1980)

Christopher Edward Clarke (born 18 December 1980) is an English footballer who plays as a defender.

Career
Born in Leeds, West Yorkshire, Clarke started his career with the Wolverhampton Wanderers youth system alongside his twin brother Matthew and after being released by the club the pair signed for Third Division outfit Halifax Town in July 1999. He left the club in February 2002 after signing for Second Division side Blackpool on a two-and-a-half-year contract with the option of an additional year for a fee of £120,000 plus a sell-on clause. Clarke made his debut in a 3–0 victory at Cambridge United on 26 February. He scored Blackpool's second goal with a header in the 2002 Football League Trophy Final at the Millennium Stadium, which the team went on to win 4–1 against Cambridge. He joined Cambridge of the Third Division on a free transfer after signing a contract until the end of the 2003–04 season on 25 March 2004.

After training with York City he signed for the newly-relegated Conference National side on a one-year contract on 16 July. After making five appearances for the club. He was allowed to leave the club on a free transfer on 22 October. He subsequently re-signed for former club Halifax, now in the Conference. He made his debut in a 3–1 defeat to Chester City in an FA Cup second round game on 4 December. Having made three appearances for Halifax, Clarke joined Conference rivals Leigh RMI on a one-month loan on 18 February 2005. He was described by manager Steve Bleasdale as a "key acquisition" and after making four appearances he returned to Halifax. Having made another three appearances for Halifax he was released at the end of the 2004–05 season.

He signed for Northern Premier League Premier Division side Guiseley during the summer. Clarke left the club early in the 2006–07 season to sign for Northern Premier League First Division side Bradford Park Avenue. He played for Park Avenue in their 3–0 defeat to Eastwood Town in the play-off semi-final in April 2007.

Honours
Blackpool
 * Football League Trophy: 2001–02

title: Chris Clarke (footballer, born 1980)


text:
Anūnatvāpurnatvanirdeśa

The Anūnatvāpūrṇatvanirdeśaparivarta (AAN, Sanskrit, The Teaching Explaining the Absence of Increase or Decrease), also known as the Sutra of Non-increase and Non-decrease (Chinese: 不增不減經) is a short Mahayana text belonging to the tathāgatagarbha class of Mahayana sutras. The main topic of the sutra is the nature of the Buddhist cosmos (the "realm of sentient beings", Skt. sattvadhātu) and its relationship with ultimate reality (dharmakāya, tathāgatagarbha, etc).

History
The AAN is only extant in the Chinese translation (Ch. Fóshūo bù zēng bù jiǎn jīng, 佛説不増不減經, Taisho no. 16) produced by Bodhiruci (6th century) at Luoyang circa 520 CE. The Tibetan tradition is unaware of this sutra.

The sutra does not survive in Sanskrit in full, however many passages from it survive as quotations in the Ratnagotravibhāga.

The AAN is also quoted in another independent Indian source, the *Mahāyānadharmadhātunirviśeṣa (Dasheng fajie wuchabie lun 大乘法界無差別論, T. 1626 and T. 1627). This treatise may have been another work of *Sāramati (the author of the Ratnagotravibhāga according to the Chinese tradition).

According to Silk, the AAN, while difficult to date, "must be older than the early fifth century" since it "clearly predates the Ratnagotravibhāga". He also argues that "given its doctrinal standpoint and style of presentation, I believe that it post-dates the Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra and Śrīmālādevī."

According to Karl Brunnholzl, this sutra is notable for its doctrinal similarity to the Śrīmālādevī Sutra. Other scholars also note a close relationship between the teachings of the Anūnatvāpurnatvanirdeśa and other buddha-nature sutras like the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra and the Tathāgatagarbhasūtra.

Three Chinese commentaries were written on the AAN (by Saichō, Wŏnhyo, and 榮業 (unknown author)), but none of them survive.

An English translation and analysis of the AAN was published by Jonathan Silk in 2015.

The One Realm (ekadhātu)
The first part of the AAN outlines various wrong views (mithyā-dr̥ṣṭi) which prevent sentient beings from obtaining knowledge of the ultimate truth. The second part of the text discusses the ultimate truth, the most important doctrinal element here being the absence of "decrease or increase" in the "realm of sentient beings" (Sanskrit: sattvadhātu, which is defined in the sutra as "the mass of beings, the ocean of beings"). This means that the overall number of living beings never increases nor decrease, despite all the things which happen and despite the fact that some sentient beings attain Buddhahood.

The Sutra of Non-increase and Non-decrease explains that this is because there is only a one realm or domain, a single element of beings, the ekadhātu (Ch: 一界), also termed the *ekadharmadhātu (一法界). This one domain is identical to both Buddhahood (i.e. the nirvāṇa-dhātu) and saṃsāra (the realm of cyclical suffering, i.e. sattvadhātu), both which are non-dual and indivisible. The sutra plays on the different meanings of the term dhātu, which can mean ‘realm’, ‘element,’ ‘quintessence,’ ‘essential core’ and even 'cause'. According to Silk, in the AAN, the term dhātu has at least a bivalent sense, referring to both a "realm" (i.e. the cosmos) and a "quintessence" (the intrinsic or central constituent of something).

According to the AAN, neither sentient beings, disciples or solitary Buddhas can know this ultimate reality directly, they can only access it through faith. As the sutra states:"This extremely profound purport is exactly the Tathāgatha’s sphere of insight and it is the range of the Tathāgata’s mind. Śāriputra, such a profound purport as this cannot be known by the insight of all the auditors and lone buddhas, cannot be seen, cannot be examined. Still how much less could all foolish common people fathom it. It is indeed only the insight of the buddhas and tathāgatas which can examine, know and see this purport. [Despite] the insight possessed by all auditors and lone buddhas, Śāriputra, with respect to this purport, they can only have faith; they are not able to know, see or examine it in accord with reality. (Silk, 2015, pp. 89-92)"

The sutra goes on to equate this single reality with the ultimate truth (paramārtha-satya), with buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha), with the Dharmakaya (Dharma body of the Buddha) and with the “originally pure mind” (prakṛtipariśuddhacitta). This is the principal doctrine of the sutra, which states: "The extremely profound purport, Śāriputra, is precisely the supreme truth. The supreme truth is precisely the quintessence of beings (衆生界; sattvadhātu). The quintessence of beings is precisely the embryo of the tathāgatas (如來藏; tathāgatagarbha). The embryo of the tathāgatagas is precisely the dharma-body (法身; dharmakāya). (Silk, 2015, p. 65)."These teachings are an important source for the fourth vajra topic of the Ratnagotravibhāga, which quotes the Sutra of Non-increase and Non-decrease.

The wrong views of increase and decrease
Furthermore, according to the sutra, thinking that there is increase or decrease in the dhātu (domain, element, realm) of sentient beings (as well as thinking that nirvana is annihilation) is a serious misconception that leads sentient beings to continue to wander in samsara. As Karl Burnnholzl explains:"the root of such misconceptions is their lack of understanding the oneness of the nondual dharmadhātu. This dharmadhātu is the sphere and the great nirvāṇa of buddhas, which cannot be perceived even by śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas, let alone ordinary beings. Still, buddhas, bodhisattvas, and sentient beings are not different in essence since they are nothing but three different states of the dharmakāya in terms of its being more or less unobscured by adventitious stains. The dhātu of sentient beings is ultimate reality and the tathāgata heart, which is also identified as the dharmakāya, fully endowed with the inseparable, innumerable, and inconceivable qualities of a buddha, just as the radiance, color, and shape of a jewel are inseparable."As such, in this sutra, the Buddha states that the ideas of increase or decrease in the number of beings in the cosmos are both ill-conceived. If the number of sentient beings decrease (when someone attains nirvana), then this indicates nirvana is a kind of annihilation that leads to non-existence. Meanwhile, if the number of sentient beings increases, this would mean that beings or nirvana can arise (utpāda) without a cause or can be created. Both of these views are rejected by the sutra. According to the Buddha in this sutra, if one understands the true nature of the one realm, the ultimate reality, then neither of these wrongs views of increase or decrease would arise.

Buddha-nature and the buddha-qualities
According to this sutra, nirvana is not utter vacuity or the cessation of being, but is the realm of the Tathāgatagarbha (i.e. buddha-nature), the unfabricated, utterly pure and everlasting essence of all beings. This ultimate reality (paramartha) is also said to be endowed with the wisdom and qualities of the buddhas. The Sutra of Non-increase and Non-decrease states: As I have expounded, Śāriputra, the meaning of the dharma-body is inseparable from, indivisible from, not cut-off from, not different from the inconceivable qualities definitive of a buddha, greater in number than the sands of the Ganges, [namely,] the merits and insight of a tathāgata. It is like a lamp, Śāriputra, whose brightness, color and tactile sensation are inseparable and indivisible [from the lamp itself]. Again, it is like a maṇi gem whose characteristics of brightness, color and form are inseparable and indivisible [from the gem itself]. (Silk, 2015, pp. 96-98 §11, 12) This idea is an important source for the Ratnagotravibhāga 's fifth vajra point, and this text quotes the Sutra of Non-increase and Non-decrease on this topic. Thus, the buddha qualities (gunas) and wisdom (jñana) and the buddha-nature - dharmakaya are inseparable. This inseparability is exemplified in the sutra with the examples of a light (aloka) and a precious gem (mani), both of which became influential similes in the Mahayana tradition. In Chinese Buddhism, this doctrine was interpreted in terms of essence-function (ti 體 and yong 用).

According to the Sutra of Non-increase and Non-decrease, the buddha-nature - dharmakaya is also the eternal ground or basis of all things or dharmas (phenomena). The dharmakaya is also described by the sutra as "being unborn [anutpada] and unperishing", "free from a time of birth", "free from a time of perishing", "permanent" (nityo), "immutable" (dhruvo), "inexhaustible", "constant", "tranquil" (śivo), "non-dual", "uncreated", and "unchangeable" (śāśvato).

Types of beings and the one dharmadhātu
The dharma-body, the ultimate reality, is also said to be that which is “hidden within a sheath of countless defilements” and which undergoes rebirth in saṃsāra. As such, the Tathāgatagarbha or the naturally pure mind, while covered in a cocoon of adventitious defilements (āgantukakleśa), is primordially linked with all awakened qualities (buddha-guṇa) and remains permanently untainted by the defilements.

According to the AAN, there are three ways the single reality manifests, which according to Silk are "nothing more than modalities of the embryo of the tathāgatas, variously related to ultimate Reality":

 * Ordinary sentient beings: when the dharmakaya is "ensnared by limitless defilements greater in number than the sands of the Ganges, drifting on the waves of the world from beginningless ages, comes and goes through birth and death”.
 * Bodhisattvas, which refers to when the dharmakaya "repels the anguish and suffering of birth and death in the world, banishes all desires, practices the ten perfections, collects the eighty-four thousand teachings, and cultivates the practices leading to bodhi".
 * Buddhas, described in the AAN as follows: “This very dharma-body, thoroughly freed of all sheaths of defilements, having transcended all sufferings, the stains of all defilements vanished, well and truly pure, fixed in the Absolute Reality that is ultimately pure, risen to the stage looked forward to by all beings, having attained peerless heroic strength with respect to all spheres of knowledge, perfected in sovereign power over all things free of all hindrances and unobstructed."

As such, buddhas, bodhisattvas and sentient beings are not different in terms of their essential nature (their only difference is in the relative state of the covering defilements) and are all therefore not ultimately subject to increase or decrease. The sutra also stresses the non-duality of the ultimate reality (the dharmakāya) and the world of sentient beings (the sattvadhātu) when it states: "not separate from the sattvadhātu is the dharmakāya, not separate from the dharmakāya is the sattvadhātu. The sattvadhātu of beings is precisely the dharmakāya, the dharmakāya is precisely the sattvadhātu." (Silk, 2015, p. 112 (§15ii)). As Silk writes, for the AAN, the dharmakaya is "the fundamental, unitary ground of all existence, in which ordinary beings then appear as the defiled, transient aspect of the unitary and real existence."

According to Silk, the view that "all of reality is unitary" is the key to the vision of the AAN. While there are three different aspects or modalities of this unitary reality, they are all one realm, a single essence, which is the common ground for all things. It is only due to the adventitious defilements that this inherent unity is not seen by some. This "cosmic unity" which holds that there is one single reality has been termed a type of monism by Jonathan Silk. Christopher Jones similarly writes that this sutra is defending an "absolute principle," which is the dharmakāya filled with buddha qualities. All living beings, and all of reality, are merely modes of this absolute reality which also represents "the common nature possessed by all beings". Jones also adds that for the AAN, the single dharma realm is explained "both in the sense of a common nature shared by all sentient beings, and in the sense of a single realm of existence to which all sentient beings belong."

title: Anūnatvāpurnatvanirdeśa


text:
Radziwiłł family

The House of Radziwiłł (Radvila; Радзівіл; Radziwill) is a Polish princely family of Lithuanian origin, and one of the most powerful magnate families originating from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later also prominent in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.

The family was founded by Radvila Astikas, but over time it split into many branches, such as the Biržai-Dubingiai and Goniądz-Meteliai lines. However, most of the branches became extinct by the 18th century, with only the Nesvizh-Kleck-Ołyka line surviving to this day. Their descendants were highly prominent for centuries, first in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, later in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Kingdom of Prussia. The family produced many individuals notable in Lithuanian, Polish, Belarusian, German as well as general European history and culture. The Radziwiłł family received the title of Reichsfürst (prince) from the Holy Roman Emperor in the mid 16th-century.

The Nesvizh Castle complex, maintained by the family between the 16th century and 1939, is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Name and origin
The Radziwiłł family is a directly descended branch of the extinct Lithuanian noble Astikai family line. Its first notable member, Kristinas Astikas (born 1363), a close associate of the Lithuanian ruler Vytautas, became Castellan of Vilnius. The patronym Radvila arose following its use by his son Radvila Astikas and grandson Mikalojus Radvila. A legendary version of the patronym's etymology associates it with a child found by krivis Lizdeika in a wolf's den (rado vilko... = "found wolf's...", implying "rado vilko vaikas" = "found wolf's child"). The name has been primarily written in, and recognized by, the polonized version and spelling for several centuries.

The family descends from Lithuanian bajorai-ducal courtiers who advanced considerably in the 15th-century politics of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Along with possessions of land near Kernavė, the family's traced place of origin, the Radziwiłł family also inherited the Trąby coat of arms.

Three of Mikalojus' sons, Mikołaj, Jan, and Jerzy, went on to become the progenitors of the three known Radziwiłł family lines. His daughter Anna was the great-grandmother of Elizabeth Báthory.

The Radziwiłł family divided by branch:
 * the Goniądz - Meteliai line
 * the Biržai - Dubingiai line
 * the Nieśwież (Nesvizh) – Kleck (Kletsk) – Ołyka line

The Goniądz-Meteliai line became extinct by the next generation as Mikołaj's descendants consisted of one male heir, Mikołaj III, who entered the priesthood and became the Bishop of Samogitia, thus bearing no known offspring to extend the line.

The Biržai-Dubingiai line was moderately more successful and produced some very notable state officials and politicians, but it also became extinct after Ludwika Karolina Radziwiłł's death in 1695.

The Nesvizh-Kletsk-Olyka line was the most successful and was further divided into smaller family lines to maintain clarity and specificity of descent and the passing of titles. Since the 18th century, all Radziwiłł family members have been descendants of this line. Three sons of Mikołaj "the Black", Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan", Albrycht, and Stanisław "the Pious", are said to be the progenitors of the three smaller branches. The branches are as follows:

 * the Nesvizh line
 * the older Kletsk line
 * the Olyka line

Possibly both the Olyka and older Kletsk lines became extinct, the former in 1656 and the latter in 1690. The direct descendant of the Nesvizh line, Dominik Hieronim's son, Aleksander Dominik, was born before his parents' marriage and formed the so-called Galician branch, which went extinct in 1938.

The younger Kletsk line descends from Michał Hieronim, continued through his son Ludwik Mikolaj. The descendants of his other son, Antoni Henryk, formed the beginning of the so-called Ordynant branch. Other than the Ordynant branch, from the younger Kletsk line also descends the lesser titled branches of Szydłowiec and Połoneczka, as well as Dziatłava, Berdychiv, and Żyrmunów. The younger Kletsk line has continued into the present day.

 * the Nesvizh line
 * the Galician line
 * the younger Kletsk line
 * the Ordynant line
 * the Szydłowiec-Połoneczka line
 * the Dziatłava-Berdychiv-Żyrmunów line

Coat of arms and motto
Kristinas Astikas, ancestor of the Radziwiłł family, was among these who were granted and adopted the emblem known as Trąby after the Union of Horodło in 1413. This emblem later became the hereditary coat of arms of the Radziwiłłs.

In 1518, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I created Mikalojus Radvila's son, Mikołaj, Reichsfürst ("Imperial Prince") of Goniądz and Meteliai after the Jagiellonian-Habsburg congress at Vienna. Mikołaj Radziwiłł also received an expanded, more solemn coat of arms: as princes of the Holy Roman Empire, the Radziwiłłs bore a black eagle, on whose breast is a shield with Trąby and other emblems. The family motto is "God advises us" (Polish: Bóg nam radzi, Belarusian: Бог нам раіць, Boh nam rajić).

In 1547, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, created Mikołaj "the Black" and his brother, Jan, hereditary Reichsfürsten of Nesvizh and Olyka; their cousin Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł was created Reichsfürst of Biržai and Dubingiai. The same year King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland married Barbara Radziwiłł and confirmed these titles in 1549. So high a title was rare among the szlachta (the Polish nobility): just five Polish families, including the Radziwiłłs, received the title of imperial prince from the Holy Roman emperor.

Religion
The Radziwiłł family also divided on religious grounds. Following the Protestant and Polish Reformation, two branches converted to Calvinism. One branch, the Nesvizh–Kletsk-Olyka line, remained as Calvinists for two generations until the children of Mikołaj "the Black" converted to Roman Catholicism before the end of the century. The Biržai-Dubingiai line remained in the Protestant faith until the extinction of their line one century later.

Both Mikołaj "the Black" and Mikołaj "the Brown" were zealous promoters and active participants of the Protestant religion within the GDL. Mikołaj "the Black" funded the printing of a second version, and first completed, Polish translation of a Protestant Bible, titled the "Radziwiłł Bible" (also known as "Biblia Brzeska"), which was published in the town of Brest in 1564. His death in 1565 was seen as a severe loss to the Protestant cause in Lithuania. However, Mikołaj "the Red" continued his cousin's work by founding and endowing land to several churches and schools.

Politics
Several prominent family members have been involved in domestic and foreign political arenas. They took an active part in the political life of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Its importance is manifested by family relations with such famous nobility dynasties in Belarus, Ukraine, Poland, the Great Duchy of Lithuania, Samogitia, and Rus like Zaslawski, Rohatinski, Lukomski, and Olshanski-Dobrowicki. The Radziwiłł family joined the rest of the nobility as the state's elite after the signing of the Union of Krewo in 1385.

The significance of the Radziwiłł family is proved by the marriage of Anna to Konrad III Rudy, duke of Masovia, who owned the largest Polish principality. In 1547 Barbara Radziwiłł was married to Sigismund II Augustus, thus becoming the Queen of Poland and setting also in motion a closer relationship to the Papal Curia. Later the Radziwiłłs established family relations not only with the most important families of the Polish, Belarusian and Lithuanian magnate families like Sanguszko, Sapieha or Chodkiewicz, but also with members of royal families like Wiśniowiecki, Sobieski, and Leszczyński.

The political position of the Radziwiłłs was enhanced in the 16th century. In 1515, Mikołaj, as a member of a delegation, headed by King Sigismund I the Old took part in the First Congress of Vienna in Pressburg and Vienna where Emperor Maximilian I met kings of Poland, Hungary and Bohemia. Additionally, Mikolaj "the Black" was the deputy to the Grand Prince when the latter was abroad. From that time on, the Radziwiłłs were also granted the privilege of keeping legal acts and other state documents in Nesvizh.

In 1583 bishop Jerzy Radziwiłł was elevated to the cardinalate by Pope Gregory XIII, established a closer relationship with the influential noble banking families Altoviti and Strozzi. Later prince Aleksander Ludwik Radziwiłł married Lucrezia Maria Strozzi, great-granddaughter of Bindo Altoviti and Filippo Strozzi.

During this time until the first half of the 17th century, the Radziwiłłs were the most influential and richest family among the magnate dynasties of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. This status enabled them, along with very few other families, to have their own army. In 1528, the Radziwiłłs owned 18,240 houses, thus being able to have cavalry of 760 horsemen. In 1567, 28,170 houses provided for an expanded 939 horsemen and 1586 infantrymen. In the 18th century, the army of Hieronim Florian, for instance, had 6,000 men and was equal to the entire armed forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Members of the Radziwiłł family held important state posts in the Rzeczpospolita and in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 8 chancellors, 7 hetmans, 15 castellans, 19 marszałeks, and 19 voivodes, almost exclusively representing the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, rather than the Crown, belonged to the dynasty. Radziwiłłs were members of the parliament and of the Tribunal of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. They also held high military posts and took part in the Livonian War, Russo-Polish War of 1647–1667, Northern Wars, participated in the Napoleonic campaign, and the Kościuszko Uprising.

The Radziwiłłs also gained international importance manifested in family relations with German princely dynasties, first established by Albrecht Radziwiłł from Olyka, who married Anna, princess of Courland. Such conjugal unions continued in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł (1734–1790) of the Nieśwież line was the wealthiest magnate in Poland, in the second half of the 18th century, and one of the richest men in Europe. As a patriot, he fought for a free nation that soon after his death would be partitioned between Austria, Prussia and the Russian Empire. During the Great Sejm from 1788 until he died in 1790, he was a leading opponent of reform and King Stanisław II Augustus and his allies, the members of the so-called Familia political party headed by the Czartoryski family.

After the three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century, towns and estates owned by the Radziwiłłs became parts of territories that belonged to Russia, Prussia and Austria. However, all three states recognized the title of princes of the Radziwiłł dynasty and the rights of its members at the family properties. In addition, many members of the Radziwiłł family held high civil and military posts.

They had family ties with the Dukes of Castellane, the Clary-Aldringen and Sayn-Wittgenstein princes and most importantly with Frederick William II, King of Prussia and his son Frederick William III. Prince Antoni Radziwiłł of the Kletsk line married Princess Louise of Prussia, a daughter of Prince Augustus Ferdinand of Prussia and hence a first cousin of King Frederick William II. This relation helped Antoni to release the vast properties of Nieśwież and Olyka from Russian seizure in 1815, after his cousin, Dominik of the Nieśwież line had fought and died on Napoleons' side in the Polish Legion, and Alexander I of Russia had therefore confiscated his whole property. After the Congress of Vienna, the inheritance was partially given to Antoni.

The couple were prominent patrons of the arts in Berlin during the early 19th century. At their Berlin residence, the Radziwiłł Palace, they hosted well-known personalities, artists and academics, playing a major role in promoting the Prussian-Polish relationship in Berlin. These included Polish politicians in the Prussian Parliament or such famous people as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Frédéric Chopin, Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt, Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy and Karl Friedrich Schinkel. In fact, the "Salons" held by the Radziwiłłs were so popular that they became a symbol of "Polish Berlin". Prince Ferdynand Radziwiłł - like Wilhelm von Humboldt, Goethe, Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy and many further notable personalities - also was a member of the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin where people from all walks of life and classes in Berlin came together to study and practice choral music. Although most of their largest estates were located in Russian Poland, the close relation with the Royal House of Prussia caused the family to preferably live at the Berlin court, using their influence, than in Warsaw or St. Petersburg, given their experience with the Czar's seizure of most of the family's property in 1813. Moreover, Michał Gedeon Radziwiłł was the commander-in-chief of the November uprising of 1830–31.

Elisa Radziwill, a daughter of Antoni and Louise, became the first love of the later Prussian King and German Emperor Wilhelm I. Her brothers Wilhelm (1797–1870) and Bogusław (1809–1873) became Prussian generals and politicians, the latter being an influential opponent of Prussian minister-president (and, from 1871, German Chancellor) Otto von Bismarck in his anti-Catholic politics, later called the Kulturkampf. Bogusław's son Ferdynand (1834–1926) also became an important leader of the Polish minority and opponent of the Germanization and Kulturkampf policies. After Poland regained independence in 1918, he became a Polish citizen and a member of the Polish parliament (Sejm), and so did his son Janusz (1880–1967). Their cousin Stanislaw Radziwiłł was the aide-de-camp to the Commander-in-chief Józef Piłsudski. In German-occupied Poland, Janusz tried to use his prestige to improve Nazi treatment of the Poles – unlike his brother Michał who sided with the Nazis, at least at the beginning of the occupation. After the Second World War in 1945, Janusz was arrested by NKVD, and his wife would die in a communist prison in 1947. Janusz died in his two-room apartment in Warsaw, with all of his possessions confiscated and nationalized by the communist government.

In 1959, Janusz's third son prince Stanisław Albrecht Radziwiłł married Caroline Bouvier, the younger sister of First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy.

Art patronage
Prince Antoni Radziwiłł was a music and art aficionado and he transformed his properties in Berlin to serve as artistic salons, where aristocrats mingled among artists, painters and composers. Radziwiłł's Berlin properties hosted frequent amateur theatre play productions.

Another property Antoni Radziwiłł owned in Prussian-Poland was Antonin, a hunting lodge he had built between 1822 and 1824 by the German architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, named after him. Later in his life, Antoni Radziwiłł moved permanently to Antonin with his wife, Louise of Prussia, and two daughters Wanda and Eliza. Antoni Radziwiłł was a well-connected composer among European musical circles and with time transformed the Antonin property into a popular musical salon among greatest talents of the area such as Niccolò Paganini, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Frédéric Chopin and Ludwig van Beethoven. Chopin gave music lessons to Antoni Radziwiłł's daughter Wanda during his stays at the property. During his stays with Radziwiłł family, Chopin also had composed the Polonaise op.3 and Piano Trio Op. 8 and dedicated the latter to Radziwiłł. Antoni Radziwiłł also supported some of the artists financially, among them Fryderyk Chopin. Chopin's visits to Antonin property were documented by Henryk Siemiradzki in a photogravure titled "Chopin u księcia Radziwiłła" ("Chopin's visit to Prince Radziwill").

Wealth
The family acquired and maintained great wealth and influence from the 15th–16th century until 1939, when the Second World War started. The Radziwiłł family reached the heights of its importance and power during the Polish Golden Age. However, due to the activities of Janusz Radziwiłł during The Deluge, a series of mid-17th-century campaigns in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the family lost much of its wealth and power.

Regarding their wealth, the Radziwiłłs were not inferior to a royal family. In total, the Radziwiłł family has, over the centuries, had in its possession 23 palaces, 426 large and small towns, 2032 estates, and 10,053 villages. In present-day Belarus they possessed towns and boroughs like Haranyony, Davyd-Haradok, Kletsk, Dzyarzhynsk, Kopys, Dakhva, Mir, Nesvizh, Charnauchitsy, and Shchuchyn; in present-day Ukraine: Olyka with dozens of villages in the Wolyn province (Polish: wojewodztwo); in present-day Poland: Szydłowiec with villages in the Sandomierz province and Nieborów; and in present-day Lithuania: Biržai, Dubingiai, Kėdainiai, and others.

The Goniądz-Meteliai line possessed, during the 15th – 16th centuries, estates like Goniądz, Zaigrad and Podlaskie Lowlands in Poland. In 1612 the Principality of Slutsk with some thirty-two villages passed over to the Radziwiłłs, after Janusz Radziwiłł had married the heiress Zofia Olelkowicz Słucka. Radziwiłłs also expanded their possessions with Brest, Ashmyany, Krychau, Lida, Mazyr and other administrative territories (starostwos). As a result, the Radziwiłłs were granted a lifetime privilege of being governors (starostas) of those territories. However, during Janusz Radziwiłł's lifetime, the interests between his family and the Polish Crown began to drift apart, as the Radziwiłłs sought to increase their wealth and power, safeguard Protestantism and support ethnically Lithuanian culture, which caused him to join the opposition against King Sigismund III Vasa in 1606.

In 1586, the sons of Mikolaj "the Black" arranged for their fortunes to follow an ordynacja (fee tail), which was to have individual properties inherited by their male descendants; see "Radziwiłł Family Fee Tail". The ordynats of Nesvizh, Kletsk, and Olyka were thus formed. In the 19th century the Davyd-Haradok and Przygodzice ordynats were also established. Other possessions could be inherited by female heirs or alienated. Depending on the importance and size of owned lands, they were called either principalities (Nesvizh, Olyka, Biržai, Dubingiai, Kapyl, Slutsk, Staryi Chortoryisk, Stary Zbaraz, Goniądz and Medele), counties (Mir, Biała Podlaska, Dzyarzhynsk, Kopys, Zabłudów, Kėdainiai, Zolkow, Pomorzani, Belykamen, Kražiai), or estates (Nevel, Krasnoye, Sebezh, Musninkai, Sereya, Horodok, Sobolew, Slovatichi, Ruchai, Kolki, Vyazyn, Rafałówka, Zhmigrod, Beloozero, Yampol, Shumsk, Sverzhen, Drisvyaty, Naliboki). The family ties to the banking dynasties Altoviti and Strozzi played an important role to secure titles and wealth with the Roman Curia.

After the extinction of the Olyka and older Kletsk lines, their fortunes were passed to those of the Nesvizh line. With the death of the heirless Dominik Hieronim in 1813, the Nesvizh line lost its right to the ordynat. Dominik Heronim's son, Aleksander Dominik, was born before his parents' marriage and was thus denied the title and inheritance of his forefathers. He and his descendants had their princely title confirmed by the Austrian Empire. Thus, the ordynat of Nesvizh and Olyka fell into the hands of the younger Kletsk line. This, however, cost the new owner, Antoni Radziwiłł, some diplomatic effort at the Congress of Vienna, as his cousin Dominik had fought in the Polish Legion on Napoleons' side, and Alexander I of Russia had therefore confiscated his whole property. Only because of Prussia's intervention (since Antoni was married to a Prussian princess) he was able to keep the family trust properties, mainly Nesvizh Castle and Olyka Castle with vast lands, while Mir Castle and 18,000 km2 of land passed to Dominik's only legitimate child, Stephania, who had to marry a Russian subject, according to the Czar's order, whom she found in Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg.

In this way, all three Radziwiłł ordynats ended up in the possession of one line, represented by the sons of Michal Hieronim, Ludwik Mikolaj of Kletsk and Antoni Henryk of Nesvizh and Olyka. The descendants of Antoni Henryk formed the beginning of the so-called Ordynant branch, out of the younger Kletsk line, in whose possession, other than the three older ordynats of Nesvizh, Kletsk, and Olyka, they also received the two additional titles of Przygodzice and Davyd-Haradok.

The Radziwiłł family owned 23 castles and palaces. The most fortified of them were in Nesvizh, Olyka, Biržai, Biała, Slutsk, Zolkow, Pomorzany and Zolochiv. The Radziwiłłs possessed palaces in most important cities of the Rzeczpospolita, including those where the Sejm, had its sessions (Warsaw, Hrodna), or the Tribunal held its meetings (Vilnius, Lublin, Navahrudak), in province centres where the Radziwiłłs had their estates (Minsk and Lviv), and in the cities where the Radziwiłłs were economically active (Gdańsk, Wrocław). In the 19th and 20th centuries, the Radziwiłłs also owned property in European capitals like Vienna, Dresden, Berlin and Paris. Residences that emerged in the centres of the possessions of the Radziwiłłs reflected the importance of a town in the history of the family. One of these types of residences was Nesvizh in present-day Belarus, which by the 18th century had developed into a most important princely town.

Residences
Over the generations the family members have resided in some notable historic homes. The Radziwiłł family owned a total of 23 palaces. Some of the more prominent of these are:

 * Nesvizh Castle – The property Nieśwież in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (nowadays located in Belarus) was owned by the Radziwiłł family from 1533, when it was awarded to Mikołaj "the Black" and his brother Jan after the extinction of the Kiszka family. The Lithuanian Archives were moved into the castle in 1551. In 1582, Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" began construction of a chateau based on the pre-existing structure of the medieval castle, which itself was turned into a renaissance-baroque house. Construction was completed by 1604, and several galleries were added half a century later. In 1706, during the Great Northern War, the castle was sacked, and the Swedish destroyed its fortifications. Several decades later, the Radziwiłłs substantially renovated and enlarged the chateau. In 1770, the castle was seized by Russian forces and the family was expelled. Soon afterwards, the Lithuanian Archives was transferred to Saint Petersburg, while most works of art gathered in the palace were distributed among various Russian nobles. It was again confiscated in 1813 when Dominik Radziwiłł had fought against the Czar on Napoleon's side. Antoni Radziwiłł, belonging to a different branch of the family, was able to get it restituted at the Congress of Vienna. However, he and his family living in Berlin and Prussian-Poland, the remote palace fell into disrepair. Between 1881 and 1886, Antoni Henryk renovated the castle's interiors, being pushed by his French wife, Marie de Castellane. They also designed a landscape park in the English style. In 1939, the Radziwiłł family was again expelled from the castle by the Russians, this time by the invading Red Army during its invasion of Poland. The Corpus Christi Church, built on the premises, contains the coffins of 72 family members, each interred in a simple coffin made of birch and marked with the Trąby Coat of Arms.
 * Olyka Castle – A principal seat of the Nesvizh-Kletsk-Olyka line, its construction was initiated by Mikołaj "the Black" and inherited by his son, Stanisław "the Pious". It was expanded in the 18th century. However, due to Dominik Hieronim's involvement in the Napoleonic army, the Russian government confiscated the castle from the family, together with Nieśwież. Antoni Radziwiłł received it in 1815. In the late 19th century, it was also renovated by his grandchildren.
 * Mir Castle Complex – A Gothic style castle that passed into the hands of Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" in 1568, it was finished in the Renaissance style. The Swedes destroyed the complex in 1655 and 1706. After being rebuilt, Karol Stanisław "Panie Kochanku" took up residence. The castle suffered severe damage during the Napoleonic period and was uninhabited for nearly a century before being restored again at the end of the 19th century. In 1813, after the death of Dominik Hieronim, the castle and its enormous estates were inherited by his daughter, Stefania, who married Ludwig zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg. The castle then passed to her daughter Mary Sayn-Wittgenstein-Sayn, wife of German chancellor Chlodwig, Prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, who was forced to sell it as a foreigner, according to newly introduced law, at the end of the 19th century.
 * Biržai Castle – The construction of this earth bastion-type castle was ordered by Krzysztof Mikołaj "Perkūnas" Radziwiłł in 1586 and was completed in 1589. The castle became the main seat of the Biržai-Dubingiai line after it was moved from Dubingiai during the second half of the 17th century. During the Polish–Swedish wars in 1625, the castle was destroyed and surrendered. The family regained the castle in 1626 and rebuilt it from 1662 to 1669 in the Renaissance style. In the following war with Sweden in 1704, the castle and its fortifications were destroyed again and abandoned. At the beginning of the 19th century, the castle was sold to the Tyszkiewicz family.
 * Radziwiłł Palace in Warsaw – Purchased from the Lubomirski family in 1674 by Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł, the Nesvizh-Kletsk-Olyka line held the palace in its possession for 144 years until Dominik Hieronim died heirless in 1813. It was purchased in 1818 by the government of Congress Poland. It is the official seat of the President of the Republic of Poland.
 * Nieborów Palace – Built between 1690 and 1696 on the site of an older castle, the palace came into the ownership of Michał Hieronim Radziwiłł in the late 18th century. He had its interior furnished with rococo and early classicist ornaments designed by Szymon Bogumił Zug. The next owner was his son Antoni Radziwiłł. During the ownership of Janusz Radziwiłł (1880–1967), the palace became a meeting place for many eminences in the interwar period, and during the German occupation in World War II, a meeting point for the Home Army, a Polish resistance movement. After the war, the estate was expropriated by the Polish state and became subsidiaries of the National Museum in Warsaw.
 * Dubingiai Castle – A masonry castle acquired in 1508 by Jerzy and later reconstructed by the family in the Renaissance style, it was the main seat of the Biržai-Dubingiai line until the second half of the 17th century. After the death of Jerzy, his son Mikolaj "the Red" inherited the property, causing the town nearby to become an important hub for the Reformation in Lithuania. During the Polish-Swedish wars, the castle was pillaged by armies loyal to the King of Poland and was confiscated from Bogusław. It returned to the family in the second half of the 17th century. Before 1620, a mausoleum was additionally built near the castle by Janusz I. The remains of several family members, including Mikołaj "the Black", his wife Elżbieta Szydłowiecka, Mikołaj "the Red", and those of its creator, Janusz I, were recently found to be interred there. The neglected castle and church gradually fell into ruins, which were sold to Michał Tyszkiewicz in 1808.
 * Lubcha Castle – A fortified residence that passed into the hands of Janusz II, it was expanded to have an additional three stone towers. In 1655, it was seized and devastated by Cossacks under the command of Ivan Zolotarenko during the Russo-Polish war. It was then passed to another set of owners.
 * Radziwiłł Palace in Vilnius – Mikołaj "the Black"'s wooden Vilnius mansion was likely on the same site. Still, the current building was constructed by order of Janusz from 1635 until 1653. During the various wars in the late 17th century, the palace was unoccupied. In 1807, Dominik Hieronim donated the property to the Philanthropist Society. It was further devastated during World War I, and only the northern wing of the palace survived. Today, a division of the Lithuanian Art Museum is located there, on Vilniaus Str. 22. In one hall, one can see 165 portraits of the Radziwiłł family. These engravings were commissioned by Michał Kazimierz "Rybeńko" and carried out by artist H. Leybowisc.
 * Pac-Radziwiłł Palace – The palace was constructed for Dominik Mikołaj at the end of the 17th century. It was the property of the Radziwiłł family to the beginning of the 19th century, with breaks in ownership from 1744 to 1759 and 1762 to 1775. Around 1757, offices were built. During the Warsaw Uprising of 1794, it was partially destroyed. During the Prussian occupation from 1807 to 1809, the unoccupied building hosted a theatre, later becoming an army bunker and a lazaretto. It was bought by Ludwik Michał Pac in 1825. It is located on ul. Miodowa No. 15 and currently houses the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Poland.
 * Radziwiłł Palace in Berlin – A city palace located on Wilhelmstrasse No. 77. The palace, built in 1738, was purchased by Antoni Radziwiłł after his marriage with Princess Louise of Prussia. The Palais Radziwiłł played hosts to regular visits from well-known personalities, artists and academics, playing a major role in promoting Prussian-Polish relationships in Berlin. In addition, the Palais Radziwiłł was a meeting point for Polish politicians in the Prussian Parliament where they could exchange ideas and opinions on how to solve the long-standing question of what to do about Poland. In 1869 the palace was acquired by the Prussian state government from Antoni Henryk. It was turned into the old Reich Chancellery for Otto von Bismarck. In 1933 Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany and moved into the Palace. He used the Palace as a private residence after his adjacent New Reich Chancellery was completed in Voßstrasse. When the Red Army invaded Berlin in 1945, the palace was so heavily damaged that it had to be demolished in 1949, as was the New Chancellery. Hitler had shot himself dead in its bunker.

Family members
The Radziwiłł family members include: Since 1515 both Mikolajs and the Radziwiłł family were elevated to Reichsfürsten of the Holy Roman Empire.
 * Mikalojus Radvila, c. 1450–1509, voivode, chancellor
 * Mikołaj II Radziwiłł, 1470–1521, chancellor
 * Jerzy Radziwiłł, 1480–1541, hetman, voivode, castellan, marshal
 * Mikołaj III Radziwiłł, c. 1492–1530, Bishop of Samogitia
 * Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł, 1512–1584, hetman, chancellor
 * Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł, 1515–1565, marshal, chancellor, palatine
 * Barbara Radziwiłł, 1520–1550, Queen of Poland
 * Anna Radziwiłł, 1525–1600
 * Mikołaj VII Radziwiłł, 1546–1589, chamberlain
 * Krzysztof Mikołaj "the Lightning" Radziwiłł, 1547–1603, hetman
 * Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" Radziwiłł 1549–1616, voivode, marshall, castellan, prince
 * Grzegorz Radziwiłł, 1558–1600, Cardinal of Kraków 1591–1600
 * Krystyna Radziwiłł, 1560–1580
 * Grzegorz Radziwiłł, 1578–1613, castellan
 * Janusz Radziwiłł, 1579–1620, castellan
 * Krzysztof II Radziwiłł, 1585–1640, hetman
 * Albert III Radziwiłł, 1589–1636, castellan
 * Aleksander Ludwik Radziwiłł, 1594–1654, voivode, Grand Marshal of Lithuania
 * Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł, 1595–1656, chancellor
 * Janusz Radziwiłł, 1612–1655, hetman, voivode
 * Bogusław Radziwiłł, 1620–1669
 * Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł, 1625–1680, hetman, chancellor
 * Ludwika Karolina Radziwiłł, 1667–1695
 * Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł, 1669–1719, Grand Chancellor of Lithuania
 * Katarzyna Barbara Radziwiłł, 1693–1730
 * Michał Kazimierz "Rybeńko" Radziwiłł, 1702–1762
 * Karol Stanisław "Panie Kochanku" Radziwiłł, 1734–1790, voivode of Vilnius and Marshal of the Bar Confederation
 * Antoni Henryk Radziwiłł, 1775–1833, statholder
 * Michał Gedeon Radziwiłł, 1778–1850, senator, general
 * Wilhelm Radziwill, 1797–1870, Prussian general of the infantry and chairman of the Numsmatic Society in Berlin
 * Elisa Radziwill, 1803–1834, cousin and desired bride of Wilhelm I, German Emperor
 * Marcelina Czartoryska née Radziwiłł, 1817–1894, concert pianist, pupil of Frédéric Chopin
 * Antoni Wilhelm Radziwiłł, 1833–1904, Prussian general
 * Constantin Radziwiłł, 1850–1920, married Louise Blanc, daughter of François Blanc, founder of Monte-Carlo
 * Léon Radziwiłł, his son, hero First World War, owner of the Château of Ermenonville, friend and model of Marcel Proust
 * Gabrielle Radziwill, 1877–1968, nurse and activist
 * Louise Radziwiłł, 1877–1942, his sister, married Armand de La Rochefoucauld, duc de Doudeauville
 * Catherine Radziwill née Rzewuska, 1858–1941, Polish princess, stalked and ruined the career of Cecil Rhodes
 * Janusz Radziwiłł 1880–1967, senator
 * Krzysztof Mikołaj Radziwiłł, 1898–1986, nicknamed "The Red Prince", Member of the Sejm under the Communist regime
 * Artur Mikołaj Antoni Radziwiłł, 1901–1939, decorated WWI and WWII hero, fallen in combat in September 1939
 * Stanisław Albrecht Radziwiłł 1914–1976, married Caroline Lee Bouvier, younger sister of First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy
 * Maciej Mikołaj Antoni Radziwiłł, 1930–2009, Polish physicist, engineer and inventor
 * Roza XVI Radziwiłł, now Roza Broel-Plater, b. 25 December 1934, Polish Princess
 * Dominik Radziwiłł, first husband (m. 1938) of Princess Eugénie of Greece and Denmark
 * Anna Radziwiłł, 1939–2009, Polish senator, minister, secretary of state
 * Tatiana Radziwiłł, b. 1939, bacteriologist and second cousin and close friend of Queen Sofía of Spain
 * George Andrew Dominique Jerome Peter Leon Radziwill, 1942–2001
 * Jan Stanisław Albrycht Radziwiłł, b. 1947 (son of Stanisław Albrecht Radziwiłł from his second marriage with Grace Kolin)
 * Konstanty Radziwiłł, b. 1958 r., Polish doctor, Minister of Health
 * Krzysztof Konstanty Radziwiłł, b. 1958, Baliff of Poland of the Order of Saint Lazarus
 * Anthony Radziwill, 1959–1999, American filmmaker and husband of Carole DiFalco Radziwiłł (Princess Antoni Radziwiłł)
 * Anna Christina Radziwill, b. 1960, Daughter of Stanislas Radziwill and Caroline Lee Bouvier (Lee Radziwill), sister of Anthony
 * Maciej Radziwiłł, b. 1961, entrepreneur, manager, philanthropist
 * Artur Maciej Radziwiłł, b. 1974, Polish economist, deputy minister of finance

title: Radziwiłł family


text:
Hoesch

Hoesch may refer to

 * Hoesch AG, a former German manufacturer with steel and benzol-oil plants
 * Leopold Hoesch(1820–1899), founder of the 1871 Hoesch AG iron and steel plant in Dortmund
 * Leopold von Hoesch (1881–1936), a career German diplomat
 * Leopold Hoesch (*1969), is a German film producer

title: Hoesch


text:
Yunus (surah)

Yunus (يونس, Yūnus; Arabic synonym of "Jonas" or "Jonah"), is the 10th chapter (surah) of the Quran with 109 verses (ayat). Yunus is named after the prophet Yunus (Jonah). According to tafsir chronology (asbāb al-nuzūl), it is believed to have been revealed before the migration of the Islamic prophet Muhammed and his followers from Mecca to Medina (Hijra), as such, it is known as a Meccan surah.

Surah Yunus is the first of six surahs which open with the tri-letters alif, lam and ra'.

Summary
The initial verses of the chapter (1–70) present an argumentative dialogue between Islam and its unbelievers. The remaining verses contain the stories of Noah, Moses and Jonah, all considered prophets in Islam.
 * 1-2 The Makkans charge their Prophet with sorcery because he is a man from among them
 * 3 The Creator and Ruler of the universe the only true God
 * 4 Believers rewarded at death for good deeds
 * 4 Unbelievers punished after death
 * 5-6 God's works are signs to all men
 * 7-11 Rewards and punishments of the faithful and the unbelieving
 * 12 People stop thanking God when there is no need.
 * 13 Men pray to God in affliction, but forget Him with the return of prosperity
 * 14-15 The people of Makkah warned by the example of former generations
 * 16-18 The Quraysh desire a different Quran — Muhammad protests his inability to alter it
 * 19 Idolaters trust intercessors who can neither profit nor harm them
 * 20 All men originally professed one religion
 * 21 The people demand of Muhammad a sign
 * 22 When men despise the judgments of God he threatens greater suffering
 * 23-24 Unbelievers remember God in distress by land and sea, but forget Him when delivered
 * 25 Life likened to water which sustains vegetable life
 * 26-28 Paradise for Muslims and hell for the infidels
 * 29-31 Idolaters will be deserted by their gods in the judgment-day
 * 32-37 Idolaters exhorted to worship him whom they recognise as their Creator, Preserver, and Governor
 * 38 The Quran no forgery; it confirms the former Scriptures
 * 39-40 Those who charge Muhammad with imposture challenged to produce a chapter like it
 * 41 Some believe in the Quran, others reject it
 * 42-47 The unbelieving Quraish declared to be reprobate
 * 48 An apostle is sent to every nation
 * 49 Unbelievers mock at the threatenings of their prophet
 * 50 Every nation has its fixed period of existence
 * 51-55 Infidels will believe when their punishment comes upon them
 * 56-57 God is the Author of life and death
 * 58-59 The Quran an admonition and direction to the unbelievers
 * 60-61 Lawful food not to be prohibited
 * 62 Muhammad ever under Divine guidance
 * 63-65 The blessedness of those who believe and fear God
 * 66-68 Unbelievers cannot harm the Prophet
 * 69-71 Those rebuked who say that God hath begotten children
 * 72-75 Muhammad likened to Noah and other prophets
 * 76 Moses and Aaron sent to Pharaoh and his princes
 * 77-82 They are rejected as sorcerers and perverters of the national religion
 * 83 A few of the people only believe on them
 * 84-86 Moses and Aaron with the believers put their trust in God
 * 87 The Israelites commanded to be constant in prayer to God
 * 88-89 Moses's prayer, that God would destroy the Egyptians, is heard
 * 90 Pharaoh and his people drowned in the sea
 * 90-92 He repents and is raised out of the sea for a sign to the people
 * 93 The Israelites are provided with a habitation and blessing
 * 94-95 Jews and Christians appealed to in confirmation of the statements of the Quran
 * 96-98 No kind of miracle will suffice to make the reprobate believe
 * 99-103 Infidels do not believe on Muhammad because God does not permit them to do so
 * 104-107 The people of Makkah exhorted to accept the true orthodox faith
 * 108 Muhammad not responsible for the faith or unbelief of the people
 * 109 The Prophet exhorted to be patient

The chapter presents the Meccan pagans' objections against the Quran, and responds to them. The pagans said that Muhammad was a "manifest sorcerer" and that he fabricated the Quran. They also challenged Muhammad to immediately bring the punishment of God, if his claim was true. They also demanded that Muhammad change the Quran to no longer condemn their practice of idolatry and using intercessors when worshipping God.

The chapter's response to these objection is a mix of "argument, threat, promise and reproach". It defends the Quran's divine origin, not a fabrication of Muhammad's, and says that Muhammad could not change it even if he wanted to. As for the challenge to bring God's punishment, the chapter says that God may defer punishment in this world if he wants to. It also tells of the punishment against unbelievers in the past, such as the people of Noah and Moses. It says that if the pagans waited for the punishment before believing, it would be too late, as was the case with the Pharaoh of Moses. According to the Quran, the Pharaoh only believed in God just before drowning, and that belief was too late and did not benefit him.

The chapter also mentions the People of Jonah, who at first rejected Jonah's message, but then repented and believed. Therefore, unlike the people of Noah and Moses, they were averted from God's punishment. The mention of Jonah in verse 98 gives the chapter its name. The chapter then instructs Muhammad if he had any doubt about the truth of what was revealed to him, he could ask other People of the Book (i.e. the Jews and the Christians) who would be able to confirm the Quran's account of these people of the past.

Revelation
According to the Islamic tradition, the chapter is predominantly revealed during the Meccan phase (610–622) of Muhammad's prophethood (before his move to Medina), therefore, a Meccan sura. Based on its context, some verses appeared to date to when Muhammad just started his call to Islam. According to the fifteenth century commentary Tafsir al-Jalalayn, some said that the surah was revealed sometime after Muhammad's Night Journey (c. 621). Verses 40 and 94–96 appeared to be an exception and were revealed in Medina. The congruity of the topic unmistakably shows this doesn't contain separated sections or talks that were uncovered at various occasions or on various events. Actually, it is, from the starting point to end, a firmly associated talk which more likely than not been uncovered at one sitting. Other than this, the nature of its subject is itself a reasonable confirmation that the Surah has a place with the Makkan time frame.

We have no tradition as to the hour of its disclosure, yet its topic gives a clear sign that it probably been uncovered during the last phase of Muhammad's living at Makkah. For the method of the talk recommends that at the hour of its disclosure, the hostility of the rivals of the Message had become so exceptional that they couldn't endure even the nearness of Muhammad and his supporters among themselves, and that left no expectation that they could ever comprehend and acknowledge the message of Muhammad. This shows the last admonition like in this surah had to be given. These attributes of the talk are clear confirmation that it was uncovered during the last phase of the movement at Makkah.

Something else that decides all the more explicitly for the Surahs of the last stage at Makkah is the notice (or nonattendance) of some open or incognito insight about Hijrat (Emigration) from Makkah. As this Surah doesn't contain any clue at about this, it is a proof that it was revealed before those surahs which contain it.

Name
The chapter is named after Jonah who was known as Yunus in the Islamic tradition, who is mentioned in the verse 98. Despite the chapter being named after him, this verse is the only one (out of 109) where the chapter mentions him. This is not unusual in the Quran, a chapter's name is usually taken from a prominent or unusual word in it, which might or might not relate to its subject matter.

Principal subjects
The first ayat contains greeting towards the Right Way is reached out to the individuals who were thinking about it a strange thing that Allah's message was being presented on by a person (Muhammad). They were accusing Muhammad of witchcraft, though there is neither anything strange in it nor makes them anything to do with magic or soothsaying. Muhammad is just educated humanity these two realities:

 * Allah, Who has made the universe, is, indeed, your Rabb, and He Alone is qualified for be worshipped.
 * That after the life right now, will be another life in the following scene, where you will need to render full record of this current world's life. You will be compensated or rebuffed by whether you adopt the righteous attitude required by Allah in the wake of recognizing Him as your Rabb, or act against His commandments.
 * That after the life right now, will be another life in the following scene, where you will need to render full record of this current world's life. You will be compensated or rebuffed by whether you adopt the righteous attitude required by Allah in the wake of recognizing Him as your Rabb, or act against His commandments.

Both of these realities will be real factors in themselves, regardless of whether you recognize them in that capacity or not. On the off chance that you acknowledge these, you will have an extremely honored end; else you will meet the shrewd outcomes of your offenses. The significant issues, divine laws, and instructions in the surah can be listed as follows:-

 * 1) Allah is the only Creator of this universe.
 * 2) Deities worshiped by mushrikin, other than Allah, have no capacity to either profit or mischief anybody.
 * 3) Deities other than Allah are not in any case mindful that they are being worshiped.
 * 4) Allah sent a Rasool for guidance to each nation.
 * 5) Al-Qur'an gives a fix to all the issues of humankind.
 * 6) Mushrikin follow only guesses and
 * 7) The tale of the Prophet Nuh and his kin.
 * 8) The tale of the Prophet Musa, Fir'on, and his chiefs.
 * 9) Believing in the wake of seeing the scourge didn't profit any nation aside from the people of the Prophet Yunus.
 * 10) Forbiddance against compelling anybody to change over to Islam.
 * 1) Mushrikin follow only guesses and
 * 2) The tale of the Prophet Nuh and his kin.
 * 3) The tale of the Prophet Musa, Fir'on, and his chiefs.
 * 4) Believing in the wake of seeing the scourge didn't profit any nation aside from the people of the Prophet Yunus.
 * 5) Forbiddance against compelling anybody to change over to Islam.
 * 1) Believing in the wake of seeing the scourge didn't profit any nation aside from the people of the Prophet Yunus.
 * 2) Forbiddance against compelling anybody to change over to Islam.
 * 1) Forbiddance against compelling anybody to change over to Islam.
 * 1) Forbiddance against compelling anybody to change over to Islam.

Verse 10:25
"And Allah invites ˹all˺ to the Home of Peace and guides whoever He wills to the Straight Path."

The ideal society according to the Quran is Dar as-Salam, literally, "the house of peace" of which it intones: And Allah invites to the 'abode of peace' and guides whom He pleases into the right path.

Verse 10:101
It is narrated that when Ja'far al-Sadiq was asked about verse [10:101]: ...the signs and warnings are of no avail to the disbelieving people, he replied the signs are the Imams and the warnings are the Prophets.

Placement and coherence with other surahs
The idea of textual relation between the verses of a chapter has been discussed under various titles such as nazm and munasabah in non-English literature and coherence, text relations, intertextuality, and unity in English literature. Hamiduddin Farahi, an Islamic scholar of the Indian subcontinent, is known for his work on the concept of nazm, or coherence, in the Quran. Fakhruddin al-Razi (died 1209 CE), Zarkashi (died 1392) and several other classical as well as contemporary Quranic scholars have contributed to the studies. The entire Qur'an thus emerges as a well-connected and systematic book. Each division has a distinct theme. Topics within a division are more or less in the order of revelation. Within each division, each member of the pair complements the other in various ways. The seven divisions are as follows:

title: Yunus (surah)


text:
Boundary parallel

In mathematics, a closed n-manifold N embedded in an (n + 1)-manifold M is boundary parallel (or ∂-parallel, or peripheral) if there is an isotopy of N onto a boundary component of M.

An example
Consider the annulus $$I \times S^1$$. Let π denote the projection map
 * $$\pi\colon I \times S^1 \rightarrow S^1,\quad (x, z) \mapsto z.$$

If a circle S is embedded into the annulus so that π restricted to S is a bijection, then S is boundary parallel. (The converse is not true.)

If, on the other hand, a circle S is embedded into the annulus so that π restricted to S is not surjective, then S is not boundary parallel. (Again, the converse is not true.)

title: Boundary parallel


text:
Hudson River Chains

The Hudson River Chains were a series of chain booms constructed across the Hudson River at West Point by Continental Army forces from 1776 to 1778 during the American Revolutionary War. These served as defenses preventing British naval vessels from sailing upriver and were overseen by the Highlands Department of the Continental Army.

The first chain was destroyed by British forces in the aftermath of the Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery in October 1777. The more significant and successful was the Great Chain, constructed in 1778 and used through war's end in 1782. Two other barriers across the river, referred to as chevaux-de-frise, were undertaken by the Colonials; the first, between Fort Washington on the island of Manhattan, and Fort Lee in New Jersey, was completed in 1776 and shortly seized by the British; another was started in 1776 between Plum Point on the east bank and Pollepel Island north of West Point but abandoned in 1777 in favor of completion of the Great Chain nearby the following year.

Background
Even before the April 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts, both the Americans and British knew that passage on the Hudson River was strategically important to each sides’ war effort. The Americans were desperate to control the river, lest New England be divided from the rest of the colonies. The immediate American plan was to slow or block ship traffic on the river by attacking British vessels with cannon and mortars from both shores. This anticipated batteries at both existing and planned defensive fortifications. In late 1776 Henry Wisner, a resident of Goshen, New York, and one of New York's representatives to the Continental Congress, along with Gilbert Livingston, sounded the Hudson River and, as part of a Secret Committee of the "Committee of Safety," recommended the placement of chains in strategic locations along the Hudson.

Colonial forces eventually constructed three obstacles across the river: a chevaux-de-frise at northern Manhattan between Forts Washington and Lee in 1776; at the lower entrance to the Hudson Highlands, from newly constructed Fort Montgomery on the west bank at Popolopen Creek just north of the modern-day Bear Mountain Bridge to Anthony's Nose on the east bank in 1776–1777; and between West Point and Constitution Island in 1778, known as the Great Chain. A fourth, a cheval de frise started in 1776 between Plum Point on the east bank and Pollepel Island north of West Point, was begun but abandoned. The first two were promptly captured by the British, while the Great Chain, the largest and most important of the projects, was reset each spring until the end of the war. Attention was concentrated on the West Point area because the river narrowed and curved so sharply there that ships slowed in navigating the passage by shifting winds, tides, and current made optimal targets.

Fort Lee to Fort Washington chevaux de frise (1776)

In 1776 the Continental Army constructed an array of logs sunk underwater between Fort Washington on the island of Manhattan and Fort Lee across the river in New Jersey. Built to a design of Scottish engineer turned Colonial sympathizer Robert Erskine, the logs were intended to pierce and sink any British ships that passed over them. An opening was left for the passage of American ships.

After the British learned of the opening from a local resident, they successfully passed through the barrier several times. The British successfully captured both forts in the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16, 1776, and Battle of Fort Lee on November 20, putting the defensive barrier in their hands. This change had little impact, as the nascent Continental Navy lacked ships of the size and power of the British, leaving it to resort to small and more maneuverable vessels regardless.

Fort Montgomery chain (1776–1777)
In 1776 a chain and boom were stretched across the river from Fort Montgomery on the west bank, at the lower entrance to the Highlands just north of the modern-day Bear Mountain Bridge, to Anthony's Nose on the east bank. Captain Thomas Machin headed the chain effort. In November 1776, a faulty link broke under stress induced by the river current, highlighting some of the difficulties of trying to chain the Hudson. It was repaired and reset.

After the British captured forts Montgomery and Clinton, a second fortress built opposite it at the mouth of Popolopen's Kill (today's Popolopen Creek) on its south bank, on 6 October 6 1777, they dismantled the chain. Free to do so, they raided upriver as far as Kingston, then the capitol of New York State, putting the torch to it and burning all but several of its hundreds of buildings to the ground.

Governor George Clinton, a member of the committee assigned by the New York Convention to devise a means of defending the Hudson, was heartened as the British had never attempted to run ships through the chain. He concluded that the basic idea of obstructing the river seemed sound. After Captain Machin recovered from wounds from battle with the British, he began work on the stronger Great Chain at West Point, which was constructed and installed in 1778.

Pollepel Island chevaux de frise (1776–1777)
Another chevaux de frise was undertaken across the Hudson between Plum Point on the east bank and Pollepel Island north of West Point. The defenses were never fully completed, and its importance was overshadowed by completion of the Great Chain at West Point the following year.

(1778–1782)

In the spring of 1778, a heavy chain supported by huge log rafts was stretched across the Hudson from West Point to Constitution Island to impede the movement of British ships north of West Point. A second log boom (resembling a ladder in construction) spanned the river about 100 yd downstream to absorb the impact of any ship attempting to breach the barrier.

The Hudson River's changing tides, strong current, and frequently unfavorable winds created adverse sailing conditions at West Point. Compounding this, the river's narrow width and sharp "S-Curve" there forced any large ship to tack in order to navigate it. Cannon were placed in forts and artillery batteries on both sides of the river to attack ships when they were slowed to a halt by the Patriot barrier placed there.

The chain was constructed over six weeks at the Sterling Iron Works in Warwick, Orange County, of chain links from Long Pond Iron Works in Ringwood, New Jersey. When completed, the 600 yard chain contained iron links 2 ft in length, weighing 140 to 180 lb. The links were carted to New Windsor, where they were put together and floated down the river to West Point on logs late in April.

Including swivels, clevises, and anchors, the chain weighed 65 tons. For buoyancy, logs were cut into 16 ft lengths, waterproofed, and joined by fours into rafts fastened to one another with 12 ft timbers. Short sections of chain (10 links, a swivel, and a clevis) were attached across each raft then joined to create a continuous boom of chains and rafts once afloat.

Captain Thomas Machin, the artillery officer and engineer who had installed the chain at Fort Montgomery, directed installation across the river on 30 April 1778. Both ends were anchored to log cribs filled with rocks, the southern at a small cove on the west bank and the northern at Constitution Island. The West Point side was protected by the Chain Battery and the Constitution Island side by the Marine Battery. A system of pulleys, rollers, ropes, and mid-stream anchors were used to adjust the chain's tension to overcome the effects of river current and changing tide. Until 1783, the chain was removed each winter and reinstalled each spring to avoid destruction by ice.

The British never attempted to run the chain, in spite of Benedict Arnold claiming in correspondence with them that "a well-loaded ship could break the chain." Polish engineer and Patriot volunteer Thaddeus Kościuszko contributed to the system of fortifications at West Point.

Memorials

After the war, part of the Great Chain was saved for posterity and the rest relegated to the West Point Foundry furnaces near Cold Spring, New York, to be melted down. A saved portion was first displayed at the West Point ordnance compound, along with a captured mortar, as shown in a 1905 drawing.

Thirteen links are displayed at Trophy Point, one for each of the Thirteen Colonies. Also included are a swivel and clevis. The exhibit is maintained and preserved by the West Point Museum. A section of boom recovered from the river in 1855 is displayed at Washington's Headquarters State Historic Site in Newburgh, New York.

Two links of the original chain are also at Raynham Hall in Oyster Bay, New York, the home of Robert Townsend, a cousin of iron works owner Peter Townsend, and (as "Culper Jr") a member of George Washington’s Culper spy ring. Bilking the gullible, John C. Abbey, and later Pollepel Island owner Francis Bannerman, sold counterfeit chain links to collectors and museums.

Two links of the original chain are also displayed under a portrait of George Washington in the New York State Capitol

title: Hudson River Chains


text:
Hud (surah)

Hud (هود, ) is the 11th chapter (Surah) of the Quran and has 123 verses (ayat). It relates in part to the prophet Hud. Regarding the timing and contextual background of the revelation (asbāb al-nuzūl), it is an earlier "Meccan surah", which means it is believed to have been revealed in Mecca, instead of later in Medina.

Verses 105-112 are preserved in the Ṣan‘ā’1 lower text.

Summary

 * 1-2 The Quran a revelation from God
 * 3-5 Muhammad a warner and a preacher of goodness
 * 6 Infidels cannot hide their sin from God
 * 7-8 God the Creator and Preserver of all creatures
 * 8 The resurrection rejected by the infidels as sorcery
 * 9 They scoff at threatened punishment
 * 10-11 Mercy and judgment alike disregarded by infidels
 * 12 Those who persevere in good works shall be rewarded
 * 13 The unbelievers demand a sign from heaven
 * 14 Muhammad charged with forging the Qurán
 * 14-15 He challenges the infidels to produce ten chapters like it, or to become Muslims
 * 16-17 The miserable fate of those who live for this present world
 * 18 Moses and the Jews attest the truth of the Qurán
 * 19-23 The maligners of prophets shall be cursed
 * 24 The blessed portion of believers
 * 25 Comparison of believers and nonbelievers

The History of Noah 26-27 He is sent as a public preacher 28 The chiefs of his people reject him as a liar 29-32 Noah protests his integrity - Refuses to drive away his poor followers - Deprecates being thought a seer or an angel 33 His people challenge him to bring on the threatened judgment 34-35 Noah declares that God destroys and saves whom he pleaseth 36 Noah's people declare his message a forgery 37 God tells Noah that no more of his people will believe on him 38 He is commanded to make an ark 39 Noah builds the ark and is derided by the people 40-41 Embarks with his followers and one pair each of the animals 42-43 Noah in vain entreats his unbelieving son to embark 44 The waters abate and the ark rests on Al Júdi 45 Noah pleads with God for his son 46 God reproves him for his intercession for his son 47 Noah repents and asks pardon for his fault 48 He descends from the ark 49 This history a secret revealed to Muhammad

The History of Hūd 50-52 He is sent to call Ád from idolatry 53 The Ádites reject him as a liar 54-57 Hūd protests his integrity, and declares his trust in God to save him from their plots 58 God delivers Hūd and his followers 59-60 The Ádites reject their messenger and are destroyed

The History of Sálih 61 He is sent to call the Thamúdites from idolatry 62 They reject his message 63-64 Sálih protests his integrity, and gives them a she-camel as a sign from God 65 They kill the camel, and are threatened with destruction 66 Sálih and his followers are saved from destruction 67-68 The Thamúdites are miserably destroyed

The History of Abraham and Lot 69 God's messengers sent to Abraham—He entertains them 70 He is filled with fear because they refuse to eat his meat 70-71  The angels quiet his fears and tell him they are sent to the people of Lot 71-73 Sarah receives the promise of Isaac and Jacob 74  Abraham intercedes for the people of Lot 75  The angels refuse his request 76  Lot is anxious for the safety of his angel visitors 77-79  The Sodomites attack his house 80  The angels warn Lot to leave the city and inform him of the destruction impending over his people and his wife 81-82 The cities are overthrown and the people killed by a shower of bricks

The History of Shuaib 83 He is sent to call the Midianites from idolatry 84-86 He reproaches them for dishonest weights and measures 87 The people reject him, refusing to leave their idols 88-90 Shuaib protests his integrity, and exhorts them to flee the fate of the people of Noah, Hūd, Sálih, and Lot 91 The people threaten to stone him 92-94 Shuaib threatens them with Divine judgment 95-96 God destroys the infidels, but saves Shuaib and his followers

The History of Moses 97 He is sent with signs to Pharaoh and his princes 98-100 They reject him, and are consigned to hell-fire 101-105 Exhortation and warning drawn from the fate of these cities 106-109 The condition of the righteous and wicked in judgment 110 Muhammad not to doubt about the religion of the Quarish

 * 111 The Quraish doubt the Quran as the Jews did the Pentateuch 112 God will punish their evil deeds
 * 113-114 Muhammad exhorted to be steadfast
 * 115 An exhortation to prayer
 * 116-118 God just in destroying the unbelieving cities
 * 119 The unbelievers predestinated to damnation
 * 120 The whole history of the prophets related to Muhammad
 * 121-122 Unbelievers threatened
 * 123 Muhammad exhorted to put his trust in God

Exegesis
Quran 11 opens with a discussion on the nature of man and the punishment that awaits those who defy God. Thereafter, the main content of the surah is a series of stories of prophets who warned their people to follow God, the people persisting in defying God, and God punishing and killing them.

25-49 The story of Noah
Verses 11:25-49 tell the story of Noah and how his people did not believe his commands to follow God. The unbelievers are drowned in a flood, which includes Noah's son; Noah asks God about this act, but God rebukes Noah as being ignorant and says that Noah's son is "not a member of his family." Surah 66, At-Tahrim, elaborates on this and says that Noah's wife is an unbeliever in hell who was unfaithful to her husband.

50-60 The prophet Hud is sent to the ʿĀd
Verses 11:50-60 deal with the prophet Hud, the namesake of the Surah. He was sent to the ʿĀd, an Omani tribe which according to history crumbled sometime between the 3rd and 6th century AD. The ʿĀd do not believe Hud, and Hud and those who do believe are rescued by God, followed by God inflicting a "dreadful doom" on them so that they were "accursed in the world."

61-68 The people of Thamud and the prophet Saleh
Verses 11:61-68 concern the people of Thamud and the prophet Saleh. Saleh tries to convince Thamud to repent, but once more the unbelievers ignore the prophet. Saleh offers a she-camel as an offering of peace, but says that it should be left alone. If anything befalls it, the people will be punished. The camel is hamstrung, Saleh and those who believe are rescued, and the unbelievers are smitten by a "blast from heaven."

69-84 Sodom and Gomorrah
The Quranic version of the Biblical story of Sodom and Gomorrah is in Verses 11:69-84. Abraham and Sarah are given the news of their son and grandson's forthcoming birth (Isaac and Jacob), after which they plead for mercy for Lot's people. God refuses the request, saying that the punishment cannot be averted. Lot offers his daughters( for marriage )to the men of Sodom, but they respond with disinterest and say "you know what we want." Maybe

80-84 Homosexuality
Verses 11:80-84 confirms the Biblical account of homosexuality as being the crime of Lot's people. Angels descend to protect Lot and his daughters, and the city is destroyed by a stone rain. Lot's wife perishes as well.

85-95 The prophet Shu'aib sent to Midian
Verse 11:85-95 deal with the prophet Shu'aib sent to Midian. Once more, the people ignore the prophet's warnings; this time, Shu'aib reminds the people of the fate of the people of Noah, Hud, Saleh, and Lot. It doesn't work, and the people spare Shu'aib from death by stoning only because he comes from a powerful clan. Shu'aib and those who believe are rescued by God. Afterward, the unbelievers "[were] seized by a punishment from heaven, and lay overturned in their homes in the morning as though they had not dwelt there at all."

The remaining verses discuss the general theme once more, with occasional references to Moses. The harsh punishment is explained as "We did not wrong them; they wronged themselves." Other gods are decried as false, powerless, and useless. Believers are commanded to walk the straight path and follow God, and those who disbelieve will suffer in Hell.

title: Hud (surah)


text:
Ar-Ra'd

Ar-Ra'd, (الرعد ar-raʻd), or the Thunder, is the 13th chapter (sūrah) of the Qur'an, composed of 43 verses (āyāt). It has Muqattat (Quranic initials) المر (Alif. Lam. Mim. Ra or ALMR).

Verse 15 contains a prostration symbol ۩:
 * ۝ Whatsoever is in heaven and on earth worshippeth GOD, voluntarily or of force; and their shadows also, morning and evening. ۩

This sūrah is concerned with the oneness of God, the message, the Day of judgement, and the penalty. The sūrah revolves around an important axis that what is truth is clear through power and stability; what is falsehood is clear through its weakness. The verses call upon people to not be deceived by the glitter of falsehood because it is inevitably fleeting, while the truth shines throughout the entire universe.

The name of the sūrah is from the word (Ar-Ra'd) (Thunder) in the 13th ayah.

Summary

 * 1 The infidels reject the Quran
 * 2-4 God manifests himself to man in his works
 * 5 The unbelievers deny the resurrection
 * 6 Their punishment
 * 7 Threatened judgments sure to come to pass
 * 8 Unbelievers demand a sign
 * 9-12 God is omniscient
 * 12 God's purposes are unchangeable
 * 13-14 Thunder and lightning indicates the unceasing works of angels who regulate the clouds and rains in their task given by God.
 * ۩ 15 Idolaters invoke their gods in vain
 * 16 All nature worships the Creator
 * 17 The separation of infidels from true believers typified in the flowing stream and the melting metal
 * 18-22 True believers described
 * 23-24 Their reward
 * 25 The end of the infidels
 * 26 Abundance of wealth no sign of God's favour
 * 27 The infidels demand a sign from heaven
 * 28 God directs true believers
 * 29 Muhammad sent to an unbelieving people
 * 30 Signs unavailing to make infidels true believers
 * 31-32 God will punish the unbelievers
 * 33-34 Idolaters are reprobate
 * 35 Paradise is described
 * 36 Certain Jews acknowledge Muhammad to be a prophet
 * 36-37 Muhammad exhorted to make no compromise with idolatry
 * 38 Wives and children no hindrance to the prophetic office
 * 39 God is lord of his own book
 * 40 Muhammad is a preacher only
 * 41 God's judgments is sure to come to pass
 * 42 The plots of God's enemies is not hidden from him
 * 43 God attests the claims of his Prophet

Q13-14
Ibn Taymiyyah in his work, Majmu al-Fatwa al-Kubra, quoted the Marfu Hadith transmitted by Ali ibn abi Thalib, that Ra'd were the name of a group of angels who herded the dark clouds like a shepherd. Ali further narrated that thunder (Ra'dan رعدان) is the growling voices of those angels while herding the clouds, while lightning strikes (Sawa'iq صوائق) are a device used by those angels in gathering and herding the raining clouds. Al-Suyuti narrated from the Hadith transmitted from Ibn Abbas about the lightning angels, while giving further commentary that hot light produced by lightning (Barq برق) was the emitted light produced from a whip device used by those angels. Saudi Grand Mufti Abd al-Aziz Bin Baz also ruled the sunnah practice of reciting Sura Ar-Ra'd, Ayah 13| whenever a Muslim hears thunder, as this was practiced according to the Hadith tradition narrated by Zubayr ibn al-Awwam.

Time of Revelation
The rhetoric of the discourse shows that this sūrah was uncovered in the ending of the Meccan phase, when Muhammad was also revealed with the surahs Yunus, Hud, and Al-A'araf. Time had passed since Muhammad last passed on the Message. His adversaries had been carrying out various plots to vanquish him and his mission, while his supporters thought that by indicating some tangible miracle the disbelievers might be brought to the Correct Path. The sūrah responded that the Devotees ought not to lose heart, and that disbelievers would explain away any miracle, even if Allah brought the dead out of their graves and caused them to talk.

Theme
The opening ayah articulates the fundamental topic of this sūrah: "The Message of Muhammad (Allah's tranquility arrive) is the very Truth, however, it is the shortcoming of the individuals that they are dismissing it".

Other than this, the sūrah also addresses the rivals and their complaints, and the Devotees, who had been going through trials and were tiring. The Devotees are told that by standing by restlessly for Allah's help, they have been ameliorated and loaded up with expectation and fortitude. The significant issues, divine Laws, and direction incorporated in the text of the discourse can be categorized as follows: -

 * 1) The Qur'an is the disclosure of Allah.
 * 2) Trees, fruits, and vegetables are among the indications of Allah.
 * 3) Allah never changes the state of a people except if they are eager to change themselves.
 * 4) The individuals who don't react to the call of Allah will have no real way to escape from hellfire.
 * 5) It is the recognition of Allah that gives quietness to hearts.
 * 6) Rasools [Prophets] have no capacity to show any marvel of miracle with the exception of the will of Allah.

title: Ar-Ra'd


text:
Ibrahim (surah)

Ibrahim (إبراهيم, Ibrāhīm "Abraham") is the 14th chapter (surah) of the Qur'an with 52 verses (āyāt).

The surah emphasizes that only God knows what goes on inside a man's heart, implying we must accept each other's words in good faith (14:38).

Regarding the timing and contextual background of the revelation (asbāb al-nuzūl), it is a "Meccan surah", which means it is believed to have been revealed in Mecca, instead of later in Medina. It was revealed around 2-3 years before Hijrah, in a later stage of Muhammad preaching in Mecca when persecution of him and fellow Muslims had become severe.

Summary

 * 1 The Quran given to guide men out of darkness into light
 * 2-3 A grievous punishment awaits the infidels
 * 4 Apostles always use the language of their people
 * 5 Moses sent to Pharaoh and his people
 * 6-8 His message to the children of Israel
 * 9-13 Former prophets were rejected in spite of their miracles
 * 13-14 Miracles only possible by the will of God
 * 15 The prophets suffer persecution with resignation
 * 16 The unbelievers determine to expel their prophets out of the land
 * 17 God reveals to them the overthrow of the wicked
 * 18 Infidels fail of success through the prayers of the apostles
 * 19-21 The doom of the unbelievers
 * 22-23 God able to destroy the infidels and to create others in their stead
 * 24-25 Idolatrous leaders will confess themselves unable to assist their deluded followers in the day of judgment
 * 26-27 Even Satan will desert idolaters in hell
 * 28 The reward of the righteous in Paradise
 * 29-32 Parables of the good and evil tree
 * 33-35 The idolaters threatened with hell-fire
 * 35-36 True believers exhorted to steadfastness and prayer
 * 37 Manifold favours of God to mankind
 * 38-41 Abraham prays for himself and children that they may be kept from idolatry
 * 42 He asks pardon for himself and his parents
 * 43-46 God is not regardless of what infidels do, and will certainly punish them
 * 47-48 The subtle plotting of the unbelievers will be brought to confusion
 * 49 The earth and heavens to be changed at the resurrection
 * 50-51 The dreadful doom of the wicked
 * 52 Warning intended to lead men to the true God

Name
This chapter's name is Surah Ibrahim (Arabic) or Chapter of Abraham (English). Surahs of the Quran are not always named after their thematic content, but in this case a large section of the surah (ayat 35–41) focus on a prayer of Abraham's, which reveals the quality of Abraham's character.

Time of Revelation
It shows up from the tone of the Surah that it has a place with that group of the Surahs which were revealed during the last phase of the Makkan time frame. For example, v. 13 "The disbelievers cautioned their Messengers, 'you will need to come back to our community or we will certainly remove you from our territory'" clearly shows that the mistreatment of the Muslims was at its peak at the hour of the revealing of this Surah, and the individuals of Makkah were set on ousting the Believers from that point like the disbelievers of the previous Prophets. That is the reason in v. 14 they have been cautioned, "We will annihilate these evildoers," and the Believers have been comforted similar to the believers before them, "and after them settle you in the land" Likewise the harsh admonition contained in the finishing up partition (vv. 43-52 likewise affirms that the Surah identifies with the last phase of the Makkan Period.)

Focal Theme
This Surah is a caution and an admonition to the disbelievers who were dismissing the message of Muhammad and concocting cunning plans to crush his Mission. Be that as it may, notice, impugning, scold and rebuke overwhelm admonition. This is on the grounds that a decent arrangement of reprimand had just been made in the preceding Surahs, however notwithstanding this their stiff necked attitude, ill will, opposition, wickedness, abuse and so on had rather expanded.

title: Ibrahim (surah)


text:
VEBA

VEBA AG (originally from Vereinigte Elektrizitäts und Bergwerks Aktiengesellschaft 'United Electricity and Mining Corporation') was a German state owned energy company. VEBA was founded in 1929 as a holding company owned by the state of Prussia, and was privatized in 1965. In December 1982, VEBA signed a cooperation agreement with the Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) for the establishment of a Joint Venture Ruhr Oel GmbH. VEBA became a part of E.ON in 2000.

title: VEBA