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East Bay

The East Bay is the eastern region of the San Francisco Bay Area and includes cities along the eastern shores of the San Francisco Bay and San Pablo Bay. The region has grown to include inland communities in Alameda and Contra Costa counties. With a population of roughly 2.5 million in 2010, it is the most populous subregion in the Bay Area.

Oakland is the largest city in the East Bay and the third largest in the Bay Area. The city serves as a major transportation hub for the U.S. West Coast, and its port is the largest in Northern California. Increased population has led to the growth of large edge cities such as Alameda, Concord, Emeryville, Fremont, Hayward, Livermore, Pleasanton, San Ramon and Walnut Creek.

History and development
Although initial development in the larger Bay Area focused on San Francisco, the coastal East Bay came to prominence in the middle of the nineteenth century as the part of the Bay Area most accessible by land from the east. The Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869 with its western terminus at the newly constructed Oakland Long Wharf, and the new city of Oakland rapidly developed into a significant seaport. Today the Port of Oakland is the Bay Area's largest port and the fifth largest container shipping port in the United States. In 1868, the University of California was formed from the private College of California and a new campus was built in what would become Berkeley. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake saw a large number of refugees flee to the relatively undamaged East Bay, and the region continued to grow rapidly. As the East Bay grew, the push to connect it with a more permanent link than ferry service resulted in the completion of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge in 1936.

The Bay Area saw further growth in the decades following World War II, with the population doubling between 1940 and 1960, and doubling again by 2000. The 1937 completion of the Caldecott Tunnel through the Berkeley Hills fueled growth further east, where there was undeveloped land. Cities in the Diablo Valley, including Concord and Walnut Creek, saw their populations increase tenfold or more between 1950 and 1970. The addition of the BART commuter rail system in 1972 further encouraged development in increasingly far-flung regions of the East Bay. Today, the valleys east of the Berkeley Hills contain large affluent suburban communities such as Walnut Creek, San Ramon and Pleasanton.

The East Bay is not a formally defined region, aside from its being described as a region inclusive of Alameda and Contra Costa counties. As development moves generally eastward, new areas are described as being part of the East Bay. In 1996, BART was extended from its terminus in Concord to a new station in Pittsburg, symbolically incorporating the newly expanded Delta communities of Pittsburg and Antioch as extended regions of the East Bay. Beyond the borders of Alameda County, the large population of Tracy is connected as a bedroom community housing commuters traveling to or through the East Bay.

Cities
Except for some hills and ridges which exist as parklands or undeveloped land, and some farmland in eastern Contra Costa and Alameda Counties, the East Bay is highly urbanized. The East Bay shoreline is an urban corridor with several cities exceeding 100,000 residents, including Oakland, Hayward, Fremont, Richmond, and Berkeley. In the inland valleys on the east side of the Berkeley Hills, the land is mostly developed, particularly on the eastern fringe of Contra Costa county and the Tri-Valley area. In the inland valleys, the population density is less and the cities smaller. The only cities exceeding 100,000 residents in the inland valleys are Antioch and Concord.

East Bay cities include:

 * Acalanes Ridge
 * Alameda
 * Alamo
 * Albany
 * Alhambra Valley
 * Antioch
 * Ashland
 * Bay Point
 * Bayview
 * Berkeley
 * Bethel Island
 * Blackhawk
 * Brentwood
 * Byron
 * Camino Tassajara
 * Canyon
 * Castle Hill
 * Castro Valley
 * Cherryland
 * Clayton
 * Clyde
 * Concord
 * Contra Costa Centre
 * Crockett
 * Danville
 * Diablo
 * Discovery Bay
 * Dublin
 * East Richmond Heights
 * El Cerrito
 * El Sobrante
 * Emeryville
 * Fairview
 * Fremont
 * Hayward
 * Hercules
 * Kensington

 * Knightsen
 * Lafayette
 * Livermore
 * Martinez
 * Montalvin Manor
 * Moraga
 * Newark
 * Norris Canyon
 * North Gate
 * North Richmond
 * Oakland
 * Oakley
 * Orinda
 * Pacheco
 * Piedmont
 * Pittsburg
 * Pinole
 * Pleasant Hill
 * Pleasanton
 * Port Costa
 * Reliez Valley
 * Richmond
 * Rodeo
 * Rollingwood
 * San Leandro
 * San Lorenzo
 * San Miguel
 * San Pablo
 * San Ramon
 * Saranap
 * Shell Ridge
 * Sunol
 * Tara Hills
 * Union City
 * Vine Hill
 * Walnut Creek

Culture
The East Bay has a free weekly newspaper, the East Bay Express, which has reported on the culture and politics of the East Bay for over 30 years, and has influenced the identification of the East Bay as a culturally defined region of the Bay Area. The East Bay Monthly, another free newspaper, has been published since 1970. In the early years of the evolution of USA Today, during the early 1980s, they operated regional newspapers, with the region's paper entitled East Bay Today.

The Solano Avenue Stroll, the oldest and largest street festival in the greater San Francisco Bay Area, is held every September on the Solano Avenue shopping district in Albany and Berkeley.

The East Bay is the birthplace of many musical acts, including Creedence Clearwater Revival, Country Joe and the Fish. Counting Crows, Yesterday and Today, Digital Underground, Green Day, Operation Ivy, Primus, Rancid, Set Your Goals, Tower of Power (whose debut album is titled East Bay Grease), The Pointer Sisters, MC Hammer, Tony! Toni! Toné!, Tupac Shakur, Too Short, Spice 1, en Vogue, Pete Escovedo and Sheila E, Keyshia Cole, and Mac Dre. The region is a major center for the development of rock, folk, funk, jazz, hip hop, soul and women's music.

Bay Area thrash metal has centered strongly on the East Bay, including the bands Exodus and Metallica, among others. Possessed and Death, both considered the first death metal bands, have roots or connections in the East Bay: Possessed formed in El Sobrante, with Death debuting nationally while in Concord.

Major music (and sports) venues include the Oakland Arena; adjacent Oakland Coliseum, home of the Oakland A's; the Oakland Paramount Theater, venue for the Oakland East Bay Symphony; the Fox Oakland Theatre, the UC Berkeley Greek Theater, the nonprofit The Freight and Salvage, and the Concord Pavilion (formerly Sleep Train Pavilion).

Major museums include the Oakland Museum of California, the Lawrence Hall of Science and the Chabot Space and Science Center.

The East Bay Regional Parks District operates over fifty parks, many consisting of significant acreage of wildlands, in the East Bay, many directly adjacent to urban centers. Tilden Regional Park, is one of the largest regional parks (2000 acre) located directly adjacent to the urban center of Berkeley. Briones Regional Park, at 5,000 acres, is another large wildlands park near an urban center, Walnut Creek.

The East Bay also has a rich political history. One of the revolutionary movements founded in Oakland was the Black Panther Party.

The East Bay is home to many of the restaurants central to the creation of California Cuisine, including Chez Panisse.

Transportation
All vehicular crossings of the San Francisco Bay land in the counties comprising the East Bay. Interstate highways in the East Bay include: Interstates 80, 580, 680, 880, 980, and 238. California State Routes 24, 4, 13, 92, 160, 242, 84, and Richmond Parkway are limited access highways for at least part of their lengths in the area. State Route 61, State Route 84, State Route 123, State Route 185, and State Route 238 are major surface streets that receive state funding for maintenance. San Pablo Avenue previously carried U.S. Route 40 until the terminus was moved progressively east to Utah.

AC Transit is the major bus transit agency for the region, and provides bus service throughout Alameda and Contra Costa counties, hence the "AC" moniker. County Connection, WestCAT, WHEELS, Tri-Delta Transit and Union City Transit also provide bus service in the East Bay.

Ferry service is provided by San Francisco Bay Ferry from Jack London Square and Alameda Harbor, with service at Richmond Ferry Terminal slated to begin in 2018. Hercules may also see future ferry service to San Francisco.

Bicycle transportation is strongly promoted by city and county agencies, and by organizations like the East Bay Bicycle Coalition.

Major pedestrian paths across the region include the San Francisco Bay Trail, the Bay Area Ridge Trail, the Ohlone Greenway, Iron Horse Regional Trail, Contra Costa Canal Trail, and the Richmond Greenway.

Rail
Rail service in the East Bay dates to the First transcontinental railroad, when the Western Pacific Railroad was contracted by the Central Pacific Railroad to provide the link between the Bay and Sacramento. This railroad eventually became the Niles Canyon Railway. Service to Alameda commenced in September 1869, four months after driving the golden spike at Promintory, Utah. Oakland Long Wharf eventually became the western terminus before ferry service to San Francisco. This road provided the sole link to the rest of the country until about 1879 when a more direct route across the Carquinez Strait was completed. Today, Altamont Corridor Express (ACE) operates commuter rail services through Niles Canyon to San Jose.

Streetcar service across the East Bay was historically provided by the Key System, incorporated in 1902 as the San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose Railway. An amalgamation of several streetcar companies established in the late part of the century, the Key System provided interurban routes across Alameda county, with connections to San Francisco ferries via their private Key System Pier. Southern Pacific ran a competing system, East Bay Electric Lines, until they, too, had the Key System take over operations. When the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge opened in 1936, Key System cars could make the trip directly to the Transbay Terminal across the lower deck. Streetcars were replaced with busses in 1948 and transbay service halted in 1958. The system's assets were sold to the newly formed AC Transit in 1960.

The East Bay's modern rail transit service is Bay Area Rapid Transit, or BART, which was primarily designed to deliver commuters to San Francisco via the Transbay Tube, and to a lesser extent Oakland and Berkeley.

Amtrak's California Zephyr terminates in Emeryville, providing connections as far as Chicago, and further stations across the East Bay are served by Amtrak California's Coast Starlight and San Joaquin.

Economy
The East Bay has a mixed economy of services, manufacturing, and small and large businesses. The region is headquarters to a number of highly notable businesses, including Kaiser Permanente, Chevron, and Safeway, among others. The East Bay Economic Development Alliance was founded by Alameda County as the Economic Development Advisory Board in 1990 as a public/private partnership with the mission to promote the East Bay as an important region for development, with Contra Costa County joining in 1996, and the current name chosen in 2006.

Major employers
The East Bay, as a part of the greater Bay Area, is a highly developed region, and is a major center for new and established economic ventures. Along with the county governments of Alameda and Contra Costa, the largest employers are:
 * University of California, Berkeley with approximately 20,000 employees
 * AT&T Inc. with approximately 11,000 employees
 * The U.S. Postal Service with around 10,000 employees
 * Tesla with 10,000 employees
 * Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory with approximately 8,750 employees
 * Chevron Corp. (world headquarters in San Ramon) with 8,730 employees
 * Safeway (world headquarters in Pleasanton) with 7,922 employees
 * Bank of America with 7,081 employees
 * PG&E with approximately 5,200 employees
 * Kaiser Permanente (US headquarters in Oakland) with 4,730 employees
 * Lucky Stores with 4,631 employees
 * Bio-Rad Laboratories with 4,300 employees
 * Wells Fargo with about 4,000 employees
 * Workday (world headquarters in Pleasanton) with 3,865 employees
 * Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory with 3,816 employees
 * Mount Diablo Unified School District with 3,700 employees
 * West Contra Costa Unified School District with 3,360 employees
 * Alta Bates Summit Medical Center with 3,100 employees
 * John Muir Medical Center with 3,023 employees
 * Sandia National Laboratories with 1,670 employees
 * Oracle with 1,500 employees
 * Western Digital with 1,300 employees
 * Seagate with 1,050 employees

Other major companies with headquarters in the East Bay include 10x Genomics, 24 Hour Fitness, Alibris, ANG Newspapers, Clif Bar, Clorox, Columbus Salame, Dreyer's, Ellie Mae, GE Digital, Ghirardelli Chocolate Company, Gillig Corporation, Leapfrog, Peet's Coffee, Pixar, Ross Stores and Workday. Mervyn's headquarters were located in the East Bay until they declared bankruptcy. The New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc. (NUMMI) automobile manufacturing plant employed about 5,100 employees at its peak. Tesla, Inc. has taken over part of the NUMMI plant, which is still the only automobile manufacturing plant in California.

Higher education
The East Bay is served by a number of both public and private higher education institutions:

Colleges
 * Two-year (community colleges)
 * Berkeley City College
 * Chabot College
 * College of Alameda
 * Contra Costa College
 * Diablo Valley College
 * Laney College
 * Las Positas College
 * Los Medanos College
 * Merritt College
 * Ohlone College

Universities
 * Public
 * California State University, East Bay (CSU East Bay)
 * University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley)
 * Private
 * California College of the Arts
 * Holy Names University (defunct)
 * John F. Kennedy University
 * Life Chiropractic College West
 * Mills College at Northeastern University
 * Patten University
 * Saint Mary's College of California
 * Samuel Merritt University

title: East Bay


text:
John Brydges, 1st Baron Chandos

John Brydges, 1st Baron Chandos (9 March 1492 – 12 April 1557) was an English courtier, Member of Parliament and later peer. His last name is also sometimes spelt Brugge or Bruges. He was a prominent figure at the English court during the reigns of Kings Henry VIII and Edward VI and of Queen Mary I.

Biography
He was born at Coberley, Gloucestershire, the son of Sir Giles Brydges of Coberley (c. 1462 – 1511) and Isabel Baynham. His father was a knight of the body to Henry VII and his brother Thomas Brydges of Cornbury, Oxfordshire also held public office and served as an MP. Bridges inherited his father's Oxfordshire and Wiltshire estates as a minor in 1511, and was for two years the ward of Sir Edward Darrell.

He was knighted in 1513 after serving in France with Charles Brandon at Terouenne and Tournai. He attended Henry VIII on all subsequent state occasions in England and France (presumably including the famous meeting with Francis I of France at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, where Gloucestershire was represented by, amongst others, a Sir John Brydges).

His election in 1529 as junior knight of the shire for Gloucestershire was a tribute to his standing both locally and at court, but it was doubtless assisted by his influential connections, through his mother with the Baynhams and through his wife with the noble house of Grey of Wilton.

Brydges was High Sheriff of Wiltshire for 1537, and took part in suppressing the rebellion of Sir Thomas Wyatt in 1554. As Lieutenant of the Tower of London during the earlier part of Queen Mary's reign, he had the custody not only of Lady Jane Grey and of Thomas Wyatt, but for a short time, of the Queen's half-sister as well, the Princess Elizabeth Tudor (who would later become Queen Elizabeth I of England).

In 1554, Queen Mary I gave Sudeley Castle to John Brydges and created him Baron Chandos of Sudeley on 8 April 1554. The castle remained his property throughout her reign and the reign of Queen Elizabeth I as well and then passed down to his descendants. It was at Sudeley Castle that Queen Elizabeth was entertained three times. Also, later on in 1592, a spectacular three-day feast was held there to celebrate the anniversary of the defeat of the Spanish Armada.

Family
It was around 1512 when Brydges married Elizabeth Grey, daughter of Edmund Grey, 9th Baron Grey de Wilton (died 1511), and Florence Hastings, eldest daughter of Sir Ralph Hastings. They had eleven children.

Their son Edmund succeeded to the Chandos barony on his father's death. Their son Charles married Jane, daughter of Sir Edward Carne. Their daughter Katherine became a gentlewoman to Mary I, and married Edward Sutton, 4th Baron Dudley.

Death
He died at Sudeley Castle on 12 April 1557 and was buried with heraldic ceremony on 3 May in Sudeley Church. His will, dated 2 March 1556, was proved on 28 May 1557. In his will, he styles himself as Sir John Bruges, Knight, Lord Chandos of Sudeley. Lady Chandos died on 29 December 1559 and was buried on 6 January 1560.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Brydges, 1st Baron Chandos


text: User talk:Tohit

title: User talk:Tohit


text:
Brij Mohan Kaul

Brij Mohan Kaul (1912-1972) was a Lieutenant General in the Indian Army. He served as the Chief of General Staff during 1961–1962 and was regarded as a key architect of Indian military response to the Chinese challenge. In October 1962, he was given the command of a newly raised IV Corps to counter the impending Chinese invasion of NEFA (modern day Arunachal Pradesh), but it got routed by the Chinese. He resigned in the aftermath of the war, and was awarded the Param Vishisht Seva Medal in 1960.

Personal life
He was born on 1 May 1912, in a Kashmiri Pandit family to Gaura and Jagmohan Kaul in Lahore, Punjab, British India. His birth date coincided with Buddha Jayanti. He had a sister (Dulari), and a half-brother (Shyam) and a half-sister (Nanni). He married Dhanraj Kishori; they had two daughters Anuradha and Chitralekha.

Career
A King's Commissioned Indian Officer, Kaul attended the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant on the Unattached List for the Indian Army on 31 August 1933. He then spent the next year attached to a British Army regiment in India, the 1st battalion the East Surrey Regiment, starting 5 November 1933. After his years attachment accepted for the Indian Army and he was posted to the 5th Battalion, 6th Rajputana Rifles on 10 November 1934 with his date of commission as a Second Lieutenant antedated to 2 February 1933. He was promoted to Lieutenant 2 May 1935 but by mid-1936 he was attached away from the battalion to the Royal Indian Army Service Corps, a posting that led to a permanent transfer on 18 February 1937.

At the outbreak of World War Two he was serving with the 26th Mechanical Transport Company. He was promoted Captain 2 February 1941, acting Major 7 November 1942 and local Lieutenant-Colonel 14 December 1942, War Substantive Major & temporary Lieutenant Colonel 19 February 1944 and Major 1 July 1946.

In October–December 1946, he was the secretary to "Armed forces nationalisation committee" constituted by Viceroy. Coincidentally, it was led by N Gopalawami Ayengar, later defense minister, with members including future Chief of Army Staff General Thimayya, future Pakistan Army chief Muhammad Musa and future Indian MP H.N. Kunzru.

In May 1947, Kaul was promoted local colonel and appointed as India's defence attache in Washington. He returned to India in the aftermath of Indian Pakistan hostilities over Kashmir, and was promoted to acting brigadier in 1950 and to the substantive rank of colonel on 2 February 1951. On 15 January 1956, by now a brigadier, he was appointed an area commander in the acting rank of major-general.

In 1962, he was appointed as the commander of IV Corps in the north eastern region of India.

Operation Leghorn
In 1962, Lt General B.M. Kaul was appointed as the General officer Commanding (GOC) the North east, replacing Lt General Umrao Singh. Kaul was to head the newly appointed IV Corps at Tezpur, however no new troops were sent to the corps with only the new headquarter staff being deployed there. The entire NEFA (North East Frontier Agency), now Arunachal Pradesh was made Kaul's domain.

On his first day of assignment, Kaul flew to Lumpu and then trekked to Namkachu valley. He was the first General officer to visit the valley. Under his leadership, the Indian patrol occupied Tse Jong, a hillock north-west of the Chinese settlement. Kaul reportedly fell ill during the assignment and returned to New Delhi. The Indian patrol occupying Tse Jong was wiped out when an 800 strong enemy force raided the post subsequently.

The battle with China in 1962, in the NEFA, is also known as the Battle of Namkachu. The Battle of the Namakachu is used today to teach Indian Army officers on things to not do.

Honours
Kaul was the recipient of the Param Vishisht Seva Medal instituted by the Indian government in 1960, for his work in successfully completing the construction of quarters for troops in Ambala.

Controversies
In 1968, Brigadier John Dalvi, the former commanding officer of the 7th Infantry Brigade that participated in the 1962 Sino-Indian War authored a book named Himalayan Blunder, where he gave his first hand accounts and perceptions of the causes for India's defeat in the war. He was critical of Lt General B.M. Kaul and attributed the loss in 1962 war partly to him. Excerpt from the book: "He managed to keep himself away from hardship and learning the nuances of a military commander as a junior officer and later in service, managed to grab important Army senior command appointments due to his "pull". His involvement with Jawaharlal Nehru later turned out to be a major reason for shameful loss and massacre of Indian troops at the hands of the Chinese".

In 1991, K. Satchidananda Murty wrote a biographical book about the second President of India, Shri Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, named Radhakrishnan: His Life and Ideas. In the book, he quoted the former president as having expressed doubts over the capability of Lt General B.M. Kaul. Excerpt from the book: "The General Officer was well known in the Army and Political Circles to be a "personal favourite" of Jawaharlal Nehru since his junior officer days. He reportedly received a number of undue professional favours throughout his career due to this personal connection and he made full use of this opportunity with utter disregard to the Army organisation".

In the book The Unfought War of 1962: An Appraisal, by Raghav Sharan Sharma, he has mentioned that Lt General B.M. Kaul was a distant relation of Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. As a result, V.K.Krishna Menon who was the then Defence Minister and Jawaharlal Nehru's close aide, appointed Lt General B.M. Kaul as Chief of General Staff, against the recommendation of the outgoing Chief of Army Staff, General K.S.Thimayya and in spite of the fact that he was an Army Service Corps officer, with no prior combat experience and having never commanded a fighting unit earlier.

Both the books have been highly critical about Lt General B.M. Kaul. However, Lt General Kaul also authored a book named The Untold Story, where he gave his version of reasons for the loss in the 1962 war.

Books authored
He wrote his side of the story about operation leghorn in the book The Untold Story and, in another book,  Confrontation with Pakistan.

title: Brij Mohan Kaul


text:
Grey Brydges, 5th Baron Chandos

Grey Brydges, 5th Baron Chandos (c. 1580 – 10 August 1621) of Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire, was an English nobleman and courtier.

Early life
He was the only son of William Brydges, 4th Baron Chandos, who died on 18 November 1602, and Mary Hopton, who was daughter of Sir Owen Hopton. He was M.P. for Cricklade, in 1597.

Brydges and his family were friendly with Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex. His father visited Essex at Essex House on the Sunday morning (8 February 1601) of Essex's insurrection, but he was not deemed by the government to be implicated in the conspiracy. The son, Grey Brydges, was, however, suspected of immediate complicity, and was sent to the Fleet Prison with Henry Cuffe and others; but he was soon released.

Courtier and grandee
Grey Brydges succeeded his father as Baron Chandos in 1602, attended King James I of England's initial parliament on 19 March 1604, and was made Knight of the Bath, when Prince Charles Stewart was created Duke of York in January 1605. He visited Oxford with King James I, and was granted the degree of M.A. on 30 August 1605. On 2 July 1609, he was appointed keeper of Ditton Park, Buckinghamshire, for life. He attended the funeral of Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, in 1612. Grey also took an active part in the court masques and tournaments. It was reported at court on 9 September 1613 that a duel was to be fought by him and the King's favourite, Lord James Hay. He became Lord Lieutenant of Gloucestershire and was called the "King of the Cotswolds", owing to his generosity and his magnificent style of living at his residence, Sudeley Castle.

Traveller
In 1608 he went travelling with Degory Wheare. In 1610 he was appointed one of the officers under Sir Edward Cecil in command of an expedition to the Low Countries, in the War of the Jülich succession. The Emperor Rudolph II's forces were besieging Juliers, and the English had combined with Holland and France to protect the town. Sir Edward Herbert was Chandos's companion through this campaign. Chandos lodged at Juliers with Sir Horace Vere, but does not seem to have taken much part in the fighting. Afterwards he attended Antoine de Pluvinel's academy in Paris, and then went to Blois.

Later life
On 23 July 1612, Grey Brydges visited Spa in the Low Countries, for his health; he had been there before during the Jülich campaign. On 14 July 1616, there was some talk of making him President of Wales, and on 8 November 1617, he was appointed to receive ambassadors from Muscovy, then in England. His health was still failing, and after trying in 1618, the waters of Newenham Mills in Warwickshire, he returned to Spa, where he died suddenly on 10 August 1621, while taking in the waters there. His body was brought to Sudeley Castle, and buried there. An elegy for him was written by Sir John Beaumont.

Horae Subsecivae
Chandos has been regarded by Horace Walpole and others as the author of some essays, Horae Subsecivae. These were published by Edward Blount, and from topical references would appear to have been written about 1615. The attribution is moot: Michael Lort and Samuel Egerton Brydges supported Walpole's view. Anthony à Wood and White Kennett had earlier stated that Gilbert Cavendish, eldest son of William Cavendish, 1st Earl of Devonshire, was the author of the work. Copies are extant with the name of Lord Chandos inscribed on the title page in seventeenth-century handwriting.

Edmond Malone and Thomas Park, the editor of Walpole, attributed the book on the grounds of Gilbert's age to William, a brother. A modern view agrees to the extent that 10 of the essays can be shown to have been written by William (for his father) in 1615, at a time when Thomas Hobbes was his tutor. (There is another view, which is that this collection is Hobbes's own work.) The published essays come as 12 shorter pieces (the 10 by William being among those); and four longer ones, now attributed one to William (on flattery, based on a piece from 1611) and three to Hobbes.

Family
On 28 February 1607, he married Lady Anne Stanley, daughter of Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby and Lady Alice Spencer. His wife Anne, a great-great-granddaughter of King Henry VIII's sister, Princess Mary Tudor, had been heiress presumptive to the throne of England; she was, however, passed over for King James VI of Scotland.

The couple had the following five children:

 * Robert Brydges (b. 1611), died young.
 * Anne Brydges (b. 1612): she did marry, reputedly to a Mr Torteson but little is known about her later life and whether there were any issue. Issue has never been ruled out, there is little firm evidence about her life after childhood.
 * Elizabeth Brydges (1619–1678), married her stepbrother, James Tuchet, 3rd Earl of Castlehaven.
 * George Brydges, 6th Baron Chandos (1620–1654), married firstly, Lady Susan Montagu, daughter of Henry Montagu, 1st Earl of Manchester; married secondly, Lady Jane Savage, daughter of John Savage, 2nd Earl Rivers. From both his wives, he had altogether six daughters, but no sons.
 * William Brydges, 7th Baron Chandos (1621–1676), married Susan Kerr. No issue.

title: Grey Brydges, 5th Baron Chandos


text:
Light (disambiguation)

Light is an electromagnetic radiation, part of which stimulates the sense of vision.

Light or Lights may also refer to:

Illumination

 * Light bulb
 * Traffic light

Music

 * Lights (musician) (born 1987), Canadian singer-songwriter
 * Light Records, a record label

Albums

 * Light (Matisyahu album) (2009)
 * Light (Xu Weizhou album) (2016)
 * Light, by Jeff Deyo (2004)
 * Light, by DakhaBrakha (2010)
 * Lights (Archive album) (2006)
 * Lights (Brigade album) (2006)
 * Lights (Ellie Goulding album) (2010)

EPs

 * Lights (Lights EP) (2008)
 * Lights, by Kitchen Party (2013)
 * Lights (Joohoney EP), 2023

Songs

 * "Light" (KMFDM song) (1993)
 * "Light" (Music for Pleasure song) (1982)
 * "Light" (San Holo song) (2016)
 * "Light" (Annika Wickihalder song) (2024)
 * "Spotlight" (Xiao Zhan song), also known as "Light" (2020)
 * "Light", by Big Sean featuring Jeremih from I Decided (2017)
 * "Light", by Camouflage from Relocated (2006)
 * "Light", by Depeche Mode from Sounds of the Universe (2009, deluxe box set edition)
 * "Light", by Joe Morris from Singularity (2001)
 * "Light", by Odesza featuring Little Dragon from In Return (2014, deluxe edition)
 * "Light", from Next to Normal (2008)
 * "Light (Pop's Principle)", by Laura Nyro from Nested (1978)
 * "Lights" (BTS song) (2019)
 * "Lights" (Ellie Goulding song) (2010)
 * "Lights" (Journey song) (1978)
 * "Lights (Love Sick)", by Travis Scott (2012)
 * "Lights", by Styx from Cornerstone (1979)
 * "Lights", by Editors from The Back Room (2005)
 * "Lights", by Inna from Nirvana (2017)
 * "Lights", by Interpol from Interpol (2010)
 * "Lights", by Scissor Sisters from Ta-Dah (2006)

Fictional characters

 * Light (Doctor Who), a villain from Doctor Who
 * Doctor Light (disambiguation), several fictional characters
 * Light Yagami, a character from the anime and manga series Death Note
 * Light (Twinbee), a character from the Twinbee franchise

Other arts and entertainment

 * Light (journal), a journal of light verse
 * Light (novel), a 2002 science fiction novel by M. John Harrison
 * "Light", an episode of Legend of the Seeker, an American television series
 * "Light", an episode of the Adult Swim television series Off the Air
 * Light, a 2019 play based on the lives of William Light and his father

Companies

 * Light S.A., a Brazilian electricity distribution and retailing company
 * Light (company), a digital photography peripheral company

People

 * Light (surname)
 * Zion Lights (born 1984), English Green activist

Places

 * County of Light, a cadastral county in South Australia
 * Electoral district of Light
 * Light Regional Council, a local government in South Australia
 * Light River (South Australia)
 * Light River (New Zealand)
 * Light, Arkansas, an unincorporated community in the United States
 * Light, Missouri, an unincorporated community in the United States

Other uses

 * Divine light, in theology
 * Light (automobile), a car built in 1914 in Detroit
 * Lights (offal), the lungs of an animal used in cooking
 * Light (web browser), a lightweight web browser based on Firefox
 * Light (window), the area between the outer parts of a window (head, sill and jambs), the mullions and transoms
 * Skyway Light, a German paramotor design
 * Ventilated cigarettes or lights, a cigarette type with a low level of nicotine
 * World of Light, transcendental realm in Mandaeism
 * LIGHT, the Leeds Institute of Genetics, Health and Therapeutics at Leeds School of Medicine

title: Light (disambiguation)


text: Category:Hyogo Prefecture

title: Category:Hyogo Prefecture


text:
George Brydges, 6th Baron Chandos

George Brydges, 6th Baron Chandos (1620–1655), was the son of Grey Brydges, 5th Baron Chandos (c. 1580 – 10 August 1621) and Lady Anne Stanley, a descendant of King Henry VIII's sister, Princess Mary Tudor. George's stepfather was Mervyn Tuchet, 2nd Earl of Castlehaven. In 1621, George succeeded his father as Baron Chandos, being only one year old.

George was a supporter of King Charles I of England, during his struggle with Parliament, and distinguished himself at the first Battle of Newbury in 1643. Afterwards, he fought in the west of England. At the close of the First English Civil War, he paid a large fine to Parliament.

In 1649, after the end of the civil war, Parliament ordered the slighting of his residence, Sudeley Castle, to ensure that it could never again be used as a military post. In 1650, he received some financial compensation for the loss of the castle but not enough for reconstruction. The castle remained semi-derelict.

George Brydges firstly married Lady Susan Montagu, daughter of Henry Montagu, 1st Earl of Manchester, by whom he had three daughters, and secondly, Lady Jane Savage, daughter of John Savage, 2nd Earl Rivers, by whom he had another three daughters. His brother, William Brydges, succeeded him as 7th Baron Chandos. William died in 1676, and was succeeded as 8th Baron by a kinsman, James Brydges, who was English ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, from 1680 to 1685.

On 13 May 1653, George killed Colonel Henry Compton, son of Sir Henry Compton, in one of the first recorded duels at Putney, and was tried and found guilty of manslaughter on 17 May 1654 after a long imprisonment. On 6 February 1655, he died of smallpox, and was buried at Sudeley Castle, his residence.

title: George Brydges, 6th Baron Chandos


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Talk:Bhutan

"Bhutanese Australians" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Bhutanese Australians and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 July 17 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. signed,Rosguill talk 16:17, 17 July 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 14:44, 23 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Bhutan Product Exports (2019).svg

Jetsun Pema was a 'commoner'?
Section "Family Structure" under "Culture" says the queen was a 'commoner' when she married the king. Is this correct? Reading her page, it seems she is closely related to the royal family, and does not sound like a commoner at all. Alexandriensis (talk) 07:32, 30 October 2023 (UTC)

The national anthem Thunder king dragon does not sound like national anthem it sound like mittary parade but same key
Can you fix this page right now this bhutan national anthem does not sound like national anthem for me it sound likes the mittary parade on 1990s Please fix this damn page right now, 2603:6011:B701:AE27:C486:AEB:D2A:DAA6 (talk) 17:26, 8 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bhutan


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Irish linen

Irish linen (Línéadach Éireannach ) is the name given to linen produced in Ireland (including both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland). Linen is cloth woven from, or yarn spun from, flax fibre, which was grown in Ireland for many years before advanced agricultural methods and more suitable climate led to the concentration of quality flax cultivation in northern Europe.

Production
Most of the world crop of quality flax is now grown in northern France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Since about the 1950s to 1960s, the flax fibre for Irish linen yarn has been imported almost exclusively from France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. It is bought by spinners who produce yarn, which is then sold to weavers (or knitters) who produce fabric. Irish linen spinning has now virtually ceased, yarns being imported from places such as the eastern part of the European Union and China.

Weaving today consists mainly of plain linens for niche, top-of-the-range, apparel uses. Linen damask weaving in Ireland has less capacity, and it is confined at very much the top end of the market for luxury end-uses. Companies who continue to weave in Ireland, including Thomas Ferguson & Co Ltd, tend to concentrate on the quality end of the market, and Jacquard weaving is moving towards the weaving of special and custom damask pieces, made to the customer's specific requirements. Fabric woven outside of Ireland and then brought to Ireland to be bleached or dyed and finished cannot carry the Irish Linen Guild logo, which is the Guild trademark, and signifies the genuine Irish Linen brand.

Definition
The Irish Linen Guild has defined Irish linen as yarn which is spun in Ireland from 100% flax fibres. It is not required that every stage from the growing of the flax to the weaving must take place in Ireland. To be Irish linen fabric, the yarns do not necessarily have to come from an Irish spinner; to be Irish linen (yarn), the flax fibre does not have to be grown in Ireland. However, the skills, craftsmanship, and technology that go into spinning the yarn must be Irish – as is the case with Irish linen fabric, where the design and weaving skills must be Irish. Finished garments or household textile items can be labelled Irish linen, although they may have been made up in another country. Irish linen does not refer to the making-up process (such as cutting and sewing).

title: Irish linen


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File:Galleryofsuicide.jpg

http://www.cannibalcorpse.net/

Rationale of fair use for Gallery of Suicide

 * 1) No free or public domain images have been located for this cover.
 * 2) The image is of lower resolution than the original cover.
 * 3) The image does not limit the copyright owners' rights to distribute their products in any way.
 * 4) For an article about an album, a cover is very important and adds significantly to the article, as it identifies them.
 * 5) The image is of lower resolution than the original cover. Copies made from it will be of inferior quality, and could not be used as artwork on illegal merchandise.
 * 6) This image is used on various websites, so its use on Wikipedia does not make it significantly more accessible than it already is.
 * 7) The cover is being used for informational purposes only.

title: File:Galleryofsuicide.jpg


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Bill Weber

William Weber (born May 8, 1957) is a former television sports commentator best known for his work on TNT and NBC NASCAR broadcasts. Weber was also the lead announcer for Champ Car World Series events and other auto racing series on NBC. He is working as an illusionist in St. Petersburg, Florida.

Early life and career
Weber was born in Middletown, New Jersey. He was born the second-eldest of four children, 2 boys and 2 girls. His career began at WISH-TV in Indianapolis as a sports reporter while a student at Butler University. After graduating in 1979 with a Bachelor of Science degree in radio and television and a minor in journalism, Weber served as sports director at stations in Terre Haute, Indiana and Evansville, Indiana.

In 1987, Weber left television to work on the Miller Brewing Company's Unlimited Hydroplane Racing program as a media relations consultant. He then returned to Evansville and radio. In 1990, he relocated to Charlotte, North Carolina to work for a Sunbelt Video, a production company, which has since been purchased by NASCAR and is known as NASCAR Digital Media.

Weber spent time working for TNN as part of the Inside NASCAR.

ESPN
Weber signed on with the ESPN and ESPN2 cable networks (and later with ABC) in 1994 as a pit-road reporter, and contribute reporter on RPM 2Night from 1996 until 2000.

NBC Sports and TNT Sports
In 2001, Weber was tapped as pre-race host and pit reporter for NBC and TNT's coverage of NASCAR. For part of the 2004 season, Weber replaced Allen Bestwick as lap-by-lap announcer when Bestwick broke his leg during a charity ice hockey game in Rhode Island. On December 14, 2004, this switch was made permanent after weeks of rumors.

Prior to broadcasting NASCAR races, Weber had play-by-play experience. He was one of NBC's play-by-play announcers for its regional coverage of the Arena Football League.

On July 30, 2006, TNT announced that Bill Weber would continue as voice of NASCAR on TNT even after contracts with NBC come to an end at the conclusion of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series season.

The NBC and TNT partnership continued with Weber hosting coverage of the North American International Auto Show for NBC, and both Weber and Dallenbach assigned to NBC's Champ Car World Series events in April 2007. The pair also called NBC's American Le Mans Series races.

Weber and commentators Wally Dallenbach Jr. and Benny Parsons made cameo appearances as themselves in the 2006 Will Ferrell NASCAR comedy Talladega Nights: The Ballad of Ricky Bobby. In 2009, while in New Hampshire to cover the NASCAR Sprint Cup race, Weber was suspended by TNT and was not allowed to call the race or appear on the air. TNT senior vice president Sal Petruzzi stated: “As this is a private issue, it’s the policy of the company not to discuss personal matters involving our employees.” Other reports indicated that Weber got into a loud confrontation in his hotel lobby regarding complaints about his hotel room. On July 1, 2009, TNT and NASCAR announced that Weber would be replaced by Ralph Sheheen for the final two races of TNT's 2009 schedule.

Notable calls
Weber was on the call for several notable races as lap-by-lap announcer. His only Daytona 500 call was in 2006, when Jimmie Johnson won his first Daytona 500. Later that season, Weber also called Johnson's first Cup Series championship at the Ford 400, the first of five consecutive titles for Johnson. Weber also called the July Daytona race in 2005, 2007, and 2008.

Today
Following his dismissal from TNT, Weber worked as an illusionist at a hotel in St. Petersburg, FL.

His voice was heard on a commercial for Acorn Stairlifts and driver James Jakes during IndyCar Series races in April 2014.

title: Bill Weber


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S. K. Kaul

Air Chief Marshal Swaroop Krishna Kaul, PVSM, MVC, ADC (born 20 December 1935) is a former Chief of the Air Staff of the Indian Air Force. Kaul served as the Air Chief from 1993 to 1995.

Personal life
Swaroop Krishna Kaul was born in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, into a Kashmiri Pandit family, to K K Kaul. He did his schooling from Besant college in Varanasi and his graduation from Government College, Allahabad in 1951.

Career
Kaul joined the National Defence Academy in 1951 and was commissioned in the IAF on 17 July 1954

During the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971, as a Wing Commander Kaul led several missions into the Pakistani held areas of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) to photograph strategically vital areas.

As Commanding Officer of 37 Squadron, he was awarded the Maha Vir Chakra, the second highest war-time military decoration in India.

After Commanding the Central Air Command and the Western Air Command, Kaul took over as the 16th Chief of the Air Staff of the Indian Air Force.

In November 1994, Kaul was appointed as the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee. He retired from the Air Force in December 1995. He had over 3,700 hours of accident free flying to his credit.

Awards
Kaul was awarded the Maha Vir Chakra for a show of conspicuous gallantry during the 1971 war and the Param Vishisht Seva Medal in 1992.

CITATION WING COMMANDER SWAROOP KRISHNA KAUL

(Effective date of award – 4 December 1971)

''At the outbreak of hostilities, Wing Commander Swaroop Krishna Kaul, the Commanding Officer of a fighter bomber squadron volunteered for an urgent task to photograph certain areas which were badly needed in order to finalise our Army’s assault plans. The officer carried out four missions deep into enemy territories to cover the heavily defended sectors of Comilla, Sylhet and Saidpur. At times, Wing Commander Kaul had to fly as low as 200 feet over the most heavily defended enemy locations. Undaunted, he flew through these barrages, making repeated runs in each of his missions, and successfully completed the task. On 4th December, 1971, Wing Commander Kaul again volunteered for another task, to photograph the Tezgaon and Kurmitola airfields. His reconnaissance flights over these two airfields, in the face of the most sustained and heavy enemy ground fire stand out as acts of heroism, extreme gallantry and devotion to duty. In addition to his reconnaissance exploits, Wing Commander Kaul led the very first eight aircraft strike mission over Dacca. In this raid, his formation encountered four enemy aircraft near the target area. With exemplary leadership, Wing Commander Kaul maneuvered his force in such a manner that two of the enemy aircraft were shot down and the other two fled. The target thus became clear for attack. Throughout the period of operations Wing Commander Swaroop Krishna Kaul displayed conspicuous gallantry, determination and professional skill.''

title: S. K. Kaul


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Category:Law enforcement in Argentina

es:Categoría:Fuerzas de seguridad provinciales de Argentina pt:Categoria:Polícia da Argentina

title: Category:Law enforcement in Argentina


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Spice (disambiguation)

Spices are plant substances used for flavoring as a food additive.

Spice or SPICE may also refer to:

Music

 * Spice (British band), a 1960s rock band
 * Spice (Canadian band), a Canadian pop and folk band
 * Spice (musician), Jamaican dancehall artist Grace Latoya Hamilton (born 1982)
 * Ice Spice, American rapper Isis Naija Gaston (born 2000)
 * Richie Spice, Jamaican reggae artist Richell Bonner (born 1971)
 * Spice, a percussionist for the band Dread Zeppelin
 * Spice (album), a 1996 album by the girl group Spice Girls
 * "Spice" (song), a 2011 song by the girl group Perfume

Organizations

 * Spice Engineering, a British racing team
 * Spice Telecom, a former Indian telecommunications company
 * Spice TV, Africa's first dedicated English-language specialty channel for fashion
 * Spice Network, a group of adult television channels
 * Susan Polgar Institute of Chess Excellence

People

 * Gordon Spice (born 1940), British former racing driver
 * Jason Spice (born 1974), New Zealand international rugby union player and first-class cricketer
 * Michael Spice (1931–1983), British actor
 * nickname of Anthony Adams (born 1980), American former National Football League player, television host, actor and comedian

Communications, circuitry and electronics

 * SPICE, an electronic circuit simulator
 * SPICE (protocol), a remote-connection sharing protocol
 * SPICE (observation geometry system), a NASA space mission geometry software system
 * Software Process Improvement and Capability Determination, ISO 15504, a process-assessment framework
 * Small Projects in a Controlled Environment, a reduced version of PRINCE2 for managing small projects
 * Motorola Spice, a smartphone developed by Motorola
 * Space Internetworking Center, a Greek research center focused on space communications

Other science and technology

 * Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering, a UK solar geoengineering research project
 * Spice (oceanography)
 * Bautek Spice, a German hang glider
 * Spice (bomb), a bomb guidance device
 * SPICE, Super-fast Parallel In-memory Calculation Engine in Amazon QuickSight

Other uses

 * SPICE Arena, George Town, Penang, Malaysia
 * SPICE station, a proposed light rail transit station in George Town, Penang
 * SPICE or SPICES (simplicity, peace, integrity, community, equality, stewardship), an acronym representing the principal testimonies in Quaker practical theology
 * Melange (fictional drug) or "the spice", a drug in the Dune novels by Frank Herbert
 * Spice, a drug in the Star Wars universe
 * Spice, a slang term for synthetic cannabinoids (also known as synthetic marijuana)

title: Spice (disambiguation)


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Ratan Kumar Nehru

Ratan Kumar Nehru, or R.K. Nehru, (10 October 1902 – 2 April 1981) was an Indian civil servant and diplomat. He served as the Foreign Secretary, 1952–1955, and later as India's ambassador to China and United Arab Republic (Egypt). During 1960–1963, he was appointed the Secretary-General of the Ministry of External Affairs, a period in which India faced an invasion from China. He retired in 1963, after which the position of Secretary-General was abolished, and the Foreign Secretary role became the head of the Ministry.

He was son of Mohanlal Nehru, grandson of Nandlal Nehru.

title: Ratan Kumar Nehru


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Mezen, Mezensky District, Arkhangelsk Oblast

Mezen (Мезе́нь) is a town and the administrative center of Mezensky District in Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia, located on the right bank of the Mezen River close to the point where it flows into the White Sea. Population:

History
The settlement at the location of the present-day Mezen was founded in the 16th century and was known as Okladnikova Sloboda (Окладникова Слобода). It was subsequently developed into the trading center of the Mezen River valley where annual trade fairs were held. Besides the trade, the main occupations of the Mezen inhabitants were fishery and seal hunting. In 1780, Okladnikova Sloboda was merged with the nearby settlement of Kuznetsovskaya Sloboda into the town of Mezen. In 1784, Mezen became the seat of Mezensky Uyezd of Vologda Viceroyalty. In 1796, the territory was transferred to Arkhangelsk Governorate. In 1929, several governorates were merged into Northern Krai. On July 15, 1929, the uyezds were abolished and Mezen became the administrative center of Mezensky District.

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Mezen serves as the administrative center of Mezensky District. As an administrative division, it is, together with the village of Semzha, incorporated within Mezensky District as the town of district significance of Mezen. As a municipal division, the town of district significance of Mezen, together with the territory of Lampozhensky Selsoviet (which comprises four rural localities) in Mezensky District, are incorporated within Mezensky Municipal District as Mezenskoye Urban Settlement.

Restricted access
The northern part of Mezensky District, including Mezen itself, is included into the border security zone, intended to protect the borders of Russia from unwanted activity. In order to visit Mezen, a permit issued by the local Federal Security Service department is required.

Industry
Economic activity in Mezen is currently limited to food industry and mechanical works. The Mezen sawmill and the Mezen sea harbor are both located in Kamenka across the Mezen River.

Transportation
The Mezen River is navigable; however, there is no passenger navigation in Mezen except for the ferry boat to Kamenka. There is an all-season road to Arkhangelsk (which crosses the Mezen near the village of Kimzha), completed in 2008. During winter, temporary roads (zimniks) are built in snow.

Mezen is served by the Mezen Airport, with several weekly flights to Arkhangelsk.

Culture and recreation
Mezen is one of the few former uyezd towns which generally preserved the historical center. There are many former merchant houses, mostly made of wood, in the town center.

Mezen hosts the Mezen Regional Museum.

A carved epitaph was found in 1957 on a nameless island in the White Sea, done by brothers Ivan and Ondriyan, fishermen from Mezen, who apparently got to the island after the shipwreck and lost any hope to be found again. The epitaph was featured in Laughter and Grief by the White Sea, a 1987 Soviet traditionally animated feature film directed by Leonid Nosyrev made at the Soyuzmultfilm studio.

Climate
Mezen has a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification Dfc) with long winters and short summers.


text:
User:Stevus

I am stephen morrill. I am a junior at massabesic high school. I live in waterboro maine. there are many people here.... but not alot of the are very smart. this school isn't very cool. I do notlike peoiple watching what I type. but I am a smart man... at leat I think so.

title: User:Stevus


text:
James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos

James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, (6 January 1673 – 9 August 1744) was an English landowner and politician who sat in the English and British House of Commons from 1698 until 1714, when he succeeded to the peerage as Baron Chandos, and vacated his seat in the House of Commons to sit in the House of Lords. He was subsequently created Earl of Carnarvon, and then Duke of Chandos in 1719.

Early life
Brydges was born on the 6 January 1673 at Dewsall, Herefordshire, the fourth, but eldest surviving son of James Brydges, 8th Baron Chandos and his wife Elizabeth Barnard, daughter of Sir Henry Barnard, merchant of St Dunstan-in-the-East, London, and of Bridgnorth, Shropshire. He was educated at Westminster School in 1686, and at New College, Oxford, from 1690 to 1692. He was at the Wolfenbüttel academy from 1692 to 1694 and in 1694 he was elected to the Royal Society.

Political career
Brydges was a Freeman of Ludlow in 1697, and was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament for Hereford at the 1698 English general election. In 1700 he was a member of the Old East India Company. He was returned as MP for Hereford in contests at the two general elections of 1701 and unopposed at the 1702 English general election. From 1702 to 1703 he was Commissioner of public accounts and was a member of the council of the Lord High Admiral from 1703 to April 1705. He was returned unopposed at Hereford again at the 1705 English general election. From April 1705 Brydges was paymaster-general of the forces abroad during the War of the Spanish Succession. At the 1708 British general election, he was returned for Truro, and in a contest for Hereford, and opted to sit at Hereford. In 1710 he was admitted to the Inner Temple. He was returned in a contest for Hereford at the 1710 British general election. In 1711 he was a commissioner for taking subscriptions to the South Sea Company. He was returned unopposed at the 1713 British general election.

Brydges succeeded his father as 9th Baron Chandos on 16 October 1714, and was created Earl of Carnarvon on 19 October 1714. He took up the role of joint clerk of hanaper in reversion in November 1714. In 1718 he became governor of the Levant Company until 1736. He was created Duke of Chandos on 29 April 1719. In 1721 he became a governor of Charterhouse. He was Lord Lieutenant of the counties of Hereford and Radnor and steward of crown manors for Radnorshire. He became a member of the Privy Council on 11 November 1721. He was Chancellor of the University of St Andrews (where he established the Chandos Chair of Medicine and Anatomy in 1721) from 1724 for the rest of his life. In 1737 he was appointed ranger of Enfield chase 1737. He became one of the founding governors of the Foundling Hospital in 1739.

Wealth
Brydges amassed great wealth through his public offices. The ethics of his financial operations were called into question at the time, but it was generally accepted that people could profit from public office. He continued to engage in speculative investments after being made Duke of Chandos in 1719, but lost money in the South Sea Bubble and the York Buildings Company.

Brydges built a magnificent house "at vast expense" at Cannons, an estate near Edgware in Middlesex. There he ran through several architects prominent in the English Baroque. He began in 1713 with William Talman, whom he dismissed in favour of John James in 1714; James had partly executed his designs before James Gibbs succeeded him in 1715. Howard Colvin (ref) concludes that the south and east elevations, as well as the chapel, were the designs of Gibbs. Brydges dismissed Gibbs in 1719, and completed the house under the supervision of John Price and, in 1723–25, Edward Shepherd. Cannons was demolished in 1747. On its site, now incorporated in Greater London, is Canons Park.

Brydges is said to have considered building a private road across his own lands between this place and his never completed house in Cavendish Square, London, probably also designed by Gibbs.

Handel and Pope
The Duke is chiefly remembered on account of his connections with George Frideric Handel, for whom he acted as a major patron, and with Alexander Pope, seen as having slandered Chandos in one of his poems. He served as an early patron to his relative George Rodney, later to become famous for his victory at the Battle of the Saintes, during his early career in the navy.

Chandos and Handel
Before Chandos was made a duke, he employed the young composer George Frideric Handel over a period of two years, 1717–18. Handel lived at Cannons, where he composed his oratorio Esther and his pastoral opera Acis and Galatea. Handel also composed the Chandos Anthems for his patron; they were first performed at the parish church of St Lawrence, Little Stanmore, with the composer playing the organ of 1716 which has survived there to the present day.

In 1719 Chandos was one of the main subscribers in the Royal Academy of Music, not the currently well-known conservatoire of that name but a corporation that produced baroque opera on stage in London.

Chandos and Pope
Alexander Pope, who in his Moral Essays (Epistle to the Earl of Burlington) was alleged to have ridiculed Cannons under the guise of Timon's Villa, later referred to the Duke in the line, "Thus gracious Chandos is belov'd at sight"; but Jonathan Swift, less complimentary, called him "a great complier [sic] with every court". The poet was caricatured by Hogarth for his supposed servility to Chandos. Pope published a denial of his alleged satire of the Duke's estate, in which he said that the estate of the poem "differs in every particular from" Chandos's. According to Pope biographer Maynard Mack, Chandos thereafter assured Pope by letter that he believed him, i.e. that the Epistle to Burlington was not intended as a satire of his estate. The malice, indeed, was on the part not of Pope, but of the insinuators and slanderers, the hack writers whom Pope had ridiculed as dunces in his Dunciad; Mack calls the affair a "falsehood of considerable damage to [Pope's] character".

Marriages and issue

Chandos was married three times. On 2 February 1695, he married Mary Lake, daughter of Sir Thomas Lake, of Cannons, Middlesex and his wife Rebecca Langham.

The marriage produced two sons who survived childhood:
 * 1) John Brydges, Marquess of Carnarvon (15 January 1703 – 8 April 1727)
 * 2) Henry Brydges, 2nd Duke of Chandos (1 February 1708 – 28 November 1771).

His first wife Mary died on 15 September 1712. He then married Cassandra Willoughby of Wollaton Hall, the daughter of Francis Willoughby and Emma Barnard on 4 August 1713.

His second wife Cassandra died on 18 July 1735. On 18 April 1736, he married Lydia Catherine Van Hatten, the daughter of John Van Hatten and Lydia Davall.

Death and legacy
Chandos died in Cannons on 9 August 1744. Chandos and several members of his family (his first two wives) are buried at the Chandos Mausoleum at the Church of St Lawrence, Whitchurch Lane, Little Stanmore, London. His third wife, who survived him, moved to Shaw House, Berkshire where she died in 1750.

Mrs. Elizabeth Montagu in a letter, dated Sandleford, 21 December 1750 to Miss Anstey, wrote: "My dear Miss Anstey, ... A little before I went to London I lost my very good neighbour, the Dutchess of Chandos, a stroke of the palsy carried her off in a few days: her bodily pains were great, but her mind felt the serenity that gilds the evening of a virtuous life. She quitted the world with that decent fare-well which people take of it, who rather consider it as a place in which they are to impart good than to enjoy it Her character has made a great impression on me, as I think her a rare instance that age could not make conceited and stiff, nor retirement discontented, nor virtue inflexible and severe..."

In a letter to Mrs. Donnellan dated Sandleford, 30 December 1750, Mrs. Montagu continued, "My rich neighbours are dull, and my poor ones are miserable ... The Dutchess of Chandos is greatly missed by the poor in this rigorous season. There is a family at Donnington Castle who are very generous and charitable, but nothing can entirely avail in a part of the world where manufacture decays; daily labour must give daily bread; occasional alms like medicine to the diseased, but can hardly procure constant health. To make the poor happy one must make them industrious..."

Succession
Chandos was succeeded by his son, Henry Brydges, 2nd Duke of Chandos, who found the estate so encumbered by debt that a demolition sale of Cannons was held in 1747, which dispersed furnishings and structural elements, with the result that elements of Cannons survive in several English country houses, notably Lord Foley's house, Witley Court at Great Witley, with its chapel (ceiling paintings by Bellucci and stained glass by Joshua Price of York after designs by Francesco Sleter). The pulpit and other fittings from Chandos's chapel were reinstalled in the parish church at Fawley, Buckinghamshire, by John Freeman of Fawley Court.

The 1st Duke's sister, The Hon. Mary Brydges, married Theophilus Leigh. They were the great-grandparents of Jane Austen.

title: James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos


text:
Payolas

Payolas (stylized as Payola$) was a Canadian rock band that was most prominent in the 1980s. Evolving from a new wave sound toward mainstream pop rock, they were best known for the single "Eyes of a Stranger", from their 1982 album No Stranger to Danger, an album that won the band four Juno Awards.

Based in Vancouver, the band had experienced several changes to both its name and lineup, having been known as The Payola$, Paul Hyde and the Payolas, and Rock and Hyde. Vocalist and lyricist Paul Hyde and multi-instrumentalist, songwriter and producer Bob Rock were the band's core members throughout its history. The band broke up in 1988, but reformed again from 2003 to 2008.

Name
The band's name is a reference to the United States payola scandal of the early 1960s, which was a pay-for-play scheme involving commercial radio stations. The name caused issues with A&M record executives who wanted to introduce the band to the American market and who were concerned about the term's negative connotations, which resulted in the band's name change to Paul Hyde and the Payola$ in 1985.

Rock told The Province in 2003 that their band's name caused one record executive to tell him "I won't lift a finger to help you." Rock added that it was Hyde that came up with the name and that "I was the idiot who put the dollar sign at the end."

Early years (1978–1981)
Paul Hyde, originally from Yorkshire, England, emigrated to Victoria, British Columbia at age 15. Hyde met Bob Rock while the pair were attending Belmont High School in Langford, a Victoria suburb. Rock, who moved to Victoria from Winnipeg at age 12, described his first encounter with Hyde to the Times Colonist in 2007: "He had his hair all cut off, and later I found out it was because he wanted to look like a skinhead when he immigrated to Canada so he wouldn't get beat up. Being such a fan of English culture and bands, I saw this kid standing there in a long trenchcoat and shaved head and I went, 'That's a guy I wanna know.'"

Influenced by musical artists such as David Bowie, Slade, T. Rex, Alex Harvey and Be-Bop Deluxe, the pair formed the Paul Kane Blues Band and toured Vancouver Island in the mid-1970s. In 1976 Rock landed a job as an apprentice recording engineer at Little Mountain Sound Studios in Vancouver and became acquainted with Vancouver's punk scene. Rock and Hyde were joined by drummer Ian Tiles (of Pointed Sticks) and bass player Marty Higgs to form the pop-punk band Payola$. At the time, Rock was producing mainly punk acts, such as the Young Canadians, The Dils and the Pointed Sticks.

In 1979 Payola$ released their first single "China Boys" on their own Slophouse label. The song, whose lyrics reference the westernization of China, attracted the attention of A&M Records. Higgs and Tiles left shortly after the single was recorded and were replaced by drummer Taylor Nelson Little and sax/bass player Gary Middleclass (né Bourgeois). The four track EP Introducing Payola$ was released by A&M in 1980. Middleclass left, in 1980 (later becoming a teacher at the Vancouver Film School sound design program), and was replaced by Lawrence Wilkins on bass. Lee Kelsey was added on keyboards. This quintet recorded 1981's In a Place Like This, first at Little Mountain studios, then completed at the famed Le Studio in Morin-Heights, Quebec. The album's sound contained both reggae and ska influences. Produced by Rock, In a Place Like This was a critical success, but didn't do well commercially.

Work with Mick Ronson (1982–1984)
1982 saw drummer Chris Taylor added to the band lineup, replacing Taylor Little. Kelsey left the band as well. This line-up recorded the album No Stranger to Danger, with famed English musician, songwriter and producer Mick Ronson acting as the album's producer. Ronson first heard of the Payolas when they were looking for a producer for In a Place Like This, but was unable to produce the album due to scheduling conflicts.

Incorporating elements of reggae, dub, pop, punk, and new wave, No Stranger to Danger included the hit single (No. 4) in "Eyes of a Stranger", which won the Juno Award for best single. Junos were also given to Rock and Hyde for their songwriting, Rock was awarded Recording Engineer of the Year, and the band as a whole won the Most Promising Group.

The band also toured with New Zealand new wave band Split Enz on the Canadian leg of their 1982 tour. Ronson also joined the Payola$ on stage on keyboards. In the 2011 book, Have Not Been The Same; The CanRock Renaissance 1985-1995, Rock said: "The funniest things was that after we played the first date, all the guys in Split Enz were on stage going, 'Is that Mick Ronson? Who's this band?'" After the album had been issued, Wilkins left the group; Barry Muir filled in on bass, but as a sessioneer, not a group member. Christopher Livingston was added on keyboards as a full new group member.

Ronson produced the band's next album, Hammer on a Drum, released in 1984. The album included the single "Never Said I Loved You" featuring Carole Pope, vocalist of rock band Rough Trade, which reached No. 8 in Canada.

Work with David Foster (1985–1986)
In 1985, producer and songwriter David Foster helped assemble the supergroup Northern Lights to record the song "Tears Are Not Enough". Hyde was one of over 40 vocalists featured on the song and Rock served as one of the engineers. Rock and Hyde came up with the song's title and contributed to the French lyrics along with Rachel Paiement, receiving co-writer credits on the song along with Bryan Adams, Foster, Paiement and Jim Vallance.

That same year, A&M Records recruited Foster to produce the band's next recording, 1985's Here's the World for Ya, with the hopes of bringing the band to the American market. The band's name was also changed to Paul Hyde and the Payola$. By this point, the band consisted of Hyde, Rock, drummer Chris Taylor and bassist Alex "A-Train" Boynton. Both Foster and Hyde's then-wife, Myriam Nelson, contributed some of the songwriting. Here's the World for Ya and the album's title track garnered six Juno Award nominations, including best group, album as well as best vocalist for Hyde, best sound engineer for Rock and songwriter of the year for both Rock and Hyde. The single, "You're the Only Love" charted in the US, peaking at No. 84 on the Billboard Hot 100 Chart—the first Payola$ single to do so.

The album marked a change in the band's sound that alienated many of their longtime fans as a result. In 1987, Tim O'Connor of Canadian Press said that the album "was glossy and tight, but it wasn't the Payola$." In that same article Hyde said, "We compromised ourselves somewhat artistically," adding "We were untrue to ourselves and our fans." Rock said of the experience, "We learned a lot from him, he's a very good musician. We saw a complete other side of recording with David. It was very polished and professional," adding "The thing with David (Foster) is that it swung far too much his way."

Despite the critical success, the album did not sell as well as hoped and the band was dropped by A&M in 1986.

Rock and Hyde (1987)
In 1987, the band rebranded themselves as Rock and Hyde and released Under the Volcano on Capitol/EMI. The album marked a return to the politically and socially conscious lyrics of the Payolas' early work, with Rock also handling the sound engineering. The Rock and Hyde sound was more pop-oriented than that of the Payolas. Under the Volcano reached No. 24 on the top 100 album chart in Canada.

Under the Volcano was critically well-received, and Rock and Hyde had two hits in Canada with "Dirty Water" (No. 20) and "I Will" (No. 40). "Dirty Water" also peaked on the US Billboard Hot 100 at No. 61.

Later that same year A&M capitalized on the band's renewed popularity and released a greatest hits package of Payolas work called Between a Rock and a Hyde Place: The Best of Payola$.

Hiatus (1988–2003)
After the release of Under the Volcano, Rock returned his focus to sound engineering and producing music from Little Mountain studios and became a go-to producer for hard rock and metal acts, producing albums for musical acts such as Loverboy, The Cult, Mötley Crüe, Metallica, Bon Jovi, and David Lee Roth. Along with ex-Payola$ drummer Chris Taylor, he was also involved in the band Rockhead that released an album in 1992.

The Payola$ reformed for a one-time gig on October 26, 1994, with Rock, Hyde, Boynton and new members Matt Frenette (drums) and Richard Sera (keyboards). Rock and Hyde then again went their separate ways. Paul Hyde pursued a solo recording career, releasing four albums between 1999 and 2002, including 2000's Living off the Radar featuring Rock as producer, guitarist and co-writer.

The Best of the Payola$, 20th Century Masters, The Millennium Collection was released in 2002 in Universal Music's 20th Century Masters Series. The compilation included the Rock and Hyde track "Dirty Water".

Reunion (2003–2008)
Rock and Hyde played live in Vancouver in 2003, reformed as The Payolas. An EP called "Missing Links" was released for a charitable foundation, consisting of previously-unreleased Payola$ songs and demos, a couple of which had surfaced earlier, in slightly different productions, on Paul Hyde's solo album Living off the Radar.

In 2006 they reunited once more and on July 17, 2007, the Payola$ released a seven-song EP, Langford (Part One). It was announced that there would be a full length follow-up to the Langford (Part One) EP, possibly incorporating some of the EP's tracks, however this release never materialized.

The band stopped performing live as of 2008, and the official Payolas website shut down in 2009. As with the band's first break-up, no formal announcement was made that the Payola$ were ceasing operations; however, later in 2009 Paul Hyde resumed his solo career, releasing his fifth studio album. In a 2020 interview with the Vancouver Sun Hyde said that he hadn't performed live music in five years and had changed his focus towards visual art. However, in a 2023 podcast interview, Hyde revealed that he and Rock had been working on a covers album, for release at an indefinite future time. Whether this newly-recorded material would be issued under the Payola$ name, or as Rock and Hyde, or perhaps using some other guise, was not revealed.

Studio albums

 * In a Place Like This (1981)
 * No Stranger to Danger (1982) (#5 Canada )
 * Hammer on a Drum (1983) (#26 Canada for 5 weeks )
 * Here's the World for Ya (1985) (#26 Canada for 2 weeks )
 * Under the Volcano (1987) (as Rock and Hyde) (#24 Canada for 2 weeks )

Compilation albums

 * Between a Rock and a Hyde Place: The Best of Payola$ (1987)
 * 20th Century Masters: The Millennium Collection – The Best of the Payola$ (2002)
 * Missing Links (2003)

Extended plays

 * Introducing Payola$ (1980)
 * Langford Part One (2007)

title: Payolas


text:
Stephen Courtauld

Sir Stephen Lewis Courtauld (27 February 1883 – 9 October 1967) was an English philanthropist associated with geographical exploration, the restoration of Eltham Palace in south-east London, and cultural and education causes, both in the UK and in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), where he and his wife Virginia also donated to organisations promoting racial equality.

Family, education and military service
Courtauld was a member of the wealthy English Courtauld textile family. He was born in Bocking, Essex, the son of Sydney Courtauld (10 March 1840 – 20 October 1899) and Sarah Lucy Sharpe (1844–1906) and youngest brother of Samuel Courtauld, founder of the Courtauld Institute of Art. He was educated at Rugby and King's College, Cambridge. He did not enter the family business but his wealthy background enabled him to travel extensively and to pursue cultural and philanthropic interests.

Serving in the Artists' Rifles, Worcestershire Regiment and the Machine Gun Corps during World War I, he was twice mentioned in despatches and awarded the Military Cross in 1918. After the war, in 1919, as an enthusiastic mountaineer, he completed the first ascent of the Innominata face of Mont Blanc in the French Alps. Also in 1919, he met his future wife, Countess Virginia Spinola (née Peirano) (c. 1883–1972), whom he married on 20 August 1923 at Fiume (then in Italy, now Rijeka, Croatia). In the month of their marriage artist Percy Metcalfe was commissioned to strike medals featuring busts of the couple and these are now held in the British Museum collection.

Philanthropic work
Courtauld became a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society in 1920. He later became a member of the Council and was Vice President of the Society (1944–1946). He was chairman of the committee to raise the necessary funds to equip the British Arctic Air Route Expedition (1930–1931), led by Gino Watkins. Courtauld's first cousin Augustine Courtauld was a member both of the committee and of the expedition.

He funded construction of an ice rink in Westminster, the London Ice Club, which opened on 13 January 1927. World War II forced the club's closure in 1940.

Courtauld collaborated with Basil Dean and Reginald Baker and made a substantial financial contribution to the construction and development of Ealing Studios. At the opening of two large sound stages in December 1931, providing facilities for 12 film productions a year, the ribbon-cutting ceremony was performed jointly by Virginia Courtauld and actress Gracie Fields. Courtauld was subsequently chairman of the Ealing Studios group of companies for 20 years and was instrumental in the appointment of Michael Balcon to take charge of the production programme in 1938. He was a trustee of the Royal Opera House in London's Covent Garden, and provided financial support for the Courtauld Galleries in Cambridge's Fitzwilliam Museum. He funded a Scholarship for the Art of Engraving at the British School at Rome.

He undertook the redevelopment of Eltham Palace in Eltham, south-east London with his wife Virginia during the 1930s. They employed architects John Seely and Paul Paget and fashionable Mayfair interior designer the Marchese Peter Malacrida (1889–1980) to design a new private house in the Art Deco style to adjoin the existing Palace building, which was extensively restored. Malacrida also designed the interiors of the Courtauld's 712-ton luxury yacht, Virginia (launched in 1930 at Dalmuir on the Upper Clyde in Scotland).

Later in the Second World War, the Courtaulds left Eltham Palace in May 1944 to live in Muckairn, Taynuilt, Scotland, as the site was on one of the Luftwaffe bombing paths towards London and was subjected to some direct hits.

The Rhodesia years
In 1951, they moved again, to Southern Rhodesia, now Zimbabwe. They established a home at Penhalonga, near Mutare. The estate was named La Rochelle after the place of origin of his family. There they established an extensive botanic garden designed by an Italian landscape artist. The Lady Virginia Orchid is named after Lady Courtauld. The couple became Rhodesian citizens on 16 June 1954.

Courtauld was a very active philanthropist in Southern Rhodesia. His achievements included the funding of the construction of buildings for the Courtauld Theatre and Queen's Hall in Mutare. An obituary noted that "liberal in thought and open minded in his relations with people, it is said that when the question arose of racial segregation in his theatre he made it clear he would pull the building down before agreeing to such a measure." Stephen and Virginia Courtauld were leading donors to the Capricorn Africa Society, led by David Stirling, which promoted democratic and multi-racial development in East and Central Africa. He built a multi-racial residential club, the Rhodes Club (1961), in Mutare, and founded and endowed the Kukwanisa Farm School in Nyanga for African boys in 1964.

Stephen Courtauld was chairman of the board of trustees of the Rhodes National Gallery (now the National Gallery of Zimbabwe), which opened in 1957. An enthusiastic supporter, he contributed to the construction costs and provided a substantial endowment fund for the Gallery. He bequeathed 93 works of art to the gallery, including works by Rembrandt, Goya, Hogarth and Pissarro. These works are not on display in the gallery and their whereabouts has been described as a "mystery." He also funded construction of the auditorium of what is now the Zimbabwe College of Music in Harare.

He was knighted in the 1958 New Year Honours.

Sir Stephen died in Salisbury in 1967, following the amputation of his second leg. Virginia moved to Jersey in 1970 where she died in 1972. The La Rochelle estate was bequeathed to the National Trust of Rhodesia (now the National Trust of Zimbabwe) in 1970.

title: Stephen Courtauld


text:
Category:Ishikawa Prefecture

Ishikawa Prefecture (石川県 Ishikawa-ken) is a prefecture located in the Chūbu region on Honshū island, Japan. The capital is Kanazawa.

title: Category:Ishikawa Prefecture


text:
Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai

Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai (1910–2007) was a Kashmiri scholar and historian who wrote several books on the history of Kashmir and Central Asia.

Works
P. N. K. Bamzai was born in 1910 into a Kashmiri Pandit family of scholarly traditions, and received his first lessons in historical research from his father, Anand Koul, who was a pioneer of research on the history and folklore of Kashmir.

Bamzai graduated from the Punjab University with honours in English Literature. During his tenure as a student, he accumulated a series of accomplishments and awards, notable among which were the Lord Chelsford Gold Medal for all-round best graduate and the Suraj Narain Gold Medal for his research on the social and economic condition of Kashmir during his student life.

Bamzai then joined the Kashmir State Information Department as Special Officer. During this period, he was requested by Kashmir's prime minister, Sheikh Abdullah, to research and write a comprehensive history of Kashmir. In 1954, Bamzai joined the Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, as Editor of the Illustrated Kashmir. He went on to serve as Editor of almost every journal published by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, and was instrumental in launching the March of India, a journal that recorded the aspirations and advances of newly independent India. Subsequently, he was deputed by the Government of India to work as Adviser to the Government of Ethiopia, where he established the publication wing of the ministry. During this period, he was awarded numerous fellowships and felicitations by several government and non-government organisations for his contribution to Kashmiri history.

Bamzai's articles and papers pertaining to the history of Kashmir have been published in several journals in India and abroad. His books on the subject include A History of Kashmir, which carries a foreword by Jawaharlal Nehru.

Dr R. K. Parmu observed that Bamzai's book lacked historical research and did not separate the historical material from the non-historical content. Sten Widmalm, an academic who specialises in comparative politics, has also expressed reservations, saying that Bamzai's three-volume history of Kashmir is "an important source of information but also contain[s] descriptions of the population that only reproduce the race biology of the 1930s". He also intimates that Bamzai may have re-used or closely copied "formulations" previously published by others. More contemporaneous with publication was a 1965 review in The English Historical Review which noted that A History of Kashmir was the first attempt by anyone to produce a comprehensive study of the region from pre-history to the present day and that it generally succeeded.

title: Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai


text:
Reliquary

A reliquary (also referred to as a shrine, by the French term châsse, and historically also a type of phylactery ) is a container for relics. A portable reliquary may be called a fereter, and a chapel in which it is housed a ' or feretery'''.

Relics may be the purported or actual physical remains of saints, and may comprise bones, pieces of clothing, or some object associated with saints or with other religious figures. The authenticity of any given relic is often a matter of debate; for that reason, some churches require documentation of a relic's provenance.

Relics have long been important to Buddhists, Christians, Hindus, and to followers of many other religions. These cultures often display reliquaries in shrines, churches, or temples to which the faithful make pilgrimages to gain blessings.

The term is sometimes used loosely for containers for the body parts of non-religious figures; in particular, the kings of France often specified that their hearts and sometimes other organs be buried in a different location from their main burial.

In Christianity
The use of reliquaries became an important part of Christian practices from at least the 4th century, initially in the Eastern Churches, which adopted the practice of moving and dividing the bodies of saints much earlier than the West, probably in part because the new capital of Constantinople, unlike Rome, lacked buried saints. Relics are venerated in the Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and some Anglican Churches. Reliquaries provide a means of protecting and displaying relics. While frequently taking the form of caskets, they range in size from simple pendants or rings to very elaborate ossuaries.

The relics were enshrined in containers crafted of or covered with gold, silver, gems, and enamel. Ivory was widely used in the Middle Ages for reliquaries; its pure white color is an indication of the holy status of its contents. These objects constituted a major form of artistic production across Europe and Byzantium throughout the Middle Ages.

Many were designed with portability in mind, often being exhibited in public or carried in procession on the saint's feast day or on other holy days. Pilgrimages often centered on the veneration of relics. The faithful often venerate relics by bowing before the reliquary or kissing it; those churches that observe the veneration of relics distinguish between the honor given to the saints and the worship that is due to God alone (see Second Council of Nicea).

Sixteenth-century reformers such as Martin Luther opposed the use of relics since many had no proof of historical authenticity and objected to a cult of saints. Many reliquaries, particularly in northern Europe, were destroyed by Calvinists or Calvinist sympathizers during the Reformation, being melted down or pulled apart to recover precious metals and gems. Nonetheless, the use and manufacture of reliquaries continue to this day, especially in Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christian countries. Post-Reformation reliquaries have tended to take the form of glass-sided caskets to display relics such as the bodies of saints.

Forms

The earliest reliquaries were essentially boxes, either simply box-shaped or based on an architectural design, taking the form of a model of a church with a pitched roof. These latter are known by the French term chasse, and typical examples from the 12th to 14th century have wooden frameworks with gilt-copper plaques nailed on, decorated in champlevé enamel. Limoges was the largest production centre; NB the English usage differs from that of the French châsse, which denotes large size rather than shape.

Relics of the True Cross became very popular from the 9th century onward and were housed in magnificent gold and silver cross-shaped reliquaries decorated with enamels and precious stones. From about the end of the 10th century, reliquaries in the shape of the relics they housed also became popular; hence, for instance, the skull of Pope Alexander I was housed in a head-shaped reliquary. Similarly, the bones of saints were often housed in reliquaries that recalled the shape of the original body part, such as an arm or a foot.

Many Eastern Orthodox reliquaries housing tiny pieces of relics have circular or cylindrical slots in which small disks of wax-mastic are placed, in which the actual relic is embedded.

A philatory is a transparent reliquary designed to contain and exhibit the bones and relics of saints. This style of reliquary has a viewing portal to view the relic inside. The feretrum was a medieval form of reliquary or shrine containing the sacred effigies and relics of a saint.

During the later Middle Ages, the monstrance form, primarily used for consecrated hosts, was sometimes used for reliquaries. These housed the relic in a rock crystal, or glass capsule mounted on a column above a base, enabling the relic to be displayed to the faithful. Reliquaries in the form of large pieces of metalwork jewellery also appeared around this time, housing tiny relics such as pieces of the Holy Thorn, notably the Holy Thorn Reliquary now in the British Museum.

In Buddhism
In Buddhism, stupas are an important form of a reliquary and may be buried inside larger structures such as a stupa or chorten. Particularly in China and throughout East and Southeast Asia, these take the form of a pagoda; in Japan, this is known as a tō.

Two famous very early excavated reliquaries are the 1st-century Bimaran Casket and the Kanishka Casket of 127 AD, both believed to have contained part of the cremated remains of Gautama Buddha. Relics associated with Buddha are the most important in Buddhism, but those related to other enlightened figures like Sariputta and Moggallana are also highly revered.

In Buddhism, relics are known as cetiya; one of the most significant is the relic of the tooth of the Buddha in Sri Lanka. In Japan, Buddhist relics are known as shari (舎利), and are often stored in a shariden (舎利殿). (See also: Japanese Buddhist architecture)

title: Reliquary


text:
Ranji Trophy

The Ranji Trophy is a premier domestic first-class cricket championship played in India and organized annually by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI). The teams representing regional and state cricket associations participate. BCCI founded the championship in 1934, Since then it has been organised across various grounds and stadiums in India.

The competition currently consists of 38 teams, with all 28 states in India and four of the eight union territories with at least one team from each. When the tournament was founded, it was named "the Cricket Championship of India", in 1935 it was renamed after Ranjitsinhji, who was the first Indian to play international cricket. He played for England from 1896 to 1902.

The Mumbai cricket team is the most successful team of the tournament, with a record 42 titles to their name.

The Mumbai cricket team holds the present title of the 2023–24 edition. It defeated Vidharbha cricket team in the final at the Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai.

History
The idea of a national level, first class championship tournament was proposed by BCCI's founder A.S. De Mello. The competition was launched following BCCI's meeting at Shimla in July 1934, with the first fixtures taking place in 1934–35 .Initially the tournament was named as 'The cricket championship of India', it later was renamed. The trophy was donated by Bhupinder Singh, the Maharaja of Patiala in memory of Kumar Shri Ranjitsinhji, Jam Sahib of Nawanagar who had died the previous year. The first match of the competition was held on 4 November 1934 between Madras and Mysore at the Chepauk ground in Madras (Now Chennai). Mumbai (Bombay) has won the tournament the most times with 42 wins including 15 back-to-back wins from 1958–59 to 1972–73.

In 2015 Paytm became the first company to hold the tournament's title sponsorship right by virtue of BCCI's title sponsorship deal.

The 2020–21 Ranji Trophy tournament was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the first season since the tournament's inception that it was not held.

Participants
State and regional teams with first-class status and owned–operated by BCCI members play in the Ranji Trophy. Most associations are regional such as the Mumbai Cricket Association or the Karnataka State Cricket Association, while Railways and Services are pan-Indian.

All 28 states of India are represented, as are four of the eight union territories: Delhi, Chandigarh, Puducherry, and Jammu and Kashmir (which also represents the union territory of Ladakh). In addition, four teams represent regions within states: Mumbai and Vidarbha (both within Maharashtra) and Saurashtra and Baroda (both within Gujarat); and there are two pan-Indian teams: Railways, representing Indian Railways, and Services, representing the Indian Armed Forces. The state of Telangana is represented by the Hyderabad cricket team.

Current teams
The following 38 teams currently participate in the Ranji Trophy:

Defunct teams
The following teams have appeared in the Ranji Trophy, but no longer do so:
 * Central India (1934/35 – 1940/41)
 * Central Provinces and Berar (1934/35 – 1949/50)
 * Northern India (1934/35 – 1946/47)
 * Sind (1934/35 – 1947/48)
 * Southern Punjab (1934/35 – 1951/52, 1959/60 – 1967/68)
 * Western India (1934/35 – 1945/46)
 * Nawanagar (1936/37 – 1947/48)
 * North West Frontier Province (1937/38 – 1946/47)
 * Holkar (1941/42 – 1954/55)
 * Gwalior (1943/44)
 * Patiala/Patiala and Eastern Punjab States Union (1948/49, 1953/54 – 1958/59)
 * Eastern Punjab (1950/51 – 1959/60)
 * Travancore-Cochin (1951/52 – 1956/57)
 * Madhya Bharat (1955/56 – 1956/57)
 * Northern Punjab (1960/61 – 1967/68)

Format
From the Ranji Trophy's inception until the 2001 season (with the exception of 1948–49 season), the teams were grouped geographically into four or five zones – North, West, East, and South, with Central added in 1952–53. Initial matches were played within the zones on a knock-out basis until 1956–57, and thereafter on a league basis, to determine a winner; then, the five individual zone winners competed in a knock-out tournament, leading to a final which decided the winner of the Ranji Trophy. From the 1970–71 season, the knock-out stage was expanded to the top two teams from each zone, a total of ten qualifying teams. This was expanded again to the top three from each zone in 1992–93, a total of fifteen qualifying teams; between 1996–97 and 1999–2000, the fifteen qualifying teams competed in a secondary group stage, with three groups of five teams, and the top two from each group qualified for a six-team knock-out stage; in all other years until 2001–02, a full fifteen-team knock-out tournament was held.

The format was changed in the 2002–03 season with the zonal system abandoned and a two-division structure adopted – the Elite Group, containing fifteen teams, and the Plate Group, containing the rest. Each group had two sub-groups which played a round-robin; the top two from each Elite sub-group then contested a four-team knock-out tournament to determine the winner of the Ranji Trophy. The team which finished last in each Elite sub-group was relegated, and both Plate Group finalists were promoted for the following season. For the 2006–07 season, the divisions were re-labelled the Super League and Plate League respectively.

In the 2008–09 season, this format was adjusted to give both Super League and Plate League teams an opportunity to contest the Ranji Trophy. The top two from each Plate sub-group contested semi-finals; the winners of these two matches then joined the top three from each Super League sub-group in an eight-team knock-out tournament. The winner of this knock-out tournament then won the Ranji Trophy. Promotion and relegation between Super League and Plate League continued as before. In the 2010–11 season, Rajasthan won the Ranji Trophy after beginning the season in the Plate League.

From the 2012–13 season, this format was adjusted slightly. The Super League and Plate League names were abandoned, but the two-tier system remained. The top tier expanded from fifteen teams to eighteen teams, in two sub-groups of nine (known as Group A and Group B, and considered equal in status); and the second tier was reduced to nine teams in a single group (known as Group C). The top three teams from Groups A and B and the top two from Group C contest the knockout phase. The lowest placed team in each of Group A and Group B is relegated to Group C, and the top two from Group C are promoted to the top tier.

For the 2017–18 season, the two-tier system was abandoned to have 4 groups of seven teams each and two quarter-finalists from each group.

From the 2018–19 season, the teams contested in three-tiers. Five teams will qualify for the quarter-finals from the top tier (known as Elite Group A and Group B). Two teams will qualify from the second-tier (Elite Group C) and one team from the lower-tier (Plate Group) for the quarter-finals.

Round-robin matches are four days in length; knockout matches are played for five days. Throughout its history, if there is no outright result in a Ranji Trophy knock-out match, the team leading after the first innings is the winner.

Prior to the 2016–17 season, matches were played at the home ground of one of the two teams taking part. For the 2016–17 edition, the BCCI decided that all games would be staged at a neutral venues.

Points distribution system
Points in the league stages of both divisions are currently awarded as follows:

Tournament records
† Some sources credit Goel with 636 or 640 wickets instead – see Rajinder Goel article for details.

Winners
The following teams have won the tournament:

Finals appearances by team
Mumbai/Bombay have played in 48 finals and have won total 42 Ranji Trophy championships, the most by any team.

Karnataka

Broadcasting
Sports18 TV channel and JioCinema has exclusive rights to broadcast the trophy live on television and online respectively. BCCI's website runs match highlights. Star Sports and Disney+ Hotstar broadcast the tournament until 2022.

In popular culture

 * The tournament was featured in Jersey, a 2019 Telugu film, in which the protagonist Arjun represents the Hyderabad cricket team in the Ranji Trophy in the 1980s and 1990s.

title: Ranji Trophy