text:
Canada Water

Canada Water is an area of the Docklands in south-east London. It is named after a freshwater lake and wildlife refuge. Canada Water tube, Overground and bus station is immediately north of the lake, along with Canada Water Library which overhangs the lake and Deal Porter Square. Surrey Quays Shopping Centre is also adjacent, sitting immediately to the south. The surrounding area, which forms the town centre of Rotherhithe, is now increasingly known as Canada Water, after the transport interchange as much as the lake itself.

History and development
The lake is named after the former Canada Dock, of which Canada Water is the surviving northern third, and which was mainly used by ships from Canada. As with much of the Docklands, the Surrey Commercial Docks closed in the 1970s. During the 1980s, the London Docklands Development Corporation took over, and invested heavily in the redevelopment of the area. About half of Canada Dock was infilled and the Surrey Quays Shopping Centre built on top of it; the remainder was converted into the present lake and wildlife refuge. An ornamental canal, Albion Channel, was created (through the site of the now filled-in Albion Dock) linking Canada Water to Surrey Water, with the spoil used to create Stave Hill in nearby Russia Dock Woodland.

Following the earlier gentrification of the parts of Rotherhithe along the river, the extension of the Jubilee line in 1999 moved the focus to the area immediately around Canada Water. The opening of the new Canada Water Underground station gave the area rapid connections to the rest of London, with Canary Wharf one stop, Westminster less than 10 minutes, and Bond Street around 15 minutes away by underground train. The station's connection to the London Overground network in 2010 has added a quick connection to the City of London, with a journey of around 10 minutes to Shoreditch High Street station, near Liverpool Street Station.

Much of the area is now going through a phase of rapid development, with new residential developments, a new library which opened in November 2011, cafés and restaurants planned around the lake, and plans to redevelop the shopping mall in a first step towards creating a more traditional town centre. Canada Water Surrey Quays lends its name to local property developer CWSQ.

Freshwater lake
Canada Water is the only body of fresh water in London Docklands. The lake is now kept topped up with fresh water using a windpump. This arrangement was put in place following research by the landscape architect Fraser Borwick, which revealed that ground water had historically been extracted to supply various industrial processes using wind power. After checking the borehole results of the Jubilee line construction team, it was established that large amounts of potable water were available, and a borehole 80 metres long was sunk into the ground. The borehole is lined for 60 metres, and the bottom 20 metres is into chalk. The investigation of how best to keep the lake topped up with fresh water was the result of some damage to the lining of the old dock during construction works in the 1980s. Another solution considered involved securing a water supply from the flooded tunnels of London Underground, but this was considered too risky.

Places nearby

 * Surrey Quays Shopping Centre
 * Greenland Dock
 * Rotherhithe
 * Russia Dock Woodland
 * St. Mary's Church, Rotherhithe
 * Stave Hill (including Ecological Park)
 * Swedish Seamen's Church
 * Southwark Park
 * Bacon's College
 * Brunel Museum
 * Printworks London

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Canada Water


text:
Stein Tønnesson

Stein Dorenfeldt Tønnesson (born 2 December 1953), is a Norwegian historian.

Career
He was the director of the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) from 2001 to 2009, when he was replaced by Kristian Berg Harpviken. Stein Tønnesson stays on at PRIO as a Research Professor, while at the United States Institute of Peace (USIP) as Jennings Randolph Senior Fellow 2010-11.

Educated at the University of Aarhus and the University of Oslo, he received his dr. philos. in history from the University of Oslo in 1991. Tønnesson's foremost research efforts have been revolution and war in Vietnam, national identity in South-East Asia, the South China Sea conflict, and Norwegian sports history. Tønnesson has also worked as a journalist. His interests the past decade has been in particular global history, globalization and the decades of relative peace in south east Asia since 1979.

Stein Tønnesson has worked as Professor of Human Development Studies at the Centre for Development and the Environment (SUM) at the University of Oslo, and has also been a senior research fellow at the Nordic Institute for Asia Studies (NIAS) in Copenhagen.

Personal life
He is a son of professor of history, Kåre Tønnesson. He grew up in Bærum and attended Oslo Cathedral School.

title: Stein Tønnesson


text: Template:Denmark-stub

title: Template:Denmark-stub


text:
Helmholtz coil

A Helmholtz coil is a device for producing a region of nearly uniform magnetic field, named after the German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz. It consists of two electromagnets on the same axis, carrying an equal electric current in the same direction. Besides creating magnetic fields, Helmholtz coils are also used in scientific apparatus to cancel external magnetic fields, such as the Earth's magnetic field.

When the pair of two electromagnetics of a Helmholtz coil carry an equal electric current in the opposite direction, it is known as anti-Helmholtz coil, which creates a region of nearly uniform magnetic field gradient, and is used for creating magnetic traps for atomic physics experiments.

Description
A Helmholtz pair consists of two identical circular magnetic coils that are placed symmetrically along a common axis, one on each side of the experimental area, and separated by a distance $$h$$ equal to the radius $$R$$ of the coil. Each coil carries an equal electric current in the same direction.

Setting $$h=R$$, which is what defines a Helmholtz pair, minimizes the nonuniformity of the field at the center of the coils, in the sense of setting $$\partial^{2}B/\partial x^{2} = 0$$ (meaning that the first nonzero derivative is $$\partial^{4}B/\partial x^{4}$$ as explained below), but leaves about 7% variation in field strength between the center and the planes of the coils. A slightly larger value of $$h$$ reduces the difference in field between the center and the planes of the coils, at the expense of worsening the field's uniformity in the region near the center, as measured by $$\partial^{2}B/\partial x^{2}$$.

When a Helmholtz pair of coils carry an equal electric current in the opposite direction, they create a region of nearly uniform magnetic field gradient. This is known as anti-Helmholtz coil, and is used for creating magnetic traps for atomic physics experiments.

In some applications, a Helmholtz coil is used to cancel out the Earth's magnetic field, producing a region with a magnetic field intensity much closer to zero.

Mathematics
The calculation of the exact magnetic field at any point in space is mathematically complex and involves the study of Bessel functions. Things are simpler along the axis of the coil-pair, and it is convenient to think about the Taylor series expansion of the field strength as a function of $$x$$, the distance from the central point of the coil-pair along the axis. By symmetry, the odd-order terms in the expansion are zero. By arranging the coils so that the origin $$x=0$$ is an inflection point for the field strength due to each coil separately, one can guarantee that the order $$x^2$$ term is also zero, and hence the leading non-constant term is of order $$x^4$$. The inflection point for a simple coil is located along the coil axis at a distance $$R/2$$ from its centre. Thus the locations for the two coils are $$x=\pm R/2$$.

The calculation detailed below gives the exact value of the magnetic field at the center point. If the radius is R, the number of turns in each coil is n and the current through the coils is I, then the magnetic field B at the midpoint between the coils will be given by

 * $$ B = {\left ( \frac{4}{5} \right )}^{3/2} \frac{\mu_0 n I}{R},$$

where $$\mu_0$$ is the permeability of free space ($4\pi \times 10^{-7} \text{ T}\cdot\text{m/A}$).

Derivation
Start with the formula for the on-axis field due to a single wire loop which is itself derived from the Biot–Savart law:

 * $$ B_1(x) = \frac{\mu_0 I R^2}{2(R^2+x^2)^{3/2}}=\xi(x) \frac{\mu_0 I}{2R}.$$

Here

 * $$\mu_0\;$$ = the permeability constant = $$ 4\pi \times 10^{-7} \text{ T}\cdot\text{m/A} = 1.257 \times 10^{-6} \text{ T}\cdot\text{m/A},$$

 * $$I\;$$ = coil current, in amperes,
 * $$R\;$$ = coil radius, in meters,
 * $$x\;$$ = coil distance, on axis, to point, in meters,
 * $$\xi(x)=[1+(x/R)^2]^{-3/2}\;$$is the distance dependent, dimensionless coefficient.

The Helmholtz coils consists of n turns of wire, so the equivalent current in a one-turn coil is n times the current I in the n-turn coil. Substituting nI for I in the above formula gives the field for an n-turn coil:

 * $$ B_1(x) = \xi(x)\frac{\mu_0 n I}{2R}.$$

For $$x\ll R$$, the distance coefficient $$\xi(x)=[1+(x/R)^2)]^{-3/2}\;$$can be expanded in Taylor series as:"$\xi(x)=1-\frac{3}{2}(x/R)^2+\mathcal{O}((x/R)^4).$"In a Helmholtz pair, the two coils are located at $$x=\pm R/2$$, so the B-field strength at any $$x$$ would be:

\begin{align} B(x) &= \frac{\mu_0 n I}{2R}\left[\xi(x-R/2)+\xi(x+R/2)\right] \\ &=\frac{\mu_0 n I}{2R}\left([1+(x/R-1/2)^2]^{-3/2}+[1+(x/R+1/2)^2]^{-3/2}\right) \\ \end{align}$$ The points near the center (halfway between the two coils) have $$x\ll R$$, and the Taylor series of $$\xi(x-R/2)+\xi(x+R/2)$$ is:"$(16 \sqrt 5)/25-(x/R)^4(2304 \sqrt 5)/3125+\mathcal O ((x/R)^6)\approx 1.43-1.65(x/R)^4+\mathcal O ((x/R)^6)$."In an anti-Helmholtz pair, the B-field strength at any $$x$$ would be:

\begin{align} B(x) &= \frac{\mu_0 n I}{2R}\left[\xi(x-R/2)-\xi(x+R/2)\right] \\ &=\frac{\mu_0 n I}{2R}\left([1+(x/R-1/2)^2]^{-3/2}-[1+(x/R+1/2)^2]^{-3/2}\right) \\ \end{align}$$ The points near the center (halfway between the two coils) have $$x\ll R$$, and the Taylor series of $$\xi(x-R/2)-\xi(x+R/2)$$ is:"$(x/R)(96 \sqrt 5)/125-(x/R)^3(512 \sqrt 5)/625+\mathcal O ((x/R)^5)\approx 1.72(x/R)-1.83(x/R)^3+\mathcal O ((x/R)^5)$."

Time-varying magnetic field
Most Helmholtz coils use DC (direct) current to produce a static magnetic field. Many applications and experiments require a time-varying magnetic field. These applications include magnetic field susceptibility tests, scientific experiments, and biomedical studies (the interaction between magnetic field and living tissue). The required magnetic fields are usually either pulse or continuous sinewave. The magnetic field frequency range can be anywhere from near DC (0 Hz) to many kilohertz or even megahertz (MHz). An AC Helmholtz coil driver is needed to generate the required time-varying magnetic field. The waveform amplifier driver must be able to output high AC current to produce the magnetic field.

Driver voltage and current
$$I=\left ( \frac{5}{4} \right )^{3/2}\left ( \frac{BR}{\mu_0n} \right )$$

Use the above equation in the mathematics section to calculate the coil current for a desired magnetic field, $B$.

where $$\mu_0$$ is the permeability of free space or $$ 4\pi \times 10^{-7} \text{ T}\cdot\text{m/A} = 1.257 \times 10^{-6} \text{ T}\cdot\text{m/A},$$

$$I\;$$ = coil current, in amperes,

$$R\;$$ = coil radius, in meters,

n = number of turns in each coil.

Then calculate the required Helmholtz coil driver amplifier voltage:

 * $$V=I\sqrt{\bigl[\omega\bigl(L_1+L_2\bigr)\bigr]^2+\bigl(R_1+R_2\bigr)^2}$$

where
 * $I$ is the peak current,
 * $ω$ is the angular frequency or $ω = 2πf$,
 * $L_{1}$ and $L_{2}$ are the inductances of the two Helmholtz coils, and
 * $R_{1}$ and $R_{2}$ are the resistances of the two coils.

High-frequency series resonant
Generating a static magnetic field is relatively easy; the strength of the field is proportional to the current. Generating a high-frequency magnetic field is more challenging. The coils are inductors, and their impedance increases proportionally with frequency. To provide the same field intensity at twice the frequency requires twice the voltage across the coil. Instead of directly driving the coil with a high voltage, a series resonant circuit may be used to provide the high voltage. A series capacitor is added in series with the coils. The capacitance is chosen to resonate the coil at the desired frequency. Only the coils parasitic resistance remains. This method only works at frequencies close to the resonant frequency; to generate the field at other frequencies requires different capacitors. The Helmholtz coil resonant frequency, $$f_0$$, and capacitor value, C, are given below.

 * $$f_0=\frac{1}{2\pi\sqrt{\left (L_1+L_2\right )C}}$$
 * $$C=\frac{1}{\left ( 2\pi f_0\right )^2\left ( L_1 +L_2\right )}$$

Maxwell coils

To improve the uniformity of the field in the space inside the coils, additional coils can be added around the outside. James Clerk Maxwell showed in 1873 that a third larger-diameter coil located midway between the two Helmholtz coils with the coil distance increased from coil radius $$R$$ to $$\sqrt{3}R$$ can reduce the variance of the field on the axis to zero up to the sixth derivative of position. This is sometimes called a Maxwell coil.

title: Helmholtz coil


text:
Template talk:Mathematician-stub

I made this so one can add someone to both Category:People stubs and Category:Math stubs easily. —msh210 17:17, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Image
Why does Mathematician-stub have a picture of Michelangelo's David? I don't understand the connection. --Tabor 01:03, 29 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I've changed it to one of Pythagoras. It's not ideal, but I think it'll do for the moment. --Valentinian 15:31, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

 * The Pythagoras image was too hard to make out. I took a detail from a painting of Newton and played around with it a little in ImageMagick to see if I could get something that worked; my attempt is in place.
 * But to be honest I prefer the David, which is certainly easier to make out than my best effort on Newton. The historical inaccuracy is not the point; the David image to me just said "vaguely classical thinker image", it was easy to see, and it made it easy to see the stub notice (I don't like stub notices with no image as they sort of fade into the article text). The fact that the person depicted wasn't a mathematician was probably an advantage, as that way we don't have to argue over our favorites. --Trovatore 16:43, 19 March 2006 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Mathematician-stub


text:
USS Sargo

Two ships of the United States Navy have borne the name USS Sargo, named in honor of the sargo, a food and gamefish of the porgy family, inhabiting coastal waters of the southern United States.

 * The first USS Sargo (SS-188), was the lead ship of her class of submarine, commissioned in 1939 and struck in 1946.
 * The second USS Sargo (SSN-583), was a Skate-class submarine, commissioned in 1958 and struck in 1988.

title: USS Sargo


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Lisa woodhouse

Lisa woodhouse
Not notable/fiction. A good argument why obvious fallacies should probably be speedy delete candidates, tho', IMO, aren't currently. I was not able to find a notable Lisa woodhouse to replace the contents--just a prolific blogger, and an average B&B owner that happened to be quoted in a BBC article about tourism. Niteowlneils 17:18, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete Joke. Wyss 17:56, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete Joke, and I suspect it's a mean-spirited one. -- Antaeus Feldspar 18:44, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete Sockatume 18:49, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete -- Scott $e^{i \pi} \,\!$ 18:56, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: I think libel pages and insult pages are valid speedies, when they're very clear like this. Geogre 20:25, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree. Consider it speedied... Fire Star 21:17, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
Hey, What's Wrong with This One?

Hey, What's Wrong with This One? is a 1969 children's novel by Maia Wojciechowska. Written for older elementary school and middle school aged children, the work centers around three brothers and their father in the aftermath of the death of the children's mother.

Plot summary
Set in Connecticut, Wojciechowska's novel covers the trials of young Mott as he tries to find a new mother for himself and his two brothers, Harley and Davidson. Mott sets his father up on dates with a string of women, but each one has at least one personality quirk his brothers just cannot stand.

Awards
It won the Georgia Children's Book Award for 1972–3.

title: Hey, What's Wrong with This One?


text:
1821 in rail transport

April event

 * April 19 – Stockton and Darlington Railway is authorised by the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

November event

 * November – Henry Robinson Palmer patents a monorail system in England.

May births

 * May 8 – William Henry Vanderbilt, son of Cornelius Vanderbilt and president of the New York Central system (d. 1885).

August births

 * August 10 – Jay Cooke, financier who built the Northern Pacific Railway (d. 1905).
 * August 17 – John Saxby, English railway signalling engineer (d. 1913).

October births

 * October 21 - Collis P. Huntington, a member of The Big Four group of financiers in California (d. 1900).

December births

 * December 17 - Frederick W. Lander, Chief Civil Engineer for the Pacific Railroad (d. 1862).

title: 1821 in rail transport


text:
User talk:Elemental Knight

Hi Elemental Knight, welcome to Wikipedia!

Here are a few helpful links to start you off: Avoiding common mistakes, How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style, Policies and guidelines, Help, Merging pages.

If you need help or are curious about something, feel free to ask on my talk page or the village pump. You can sign your name and a date stamp on comments using four tildes ( ~ ). If you have any further questions, feel free to ask, and I hope you enjoy being a Wikipedian!

Andre ( talk )A| 17:19, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC)

Your submission at Articles for creation: Elymas Payson Rogers (June 19)
 Your recent article submission to Articles for Creation has been reviewed! Unfortunately, it has not been accepted at this time. The reason left by Theroadislong was:

Please check the submission for any additional comments left by the reviewer. You are encouraged to edit the submission to address the issues raised and resubmit when they have been resolved.

 * If you would like to continue working on the submission, go to Draft:Elymas Payson Rogers and click on the "Edit" tab at the top of the window.
 * If you now believe the draft cannot meet Wikipedia's standards or do not wish to progress it further, you may request deletion. Please go to Draft:Elymas Payson Rogers, click on the "Edit" tab at the top of the window, add "Db-g7" at the top of the draft text and click the blue "publish changes" button to save this edit.
 * If you do not make any further changes to your draft, in 6 months, it will be considered abandoned and may be deleted.
 * If you need any assistance, you can ask for help at the [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Articles_for_creation/Help_desk&action=edit&section=new&nosummary=1&preload=Template:Afc_decline/HD_preload&preloadparams%5B%5D=Draft:Elymas_Payson_Rogers Articles for creation help desk], on the [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Theroadislong&action=edit&section=new&nosummary=1&preload=Template:Afc_decline/HD_preload&preloadparams%5B%5D=Draft:Elymas_Payson_Rogers reviewer's talk page] or use Wikipedia's real-time chat help from experienced editors.

Theroadislong (talk) 14:39, 19 June 2020 (UTC)

Concern regarding Draft:Elymas Payson Rogers
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If your submission is not edited soon, it could be nominated for deletion under CSD G13. If you would like to attempt to save it, you will need to improve it. You may request userfication of the content if it meets requirements.

If the deletion has already occured, instructions on how you may be able to retrieve it are available here.

Thank you for your submission to Wikipedia. FireflyBot (talk) 10:01, 23 May 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Elemental Knight


text:
Wikipedia:School and university projects/Open Source Culture/levitated

“Levitated” is an open source art website that makes a good effort to share and educate about the possibilities of programming. The section on animating with ActionScript v. Timeline is particularly interesting for seeing how a programmer makes choices about the effects that a small application will create. Plus there is a fascinating collection of past projects, which also include installations in traditional gallery spaces.


text:
1900 in rail transport

January events

 * January 1 – The Pere Marquette Railroad is incorporated and created from the merger of the Flint and Pere Marquette Railway, Detroit, Lansing and Northern Railroad and Chicago and West Michigan Railway.
 * January 9 – The first through passenger train goes from Cairo to Khartoum.

February events

 * February 12 – The Escanaba and Lake Superior Railway is reorganized through bankruptcy proceedings as the Escanaba and Lake Superior Railroad.
 * February 27 – The Nehru Setu railway bridge opens, becoming the longest bridge in India.

March events

 * March 17 – Great Eastern Railway of England introduces the first Class S46 Claud Hamilton 4-4-0 steam locomotive from its Stratford Works.
 * March 24 – Mayor of New York Robert A. Van Wyck turns the first shovel of dirt in groundbreaking ceremonies for the first subway line in the city.
 * March 30 – The Cape Breton Electric Tramway and Power Company in Nova Scotia, Canada, is incorporated.
 * March 30 – The Newark, Somerset and Straitsville Railroad is reorganized as the Ohio Midland Railroad.

April events

 * April 1 – Newtown Tram Depot is opened in Sydney.
 * April 2 – Kreis Westhavelland opens as a gauge railway connecting Rathenow, Senzke and Paulinenaue, in the German state of Brandenburg.
 * April 26 – A defective chimney on a house in Hull, Ontario starts the Great Hull–Ottawa fire; among the items destroyed are nearly 200 freight cars and the Canadian Pacific Railway station and freight house. The resulting shortage of lumber for reconstruction forces Canada Atlantic Railway to temporarily halt production on new railroad cars at the company shops in Ottawa.
 * April 30 – Illinois Central engineer Casey Jones crashes his train just north of Vaughan, Mississippi, and earns a spot in American folklore.

May events

 * May – The Santa Fe and San Joaquin Valley Railway begins operations between Bakersfield and San Francisco.
 * May 24 – Nottingham Victoria railway station opens in Nottingham, England.
 * May 28 – The Compagnie du chemin de fer de Paris à Orléans opens its Gare d'Orsay station in Paris, the world's first electrified urban terminal station.
 * May 31 – The Northwestern Elevated Railway, built by infamous traction magnate Charles Tyson Yerkes, begins operations between the Loop in downtown Chicago and Wilson and Broadway Avenues in Uptown on the North Side.

June events

 * June 22 – A train at the Grand Falls in New Brunswick, Canada, falls through the bridge into the Saint John River.
 * June 27 – Official opening of the Central London Railway, core of the Central line of the London Underground, the third deep-level electrified "tube" railway in the city.

July events

 * July 1
 * Completion of a dual-gauge connection unifies Normandy's narrow-gauge Chemins de fer du Calvados.
 * Great Indian Peninsula Railway property purchased by Government of India.
 * The Boston and Albany Railroad becomes a subsidiary of the New York Central.
 * July 19 – The first section of the Paris Métro opens.
 * July 29 – Construction is completed on the narrow-gauge White Pass and Yukon Route between Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada, and Skagway, Alaska, United States.
 * July 30 – The Central London Railway opens to the public between Shepherd's Bush and Bank.

August events

 * August 6 – An Act is passed to authorize the absorption of the Aberlady, Gullane and North Berwick Railway in Scotland by the North British Railway via a stock transfer.
 * August 14 – Charles Melville Hays succeeds Collis P. Huntington as president of the Southern Pacific Railroad after Huntington's death.
 * August 15 – Regular service begins between Skagway, Alaska, and Whitehorse, Yukon, on the White Pass and Yukon Route.

September events

 * September 22 – Harry C. Grant and Joshua Lionel Cowen file incorporation papers in New York creating toy train manufacturer Lionel.

December events

 * December 18 – The Upper Ferntree Gully – Gembrook narrow-gauge railway in Victoria, Australia, opens for traffic. It is now preserved, operating as the Puffing Billy Railway.
 * December 20 – Great Northern Railway (U.S.) opens first Cascade Tunnel (2.6 mi).
 * December 31 – Southern Pacific completes construction of the Coast Line from Los Angeles to the San Francisco Bay Area, eliminating the need to operate through the San Joaquin Valley. The line is presently (2007) owned by Union Pacific, and is the operation line of Amtrak's (formerly Southern Pacific's) Coast Starlight.

Unknown date events

 * The Pittsburgh, Shenango and Lake Erie Railroad is renamed Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad.
 * Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway gains control of Colorado Midland and begins operating it as a subsidiary railroad.

January births

 * January 3 – C. L. Dellums, cofounder of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (died 1989)
 * January 15 – Rogers E. M. Whitaker ("E. M. Frimbo"), writer on rail travel (died 1981)

March deaths

 * March 29 – Cyrus K. Holliday, co-founder of Topeka, Kansas, and first president of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad (b. 1826).

April deaths

 * April 20 – Andrew Barclay, Scottish steam locomotive builder (born 1814).

August deaths

 * August 13 – Collis P. Huntington, a member of the Big Four group of financiers in California (born 1821)

November deaths

 * November 12 – Henry Villard, president of Northern Pacific Railway 1881–1884, dies (born 1835).

Unknown date deaths

 * Robert S. Hughes, president of Rogers Locomotive Company 1893–1900.

title: 1900 in rail transport


text:
USS Sculpin

Three ships of the United States Navy have borne the name USS Sculpin, named in honor of the sculpin.

 * USS Sculpin (SS-191), was a Sargo-class submarine, commissioned in 1939 and stricken in 1944.
 * USS Sculpin (SS-494), a submarine cancelled in August 1945 before she was laid down.
 * USS Sculpin (SSN-590), was a Skipjack-class submarine, commissioned in 1961 and stricken in 1990.

title: USS Sculpin


text:
User:Laguna72

So, yes. Finally, something on my user page.

Let's see, I'm currently a first-year at Middlebury College, where I'm studying as much as I can before I'm forced to get real and declare a major.

I'm rather keen on the Current events page, which is fun.

title: User:Laguna72


text:
K-Town

K-Town may refer to:
 * K-Town, a nickname for Kansas City, Missouri
 * K-Town, a nickname for Kearny, New Jersey
 * K-Town, a nickname for Kettering, Northamptonshire, United Kingdom
 * K-Town, a nickname for Kortenhoef, North Holland, Netherlands
 * K-Town, a nickname for Kortrijk, West-Flanders, Belgium
 * K-Town, a nickname for Kristiansand, Norway
 * K-Town, a nickname for Kuwait, a middle eastern country
 * K-Town, a shortened term for Koreatown, an ethnic enclave
 * Koreatown, Los Angeles
 * Koreatown, Manhattan
 * Koreatown, Palisades Park, New Jersey, United States
 * Koreatown, Toronto, Canada
 * Koreatown, Queens, New York City
 * K-Town, Chicago, a neighborhood in North Lawndale, Illinois, United States
 * K-Town Historic District
 * "K-Town" (LEXX episode), an episode of the science fiction TV series LEXX
 * K-Town (web series), an American reality television series
 * K-Town, a nickname for Kollywood (Tamil Cinema) or generally the entire neighborhood of Kodambakkam in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.
 * Billboard K-Town, an online magazine column

Places nicknamed K-Town

 * Kearny, New Jersey
 * Keighley
 * Kaiserslautern, Germany: a city close to Ramstein Air Base; Kaiserslautern is a long name and sometimes difficult to pronounce for non-German speakers, therefore the abbreviation
 * Kaiserslautern Military Community
 * Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada
 * Kenosha, Wisconsin, United States
 * Knoxville, Tennessee, United States
 * Karachi, Pakistan
 * Kingston, Ontario, Canada
 * Kaysville, Utah, United States
 * Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
 * Kyoto, Kyoto, Japan
 * Kobe, Hyogo, Japan
 * Kremmling, Colorado, United States
 * Kensington, Maryland, United States
 * Kitchener, Ontario, Canada
 * Kortrijk, Belgium

Komarken, Kungälv, Sweden

title: K-Town


text:
The Street

The Street may refer to:

Geographical

 * Wall Street in New York City's Financial District
 * The Street, Lawshall, Suffolk, England
 * The Street (Heath Charnock), a building and bridleway in Rivington, Lancashire, England

Film and television

 * The Street (UK TV series), a drama shown on BBC One in 2006, 2007 and 2009
 * The Street (2000 TV series), an American television drama series
 * The Street: A Film with the Homeless, a 1997 documentary about the Canadian homeless in Montreal
 * The Street (1988 TV series), an American police drama
 * The Street (1923 film), a German silent drama film
 * The Street (1949 film), as Swedish drama film
 * The Street (1958 film), a German crime drama film
 * The Street (1976 film), an Oscar-nominated animated short film by Caroline Leaf, adapted from the Mordechai Richler story
 * The Street (2019 film), a documentary about gentrification in London

Literature

 * "The Street" (short story), by H. P. Lovecraft
 * The Street (novel), a 1946 novel by Ann Petry
 * The Street (story collection), a 1969 short story collection by Mordecai Richler

Painting

 * The Street, 1888 painting by Vincent van Gogh

Website

 * TheStreet.com, an American financial news and services website

title: The Street


text:
Charles Watson (businessman)

Charles Watson is the founder of The Natural Gas Clearinghouse. Later renamed Dynegy, the firm was a highly diverse energy trading company that was similar to rival Enron in many respects. Watson attempted to orchestrate a buyout of Enron in late 2001, but withdrew following the restating of Enron's financials. At one time this was the 11th to the largest corporation on the Fortune 500.

Watson left Dynegy in late 2002 when Dynegy's own finances took a turn for the worse amid allegations of accounting frauds, misconduct in the California energy crises and other serious problems. He was replaced by Bruce Williamson.

He later founded Eagle Energy Partners where he acted as the chairman. Eagle Energy Partners was later acquired by Lehman Brothers and then sold to EDF Trading, pending Lehman Brothers' bankruptcy. At Lehman Brothers, he served as a Partner and Managing Director. He currently serves on the board of EDFT, the managing partner and governing body of Eagle Energy Partners. He is also a Senior Advisor to the EDF Group in North America.

Watson, an Oklahoma State University alumnus, and member of the Sigma Chi fraternity, is principal of Caldwell Watson. He is currently the minority owner of the Iowa Wild hockey team, and is the vice chairman and minority owner of the Houston Texans, where he chaired Houston's 2004 Super Bowl host committee.

Watson was inducted into the Texas Business Hall of Fame and was named "Master Entrepreneur" by Ernst & Young. In 2005, Watson was named Chairman of the Sigma Chi Foundation.

Watson has served on the Boards of the Independent Petroleum Association of America (IPAA), Natural Gas Supply Association (NGSA), Interstate Natural Gas Association of America (INGAA), Edison Electric Institute (EEI), Natural Gas Council (NGC) and is currently on the boards of Baker Hughes, Baylor College of Medicine, Mainstream Renewable Power, Shona Energy Company, Patman Drilling Inc., Central Houston Inc., and Angeleno Group. In 1996 Watson co-founded Caldwell Watson Real Estate Group and was a Principal. He is the chairman of Wincrest Ventures, a venture capital company he founded in 1994. He has been a Director of Theatre Under the Stars and Hobby Center for the Performing Arts. Watson is a Member of the Executive Committee of Edison Electric Institute as well as a founding Member of the Natural Gas Council. Partners at one point with Fritz Strayer.

Mr. Watson is also chairman and CEO of Advanced Blast Protection Systems (ABPS), a company that developed new technology to greatly increase the protection tools available to those dealing with blast, fire and ballistic assaults.

He is now chairman of the board and co-founder of Twin Eagle Resource Management (founded in September 2010), a Houston-based company that provides wholesale energy and midstream services throughout North America.

Watson is also the former owner of the Houston Aeros minor league hockey team (now the Iowa Wild).

title: Charles Watson (businessman)


text:
Bruce Williamson (businessman)

Bruce Williamson is an American energy company executive. He is best known as a former chief executive office (CEO) for global markets of North Carolina-based Duke Energy and CEO of Houston-based Dynegy.

Williamson was born in Great Falls, Montana to George and June Williamson, and graduated from Great Falls High School in 1977. He spent his freshman year of college at the University of Idaho, transferred to the University of Montana-Missoula, and graduated with a bachelor's degree in finance in 1981. After discovering that the only employment he could get in Montana was a $10,000-a-year bank job, he took a position with Shell Oil in Houston, Texas, largely because a friend lived there. He later obtained a Master of Business Administration from the University of Houston.

Williamson left Shell to work for Pan Energy Corporation. Pan Energy merged with the Duke Power Company in 1997 to become Duke Energy. Williamson rose to the position of President and CEO of Duke Energy Global Markets. In 2002, he was named president and chief executive officer of Dynegy. As the CEO of Dynegy, Williamson received an award from the President's White Collar Task Force. Further, the former United States Attorney for the Southern District of Texas, Michael Shelby, stated that Williamson becoming CEO, "has changed the standard operating procedures in such a way that honesty and candor [are] part of the business plan," and Williamson "helped ferret out potential wrongdoers." As the CEO of Dynegy, Williamson restructured Dynegy out of bankruptcy, and reduced Dynegy's outstanding debt by over $10 billion. Williamson resigned as CEO of Dynegy on February 10, 2011, after two takeovers over the company (both of which he supported) failed. In 2012, Dynegy filed for Chapter 11 Bankruptcy to settle with creditors who held around $2.5 Billion in claims over one of its subsidiaries.

In July 2011, Williamson was named president and CEO of Cleco Corporation, a utility holding company based in Louisiana. In his first year as CEO, he finalized the largest wholesale contract ever entered into for the Cleco Corporation by securing a 10-year contract with Dixie Electric Membership Corporation. In December 2013, Cleco Corp. transitioned into the Midcontinent Independent System Operator Market, with the hope that this will provide additional growth opportunities. Operationally, Cleco has improved its employee safety since Williamson joined the company. Comparing results from 2012 to 2011, Cleco reduced personal injuries by 33 percent and its avoidable accidents by 45 percent. Comparing results from 2012 to 2013, Cleco again improved its employee safety record by 20 percent and its avoidable accidents by 40 percent. Also, since Williamson joined Cleco, the company has raised shareholder dividends five times for a total increase of sixty percent.

In 2014, Macquarie Group agreed to buy Cleco Corporation for approximately $3.4 billion in cash attracted by the steady, long-term returns of regulated power assets.

Williamson previously served on the board of directors for Questar Corporation (gas company) and for Southcross Energy. Williamson currently serves on the board of directors for ENMAX. Williamson is also on the University of Houston Dean's Advisory Board for the CT Bauer College of Business and the Chancellor's National Advisory Council.

Williamson and his wife, Kim, live in the Woodlands, TX and have two daughters.

title: Bruce Williamson (businessman)


text:
1813 in rail transport

Events

 * Passenger services (by horse-drawn coach) begin on the Kilmarnock & Troon Railway, the first such service in Scotland.

February births

 * February 16 – Joseph R. Anderson, owner of American steam locomotive manufacturing company Tredegar Iron Works (d. 1892).
 * February 23 – John M. Forbes, president of the Michigan Central Railroad and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (d. 1898).

May births

 * May 14 – Charles Beyer, German-British steam locomotive manufacturer, co-founder of Beyer, Peacock & Company (d. 1876).

September births

 * September 1 – Mark Hopkins, a member of The Big Four group of financiers in California.
 * September 11 - John Chester Craven, Locomotive, Carriage and Wagon Superintendent at London, Brighton & South Coast Railway's Brighton Works 1847–1870, is born (d. 1887).

Unknown date births

 * Wilson Eddy, American steam locomotive manufacturer (d. 1898).

Deaths
1813, February – United Kingdom – A 13-year-old boy named Jeff Bruce was killed whilst running alongside the Middleton Railway tracks. The Leeds Mercury reported that this would "operate as a warning to others".

title: 1813 in rail transport


text:
Wikipedia talk:Danish wikipedians' notice board

Hello! I just created a Denmark-specific stub notice, so I would appreciate all help adding it to all the articles here that are less than 50% completed. It can be linked at. It looks like this:

 * Added a few important subjects that I think should be covered re Danish archaeology - hope you agree. I'll try to write something on some of these myself in the coming weeks. Bruce, aka Agendum | Talk 00:19, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

(Literal) translations
I'm rather disappointed by the current article name of Radical Left (Denmark) for "Det Radikale Venstre"/"Danish Social Liberal Party". I've previously moved it to "Det Radikale Venstre", but someone (not Danish) renamed it back to the rather misleading "Radical Left (Denmark)" title. I've tried starting a discussion in the page's talk-section, without luck. And I've tried getting in touch with User:Wilfried Derksen, but he doesn't respond.

I'm inclined to move the page to "Danish Social Liberal Party", but since it takes some work (updating links, etc.), I would rather discus it a bit in advance.

In my opinion, it should be either the verbatim "Det Radikale Venstre" (untranslated; makes sense for some names), or the official English (Danish Social Liberal Party) name.

What do you guys think? - Isn't "Radical Left (Denmark)" a strange too-literal translation? Does anyone know of a Wikipedia policy on this? TroelsArvin 01:02, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The official wikipedia policy is at Naming conventions (use English). Here is what it says about political parties, "For articles on organizations (like political parties) the general rule applies. That means: Name your pages with the English translation and place the original native name on the first line of the article unless the native form is more commonly used in English than the English form."

 * So, I guess its a judgement call as to whether Det Radikale Venstre or Danish Social Liberal Party is more commonly used in English. According to a google search limited to English, Det Radikale Venstre comes up about 1200 times, while "Danish Social Liberal Party" comes up only 186 times, suggesting that the Danish is more commonly used. However, the search may be picking up some pages that are actually written in Danish. Plus, the party is simply not well known in the English speaking world, so the Danish title might simply be used by ex patriot Danes.

 * Overall, I'd get rid of the literal translation (less than 600 hits with many non-Danish) and go with the Danish name, but wouldn't mind the official English. Peregrine981 03:57, Dec 13, 2004 (UTC)

 * I just checked what the Copenhagen Post uses to reference the party, and they wrote the Radical Left and then followed that with Det Radikale Venstre in parentheses. While my personal choice would be to name the article Det Radikale Venstre, I also would follow the Copenhagen Post as its probably the most authoritative source on naming Danish things in English.

I agree that Radical Left (Denmark) is a rather strange construction, and personally tend towards using Det Radikale Venstre, which is - I would have thought - sufficiently well-known to be understandable. Although, I guess that might be just me - we've got to think of the 'average' readers of the encyclopedia! Bruce, aka Agendum | Talk 00:19, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Follow-up: Wilfried Derksen reverted his renaming, so "Det Radikale Venstre" is yet again the canonical page name. We didn't seem to reach a clear concensus, but I hope it's OK to go with Det Radikale Venstre. I'll fix the numerous redirections bit-by-bit (Wikipedia is rather slow/unstable at the time of writing). TroelsArvin 23:19, 9 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Bog people/bodies
I'd like peoples' opinion as to whether Bog body or Bog people is a better name for articles on the subject mentioned. Presently there are articles at both names. Peregrine981 14:28, Dec 15, 2004 (UTC)

 * Bog people is the name most favoured in English - I've never heard the former and think it sounds uneccessarily morbid. I would suggest that the former be deleted, without redirection in this case. Bruce, aka Agendum | Talk 12:16, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * User:Pontifex said, "My sense is that Bog body is preferable, with Bog people as a redirect. "Bog body" seems to be prevalent in the literature I've seen and is more descriptive and broad. "Bog people", to me, misleadingly suggests some kind of living tribe. A cursory Google search suggests that "Bog body" is prevalent in scientific contexts whereas "bog people" appears mostly in lay articles."

 * So we accordingly moved the article to bog body. Britannica lists it under bog body. However, it is true that bog people is more commonly used, even in some academic contexts (museums). So, if you feel strongly enough about it we could contact Pontifex and hash it out a bit more. Seems like bog body has to be a redirect at least, as it is used in some of the literature. Peregrine981 13:08, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, yes - I see what you mean. I think, in fact that the expression Bog people has indeed come to refer to the Bronze/Iron Age and other people groups who practised this form of inhumation (see The Mysterious Bog People). Interestingly, Google has indexed half as many again references to these as to Bog bodies - not that that necessarily proves anything. Agreed that we should ask advice of Pontifex, if possible. Bruce, aka Agendum | Talk 00:08, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmm, I took a tour through Google searching for "bog body" and "bog people", and here's who is using what term:
 * BOG BODY
 * Silkeborg Museum (Tollund Man exhibit)
 * British Museum (Lindow Man exhibit)
 * Encyclopedia Britannica
 * University of Texas
 * Ireland Peat Preservation Council (starts out with the headline "people of the bog" and then uses "bog body" consistently throughout)
 * BOG PEOPLE
 * Archaeology magazine (headlines "bog people", but text uses "body" and "people" inconsistently)
 * Canadian Museum of Civilization exhibit "the Mysterious Bog People"
 * The Bog People: Iron-Age Man Preserved by P. V. Glob
 * Based on this admittedly short survey, "Bog body" does appear to be the predominant term in scientific literature, and "bog people" in popular literature, although the phrases are often used interchangeably.
 * Also, as mentioned above, I think "bog body" is more descriptive of the overall phenomenon; "bog people" still sounds vague to me. After all, the connection to the bog is as a body, not (necessarily) as a living person.
 * My vote's for "Bog body," but whatever the final article title, I think both "Bog people" and "Bog body" should link to it. 2¢  --Pontifex 18:07, Dec 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * Based on this admittedly short survey, "Bog body" does appear to be the predominant term in scientific literature, and "bog people" in popular literature, although the phrases are often used interchangeably.
 * Also, as mentioned above, I think "bog body" is more descriptive of the overall phenomenon; "bog people" still sounds vague to me. After all, the connection to the bog is as a body, not (necessarily) as a living person.
 * My vote's for "Bog body," but whatever the final article title, I think both "Bog people" and "Bog body" should link to it. 2¢  --Pontifex 18:07, Dec 22, 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your work checking on this, Pontifex. I stand corrected, and cannot argue with the impeccable sources you quote - nor with your own background - and your conclusions. I guess my original opinion had been moulded chiefly by reading PV Glob, admittedly many years ago. Perhaps there should be reference, within the article, to both names - not just as a redirect. Bruce, aka Agendum | Talk 00:25, 24 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Official residences
In the List of official residences, I have made three links to the Danish Wikipedia. If these three pages are translated to english (as I think at least Amalienborg Castle might be), we would want to change these links.

Danish politicians
I and user:isfisk have now made articles for all current Danish ministers :). Thue | talk 21:47, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * It seems that I, User:Twthmoses and user:isfisk are making good progress on the list of Danish politicians :). I just finished the list of Danish Prime Ministers from 1913 and forward (Anker Jørgensen and Poul Schlüter need some work). If anybody wants to help then a good place to start could be the red links at Cabinet of Anders Fogh Rasmussen I, creating Cabinet of Poul Nyrup Rasmussen I-IV using fx as reference or making a list of the Danish Foreign Ministers. Thue | talk 00:01, 23 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Hi Thue. I have made a list of Danish Foreign Ministers, but I am not going to create the page (too busy doing other stuff). But please, you or anybody else, feel free to copy this table and paste it appropriately :-) Fred Bradstadt 20:43, Apr 2, 2005 (UTC)

Source: rulers.org

 * Thanks, Added! Thue | talk 18:08, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Danish municipalities
There has been a push on the danish wikipedia to make articles for all Danish kommuner. The English wikipedia already has articles for them, but does not make a distinction between the overall municipality and the individual towns and villages that may be under the municipality. With the upcoming structural reform in Denmark this may well lead to some confusion. Do you think it is worth making seperate pages for the municipality and the individual towns? Or should we just mention in the articles that they are not necessarily the same thing? If we do make seperate articles should they be named xxx Municipality? As in Greve Municipality, Peregrine981 02:15, Mar 19, 2005 (UTC)

 * As the muncipalities get bigger it doesn't make as much sense to identify them with their main city, so giving each muncipality it's own seperate article seems like a good idea. Named them consistently as xxx muncipality also seems like a good idea. Thue | talk 09:27, 19 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I have made a push to see that there are articles for all Danish kommuner (and I think I have accomplished that task), as well as to see that there is a certain consistency to them all (in regards style, content and structure). I am in the process of verifying that I have accomplished that also.  I have also set up articles for the future kommuner, so we are prepared for Jan. 1, 2007.  I tend to agree that they should be consistently named "xxx municipality", and in the worst cases I have already renamed a few.  I have down-prioritised that task, but will get back to it as time permits in the future, and when other more necessary tasks are completed (and there are a number of those).  All new articles that had not been written before I put my hands on them were named "xxx municipality".  As for separate articles for town and municipality— I am not convinced that every little town needs to have a one-sentence article, just so it can get a "stub" notice (but that's my opinion).  My solution was a sentence about the site of the municipal council, other towns if I had some names, and a subhead for the main town within the municipality article with information (where I had some).  If and when the town section gets so large that it should be split off, then it can always be split off later. --SFDan 11:20, 7 October 2005 (UTC)


text:
USS Seadragon

Two ships of the United States Navy have borne the name USS Seadragon, named in honor of the seadragon, a small fish more commonly called the dragonet.

 * The first USS Seadragon (SS-194), was a Sargo-class submarine, commissioned in 1939 and struck in 1948.
 * The second USS Seadragon (SSN-584), was a Skate-class submarine, commissioned in 1959 and struck in 1986.

title: USS Seadragon


text:
1878 in rail transport

January events

 * January 18 – Construction on the Central Australia Railway route south of Port Augusta, Australia, begins.

February events

 * February 5 – The first train is operated on the Seattle & Walla Walla Railroad from Renton to Newcastle.

May events

 * May 9 – The final segment of the Romanian railway between Vârciorova in the south and Roman in the north opens.
 * May – Chemins de fer de l'État formed in France to take over ten small railway companies operating between the Loire and Garonne.

June events

 * June 1 – The North British Railway's Tay Bridge across the Firth of Tay in Scotland, is opened to public traffic, making it the longest in the world at that date.

July events

 * July 2 – The Brooklyn, Flatbush & Coney Island Railway, original predecessor of the BMT Brighton Line, in modern Brooklyn, New York, opens to Brighton Beach on Coney Island.

August events

 * August 24 – The narrow gauge Ballymena and Larne Railway starts passenger operations in County Antrim, the first on the Irish 3 ft narrow gauge.

October events

 * October 16 – Rimutaka Incline in New Zealand opens.

December events

 * December 4 – The first Shay locomotive is completed for the 3-foot narrow gauge Alleyton and Big Lake Railroad of Everett Township, Michigan.

Unknown date events

 * Fred Harvey enters a partnership with the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway to build and operate the Harvey House chain of restaurants and hotels that will serve the railroad's passengers.
 * The Richmond & Danville Railroad acquires the Charlotte, Columbia & Augusta Railroad.
 * The Canadian Engine and Machinery Company is reorganized after a bankruptcy as the Canadian Locomotive and Engine Company.
 * The Wilmington, Columbia and Augusta Railroad, lessee of the Wilmington & Weldon Railroad, declares bankruptcy.

March births

 * March 2 – William Kissam Vanderbilt II, heir to Cornelius Vanderbilt and president of the New York Central system (d. 1944).

April births

 * April 14 – Angus Daniel McDonald, president of the Southern Pacific Company, parent company of the Southern Pacific, 1932–1941 (d. 1941).

March deaths

 * March 29 – Mark Hopkins, a member of The Big Four group of financiers in California (b. 1813).

June deaths

 * June 27 – Sidney Breese, U.S. senator from Illinois known as the "father of the Illinois Central Railroad," dies (b. 1800).

October deaths

 * October 19 – Benjamin Henry Latrobe, II, designer of Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Thomas Viaduct, still in use toda), dies (b. 1806).

December deaths

 * December 27 – Daniel McCallum, General Superintendent of New York & Erie Railroad 1855–1858 (b. 1815).

title: 1878 in rail transport


text:
1822 in rail transport

May events

 * May 24 – The first rail of the Stockton and Darlington Railway is laid in ceremonial style at Stockton-on-Tees by the Chairman of the company, Thomas Meynell.

November events

 * November 18 – The Hetton colliery railway, near Sunderland, England, opens for locomotive traction, being designed by George Stephenson to be wholly steam worked.

September births

 * September 16 – Charles Crocker, a member of The Big Four group of financiers in California (d. 1888).

title: 1822 in rail transport


text:
Bed sheet

A bed sheet is a rectangular piece of cloth used either singly or in a pair as bedding, which is larger in length and width than a mattress, and which is placed immediately above a mattress or bed, but below blankets and other bedding (such as comforters and bedspreads). A bottom sheet is laid above the mattress, and may be either a flat sheet or a fitted sheet (a sheet which has been sewn with elastic or a drawstring along the hem of the top, sides and bottom of the sheet to prevent it from slipping off of the mattress). A top sheet, in the many countries where they are used, is a flat sheet, which is placed above a bottom sheet and below other bedding.

History
The term bed sheet was first used in the 15th century. Bed sheets were traditionally white and made of cotton, linen or silk, however, now various colors and patterns are used.

Styles
Bed sheets come in two main varieties: flat and fitted. A flat sheet is simply a rectangular sheet of cloth, while a fitted sheet has four corners, and sometimes two or four sides, fitted with elastic, to be used only as a bottom sheet. The fitted sheet may also be secured using a drawstring instead of elastic. The purpose of a fitted bottom sheet is to keep it from slipping off the mattress while the bed is in use. A particular way of folding and tucking while making the bed, known as "hospital corners," is sometimes used when the bottom sheet is flat rather than fitted.

Usually a flat bed sheet is overlocked around the edges to form four seams. One of the seams is wider than the other three and helps with orienting the sheet correctly on the mattress. The wider seam goes at the head end of the mattress. Sometimes the sides do not have seams, but are finished with the selvedge only. When one makes a bed, the patterned or monogrammed side of the top sheet may be placed facing up, or facing down, in which case the top edge may be folded towards the foot of the bed to expose the design.

In the US and Canada, sheets are often sold in a four-piece set consisting of a fitted sheet, a flat sheet and two pillowcases. In China, a four-piece set consists of a duvet cover, two pillowcases and either a fitted or flat sheet. Fitted sheets are gaining popularity due to their ease of use. Use of good quality elastic make fitted sheets durable.

Materials
Cotton and cotton blends dominate the market, the most common blend being cotton/polyester. Cotton provides absorbency and a soft hand, while polyester adds durability and wrinkle resistance. Other common fibers used in the manufacturing of bed sheets include linen, silk, Modal and bamboo rayon, lyocell, Microtex or Microfiber, and polypropylene. Polypropylene (olefin) is a hypoallergenic spun-bound material produced at a low cost and typically used in emergency shelters or hospitals as disposable sheeting.

Cooling sheets are made of Lyocell, bamboo (rayon), linen, hemp or silk.

Construction
The quality of bed sheets is often conveyed by the thread count—the number of threads per square inch of material. In general, the higher the thread count, the softer the sheet, but the weave and type of thread may affect the "hand" of the material so that a sheet with a lower thread count may actually be softer than one with a higher count. Yarn quality also plays a part in the look and feel of sheets, as finer yarns tend to create a finer sheet fabric. The ply also plays a role in how heavy the sheet feels. Ply represents how many fibers are twisted together as the sheet is being created. A 2 ply 300 thread count sheet will feel heavier than a single ply 600 thread count sheet. The most common constructions are muslin, percale, sateen, flannel, and knitted jersey. In a plain weave the warp and weft cross each other one at a time. Sateen has multiple (usually 3–4) over threads and one under.

Cleaning
Bedsheets should be washed about once a week, using low-temperature water and drying settings. Warm water can be used to eliminate coffee stains, urine or allergens, such as dust mites. Using fabric softeners is not recommended, as they leave behind residue that decreases the fabric's breathability.

title: Bed sheet


text:
User:SoWhy

S O W HY

 * on-wiki
 * I registered this account on 25 March 2004 (verify) and became an administrator on 1 October 2008 (verify·my RfA) . I was a member of the Arbitration Committee from 1 January 2020 to 31 December 2021.
 * My main areas of activity as an admin are deletion-related, especially speedy deletion, although I also help out at WP:UAA, WP:DYK, WP:RFPP, WP:AFD and other areas.
 * Yhwos (contribs) [testing // heavy tool use] and SWM (contribs) [mobile use]  are also me.

 * off-wiki
 * 40 year old // lawyer // living in Markt Schwaben, Germany.
 * English is my second language, so I apologize in advance for any mistakes. Apart from Wikipedia, I enjoy a range of "geeky" hobbies, mostly gaming, reading, listening to music and watching TV shows and movies.

 * (potential) biases
 * skeptic // atheist // social liberal // social democrat
 * If you believe that I have let my personal opinions influence my editing or administrative duties, please tell me about it. I will do my best to learn from any mistakes I make but in order to do so, I need to be aware of them.

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title: User:SoWhy


text:
1888 in rail transport

February events

 * February 2 - Frank J. Sprague built an electric light rail system in Richmond, VA, for the Richmond Union Passenger Railway. This was to be the first large-scale electric trolley (tram) line in the world.
 * February 24 – Grand Trunk Railway acquires the Northern and Northwestern Railway.
 * February 29 – Opening of Listowel and Ballybunion monorail in Ireland.

May events

 * May – The Great Indian Peninsula Railway completes its Victoria Terminus station building in Bombay's Bori Bunder district.

April events

 * April 1 – The Old Colony Railroad leases the Boston and Providence Railroad for a period of 99 years.

June events

 * June 11 – The Canadian Pacific acquires control of the Soo Line, renaming it to the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railroad.
 * June 15 – The first train to Casper, Wyoming, operating on the Chicago and North Western Railway, arrives.

July events

 * July–August – First "Race to the North": Operators of the West and East Coast Main Lines in Britain accelerate their services between London and Edinburgh.

August events

 * August 7 – Sir William Cornelius Van Horne succeeds George Stephen as president of the Canadian Pacific Railway.
 * August 12 – Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway subsidiary companies complete construction of the final link in what has come to be known as the Surf Line connecting Los Angeles and San Diego.
 * August 18 – In the City of Frankfurt am Main, Germany (at the time:German Reich), Frankfurt Central Station (today's name is Frankfurt (Main) Hauptbahnhof) is opened and is - at this time - the world's largest railway station in terms of tracks, ground area covered and passenger capacity. It replaces the three former regional stations, that were located closer to the old city limits, and were then demolished and gave way to a new city quarter named Station Quarter.

September events

 * September 10 – The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway (later to become known as the Milwaukee Road) operates the first passenger train with electric lights (rather than gas lights) in the United States west of Chicago, Illinois, on a train between Chicago and the Twin Cities.
 * September 18 – The first revenue train on the Canada Atlantic Railway's Chaudière Extension departs for Chaudière Falls, Ontario (near Ottawa).

November events

 * November 10 – Opening of Saint-Chély–Neussargues line in France over Garabit viaduct.

December events

 * December 29 – First train crosses Poughkeepsie Bridge, New York.

Unknown date events

 * Spring – The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway begins through service between Kansas City, Kansas, and Chicago, Illinois, over the railroad's newly completed line.
 * First section of metre gauge Brünig railway line in Switzerland opened by Jura–Bern–Lucerne Railway from Brienz over the Brünig Pass to Alpnachstad using the Riggenbach rack system.
 * First articulated Mallet locomotive completed, by Tubize of Belgium.

April deaths

 * April 19 – Thomas Russell Crampton, English steam locomotive designer who produced the Crampton locomotive type as well as a tunnel boring machine for the Channel Tunnel (b. 1816).

June deaths

 * June 14 – Charles Crocker, a member of The Big Four group of financiers in California (b. 1822).

title: 1888 in rail transport


text:
Don "Sugarcane" Harris

Don Francis Bowman "Sugarcane" Harris (June 18, 1938 – November 30, 1999) was an American blues and rock and roll violinist and guitarist. He is considered a pioneer in the amplification of the violin.

Career
Harris was born and raised in Pasadena, California, United States. His parents were carnival entertainers. As a youth, he studied classical violin, and learned additional instruments including harmonica, piano and guitar.

Harris began performing with a doo-wop group, The Squires, which included his childhood friend, the pianist Dewey Terry. The Squires recorded for Vita Records. Harris performed in Little Richard's band in the 1960s.

Don & Dewey
Harris and Terry formed a duo in 1956 as Don and Dewey. They were recorded by Art Rupe on his Specialty label, mostly utilizing the services of legendary drummer Earl Palmer. The duo also recorded on Rupe's other labels, Los Angeles Spot and Shade. Don & Dewey had no hits as an act, but several songs they co-wrote and recorded became early rock and roll classics for other musicians. These include "Farmer John" (the Premiers and, later, Neil Young), "Justine" (the Righteous Brothers), "I'm Leaving It Up to You" (Dale and Grace), and "Big Boy Pete" (the Olympics). Harris was given the nickname "Sugarcane" by bandleader Johnny Otis, due to his reputation as a ladies' man.

Frank Zappa and John Mayall's Bluesbreakers
After separating from Dewey Terry in the 1960s, Harris moved almost exclusively over to the electric violin. He reappeared as a sideman with John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers and Frank Zappa, most recognized for his appearances on Hot Rats and on the Mothers of Invention albums Burnt Weeny Sandwich and Weasels Ripped My Flesh. His lead vocal and blues violin solo on a cover of Little Richard's "Directly from My Heart to You" on Weasels, and his extended solo on "Little House I Used To Live In" on Weeny are considered highlights of those albums. Zappa, who had long admired Harris' playing, reportedly bailed him out of jail, resurrecting his career and ushering in a long period of creativity for the forgotten violin virtuoso. He played a couple of live concerts with Zappa's band in 1970 and performed on four of Zappa's solo albums.

Pure Food and Drug Act
During the early 1970s, Harris led the Pure Food and Drug Act, which included drummer Paul Lagos, guitarists Harvey Mandel and Randy Resnick, and bassist Victor Conte, who was the founder of the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative. Conte replaced Larry Taylor, who was the original bass player. Conte went on to play with Tower of Power and Herbie Hancock. In their first concert, PFDA opened for Johnny Otis at El Monte Legion Hall. The audience was excited by Sugarcane's energy, his playing, singing and stage antics. While the performance showed the promise of the group, Don's issues with controlled substances was a constant struggle, eventually contributing to his death.

In the 1980s, Sugarcane was a member of the Los Angeles–based experimental rock band Tupelo Chain Sex.

Personal life and death
Harris' marriage ended in divorce. He had a daughter and two sons. He was addicted to drugs throughout his career. For most of his later years, he had a pulmonary disease. He died on November 27, 1999, at home in Los Angeles, California, at age 61.

As leader

 * Keep On Driving (MPS/BASF, 1970)
 * Sugarcane (Epic, 1970)
 * Fiddler On the Rock (MPS, 1971)
 * New Violin Summit with Jean-Luc Ponty, Nipso Brantner, Michal Urbaniak (MPS/BASF, 1971)
 * Sugar Cane's Got the Blues (MPS/BASF, 1972)
 * Cup Full Of Dreams (MPS/BASF, 1973)
 * I'm On Your Case (MPS/BASF, 1974)
 * Keyzop (MPS, 1975)
 * Flashin' Time (MPS, 1976)

Don & Dewey
 * Don and Dewey (1974)
 * Bim Bam! (1985)
 * Jungle Hop (1991)

As sideman
With John Lee Hooker
 * Folk Blues (1959)
 * Born in Mississippi (1973)
 * Free Beer and Chicken (1974)

With Little Richard
 * Little Richard Is Back (1964)
 * Well Alright! (1970)

With Harvey Mandel
 * The Snake (1972)
 * Shangrenade (1973)

With John Mayall
 * USA Union (1970)
 * Back To The Roots (1971)
 * Ten Years Are Gone (1973)
 * Notice to Appear (1975)
 * New Year, New Band, New Company (1975)
 * Banquet in Blues (1976)
 * Archives to Eighties (1988)
 * Room to Move (1969–1974) (1992)
 * Cross Country Blues (1994)

With The Mothers of Invention
 * Burnt Weeny Sandwich (1970)
 * Weasels Ripped My Flesh (1970)

With Johnny Otis
 * Cold Shot (1969)
 * Cuttin' Up The Johnny Otis Show (1971)

With Tupelo Chain Sex
 * Ja-Jazz (1983)
 * Spot the Difference (1984)

With Frank Zappa With others
 * Hot Rats (1969)
 * Chunga's Revenge (1970)
 * Apostrophe (') (1974)
 * The Lost Episodes (1996)
 * Funky Nothingness (2023)
 * Billy Bang, Changing Seasons (1980)
 * Pure Food & Drug Act, Choice Cuts (1972)
 * Freddie Roulette, Sweet Funky Steel (1993)
 * Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee, Sonny & Brownie (1973)

title: Don "Sugarcane" Harris


text:
John Gibson (political commentator)

John David Gibson (born July 25, 1946) is an American radio talk show host. As of September 2008, he hosts the syndicated radio program The John Gibson Show. He formerly co-hosted the weekday edition of The Big Story on Fox News.

Career
Gibson earned a Bacherlor of Arts degree from UCLA's School of Theater, Film and Television. He began his reporting career with The Hollywood Reporter (1969–1972) and worked for Atlantic Records (1972–1974). Gibson worked for KFWB-AM (1974–1975) and KEYT-TV (1975–1977). At KCRA, he was a feature reporter on the Weeknight magazine show (1977–1979) and San Francisco bureau chief (1979–1989).

Beginning in 1992, Gibson worked as an NBC News correspondent in Burbank, California. In 1994, he became the first West Coast correspondent for the NBC News Channel. He covered the 1995 O. J. Simpson trial for the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman for NBC News Channel and Rivera Live on CNBC. In 1996, he was named as daytime anchor on MSNBC, where he covered the Bill Clinton-Monica Lewinsky scandal in 1998.

Gibson joined the Fox News Channel in September 2000 as the host of the rolling news program Fox News Live with John Gibson, which, in 2001, was turned into The Big Story. In 2007, Heather Nauert joined The Big Story as his co-host. He also wrote the New York Times bestselling books, Hating America: The New World Sport and The War on Christmas (referencing the controversies of the same name).

On March 12, 2008, Fox News Channel announced that The Big Story was being replaced with America's Election Headquarters, a program more directly geared toward following the 2008 U.S. presidential election. The Big Story was not renewed after the election and was replaced with The Glenn Beck Program in January 2009. Following this cancellation, Gibson was a regular guest-panelist on Fox's late-night satire show Red Eye w/ Greg Gutfeld, and was often the butt of jokes on episodes in which he was absent.

As of September 2008, he began hosting the syndicated radio program The John Gibson Show. Initially the show was broadcast on Fox News Radio, but since 2017 it has been syndicated by the Genesis Communications Network.

Gibson vs. the BBC
In 2004 Gibson said that the British Broadcasting Corporation was anti-American, accusing the BBC of having "a frothing-at-the-mouth anti-Americanism that was obsessive, irrational and dishonest". He also claimed that reporter Andrew Gilligan, who was covering the 2003 Iraq War for BBC Radio 4 in Baghdad, had, "insisted on air that the Iraqi Army was heroically repulsing an incompetent American military".

Gibson's criticisms were rejected by UK regulator Ofcom when it investigated viewer complaints about his item. Ofcom also found that Gibson's broadcast was in violation of several UK television regulations, concluding that Gibson's commentary did not display a "respect for truth", failed to offer the BBC a chance to respond to the allegations, and was based on "false evidence."

Public comments
Gibson as a commentator often attracts criticism.

Following the 2007 SuccessTech Academy shooting, on his radio show, Gibson commented, "I knew the shooter was white. I knew he would have shot himself. Hip-hoppers don't do that. They shoot and move on to shoot again. And I could tell right away because he killed himself. Hip hoppers shooters don't do that. They shoot and move on."

In a 2008 edition of his radio show, Gibson commented on actor Heath Ledger's death the day before. He opened the segment with funeral music and played a clip of Jake Gyllenhaal's famous line "I wish I knew how to quit you" from Ledger's film Brokeback Mountain; and then said "Well, I guess he found out how to quit you." Among other remarks, Gibson called Ledger a "weirdo" with "a serious drug problem". The next day, he addressed outcry over his remarks by saying that they were in the context of jokes he had been making for months about Brokeback Mountain, and that "There's no point in passing up a good joke." Gibson later apologized on his television and radio shows.

In February 2009, Attorney General Eric Holder had given a speech to Justice Department employees as a part of the observance of Black History Month during which he described the United States as being a "nation of cowards" in its reluctance to discuss racial relations. Gibson criticized Holder's remarks as inappropriate. John Sanders, who at the time was technology reporter for WBAL-TV in Baltimore, then intentionally edited Gibson's remarks which had followed news reports of a monkey who had escaped from a Seattle zoo, making it appear that Gibson had compared Holder to a monkey "with a bright blue scrotum" on Fox. Sanders then posted the altered video on YouTube without a disclaimer that it was a joke. Because of this, the video was widely publicized on news websites, including The Huffington Post, as if it were authentic. Sanders was fired over the video, and Gibson said that the spread of the fake video has had a "personal" impact upon him.

Books

 * Gibson, John. How the Left Swiftboated America: The Liberal Media Conspiracy to Make You Think George Bush Was the Worst President in History. (HarperCollins, 2009). ISBN 978-0-06-179289-2.
 * Gibson, John. The War on Christmas: How the Liberal Plot to Ban the Sacred Christian Holiday Is Worse Than You Thought. (Sentinel HC, 2005). ISBN 1-59523-016-5.
 * Gibson, John. Hating America: The New World Sport. (ReganBooks, 2004) ISBN 0-06-058010-0.

title: John Gibson (political commentator)


text:
User:Jonesc~enwiki

If you saw the message that said i was on vacation, well, i'm back.

Casey, you moron. this is maggie. my username is Dumb BLond102. sned me a message

title: User:Jonesc~enwiki


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Otto von Ziechtzel

Otto von Ziechtzel
Verified hoax. My first VfD nomination, gently offered. Wyss 17:36, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * This individual doesn't seem to have existed; in fact, nobody with that name seems to have existed, ever. Delete Sockatume 18:39, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. No google hits, I'll take your word for it. -- Scott $e^{i \pi} \,\!$ 18:55, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. As mentioned on Votes for deletion/Baron pluroon, there's no immediate evidence he existed, and the context strongly suggests fiction rather than obscure. Shimgray 19:21, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: One of two hoax Prussians, all created by the same IP user. Geogre 20:26, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Does not compute, most likely a hoax. --MarkSweep 00:39, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Well, it's a plausible-sounding hoax, but still a hoax.  Hmm... this has got me thinking.  To get a hoax past the VfD, I'd have to create a few fake websites about the subject first.  And then maybe even use it as a screen-name and/or sig on some online message boards for a few months, just to boost the Google count.  All this before I begin to create the Wiki article.  (*sigh*)  Hoaxers today.  No patience.  They just rush straight in and end up giving themselves away.  What's the world coming to...?  P Ingerson 01:07, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. ComCat.


text:
Malaspina Glacier

The Malaspina Glacier in southeastern Alaska is the largest piedmont glacier in the world. Situated at the head of the Alaska Panhandle, it is about 65 km wide and 45 km long, with an area of some 3,900 km2, approximately the same size as the state of Rhode Island.

Name

The Lingít name translates to Big Glacier. The colonial name for the glacier is in honor of Alessandro Malaspina, a Tuscan explorer in the service of the Spanish Navy, who visited the region in 1791. In 1874, W. H. Dall of the United States Coast Survey bestowed the name "Malaspina Plateau" on it, not realizing its true geological character.

Geography
The Malaspina Glacier actually comprises Seward Glacier, Agassiz Glacier, and Marvine/Hayden Glacier, which converge as they spill out from the Saint Elias Mountains onto the coastal plain facing the Gulf of Alaska between Icy Bay and Yakutat Bay. Officially, these three glaciers are classified independently, such that Malaspina Glacier does not technically exist. The three glaciers are almost always referred to together, though sometimes only the largest primary piedmont lobe is referred to as Malaspina Glacier. This notable feature is actually part of Seward Glacier, with Agassiz Glacier contributing the secondary piedmont lobe to the west, and Marvine/Hayden Glacier constituting the smallest and most eastern lobe. Although the glaciers fill the plain, nowhere do they actually reach the water and so do not qualify as a tidewater glaciers. Notably, both Seward Glacier and Marvine/Hayden Glaciers terminate near Malaspina Lake, formed during a previous advance. Neither glacier actually terminates in the lake, and therefore are also not classified as lacustrine glaciers.

The Malaspina is up to 600 m thick in places, with the elevation of its bottom being estimated to be as much as 300 m below sea level. There are two lakes on its margins: Oily Lake to the northwest, at the foot of the Samovar Hills between the Agassiz and Seward glaciers, and Malaspina Lake to the southeast, close to Yakutat Bay.

Nearly all of the glacier is encompassed by the southeast lobe of the Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve.

History
Radar data and aerial photographs dating back to 1972 provide evidence that the Malaspina-Seward glacier system lost about 20 m of its thickness between 1980 and 2000; because the glacier is so large, that amount of shrinkage was sufficient to contribute 0.5% of the rise in the global sea level.

In October 1969, the glacier became a National Natural Landmark.

title: Malaspina Glacier


text:
Maria Olaru

Maria Olaru (born 4 June 1982) is a Romanian former Olympic artistic gymnast. She is an Olympic, World, and European gold medalist with the team. Individually, she was the 1999 all-around world champion and the 2000 Olympic all-around silver medalist. Her best event was the vault on which she medaled at world and continental competitions. Olaru was one of the tallest gymnasts competing in the late 1990s, standing 160 cm. After retirement she became an assistant professor at the Faculty of Sports and Physical Education of the West University of Timișoara.

Early life and career
Born in Fălticeni, Olaru began gymnastics at the age of six there, but quickly transferred to the local gymnastics club in Deva. She moved up to the junior national team in 1993, but after six months, she returned to her home club. In 1995 she rejoined the junior team in Bucharest. Olaru graduated to the Deva national training facility in 1996, after winning gold on vault at the Junior European Championships. In the same year she also won the Top Gym Trophy in Charleroi, Belgium.

Senior career
In 1998 Olaru moved up to senior competition, taking first place with the Romanian team and second on vault at the European Championships. The following year, she contributed to the team gold medal at the 1999 World Championships in Tianjin, China and became the second Romanian gymnast in history, after Aurelia Dobre, to win the all-around title. In 2000, she was, with Simona Amânar, Loredana Boboc, Andreea Isărescu, Claudia Presăcan and Andreea Răducan, a member of the Romanian team at the 2000 Olympics. There she shared in the team gold medal and won a silver in the all-around (after the Răducan controversy). She also qualified for the balance beam event final and placed sixth.

Post retirement
Olaru retired after the 2000 Olympics, noting that the new Code of Points would not be suited to gymnasts of her height, and enrolled as a student at the West University of Timișoara. After graduation she continued her studies, and she became an assistant professor at the Faculty of Sports and Physical Education of the West University of Timișoara.

In 2016, Olaru published her autobiography, ''The Price of Gold. Uncomfortable Sincerity''. In it, she recounted how she and her Romanian teammates were hit and beaten by their coaches during training.

Skills

 * Vault: Double-twisting Yurchenko, Phelps
 * Uneven Bars: Kip cast to handstand 1.5 handstand pirouette to mixed grip giant, immediate pike Jaeger; giant 1.5 pirouette into Tkatchev, Pak salto, Back-in Full-out tucked dismount
 * Balance Beam: piked front mount, wolf jump, tucked Korbut; flip flop, full (or flip flop, layout step out, Korbut); switch side; front tuck, tuck jump; 3/4 twisting Shushonova; cartwheel, swing through double full dismount
 * Floor Exercise: Round-off, whip back, 2.5 twist, punch pike; front-handspring, front double twist, punch front; Round-off, back-handspring, triple twist. Her music for floor routines was:
 * 1999: "Invisible Circus" by Vienna Symphony Orchestra
 * 2000: Soundtrack from the film Black Cat, White Cat

title: Maria Olaru


text:
Student Times (UK paper)

Student Times is a free English national student newspaper, launched in October 2004. Studenttimes.org was launched in March 2005.

The newspaper is distributed to universities and colleges within the United Kingdom, and the publication contains a mixture of national and international student news alongside graduate courses, graduate jobs and careers advice, features, entertainment articles and interviews from external sources.

Most articles, photographs and illustrations are written and produced by students.

Interviews so far have included Tracey Emin, Don McCullin, Goldie Lookin' Chain and Zero 7. In the run up to the 2015 General Election, Politics Editor Bridie Pearson-Jones interviewed both Nick Clegg, leader of the Liberal Democrats and Natalie Bennett, leader of the Green Party.

The paper carries frequent reports from the National Union of Students of the United Kingdom, the British Universities Sports Association and the Student Radio Association.

title: Student Times (UK paper)


text:
Net asset value

Net asset value (NAV) is the value of an entity's assets minus the value of its liabilities, often in relation to open-end, mutual funds, hedge funds, and venture capital funds. Shares of such funds registered with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission are usually bought and redeemed at their net asset value. It is also a key figure with regard to hedge funds and venture capital funds when calculating the value of the underlying investments in these funds by investors. This may also be the same as the book value or the equity value of a business. Net asset value may represent the value of the total equity, or it may be divided by the number of shares outstanding held by investors, thereby representing the net asset value per share.

Overview
Net asset value and other accounting and recordkeeping activities are the result of the process of fund accounting (also known as securities accounting, investment accounting, and portfolio accounting). Fund accounting systems are sophisticated computerized systems used to account for investor capital flows in and out of a fund, purchases and sales of investments, and related investment income, gains, losses and operating expenses of the fund. The fund's investments and other assets are valued regularly; daily, weekly, or monthly, depending on the fund and associated regulatory or sponsor requirements. There is no universal method or basis of valuing assets and liabilities for the purposes of calculating the net asset value used throughout the world, and the criteria used for the valuation will depend upon the circumstances, the purposes of the valuation, and any regulatory and/or accounting principles that may apply. For example, for U.S.-registered open-ended funds, investments are commonly valued each day the New York Stock Exchange is open, using closing prices (meant to represent fair value), typically 4:00 p.m. Eastern Time. For U.S.-registered money market funds, investments are often carried or valued at "amortized cost" as opposed to market value for expedience and other purposes, provided various requirements are continually met. The Securities and Exchange Board of India issued a notice on 17th September 2020 stating that when purchasing mutual fund units before 1:00 PM the NAV from the day of realization (day when investment money reaches the AMC) will be applicable irrespective of the size of investment.

At the completion of the valuation process and once all other appropriate accounting entries are posted, the accounting books are "closed", enabling a variety of information to be calculated and produced including the net asset value per share.

Open-ended funds
Net asset value is commonly used in the context of open-end funds. Shares and interests in such funds are not traded between investors, but are issued by the fund to each new investor and redeemed by the fund when an investor withdraws. A fund will issue and redeem shares and interests at a price calculated by reference to the NAV of the fund, with the intention that new investors receive a fair proportion of the fund and redeeming investors receive a fair proportion of the fund's value in cash.

For example, if a fund has a NAV of $200 million and 1 million shares in issue on a certain day, the "NAV per share"—the price at which shares are issued—is $200. A person investing $40 million on that day will therefore be given 200,000 shares. Immediately following their investment the total NAV of the fund will be $240 million, as the new investor's cash becomes part of the fund and is available for investment by the fund. The investor will then be entitled to 1/6 of whatever the fund's value is when they withdraw their investment, if in the meantime their 1/6 ownership is not altered by any further withdrawals or investments to the fund.

The valuation of the assets and liabilities of an open-ended fund is therefore very important to investors. If the NAV in the above example had, with the same assets, been calculated as $160 million (and the NAV per share as $160), the investor would have been given 250,000 shares and would become entitled to 1/5 of the fund's value.

In contrast, closed-end funds are traded in the open market between investors, bought and sold at market prices and not based on NAV. So the price of shares or interests in a closed-end fund will be whatever the parties agree it to be, which may not correspond to the fund's NAV. Publicly traded shares in such funds generally trade at a price below NAV.

Mismarking
Mismarking in securities valuation takes place when the value that is assigned to securities does not reflect what the securities are actually worth, due to intentional fraudulent mispricing. Mismarking misleads investors and fund executives about how much the securities in a securities portfolio managed by a trader are worth (the securities' net asset value) and thus misrepresents performance. When a rogue trader engages in mismarking, it allows them to obtain a higher bonus from the financial firm for which they work, where their bonus is calculated by the performance of the securities portfolio that they are managing.

Valuation of assets in open-ended funds and hedge funds
The NAV of a collective investment scheme (such as a U.S. mutual fund or a hedge fund) is calculated by reference to the total value of the fund's portfolio (its assets) less its accrued liabilities (money owed to lending banks, fees owed to investment managers and service providers, and other liabilities). Calculation of the net asset value for a hedge fund, including the calculation of the fund's income and expense accruals and the pricing of securities at current market value, is a core fund administrator task, because it is the price at which investors buy and sell shares in the fund. The accurate and timely calculation of NAV by the administrator is vital.

In 2003, investors in Lancer Group sued hedge fund administrator Citco for allegedly knowingly disseminating "misleading" Net Asset Value (NAV) statements. Citco ultimately informed investors that it was resigning as administrator to Lancer's funds, but did not provide an explanation. While Citco pointed to the fact that it had sought statements from Lancer's board of directors as to the propriety of the valuations, Southern District of NY Judge Shira Scheindlin wrote: "Although these actions demonstrate Citco Group's questioning of the numbers, they could also be interpreted as Citco Group's efforts to shield its own involvement in the process". Ultimately, Citco settled with investors.

The case of Anwar v. Fairfield Greenwich (SDNY) is the major case relating to fund administrator liability for failure to handle its NAV-related obligations properly. The defendants settled in 2016 by paying the Anwar plaintiffs $235 million. The court held in the case, prior to the settlement, that "it is reasonable to infer from Plaintiffs' allegations that the Administrators were aware that Plaintiffs would—and did—rely on their statements of the Funds' NAVs that were sent to the investors.... Accordingly, the Court finds that Plaintiffs allege a relationship between the investors and the Administrators that gives rise to a duty of care ...."

Businesses
Turning to operating companies as opposed to investment companies (mutual funds), in determining whether shares in a public company are a cheap or expensive investment, one tool used by investors is a comparison of the company's current market capitalization (being the price at which the market values the company) with its NAV. The NAV may be below the market price for the following reasons:

 * Accounting principles and bases of presentation of amounts in financial statements differ worldwide, blurring the comparability of companies in various jurisdictions. Financial statement values are typically recorded based on their local jurisdiction's related principles of accounting, which affect all the remaining points below.
 * The current value of a company's assets likely differ from the historical cost reflected in the financial statements used in NAV calculations.
 * The NAV describes the company's current asset and liability position. Investors might believe that the company has significant growth prospects, in which case they would be prepared to pay more for the company than its NAV.
 * Certain assets, such as goodwill (which broadly represents a company's ability to make future profits), are not necessarily included on a balance sheet and so will not appear in an NAV calculation.

A company's market value will not always be greater than its NAV. For example, analysts and management estimated that Liberty Media Corporation was trading for 30-50% below its net asset value (or "core asset value") in June 2007. Where a company's market value is lower than its NAV, it may be considered more profitable to wind the company down and sell off its assets individually rather than continue to run it as a going concern.

In contrast to fund valuation, the assets of a company will generally be valued for the purpose of a NAV calculation using the book value, the historical cost, or the amortised cost of the company's assets, or an appropriate combination of the three.

Real estate investment trusts
NAV is one of the valuation indices of real estate investment trusts (REITs, pronounced "Reets"). NAV is normally quoted "per investment unit" where the value is divided by the number of total outstanding investment units. In simple terms, NAV is an adjusted net asset value reflecting the market values of real estate properties held by an investment corporation. The degree of premium/discount on individual investment unit prices relative to the per-unit NAV serves as the yardstick for assessment. The NAV index is synonymous to the adjusted price-to-book ratio in which factors such as unrealized losses/gains of owned properties and brand values are reflected. News companies such as PropertyMall typically report on a REIT's NAV when the company reports it.

Variable insurance and variable annuity contracts
Variable universal life insurance policies and variable annuity contracts often are structured somewhat similarly to mutual funds, and they may vary in value as securities and markets fluctuate. Typically, these insurance or annuity products issue "units" of ownership to policyholders/annuitants in exchange for their investment—similar to shares of a mutual fund. Also similar to a fund, the assets, liabilities, and net assets of these product entities are valued periodically, resulting in an asset unit value or AUV or UAV per share, which is similar to NAV for a fund.

title: Net asset value