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Distal radius fracture

A distal radius fracture, also known as wrist fracture, is a break of the part of the radius bone which is close to the wrist. Symptoms include pain, bruising, and rapid-onset swelling. The ulna bone may also be broken.

In younger people, these fractures typically occur during sports or a motor vehicle collision. In older people, the most common cause is falling on an outstretched hand. Specific types include Colles, Smith, Barton, and Chauffeur's fractures. The diagnosis is generally suspected based on symptoms and confirmed with X-rays.

Treatment is with casting for six weeks or surgery. Surgery is generally indicated if the joint surface is broken and does not line up, the radius is overly short, or the joint surface of the radius is tilted more than 10% backwards. Among those who are cast, repeated X-rays are recommended within three weeks to verify that a good position is maintained.

Distal radius fractures are common, and are the most common type of fractures that are seen in children. Distal radius fractures represent between 25% and 50% of all broken bones and occur most commonly in young males and older females. A year or two may be required for healing to occur. Most children with a buckle wrist fracture experience a broken wrist for life and do have an increased chance of re-fracturing the same spot or other adverse effects.

Signs and symptoms
People usually present with a history of falling on an outstretched hand and complaint of pain and swelling around the wrist, sometimes with deformity around the wrist. Any numbness should be asked to exclude median and ulnar nerve injuries. Any pain in the limb of the same side should also be investigated to exclude associated injuries to the same limb.

Swelling, deformity, tenderness, and loss of wrist motion are normal features on examination of a person with a distal radius fracture. "Dinner fork" deformity of the wrist is caused by dorsal displacement of the carpal bones (Colle's fracture). Reverse deformity is seen in volar angulation (Smith's fracture). The wrist may be radially deviated due to shortening of the radius bone. Examination should also rule out a skin wound which might suggest an open fracture, usually at the side. Tenderness at an area with no obvious deformity may still point to underlying fractures. Decreased sensation especially at the tips of the radial three and one half digits ( thumb, index finger, middle finger and radial portion of the ring finger ) can be due to median nerve injury. Swelling and displacement can cause compression on the median nerve which results in acute carpal tunnel syndrome and requires prompt treatment. Very rarely, pressure on the muscle components of the hand or forearm is sufficient to create a compartment syndrome which can manifest as severe pain and sensory deficits in the hand.

Complications
Nonunion is rare; almost all of these fractures heal. Malunion, however, is not uncommon, and can lead to residual pain, grip weakness, reduced range of motion (especially rotation), and persistent deformity. Symptomatic malunion may require additional surgery. If the joint surface is damaged and heals with more than 1–2 mm of unevenness, the wrist joint will be prone to post-traumatic osteoarthritis. Half of nonosteoporotic patients will develop post-traumatic arthritis, specifically limited radial deviation and wrist flexion. This arthritis can worsen over time. Displaced fractures of the ulnar styloid base associated with a distal radius fracture result in instability of the DRUJ and resulting loss of forearm rotation.

Nerve injury, especially of the median nerve and presenting as carpal tunnel syndrome, is commonly reported following distal radius fractures. Tendon injury can occur in people treated both nonoperatively and operatively, most commonly to the extensor pollicis longus tendon. This can be due to the tendon coming in contact with protruding bone or with hardware placed following surgical procedures.

Complex regional pain syndrome is also associated with distal radius fractures, and can present with pain, swelling, changes in color and temperature, and/or joint contracture. The cause for this condition is unknown.

Cause
The most common cause of this type of fracture is a fall on an outstretched hand from standing height, although some fractures will be due to high-energy injury. People who fall on the outstretched hand are usually fitter and have better reflexes when compared to those with elbow or humerus fractures. The characteristics of distal radius fractures are influenced by the position of the hand at the time of impact, the type of surface at point of contact, the speed of the impact, and the strength of the bone. Distal radius fractures typically occur with the wrist bent back from 60 to 90 degrees. Radial styloid fracture would occur if the wrist is ulnar deviated and vice versa. If the wrist is bent back less, then proximal forearm fracture would occur, but if the bending back is more, then the carpal bones fracture would occur. With increased bending back, more force is required to produce a fracture. More force is required to produce a fracture in males than females. Risk of injury increases in those with osteoporosis.

Common injuries associated with distal radius fractures are interosseous intercarpal ligaments injuries, especially scapholunate (4.7% to 46% of cases) and lunotriquetral ligaments (12% to 34% of cases) injuries. There is an increased risk of interosseous intercarpal injury if the ulnar variance (the difference in height between the distal end of the ulna and the distal end of the radius) is more than 2mm and there is fracture into the wrist joint. Triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) injury occurs in 39% to 82% of cases. Ulnar styloid process fracture increases the risk of TFCC injury by a factor of 5:1. However, it is unclear whether intercarpal ligaments and triangular fibrocartilage injuries are associated with long term pain and disability for those who are affected.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis may be evident clinically when the distal radius is deformed, but should be confirmed by X-ray. The differential diagnosis includes scaphoid fractures and wrist dislocations, which can also co-exist with a distal radius fracture. Occasionally, fractures may not be seen on X-rays immediately after the injury. Delayed X-rays, X-ray computed tomography (CT scan), or Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can confirm the diagnosis.

Medical imaging
X-ray of the affected wrist is required if a fracture is suspected. Posteroanterior, lateral, and oblique views can be used together to describe the fracture. X-ray of the uninjured wrist should also be taken to determine if any normal anatomic variations exist before surgery.

A CT scan is often performed to further investigate the articular anatomy of the fracture, especially for fracture and displacement within the distal radio-ulnar joint.

Various kinds of information can be obtained from X-rays of the wrist:

Lateral view
 * Carpal malalignment - A line is drawn along the long axis of the capitate bone and another line is drawn along the long axis of the radius. If the carpal bones are aligned, both lines will intersect within the carpal bones. If the carpal bones are not aligned, both lines will intersect outside the carpal bones. Carpal malignment is frequently associated with dorsal or volar tilt of the radius and will have poor grip strength and poor forearm rotation.
 * Tear drop angle - It is the angle between the line that pass through the central axis of the volar rim of the lunate facet of the radius and the line that pass through the long axis of the radius. Tear drop angle less than 45 degrees indicates displacement of lunate facet.
 * Antero-posterior distance (AP distance) - Seen on lateral X-ray, it is the distance between the dorsal and volar rim of the lunate facet of the radius. The usual distance is 19 mm. Increased AP distance indicates the lunate facet fracture.
 * Volar or dorsal tilt - A line is drawn joining the most distal ends of the volar and dorsal side of the radius. Another line perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the radius is drawn. The angle between the two lines is the angle of volar or dorsal tilt of the wrist. Measurement of volar or dorsal tilt should be made in true lateral view of the wrist because pronation of the forearm reduces the volar tilt and supination increases it. When dorsal tilt is more than 11 degrees, it is associated with loss of grip strength and loss of wrist flexion.

Posteroanterior view
 * Radial inclination - It is the angle between a line drawn from the radial styloid to the medial end of the articular surface of the radius and a line drawn perpendicular to the long axis of the radius. Loss of radial inclination is associated with loss of grip strength.
 * Radial length - It is the vertical distance in millimetres between a line tangential to the articular surface of the ulna and a tangential line drawn at the most distal point of radius (radial styloid). Shortening of radial length more than 4mm is associated with wrist pain.
 * Ulnar variance - It is the vertical distance between a horizontal line parallel to the articular surface of the radius and another horizontal line drawn parallel to the articular surface of the ulnar head. Positive ulnar variance (ulna appears longer than radius) disturbs the integrity of triangular fibrocartilage complex and is associated with loss of grip strength and wrist pain.

Oblique view
 * Pronated oblique view of the distal radius helps to show the degree of comminution of the distal end radius, depression of the radial styloid, and confirming the position the screws at the radial side of the distal end radius. Meanwhile, a supinated oblique view of shows the ulnar side of the distal radius, accessing the depression of dorsal rim of the lunate facet, and the position of the screws on the ulnar side of the distal end radius.

Classification
There are many classification systems for distal radius fracture. AO/OTA classification is adopted by Orthopaedic Trauma Association and is the most commonly used classification system. There are three major groups: A—extra-articular, B—partial articular, and C—complete articular which can further subdivided into nine main groups and 27 subgroups depending on the degree of communication and direction of displacement. However, none of the classification systems demonstrate good liability. A qualification modifier (Q) is used for associated ulnar fracture.

For children and adolescents, there are three main categories of fracture: buckle (torus) fractures, greenstick fractures, and complete (or off-ended) fractures. Buckle fractures are an incomplete break in the bone that involves the cortex (outside) of the bone. Buckle fractures are stable and are the most common type. Greenstick fractures are a bone that is broken only on one side and the bone bows to the other side. Greenstick fractures are unstable and often occur in younger children. Complete fractures, where the bone is completely broken, are unstable. In a complete fracture the bone can be misaligned. For a complete fracture, a closed fractures are those in which the skin and tissue lying over the bone is intact. An open fracture (exposed bone) is a serious injury.

Treatment
Correction should be undertaken if the wrist radiology falls outside the acceptable limits:
 * 2-3mm positive ulnar variance
 * There should be no carpus malalignment
 * If carpus is aligned, then the dorsal tilt should be less than 10 degrees
 * If carpus is aligned, there are no limits for palmar tilt
 * If carpus is malaligned, wrist tilt should be neutral
 * Gap or step deformity is less than 2mm

Treatment options for distal radius fractures include nonoperative management, external fixation, and internal fixation. Indications for each depend on a variety of factors such as the patient's age, initial fracture displacement, and metaphyseal and articular alignment, with the ultimate goal to maximize strength and function in the affected upper extremity. Surgeons use these factors combined with radiologic imaging to predict fracture instability, and functional outcome to help decide which approach would be most appropriate. Treatment is often directed to restore normal anatomy to avoid the possibility of malunion, which may cause decreased strength in the hand and wrist. The decision to pursue a specific type of management varies greatly by geography, physician specialty (hand surgeons vs. orthopedic surgeons), and advancements in new technology such as the volar locking plating system.

Distal radius fractures are often associated with distal radial ulnar joint (DRUJ) injuries, and the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons recommends that postreduction lateral wrist X-rays should be obtained in all patients with distal radius fractures in order to preclude DRUJ injuries or dislocations.

Most children with these types of fractures do not need surgery.

Nonoperative
The majority of distal radius fractures are treated with conservative nonoperative management, which involves immobilization through application of plaster or splint with or without closed reduction. The prevalence of nonoperative approach to distal radius fractures is around 70%. Nonoperative management is indicated for fractures that are undisplaced, or for displaced fractures that are stable following reduction. Variations in immobilization techniques involve the type of cast, position of immobilization, and the length of time required in the cast.

Undisplaced fractures
For those with low demand, cast and splint can be applied for two weeks. In those who are young and active, if the fracture is not displaced, the patient can be followed up in one week. If the fracture is still undisplaced, cast and splint can be applied for three weeks. If the fracture is displaced, then manipulative reduction or surgical stabilisation is required. Shorter immobilization is associated with better recovery when compared to prolonged immobilization. 10% of the minimally displaced fractures will become unstable in the first two weeks and cause malunion. Therefore, follow up within the first week of fracture is important. 22% of the minimally displaced fractures will malunite after two weeks. Subsequent follow ups at two to three weeks are therefore also important. There is weak evidence to suggest that some children with a buckle fracture may not require cast immobilization.

Where the fracture is undisplaced and stable, nonoperative treatment involves immobilization. Initially, a backslab or a sugar tong splint is applied to allow swelling to expand and subsequently a cast is applied. Depending on the nature of the fracture, the cast may be placed above the elbow to control forearm rotation. However, an above-elbow cast may cause long-term rotational contracture. For torus fractures, a splint may be sufficient and casting may be avoided. The position of the wrist in cast is usually slight flexion and ulnar deviation. However, neutral and dorsiflex position may not affect the stability of the fracture.

Displaced fractures
In displaced distal radius fracture, in those with low demands, the hand can be cast until the person feels comfortable. If the fracture affects the median nerve, only then is a reduction indicated. If the instability risk is less than 70%, the hand can be manipulated under regional block or general anaesthesia to achieve reduction. If the post reduction radiology of the wrist is acceptable, then the person can come for follow up at one, two, or three weeks to look for any displacement of fractures during this period. If the reduction is maintained, then the cast should continue for 4 to 6 weeks. If the fracture is displaced, surgical management is the proper treatment. If the instability risk of the wrist is more than 70%, then surgical management is required. 43% of displaced fractures will be unstable within the first two weeks and 47% of the remaining unstable fractures will become unstable after two weeks. Therefore, periodic reviews are important to prevent malunion of the displaced fractures.

Closed reduction of a distal radius fracture involves first anesthetizing the affected area with a hematoma block, intravenous regional anesthesia (Bier's block), sedation or a general anesthesia. Manipulation generally includes first placing the arm under traction and unlocking the fragments. The deformity is then reduced with appropriate closed manipulative (depending on the type of deformity) reduction, after which a splint or cast is placed and an X-ray is taken to ensure that the reduction was successful. The cast is usually maintained for about 6 weeks.

Outcome of nonoperative treatment
Failure of nonoperative treatment leading to functional impairment and anatomic deformity is the largest risk associated with conservative management. Prior studies have shown that the fracture often redisplaces to its original position even in a cast. Only 27-32% of fractures are in acceptable alignment 5 weeks after closed reduction. For those less than 60 years in age, there will be a dorsal angulation of 13 degrees, while for those older than 60, the dorsal angulation can reach as high as 18 degrees. In people over 60, functional impairment can last for more than 10 years.

Despite these risks with nonoperative treatment, more recent systematic reviews suggest that when indicated, nonsurgical management in the elderly population may lead to similar functional outcomes as surgical approaches. In these studies, no significant differences in pain scores, grip strength, and range of motion in patients' wrists occurred when comparing conservative nonsurgical approaches with surgical management. Although the nonsurgical group exhibited greater anatomic misalignment such as radial deviation, and ulnar variance, these changes did not seem to have significant impact on overall pain and quality of life.

Surgery
Surgery is generally indicated for displaced or unstable fractures. The techniques of surgical management include open reduction internal fixation (ORIF), external fixation, percutaneous pinning, or some combination of the above. The choice of operative treatment is often determined by the type of fracture, which can be categorized broadly into three groups: partial articular fractures, displaced articular fractures, and metaphyseal unstable extra- or minimal articular fractures.

Significant advances have been made in ORIF treatments. Two newer treatments are fragment-specific fixation and fixed-angle volar plating. These attempt fixation rigid enough to allow almost immediate mobility, in an effort to minimize stiffness and improve ultimate function; no improved final outcome from early mobilization (prior to 6 weeks after surgical fixation) has been shown. Although restoration of radiocarpal alignment is thought to be of obvious importance, the exact amount of angulation, shortening, intra-articular gap/step which impact final function are not exactly known. The alignment of the DRUJ is also important, as this can be a source of a pain and loss of rotation after final healing and maximum recovery.

An arthroscope can be used at the time of fixation to evaluate for soft-tissue injury and the congruity of the joint surface and may increase the accuracy of joint surface alignment Structures at risk include the triangular fibrocartilage complex and the scapholunate ligament. Scapholunate injuries in radial styloid fractures where the fracture line exits distally at the scapholunate interval should be considered. TFCC injuries causing obvious DRUJ instability can be addressed at the time of fixation.

Prognosis varies depending on dozens of variables. If the anatomy (bony alignment) is not properly restored, function may remain poor even after healing. Restoration of bony alignment is not a guarantee of success, as soft tissue contributes significantly to the healing process.

Little joint involvement
These fractures are the most common of the three groups mentioned above that require surgical management. A minimal articular fracture involves the joint, but does not require reduction of the joint. Manipulative reduction and immobilization were thought to be appropriate for metaphyseal unstable fractures. However, several studies suggest this approach is largely ineffective in patients with high functional demand, and in this case, more stable fixation techniques should be used.

Surgical options have been shown to be successful in patients with unstable extra-articular or minimal articular distal radius fractures. These options include percutaneous pinning, external fixation, and ORIF using plating. Patients with low functional demand of their wrists can be treated successfully with nonsurgical management; however, in more active and fit patients with fractures that are reducible by closed means, nonbridging external fixation is preferred, as it has less serious complications when compared to other surgical options. The most common complication associated with nonbridging external fixation is pin tract infection, which can be managed with antibiotics and frequent dressing changes, and rarely results in reoperation. The external fixator is placed for 5 to 6 weeks and can be removed in an outpatient setting.

If the fractures are unlikely to be reduced by closed means, open reduction with internal plate fixation is preferred. Although major complications (i.e. tendon injury, fracture collapse, or malunion) result in higher reoperation rates (36.5%) compared to external fixation (6%), ORIF is preferred, as this provides better stability and restoration of the volar tilt. Following the operation, a removable splint is placed for 2 weeks, during which time patients should mobilize the wrist as tolerated.

Displaced intra-articular fractures
These fractures, although less common, often require surgery in active, healthy patients to address displacement of both the joint and the metaphysis. The two mainstays of treatment are bridging external fixation or ORIF. If reduction can be achieved by closed/percutaneous reduction, then open reduction can generally be avoided. Percutaneous pinning is preferred to plating due to similar clinical and radiological outcomes, as well as lower costs, when compared to plating, despite increased risk of superficial infections. Level of joint restoration, as opposed to surgical technique, has been found to be a better indicator of functional outcomes.

Outcome
World Health Organization (WHO) divides outcomes into three categories: impairment, disabilities, and handicaps. Impairment is the abnormal physical function, such as lack of forearm rotation. It is measured clinically. Disability is the lack of ability to perform physical daily activities. It is measured by Patient Reported Outome Measures (PROMs). Examples of scoring system based on clinical assessment are: Mayo Wrist Score (for perilunate fracture dislocation), Green and O’Brien Score (carpal dislocation and pain), and Gartland and Werley Score (evaluating distal radius fractures). These scores includes assessment of range of motion, grip strength, ability to perform activities of daily living, and radiological picture. However, none of the three scoring system demonstrated good reliability.

There are also two scoring systems for Patient Reported Outome Measures (PROMs): the Disabilities of Hand, Arm and Shoulder (DASH) Score and the Patient-Related Wrist Evaluation (PRWE) Score. These scoring systems measures the ability of a person to perform a task, pain score, presence of tingling and numbness, the effect on activities of daily living, and self-image. Both scoring systems show good reliability and validity.

Age factor
In children, the outcome of distal radius fracture is usually very good with healing and return to normal function expected. Some residual deformity is common, but this often remodels as the child grows.

In young patients, the injury requires greater force and results in more displacement, particularly to the articular surface. Unless an accurate reduction of the joint surface is obtained, these patients are very likely to have long-term symptoms of pain, arthritis, and stiffness.

In the elderly, distal radius fractures heal and may result in adequate function following nonoperative treatment. A large proportion of these fractures occur in elderly people who may have less requirement for strenuous use of their wrists. Some of these patients tolerate severe deformities and minor loss of wrist motion very well, even without reduction of the fracture. There is no difference in functional outcomes between operative and non-operative management in the elderly age group, despite better anatomical results in the operative group.

Epidemiology
Distal radius fractures are the most common fractures seen in adults and children. Distal radius fractures account for 18% of all adult fractures with an approximate rate of 23.6 to 25.8 per 100,000 per year. For children, both boys and girls have a similar incidence of these types of fractures, however the peak ages differ slightly. Girls peak at 11 years old and boys peak at 14 years old (the age that children experience the most fractures). For adults, incidences in females outnumber incidences in males by a factor of three to two. In adults, the average age of occurrence is between 57 and 66 years. Men who sustain distal radius fractures are usually younger, generally in their 40s (vs. 60s in females). Low energy injury (usually fall from standing height) is the usual cause of distal end radius fracture (66 to 77% of cases). High energy injuries accounts for 10% of wrist fractures. About 57% to 66% of the fractures are extra-articular fractures, 9% to 16% are partial-articular fractures, and 25% to 35% are complete articular fractures. Unstable metaphyseal fractures are ten times more common than severe articular fractures. Older people with osteoporosis who are still active are at an increased risk of getting distal radius fractures.

History
Before the 18th century, distal radius fracture was believed to be due to dislocation of the carpal bones or the displacement of the distal radioulnar articulation. In the 18th century, Petit first suggested that these types of injuries might be due to fractures rather than dislocations. Another author, Pouteau, suggested the common mechanism of injury which leads to this type of fractures - injury to the wrist when a person falls on an outstretched hand with dorsal displacement of the wrist. However, he also suggested that volar displacement of the wrist was due to the ulnar fracture. His work was met with skepticism from colleagues and little recognition, since the article was published after he died. In 1814, Abraham Colles described the characteristics of distal end radius fracture. In 1841, Guilaume Dupuytren acknowledged the contributions by Petit and Pouteau, agreeing that the distal end radius fracture is indeed a fracture, not a dislocation. In 1847, Malgaigne described the mechanism of injury for distal end radius fractures that can be caused by falling on the outstretched hand or on the back of the hand and also the consequences if the hand fracture is not treated adequately. After that, Robert William Smith, professor of surgery in Dublin, Ireland, first described the characteristics of volar displacement of distal radius fractures. In 1895, with the advent of X-rays, the visualisation of the distal radius fracture became more apparent. Lucas-Champonnière first described the management of fractures using massage and early mobilization techniques. Anaesthesia, aseptic technique, immobilization and external fixation have all contributed to the management of fixation of distal radius fracture. Ombredanne, a Parisian surgeon in 1929, first reported the use of nonbridging external fixation in the management of distal radius fractures. Bridging external fixation was introduced by Roger Anderson and Gordon O’Neill from Seattle in 1944 due to poor results in conservative management (using orthopaedic cast) of distal end radius fractures. Raoul Hoffman of Geneva designed orthopaedic clamps, which allow adjustments of the external fixator to reduce the fractures by closed reduction. In 1907, percutaneous pinning was first used. This was followed by the use of plating in 1965.

title: Distal radius fracture


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Jovan Cvijić

Jovan Cvijić (Јован Цвијић, ; 11 October 1865 – 16 January 1927) was a Serbian geographer and ethnologist, president of the Serbian Royal Academy of Sciences and rector of the University of Belgrade. Cvijić is considered the founder of geography in Serbia. He began his scientific career as a geographer and geologist, and continued his activity as a human geographer and sociologist.

Early life and family
Cvijić was born in Loznica, in the westernmost part of the Principality of Serbia. His family was part of the Spasojević branch of the Piva tribe (Pivljani) in Old Herzegovina (currently Montenegro). Cvijić's father, Todor, was a merchant; his grandfather, Živko, was head of Loznica and a supporter of the House of Obrenović in Mačva. Živko fought in the 1844 Katana Uprising against the Defenders of the Constitution, and died after torture.

Cvijić's great-grandfather, Cvijo Spasojević, patriarch of the Cvijić family, was a hajduk leader in Old Herzegovina who fought in the First Serbian Uprising against the Ottoman Empire. After its failure in 1813, he moved to Loznica, built a house and opened a store.

His father, Todor (d. 1900), was a trader before accepting a clerkship in the municipality. Cvijić's mother, Marija (Avramović), was from a family in the village of Koremita in the Jadar region (near Tronoša and Tršić, the birthplace of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić). Todor and Marija had two sons, Živko and Jovan, and three daughters. Cvijić often said that in his childhood his spiritual education was primarily influenced by his mother and her family; he said less about his father and his father's family. However, in his works on ethnic psychology, Cvijić praised the Dinaric race of his father.

Education

After completing elementary school, Cvijić attended grammar school in Loznica where he took an interest in literature and learned French and German.

He continued his education in Šabac before embarking to the First Belgrade Gymnasium to study medicine, graduating in 1884.

After graduation, he wanted to study medicine, but Loznica could not provide him a scholarship to study abroad. A grammar-school teacher suggested that he attend geography classes at the Velika skola in Belgrade (now the University of Belgrade). Cvijić took his advice, enrolling in the natural sciences department and graduating in 1889.

Cvijić taught at the Second Male Grammar School in Belgrade and in the meantime published his first geographical work on the Karst landscape in 1889 after a trip to the eastern countryside of Serbia piqued his interest.

He enrolled at Vienna University where he studied physical geography and geology under the tutelages of scholars like Albrecht Penck, Professor Suess (president of the Austrian Academy) and Julius von Hann. He received his PhD from Vienna University in 1893. His thesis Das Karstphänomen, introduced the sub-discipline study of Karst geomorphology.

Soon afterwards, Cvijić would tour the Balkans to conduct fieldwork and research.

In 1911, Cvijić married Ljubica Nikolić, a widow from Belgrade, née Krstić (1879–1941).

Research
Cvijić's work can be compartmentalized into five sections: the karst, glaciations in the Balkan mountains, tectonic elements in the peninsula, lakes and human geography. Much of his research was complicated by the tense political situations with the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman authorities, dangerous and remote areas and lack of suitable roads and maps.

In the mid 1890s, Cvijić's excursions took him first to eastern Serbia and then to Bulgaria, where he visited the area around the Rila mountain range. Later, he focused on the mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, studying the karst and tectonic structure, looking for evidence of glaciations, leading him to publish Papers on the glacial epoch in the Balkan peninsula.

He was interested in geology and geomorphology. Cvijić's monograph on lime karst was well received in European scientific circles, and an introductory academic lecture established him as the first South Slavic tectonicist. The Serbian lime fields had been studied only peripherally by Otto von Pirch (1830), Ami Boué (1840), Felix Philipp Kanitz, Milan Milićević, Jovan Žujović and Vladimir Karić before him.

Cvijić conducted a pioneering human-geographical survey in "Balkan Peninsula 1918", 1922–I, 1931–II, based on his research of Balkan personality types. He researched for 38 years, leading expeditions in the Balkans, the southern Carpathian Mountains and Anatolia which produced a number of research papers. Cvijić's two-volume Geomorphology is an important starting point for research into the Balkan peninsula.

Karst geomorphology
When studying under Albrecht Penck's tutelage he was encouraged to focus on the study of karst phenomena in the northern Dinaric Alps which was a region Penck was already acknowledged with. His first major work was Das Karstphänomen published in 1893. This work was a publication of the key points of his doctoral thesis. Das Karstphänomen was published as a slightly modified translation in Serbo-Croat in 1895. This work describes landforms such as karren, dolines and poljes. In a 1918 publication, Cvijić proposed a cyclical model for karstic landscape development. The results of this work written in French were made accessible to English-language scientists in 1921 when it was commented by E.M. Sanders. Differences in climate and geology were used by Cvijić to explain various shapes and types of karst landforms, sometimes incorrectly. Nevertheless, his views on the role of climate on the development of karst were more accurate than those of various climatic geomorphologists that succeeded him and who greatly exaggerated the role of climate.

It has been attributed to Cvijić that the term karst prevailed over Edouard Martel's proposed term "Le Causse". Another terminology usage indebted to Cvijić is that of doline, a term he introduced, and that overlaps with that of sinkhole. Eventually, Cvijić emerged as the "father of karst geomorphology".

Human geography
Concurrently, he developed an interest in the life of people living in the Balkans. His travels took him to Macedonia and its lakes, the coastlines of Albania and Greece, to Lake Skadar and Lake Pamvotida. In 1902 he published his first work on human geography. In 1906 he published his signature monograph Basics of Geography and Geology of Macedonia and Old Serbia, which would become a staple reference for future researchers.

In 1896 Cvijić published "Instructions for studying villages in Serbia and other Serbian lands", which was later revised to apply to other Balkan regions.

Cvijić's thesis on the effects of climate and geography on human life is the basis of his approach to human geography, where he emphasizes that humankind is ecologically sensitive. When classifying anthropological types Cvijić considered social structure (work, endogamy, exogamy and migration) the primary factor, stressing the effects of the physical environment on a population's psyche. His basic concepts are presented in the 1902 Balkan-peninsula paper, "Human-geography problems". Influenced by Cvijić's paper, Milorad Dragić (a former student) elaborated on psychological anthropological research in his 1911 paper "Instructions for studying settlements and psychological characteristics" (after which Cvijić expanded his thesis on "The Balkan peninsula and South Slavic lands" in Serbian).

Cvijić introduced the term 'metanastasic movements', which referred to slow, gradual, a place-to-place human movement. He and his students took wide exploration of this phenomenon, eventually establishing the Serbian ethnological-historic school which gathered ethnological material from all around the Balkan peninsula and encompassed exploration of written sources.

The sparking of interest in human-geographical and ethnographical research was one of the greatest achievements of Cvijić's scientific career. His efforts and research helped him gather crucial data, which he used during negotiations on the state borders of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia after World War I.

Influence on Yugoslav state borders
After the conclusion of World War I, Cvijić was invited to the Paris Peace Conference as an expert on border delineation. Using ethnographic charts, Cvijić demonstrated the geographical distribution of the various Balkan peoples which helped determine the borders of a new country: the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It was agreed that the new country should incorporate Banat, Bačka, Baranya and Carniola as well as the Bled triangle (Bled, Bohinj and Triglav).

Teaching
After Cvijić's return from Vienna in March 1893 he became a professor in the Faculty of Philosophy of the Velika Skola in Belgrade where he taught geography. He was tenured and taught there until 1927.

Cvijić played an active role in reforming the school, helping found an ethnography department whose first professor was his oldest student and assistant, Jovan Erdeljanović (followed by Tihomir Đorđević); Cvijić remained in the geography department. He was influential in establishing five new faculties: medicine, agriculture and theology in Belgrade, philosophy in Skopje and the Subotica Law School. From 1906 to 1907 he was rector of Belgrade University and again from 1919.

In 1915 he lectured about the Balkans at Sorbonne University in Paris.

Critique of education
Cvijić thought that the grammar-school education of that era should last seven years, instead of eight, and felt that young men should be included early in adult life and independent work.

"Grammar school forms the intelligence and character perhaps even deeper and stronger than university; it influences the spirit and moral value of future intellectuals. Besides university, the moral and spiritual situation and its development depend on the type of grammar school, what will its civilization get, and in the end, will it slow or interfere with the development of great personalities, which show the properties of one nation."

He published detailed instructions for conducting field research into populations and habitats to help his colleagues, including the 1907 article "On scientific research and our University".

Territorial expansion
Cvijić' s scientific impartiality has been criticized for his support of Serbia's political advancement; his geographic work was used to scientifically justify politics of territorial expansion and further territorial claims.

"... For economic independence, Serbia must acquire access to the Adriatic Sea and one part of the Albanian coastline: by occupation of the territory or by acquiring economic and transportation rights to this region. This, therefore, implies occupying an ethnographically foreign territory, but one that must be occupied due to particularly important economic interests and vital needs."

According to Cvijić, Bulgarians were "different from the other South Slavs in their ethnic composition". He described as Slav three ethnographic groups previously considered Bulgarians: the Macedonian Slavs, the Shopi and the Torlaks. Cvijić excluded the region around Sofia (Bulgaria's capital) from the Bulgarian group, maintaining that the aforementioned groups were Slavic (and therefore Serbian). He believed that Serbia could govern a much larger area than the territory it held.

Legacy
"You should get used to constant thinking about a problem, work, profession until you find a solution. There are bright moments, especially bright nights, which are rare; where you can find an answer to a question or come up with a research plan. That time of spiritual lucidity and creativity should be put to use, and not thinking about rest according to that ordinary human, oriental laziness. That does not hurt the body, and if it does hurt, the body exists in order to be spent properly."

With a group of geographers and biologists, Cvijić founded the Serbian Geographic Society in Belgrade in 1910 and was its president until his death. In 1912 he began a magazine, the Serbian Geographic Society Herald, which is still published. Cvijić conducted weekly seminars for science students, which were also attended by teachers from Belgrade grammar schools. He founded the Faculty of Philosophy's Geographical Institute in 1923 (the first such organization in the Balkans), managing it until his death.

In 1947, the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts founded the Jovan Cvijić Geographical Institute in Belgrade. On 21–22 November 2002, the Academy hosted a meeting on "the socio-political work of Jovan Cvijić".

The Jovan Cvijić's house is housed in his family's house in Belgrade at 5 Jelena Ćetković Street. Since 1996, the house (built in 1905) has been declared a cultural monument by the state and was decorated by Dragutin Inkiostri Medenjak; Cvijić favored a decorative style based on Balkan folklore. The museum features manuscripts, letters, notes, books, paintings, geographical charts, atlases and personal items, and occasional lectures are presented.

In Serbia, a number of schools and streets are named after Cvijić and he is still considered the most important Serbian geographer. His work has been continued by his students, six of whom later became members of the Serbian Academy (including Pavle Vujević, Borivoje Z. Milojević and Milisav Lutovac). The scientist's life and work were researched by geographer Milorad Vasović for his 454-page book, Jovan Cvijić: Scientist, Public Worker, Statesman (1994).

Academic honors
Cvijić received a number of awards. He belonged to 30 scientific societies (academies, geographical and natural societies), receiving ten decorations. Cvijić received a gold medal for his work in 1924 from the New York Geographical Society and medals from England and France. Two varieties of saffron were named after him.

Cvijić was awarded:
 * 1917: Medal of Geographical society of Paris
 * 1918: Medal of the Charles University in Prague
 * 1920: Patron's Medal of the Royal Geographical Society
 * 1924: Cullum Geographical Medal
 * 1924: Medal of the Paris-Sorbonne University
 * 1924: Gold medal of the American geographical society, New York

Cvijić was named:
 * Honorary doctor, University of Paris
 * Honorary doctor, Charles University in Prague
 * Member of the Serbian Royal Academy
 * Member of the Czech Academy
 * Member of the Academy in Brussels
 * Corresponding Member of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts, Zagreb
 * Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of Italy
 * Corresponding Member of the Parmasus Science Association, Athens
 * Corresponding Member of the Russian Geographical Society, Saint Petersburg
 * Corresponding Member of geographical societies in Budapest, Vienna, Geneva, Warsaw, Bucharest, Munich, Berlin, Amsterdam and London
 * Honorary president of the Congress of Geographers and Ethnologists, Prague (1922)
 * President of the Serbian Royal Academy from 12 April 1921 until his death in 1927
 * Rector of the University of Belgrade (twice)

Works
In more than 30 years of scientific study, Cvijić published many works. One of the best-known is The Balkan Peninsula. Other publications include:
 * Ka poznavanju krša istočne Srbije, 1889.
 * Prekonoška pećina, 1891.
 * Geografska ispitivanja u oblasti Kučaja, 1893.
 * Das Karstphänomen, Geographiche Abhandlungen, Wien, 1893.
 * Karst, geografska monografija, Belgrade 1895.
 * Pećine i podzemna hidrografija u istočnoj Srbiji, 1895.
 * Izvori, tresave i vodopadi u istočnoj Srbiji, 1896.
 * Tragovi starih glečera na Rili, 1897.
 * Glacijalne i morfološke studije o planinama Bosne, Hercegovine i Crne Gore, 1899.
 * Karsna polja zapadne Bosne i Hercegovine, 1900.
 * Struktura i podela planina Balkanskog poluostrva, 1902.
 * Antropogeografski problemi Balkanskog poluostrva, 1902.
 * Novi rezultati o glacijalnoj eposi Balkanskog poluostrva, 1903.
 * Balkanska, alpijska i karpatska glacijacija, 1903.
 * Nekolika posmatranja o etnografiji makedonskih Slovena, 1906.
 * Osnove za geografiju i geologiju Makedonije i Stare Srbije, 1, 1906; 2, 1906; 3, 1911.
 * Grundlinien der Geographie und Geologie von Mazedonien und Alt-Serbien. Nebst Beobachtungen in Thrazien, Thessalien, Epirus und *Nordalbanien, 1908.
 * Jezerska plastika Šumadije, 1909.
 * L'anexion de la Bosnie et la question Serbe, Paris, 1909.
 * Dinarski Srbi, 1912.
 * Izlazak Srbije na Jadransko More, 1912.
 * Raspored Balkanskih naroda, 1913.
 * Ledeno doba u Prokletijama i okolnim planinama, 1913.
 * Jedinstvo i psihički tipovi dinarskih južnih Slavena, 1914.
 * Mouvements metanastasiques dans la Peninsule Balkanique, La Monde Slave, 1917.
 * Hydrographie souterraine et évolution morphologique du Karst, 1918.
 * La Peninsule Balkanique, Geographie Humaine, 1918.
 * Etnogeografske karte jugoslovenskih zemalja, 1918.
 * Severna granica južnih Slavena (La frontiere septentrionale des Jugoslaves), 1919.
 * Đerdapske terase, 1922.
 * Balkansko poluostrvo i južnoslovenske zemlje, 1922.
 * Metanastazička kretanja, njihov uzrok i posledice, 1922.
 * Geomorfologija I-II, 1924. and 1926.
 * Karst i čovek, 1925.
 * Karst i srpske narodne pripovetke, 1925.
 * Seobe i etnički procesi u našem narodu, 1927.
 * Balkansko poluostrvo i južnoslavenske zemlje, 1931.
 * Balkansko poluostrvo i južnoslavenske zemlje, 1931.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jovan Cvijić


text:
Standard Schnauzer

The Schnauzer or Mittelschnauzer is a German breed of dog in the Pinscher and Schnauzer group. It is characterised by an abundant bristly beard and whiskers, usually lighter than the coat. It is one of three Schnauzer breeds, the others being the Giant Schnauzer or Riesenschnauzer, and the Miniature Schnauzer or Zwergschnauzer. In Germany it is an endangered breed, and is listed in category III of the Rote Liste of the Gesellschaft zur Erhaltung alter und gefährdeter Haustierrassen.

Its development as a breed dates from the 1880s, in southern Germany. It is a robust and squarely-built dog of medium size, of working or utility type; the coat may be salt-and-pepper or black. A dog of this type was exhibited in Hanover in 1879; another was "Best in Show" at the Westminster Kennel Club in the United States in 1997.

Breed name
The name of the breed derives from the German word schnauz, meaning 'snout', but how it came to be applied to the breed is unknown. The word schnauzer appears in the Bilder und Sagen aus der Schweiz of Jeremias Gotthelf, published in 1842. 'Schnauz' was a common name for a dog – several dogs with this name were shown in Elberfeld in 1880. At the third international dog show of the Verein zur Veredelung der Hunderassen in Hanover in 1879, a dog named 'Schnautzer' took first place in the Rauche Pinscher or Wire-haired Pinscher class. The name of the breed was officially changed from Rauhaarige Pinscher to Schnauzer with the sixth edition of the stud-book in 1917.

History
The Schnauzer originated in southern Germany; it shares a common history with the German Pinscher. Dogs of this type, both rough-haired and smooth-haired, were traditionally kept as carriage dogs or as stable dogs, and so were sometimes known as Stallpinscher; they were capable ratters. Both types were known as Deutscher Pinscher, and came from the same lineage; rough-haired and smooth-haired puppies could occur in the same litter. The rough-haired type, which would later become the Schnauzer, was also known as the Rattler.

In 1880 the Pinscher was recorded in the Deutschen Hundestammbuch of the Verein zur Veredelung der Hunderassen, and the first breed standard was drawn up. Various colours were described for the rough-haired type, including iron-grey, silver-grey, grey-yellow, corn-yellow and rust-yellow. In 1895 Ludwig Beckmann (painter) described five varieties of Pinscher – the rough- and smooth-haired Pinscher, the rough- and smooth-haired Miniature Pinscher, and the Affenpinscher. Also in 1895, a breed society, the Pinscherklub, was established for both types, both rough- and smooth-haired. Another society, the Schnauzerklub München, was formed in Munich in 1907 by breeders of the Mittelschnauzer. In 1917, with the sixth edition of the stud-book, the name of the rough-haired breed was officially changed from Rauhaarige Pinscher to Schnauzer. In 1918 the Pinscherklub and the Schnauzerklub München merged to form the Pinscher-Schnauzer-Verband, which in 1921 changed its name to the present Pinscher-Schnauzer-Klub 1895 e.V.

In the interwar period the pepper-and-salt Schnauzer flourished, while the black was less often seen; after the end of the Second World War, the reverse was true. The Schnauzer was definitively accepted by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale in 1955. In the fifteen-year period from 2007 to 2021, annual registrations in Germany varied between $370$ and $582$, with an annual average of $464$.

Since 2014 the pepper-and-salt Schnauzer has been on the Rote Liste of the Gesellschaft zur Erhaltung alter und gefährdeter Haustierrassen. In 2022 its conservation status was listed as gefährdet, 'endangered', the third-highest category of endangerment of the organisation. In 2018 a total of 201 pepper-and-salt puppies were whelped in 26 litters.

A few Schnauzers were exported to the United States before the outbreak of the First World War. In 1925 the Wire-Haired Pinscher Club of America was started, covering both standard-sized and miniature Schnauzers; in 1933 it was divided into two separate clubs, one of them the Standard Schnauzer Club of America.

Characteristics
The Schnauzer is a robust and squarely-built dog of medium size, of working or utility type. The coat is hard, wiry and dense, with a thick soft under-coat. It may be salt-and-pepper or black; in the salt-and-pepper, the grey may vary from pale silver-grey to dark iron-grey. Salt-and-pepper dogs have a black mask. The ears are set high and drooping; the eyes are dark.

Health
A 2024 UK study found a life expectancy of 13 years for the breed compared to an average of 12.7 for purebreeds and 12 for crossbreeds.

title: Standard Schnauzer


text:
American Specialty Cars

American Specialty Cars (commonly known as ASC or American Sunroof Company) was an automobile supplier of highly engineered and designed roof systems, body systems and other specialty-vehicle systems for the world’s automakers. The company was headquartered in Warren, Michigan, in the United States and was one of several coach convertible builders. ASC sold assets to its Creative Services division in late 2016 to Roush Industries. In late June 2017, ASC effectively ceased operations, laying off all staff and had tooling and production equipment removed from the manufacturing plant in Lexington, Kentucky.

Founding
The company was founded by Heinz Prechter in Los Angeles, California as the American Sunroof Company in 1965. The company soon expanded its operations into Detroit by 1967. The company first supplied OEM services for the Ford Motor Company's 1968 Mercury Cougar XR-7.

Innovations
In the industry, ASC became well known for converting standard coupe automobiles into convertibles on an OEM basis. The company also engineers convertible tops for automakers to build themselves. Other original-equipment firsts for ASC include the mobile video system (on the Chevrolet Venture) and the powered sunroof.

Currently
The company changed its name from American Sunroof Company, in 2004, to highlight its new corporate focus on being a complete specialty-vehicle development partner for the world’s automakers.

All employees were terminated June 27, 2017 and ASC ceased operations. Major manufacturing operations were sourced to other suppliers, mainly Toyota and FCA, effectively shutting down production operations.

Recent ASC concepts

 * ASC Jeep JL Bag Components
 * ASC Toyota Tacoma Tonneau
 * ASC RAM Tonneau
 * ASC / MV-1 Ramp Systems
 * ASC / Jeep Sky Slider
 * ASC Cosmos
 * ASC TriLite
 * ASC Diamondback
 * ASC-Suzuki Wave (convertible concept car based on the third generation Suzuki Vitara)

Past ASC products

 * Ford Saleen Mustang "Sky Vu" (complete glass convertible conversion)
 * ASC McLaren Capri (coupe and two-seat convertible)
 * ASC McLaren Mustang two-seater
 * Ford EXP
 * BMW Z3 (OEM Convertible "Topstack" supplier to BMW SC plant
 * BMW Z4 (OEM convertible hardware with Edscha Cabrio-Verdecksysteme)
 * Buick GNX (high-performance turbocharger)
 * Buick Reatta (convertible conversion)
 * Chevrolet Camaro (convertible conversion)
 * Chevrolet Corvette (convertible and removable hardtop)
 * Chevrolet Cavalier (convertible conversion)
 * Chevrolet SSR (convertible hardtop engineering)
 * Chrysler 300C Helios (prototype convertible conversion)
 * Chrysler Cordoba LS (simulated convertible conversion)
 * Chrysler Executive
 * Dodge Dakota (convertible conversion)
 * Dodge Mirada CMX (simulated convertible conversion)
 * Dodge Shadow (convertible conversion)
 * Infiniti M (convertible conversion)
 * Lincoln Continental Mark III (hardtop coupe metal sunroof addition)
 * Mercury Cougar XR7-G (hardtop coupe metal sunroof addition)
 * Mercury Motorsport Capri - body modifications
 * Mitsubishi 3000GT Spyder (convertible conversion)
 * Mitsubishi Eclipse Spyder (convertible conversion)
 * Nissan 240SX (convertible conversion)
 * Nissan 300ZX (Z32) (convertible conversion )
 * Pontiac Firebird (convertible and WS6 conversion)
 * Pontiac Grand Am SC/T (external modifications)
 * Pontiac Grand Prix Turbo Grand Prix (high-performance turbocharger, body kit)
 * Pontiac Sunbird (convertible conversion)
 * Pontiac Sunfire (convertible conversion)
 * Porsche 944 Convertible (convertible conversion)
 * Porsche 968 Convertible (convertible conversion)
 * Saab 900 (convertible prototype)
 * Subaru XT (convertible prototype)
 * Rover 800 coupe convertible prototype 1989-1990
 * Toyota Camry Solara Convertible (convertible conversion)
 * Toyota Celica (convertible conversion)
 * Toyota Paseo (convertible conversion)
 * Victress Car Company (C2 Coupe)

title: American Specialty Cars


text:
Toyota Camry Solara

The Toyota Camry Solara, popularly known as the Toyota Solara, is a mid-size coupé/convertible built by Toyota. The Camry Solara is mechanically based on the Toyota Camry and effectively replaced the discontinued Camry Coupé (XV10); however, in contrast with its predecessor's conservative design, the Camry Solara was designed with a greater emphasis on sportiness, with more rakish styling, and uprated suspension and engine tuning intended to provide a sportier feel. The coupe was launched in late 1998 for model year 1999. In 2000, the convertible was introduced, effectively replacing the Celica convertible in Toyota's North American lineup.

The second-generation Camry Solara debuted in 2003 for model year 2004, initially offered as a coupe; the second-generation convertible was introduced in the spring of 2004 as a 2005 model. Coupe production ended in mid-2008. Despite official statements that the convertible might be sold until 2010 if demand was sufficient, production was suspended in December 2008 and never resumed.

First generation (XV20; 1998–2003)
The Solara was created to appeal to a demographic of more sport-minded drivers than those who prefer the Toyota Camry sedan, while still needing "room and comfort." The Camry Solara thus aspired to blend "sporty" looks and style with spacious practicality. Prior to the production of the Camry Solara, the 2-door version of the Toyota Camry was simply known as the Camry Coupe. It was added to the third generation Camry lineup in 1993 for model year 1994 to compete with the Honda Accord and other cars in its class. However, due to it never being nearly as popular as the 4-door sedan of the Camry, the Camry Coupe was dropped in 1996 when the sedan was redesigned for model year 1997. A distinct successor went into development in the mid-1990s, resulting a winning design entry in 1995 from Warren J. Crain of Calty Design and Research. After design approval, production development ran from 1995 to the first half of 1998. Patents were filed at the Japan Patent Office on January 18, 1996, under 1020408 and November 14, 1996, at the United States Patent Office USPTO under D407350.

The first generation Camry Solara went on sale in the third quarter of 1998 as a 1999 model to replace the Camry Coupe. It was based on the mechanical platform of the previous generation XV10 Toyota Camry and was built at the TMMC facilities in Cambridge, Ontario, Canada. This model featured a 2.2-liter four-cylinder engine with 136 hp and 150 lbft of torque at 4,400 rpm, and a 3.0-liter V6 engine with 200 hp at 5,200 rpm, and 214 lbft of torque at 4,400 rpm. The engines are the same as the ones used in the fourth generation Camry, but slightly revamped to have a small gain in power (two and six horsepower, respectively). The V6 claimed a 0-to-60 mph (97 km/h) time of 7.1 seconds.

Toyota offered dealer-installed performance upgrades for the first-generation Solara under the Toyota Racing Development (TRD) banner. The upgrades included stiffer shock absorbers and anti-roll bars, a less restrictive muffler, a "tasteful" body kit, larger wheels with high-performance tires, and a supercharger that increased the power of the V6 engine by a claimed 62 hp. The parts were covered under a TRD warranty and provided a substantial increase in performance; Motor Trend found that the 0-to-60 mph acceleration time of the V6 Solara decreased to 5.6 seconds with the full TRD package.

The Toyota Camry Solara is also the first vehicle in the Toyota lineup, after their 1997 partnership agreement, to feature a JBL premium stereo option. All models came with a single-slot in-dash CD player and cassette deck from JBL. The SE models come standard with 15-inch steel wheels and hubcaps, upgradable to 15-inch alloy wheels. The Sports Package also adds a retuned suspension, perforated leather-wrapped steering wheel, perforated eight-way power-adjustable leather seats, an upgrade to 16-inch alloy wheels, retuned steering, minor trim changes and a rear lip spoiler.

In 2000, the SE and SLE convertibles were added to the lineup; these cars were built as semi-finished coupes, shipped to an American Sunroof Company (ASC) facility where the roofs were removed and convertible tops installed, and were then shipped back to Toyota for painting and final assembly. Claiming that the car's basic structure was designed for this treatment, Toyota made no suspension changes from the coupe. Toyota did strengthen the rocker sections by doubling them up, while adding steel bracing between the wheel wells, adding 171 lbs over the coupe's weight. Nonetheless, the car was considerably less rigid than the coupe.

Minor model update (2001–2003)

The Camry Solara was lightly facelifted in September 2001 for the 2002 model year, receiving changes to the grille pattern, taillights, headlights that now featured a 4-bulb system instead of 2, a chrome logo on the steering wheel (instead of an embossed pattern), and smaller fog lights. The trunk was now openable by remote and the wood trim changed from Oxford Burlwood to Mustard Wood. New packages and options were also offered and include heated leather seats, an Appearance Package that featured a three-spoke steering wheel, leather-wrapped shift knob, black pearl emblems, and a different center cap on the wheels.

Mechanically, the 2.2-liter four-cylinder engine was replaced with the same 2.4-liter four-cylinder engine offered on the redesigned 2002 Camry, the 2AZ-FE. This new engine was chosen because it featured the same gas mileage as the previous engine, except it offered more power and the addition of VVT-i, a technology that improved performance and reduced emissions. This new engine featured 157 hp at 5,600 rpm, and 162 lbft of torque at 4,000 rpm, up 22 hp from the previous model.

Second generation (XV30; 2003–2008)
The second generation of the Solara was completely redesigned (design approval in 2001; JPO patent number 1218292) and introduced to the public in August 2003 for the 2004 model year and featured a curvier body, with the option of adding XM radio and/or a navigation system. Based on the platform of the 2002 Camry sedan, the Gen 2 body is heavier than the Gen 1.5 body. The four-cylinder engine was carried over from the previous generation, while the optional V6 was a new 3.3 L unit rated at 225 net hp at 5,600 rpm (168 kW) and 240 lbft of torque at 3,600 rpm. The four-cylinder engine could be coupled to a five-speed manual or four-speed automatic transmission, while the V6 was offered only with a five-speed U151E automatic transmission. Both engines featured Toyota's VVT-i technology.

The Solara moved to Toyota Motor Manufacturing Kentucky for the second generation model. Production started in July 2003 for the coupe and February 2004 for the convertible. The convertible was offered only with the 3.3 liter V-6 and the 5-speed MMT automatic transmission. Rather than being adapted from the coupe like the first-generation car—which had been criticized for poor structural rigidity —Toyota claimed that the second-generation convertible was specifically designed and built as such, with a more rigid body structure for decreased levels of noise and vibration.

In late 2005 for the 2006 model year, the five-speed MMT automatic transmission replaced the four-speed automatic on four-cylinder models, and minor changes were made to the optional power driver's seat.

In June 2006, a restyled 2007 Solara was introduced, with new LED tail lights, a revised rear bumper, and a redesigned front fascia. Interior changes include Optitron gauges, blue backlighting in the rest of the car's controls, a new steering wheel design that is somewhat similar to the recently revised Camry SE's steering wheel, revised shifter, MP3 and WMA CD playback capability, external audio device (e.g. iPod, Zen, cassette) auxiliary port connectivity, Bluetooth connectivity, and voice-activated navigation on the SLE V6 models. Powertrains were unchanged, although new SAE-Certified testing methods resulted in the 4-cylinder model being rated at 155 hp with 158 lbft of torque, while the V6 was now rated at 210 hp and 220 lbft of torque.

The second-generation Solara sold below expectations, as the market for large sedan-based coupes and convertibles was shrinking, and the car had inherited unexciting handling from its Camry parent. Despite the structural redesign, the convertible was still criticized for soft handling that did not feel sporty, and for significant body shake. From model year 2005 to 2008, sales fell from roughly 50,000 units annually to just over 20,000. After the 2008 model year, the coupe was discontinued due to faltering sales, but the convertible, which accounted for the majority of units sold, continued to be produced.

Despite statements that the convertible might be sold until at least 2010, production was quietly suspended in December 2008, with sales continuing from inventory to gauge demand. In June 2009, Toyota announced that sales had not met expectations, and that production would not resume.

Use of model name
The name Solara was previously used on a motor vehicle by Peugeot, with their Talbot Solara, a notchback variant of the Chrysler Alpine hatchback developed by Chrysler Europe before their takeover by Peugeot in 1978. The rights to use the Solara name on a motor vehicle within Europe remain with Peugeot. From time to time, such names from the past appear on limited edition models. Mitsubishi Australia also used this name on the mid-spec versions of its Mitsubishi Magna sedan and station wagon.

title: Toyota Camry Solara


text:
1912 in rail transport

January events

 * January 1 – The classification and renumbering of all the rolling stock of the three constituent railways that formed South African Railways in 1910 is implemented.
 * January 3 – Canadian Pacific Railway leases the Dominion Atlantic Railway in Nova Scotia.
 * January 22 – Florida East Coast Railway opens the Key West Extension in Florida.

February events

 * February 1 – Stamford Brook station opens serving District Railway and London and South Western Railway trains.
 * February 7 – Official opening ceremonies are held for the Usambara Railway in German East Africa.
 * February 11 – Togura Station, in Chikuma, Nagano, Japan, opens.
 * February 27 – Pacific Great Eastern Railway (predecessor of the British Columbia Railway) is incorporated to build a line from Vancouver north to a connection with the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway at Prince George, British Columbia.

March events

 * March 17 – First section of Italian Libya Railways ( gauge) opens from Tripoli.

April events

 * April 15 – Metre gauge electrified section of Tramways de Nice et du Littoral opens from Menton to Sospel in the Alpes-Maritimes of France.

June events

 * June 1 – The first streetcars cross the new Lechmere Viaduct and run on the Causeway Street Elevated line in revenue service in Boston.
 * June 2 – Chicago, Lake Shore and South Bend Railroad, predecessor of the Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad, begins "one-car" passenger service directly to the Chicago Loop.

August events

 * August 1 – Jungfraubahn mountain rack railway in Switzerland completed by inauguration of the subterranean Jungfraujoch railway station, Europe's highest at 3450 m above sea level.

September events

 * September 5 – The Ashio Railway (Current Watarase Keikoku Line) in Gunma and Tochigi Prefectures in Japan is extended from Omama Station out to Kodo Station.
 * September 17 – The Ditton Junction rail crash near Widnes in England kills 15.

November events

 * November – The Royal Bavarian State Railways begins the process of standardising the railway electrification systems in German-speaking countries at 15 kV AC, 16.6 Hz.
 * November 11 – The Ashio Railway (Current Watarase Keikoku Line) in Gunma and Tochigi Prefectures in Japan is extended from Sori Station out to Kodo Station.
 * November 24 – The Pennsylvania Railroad’s premier Chicago to New York train is christened the Broad Way Limited (named for the railroad’s four-track main line, not the New York City Theater District).

December events

 * December 31 – The Ashio Railway (Current Watarase Keikoku Line) in Gunma and Tochigi Prefectures in Japan is extended from Sori Station to Ashio Station.

Unknown date events

 * First Э 0-10-0 steam locomotive introduced in Russia. This will become the world's largest class with around 14,000 built.
 * The world’s first diesel locomotive designed for main line use, built by Gesellschaft für Thermolokomotiven Diesel-Klose-Sulzer GmbH for the Prussian state railways, Germany, receives trials on the Winterthur–Romanshorn line in Switzerland prior to delivery to Berlin for more trials in September. The unit has direct mechanical transmission with a weight of 95 tonnes, power of 883 kW and a theoretical maximum speed of 100 km/h but will not prove to be a commercial success.
 * Berne gauge European standard loading gauge agreed at an international railway conference held and consequent convention signed in Bern, Switzerland.
 * Portland Company completes the last freight car commercially manufactured for Maine narrow gauge railroads.
 * Oliver Bury moves from the General Manager position at the Great Northern Railway in England to a directorship.

March births

 * March 14 – W. Graham Claytor, Jr., president of Amtrak 1982-1993 (died 1994).

June deaths

 * June 16 – Eli H. Janney, inventor of the knuckle coupler (born 1831).

July deaths

 * July 29 – William D. Washburn, first president of Soo Line Railroad 1883-1889, dies (b. 1931).

title: 1912 in rail transport


text:
Talk:Sedition Act of 1918

Unreliable source
I've traced this quote to this book, which appears to be a political polemic and certainly not a reliable source, and seems to violate NPOV. Unless someone objects I'm going to remove it. Neuralsim (talk) 04:09, 22 June 2020 (UTC)

"Most U.S. newspapers "showed no antipathy toward the act" and "far from opposing the measure, the leading papers seemed actually to lead the movement in behalf of its speedy enactment.""

Modern sedition
Is there a Federal law dealing with sedition today?
 * I believe Ollie North called, at one political convention, for Ice T (or was it Ice Cube? Whoever did that "Cop Killa" song) to be charged under federal sedition laws.  Either Ollie North was lying about the existence of sedition laws, or ol' Ollie's audience probably just giggled at the irony of an actual treason-committed such as Ollie North calling for such a thing against someone who was merely an untalented rap artist, since it obviously never took place anyway. --I am not good at running 05:28, 1 May 2005 (UTC)

 * No I don't think there are sedition laws. There are libel and slander laws, but those are a bit different. I'm no lawyer but I think theoretically you could be charged for libel against the US government just as you can against any other entity (a person or corporation for example.) But I doubt such a charge would go over well. I could be wrong, there may be some provision making the US government a fair target for libel and slander--I doubt it though. Its probably just not something anyone is willing to prosecute.  Brentt 01:48, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

if there was i belive it would be unconstitutional. guest —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.215.195.151 (talk) 01:46, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

 * While the Sedition Act was formally repealed, as the article itself indicates, it was merely an extension to the already existing & in fact still effective Espionage Act. It can thus be said that while the "Sedition Act" is not dealing with it today, there are still laws in effect that deal with "sedition".178.198.29.193 (talk) 11:37, 22 December 2022 (UTC)

POV
How does one go about challenging the neutrality of an article here?

The claim that the act was "in conflict with the US Constitution's First Amendment" is an example of editorializing. That the majority of the Founding Fathers themselves (who wrote the Constitution) supported such an act in their day (Alien and Sedition Act of 1798 anyone?) needs to be taken into consideration when talking about these matters -as does the US Supreme Court upholding the validity of the act in 1919. Nonetheless, the article should be amended to say that the act can "arguably be said to conflict with the US Constitution's First Amendment" because that argument can be made as can the converse argument. The goal here is POV neutrality right? Ishawnm (talk) 03:39, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

 * I would challenge the notion that the majority of founding fathers supported sedition acts - One would do well to recall that the Alien and Sedition Acts led to the downfall of both Adams and his party. Nwlaw63 (talk) 22:54, 18 November 2008 (UTC)

 * You can edit the text of biased articles yourself. As it happens, I've just rewritten the portion of this article you pointed out, but feel free to make further revisions.  You can also put the  tag at the top of the article and leave a note on the talk page, if you don't know what to change the text to, or want to get others' opinions. -- Beland 05:48, 3 December 2007 (UTC)

I think the neutrality challange can be removed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.85.58.234 (talk) 13:55, 16 May 2008 (UTC)

Anarchist Act
I have seen this in other places quoted as the Anarchist Act of 1918. I would like that included on the main page, but can't find a reputable source at the moment. Butterflyvertigo 17:00, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

This is not the Anarchist Act. That's very casual language. There is the Anarchist Exclusion Act of 1903, which the Immigration Act of 1918 amended to greatly enlarge the definition of "anarchist." The Immigration Act of 1918 does not yet have an entry on Wikipedia. Its expansion of the definition of "anarchist" is described here Anarchist_Exclusion_Act. Hope that helps.

Bmclaughlin9 (talk) 19:39, 11 February 2010 (UTC)

Copying to Wikisource
Is this the complete text of the act? If it is not, it should not be moved to Wikisource. --Benn Newman 17:23, 21 December 2006 (UTC)

 * True, but it's also too long to be in this article. I say it should be removed or heavily cropped down.  If someone feels like putting the full text up at Wikisource, or providing an external link with the full text, then that's another matter.  Silverhelm 21:58, 21 December 2006 (UTC).

 * I would heavily agree. A long strand of text such as this seems to be primarily a target for vandals. Sim (talk) 03:56, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

Done. Int21h (talk) 11:54, 5 September 2011 (UTC)

 * But you really need not sprinkle citations throughout the summary unless you're citing something that people are arguing about. The summary can be citation-free as long as it really only summarizes the body of the article and the citations appear below at the appropriate point in the text. That makes the summary easier to read and avoids multiple citations to the same thing. Most summaries keep citations to an absolute minimum. Bmclaughlin9 (talk) 18:18, 5 September 2011 (UTC)

which "experts"
claimed it was against the bill of rights?

The Supreme Court upheld it RomanYankee(24.75.194.50 17:47, 10 April 2007 (UTC))

Typo: bottom of the fourth paragraph, it says' "and the war became illegal under this law." coming from someone who is not already familiar with this Act and its consequences, I think this sentence is unclear. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.194.140.163 (talk) 02:21, 1 March 2009 (UTC)

The fact that this was repealed in 1921 needs to be included.

66.245.228.81 22:57, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

Done.

Bmclaughlin9 (talk) 05:13, 12 February 2010 (UTC)

H.R. 1955: Violent Radicalization and Homegrown Terrorism Prevention Act of 2007
Might want to provide a brief discussion of this legislation which is currently pending before the U.S. Senate (as of November, 2007). It is at least thematically related to the Sedition Act of 1918 as well as the original Sedition Act of 1798 and could make for an interesting paragraph pertaining to the evolution of such thought in U.S. law. Regards, -- Hadrian Swall 17:36, 14 November 2007 (UTC) Hadrian swall

added as See also

Bmclaughlin9 (talk) 05:13, 12 February 2010 (UTC)

Debs
Debs was convicted under the espionage act, not the sedition act. --69.143.66.124 (talk) 18:35, 18 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Fixed. Nishkid64 (talk) 19:03, 18 February 2008 (UTC)

Influenza
I removed this sentence:

 * One historian has claimed claimed that the reason there is so little information available today about the 1918 influenza pandemic is that the newspapers feared reporting about it might have lowered the morale of the civilians supporting the war effort and the morale of the troops fighting the war. The media claimed, "There is no need to worry. There is no epidemic."

Barry does not make that claim. He mentions the Sedition Act once when setting the scene (pp. 123-4) for the epidemic. When he discusses newspaper coverage (pp. 335-41, 460-1) he describes how public officials and newspapers minimized the influenza's effects in order to keep the public calm and avoid panic. The quote -- "There is no need to worry. There is no epidemic." -- is a typical newspaper's attitude. He makes no connection to the Sedition Act or even to the war effort.

One interesting detail: he has examples of some statements where people suggest that the influenza in the work of the Germans. (p. 343)

Bmclaughlin9 (talk) 21:59, 14 February 2010 (UTC)

Post 9/11
I recall a lot of Bush supporters passing around the Sedition Act and e-mailing it to people who spoke out agaisnt Bush's policies on the Internet, conveniently ignoring that the act was repealed. I have some messages still in my e-mail about it, but those are not acceptable sources for Wikipedia. Do we have some documentation of this phenomenon? --Scottandrewhutchins (talk) 04:40, 13 July 2010 (UTC)

Eugene V. Debs
I have opened a discussion at Talk:Eugene V. Debs concerning the information about Eugene V. Debs in this article. Please join the discussion there. -- GB fan 19:18, 8 February 2016 (UTC)

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Rhyming dictionary

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title: Rhyming dictionary