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Saqaliba

Saqaliba (صقالبة, singular صقلبي) is a term used in medieval Arabic sources to refer to Slavs, and other peoples of Central, Southern, and Eastern Europe. The term originates from the Middle Greek slavos/sklavenos (Slav), which in Hispano-Arabic came to designate first Slavic slaves and then, similarly to the semantic development of the term in other West-European languages, foreign slaves in general.

The word was often used to refer specifically to Slavic slaves, but it could also refer more broadly to Central, Southern, and Eastern Europeans traded by the Arab traders, as well as all European slaves in some Muslim regions like Spain and Portugal including those abducted from raids on Christian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. According to Sudár and B. Szabó, the word Saqaliba means 'forest dweller', regardless of ethnicity.

There were several major routes for the trading of Slavic slaves into the Arab world: through Central Asia (Mongols, Tatars, Khazars, etc.) for the East Slavs; through the Balkans for the South Slavs; through Central and Western Europe for the West Slavs and to al-Andalus. The Volga trade route and other European routes, according to Ibrahim ibn Jakub (10th century), were serviced by Radanite Jewish merchants. (Compare Crimean–Nogai raids into East Slavic lands.) Theophanes mentions that the Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya I settled a whole army of 5,000 Slavic mercenaries in Syria in the 660s. After the battle of Sebastopolis in 692, Neboulos, archon of the Slavic corps in the Byzantine army, and 30,000 of his men were settled by the Umayyads in the region of Syria.

In the Arab world, the Saqaliba served or were forced to serve in a multitude of ways: as servants, harem concubines, eunuchs, craftsmen, mercenaries, slave soldiers, and as Caliph's guards. In Iberia, Morocco, Damascus and Sicily, their military role may be compared with that of mamluks in the Ottoman Empire. In al-Andalus, Slavic eunuchs were so popular and widely distributed that they became synonymous with the term Saqāliba, though not all Saqaliba were eunuchs. Some Saqāliba became rulers of taifas (principalities) in Iberia after the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba in 1031. For example, Mujāhid al-ʿĀmirī organized the Saqaliba in Dénia to rebel, seize control of the city, and establish the Taifa of Dénia (1010–1227), which extended its reach as far as the island of Majorca.

Saqaliba slave trade
The Volga trade route was established by the Varangians (Vikings) who settled in Northwestern Russia in the early 9th century. About 10 km south of the Volkhov River entry into Lake Ladoga, they established a settlement called Ladoga (Old Norse: Aldeigjuborg). It connected Northern Europe and Northwestern Russia with the Caspian Sea, via the Volga River. The Rus used this route to trade with Muslim countries on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, sometimes penetrating as far as Baghdad. The route functioned concurrently with the Dnieper trade route, better known as the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks, and lost its importance in the 11th century.

Saqaliba originally was used to denote Slavic people, however later it came to denote all European slaves in some Muslim regions like Spain including those abducted from raids on Christian kingdoms of Spain. The Franks started buying slaves from the Slavs and Avar Khaganate while Muslims also came across slaves in the form of mercenaries serving the Byzantine Empire and settlers in addition to among the Khazars. Most Slavic slaves were imported to the Muslim world through the border between Christian and Islamic kingdoms where castration centres were also located instead of the direct route. From there they were sent into Islamic Spain and other Muslim-ruled regions especially North Africa. The Saqaliba gained popularity in Umayyad Spain especially as warriors. After the collapse of the Umayyads, they also came to rule over many of the taifas. With the conversion of Eastern Europe, the trade declined and there isn't much textual information on Saqaliba after 11th century.

Central Europe was the most favoured destination for importation of slaves alongside Central Asia and Bilad as-Sudan, though slaves from Northwestern Europe were also valued. This slave trade was controlled mostly by European slave traders. France and Venice were the routes used to send Slavic slaves to Muslim lands and Prague served as a major centre for castration of Slavic captives. The Emirate of Bari also served as an important port for this trade. Due to the Byzantine Empire and Venice blocking Arab merchants from European ports, they later started importing in slave from the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea.

The Saqaliba were also imported as eunuchs and concubines to Muslim states. The slavery of eunuchs in the Muslim world however was expensive and they thus were given as gifts by rulers. The Saqaliba eunuchs were prominent at the court of Aghlabids and later Fatimids who imported them from Spain and Portugal. The Fatimids also used other Saqaliba slaves for military purposes.

Central Asian route
Slavery in the Muslim world provided a great market for the slaves captured by the Vikings in Europe. Islamic law banned Muslims from enslaving other Muslims, and there was a big market for non-Muslim slaves on Islamic territory, where European slaves were referred to as saqaliba; these slaves were likely both Pagan Slavic, Finnic and Baltic Eastern Europeans as well as Christian Western Europeans.

People taken captive during the Viking raids in Europe could be sold to Moorish Spain via the Dublin slave trade or transported to Hedeby or Brännö in Scandinavia and from there via the Volga trade route to present day Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver dirham and silk, which have been found in Birka, Wollin and Dublin; initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed via the Khazar Kaghanate, but from the early 10th-century onward it went via via Volga Bulgaria and from there by caravan to Khwarazm, to the Samanid slave market in Central Asia and finally via Iran to the Abbasid Caliphate. This was one of the major routes of the Viking slave trade, alongside the Black Sea slave trade.

The slave trade between the Vikings and the Muslims in Central Asia are known to have functioned from at least between 786 and 1009, as big quantities of silver coins from the Samanid Empire has been found in Scandinavia from these years, and people taken captive by the Vikings during their raids in Western Europe were likely sold in Islamic Central Asia, a slave trade which was so lucrative that it may have contributed to the Viking raids in Western Europe, which was used by the Vikings as a slave supply source for their slave trade with the Muslim world.

Balkan slave trade
The Balkan slave trade went by route from the Balkans via Venetian slave traders across the Adriatic and the Aegean Seas to the Islamic Middle East, from the 7th-century until the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans in the 15th-century.

Until the 6th- and 7th-century, the Balkans belonged to the Byzantine Empire, but was split by invasions of the Avars, Slavic tribes and other peoples. The new peoples populating the Balkans did not initially create any centralized state, which created a situation of permanent political instability on the Balkans. The various tribes conducted warfare against each other and took war captives. Due to the lack of a centralized state to negotiate for ransom, a habit formed in which war captives from the tribal wars on the Balkans were often sold to merchants from the Republic of Venice at the Adriatic coast. This developed in to a major slave trade in which Venetians bought captives from the Balkans whom they sold to the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic Middle East, which contributed to the growth of Venice as a major commercial empire by the 11th-century.

The slaves bought by the Venetians at the Adriatic coast were transported by the Venetians to the slave market at the Aegean Islands were the majority continued to Egypt.

Prague slave trade
In Western Europe, a major slave trade route went from Prague in Central Europe via France to Moorish Al-Andalus, which was both a destination for the slaves as well as center of slave trade to the rest of the Muslim world in the Middle East. Prague in the Duchy of Bohemia, which was a recently Christianized state in the early 10th-century, became a major center of the European slave trade in between the 9th- and the 11th-century. The revenue from the Prague slave trade has been named as one of the economic foundations of the Bohemian state, financing the armies necessary to form a centralized state, which was not uncommon for the new Christian state in Eastern Europe.

The Duchy of Bohemia was a state in a religious border zone, bordering to Pagan Slavic lands to the North, East and South East. In the Middle ages, religion was the determining factor on who was considered a legitimate target for enslavement. Christians prohibited Christians from enslaving other Christians, and Muslims prohibited Muslims from enslaving other Muslims; however, both approved of the enslavement of Pagans, who thereby became a lucrative target for slave traders. In the 9th and 10th-century, the Slavs in Eastern Europe were still adherents of the Slavic religion, making them Pagans to the Christians and infidels to the Muslims and considered as legitimate targets for enslavement by both. Bohemia, being a religious border state close to Pagan lands, were thus in an ideal position to engage in slave trade with both Christians and Muslims, having access to a close supply of Pagan captives. The slaves were acquired through slave raids toward the Pagan Slavic lands North of Prague.

The Pagan Slavic tribes of Central and Eastern Europe were targeted for slavery by several actors in the frequent military expeditions and raids alongside their lands. During the military campaigns of Charlemagne and his successor in the 9th-century, Pagan Slavs were captured and sold by the Christian Franks along the Danube-Elbe rivers, and by the mid 10th-century, Prague had become a big center of the slave trade in Slavic Pagans to al-Andalus via France.

Prague was known in all Europe as a major slave trade center. The armies of the Dukes of Bohemia captured Pagan Slavs from the East in expeditions to the lands later known as Poland to supply the slave market, which brought considerable profit to the Dukes. Several sources from the 10th-century mentioned how the Dukes were involved in supplying the Prague slave market and that the slaves normally came from lands corresponding to what later corresponded to Southern Poland and Western Ukraine.

The slaves sold by the Vikings via the Eastern route could be Christian Western Europeans, but the slaves provided by the Vikings to the slave route of Prague-Magdeburg-Verdun were Pagan Slavs, who in contrast to Christians were legitimate for other Christians to enslave and sell as slaves to Muslims; according to Liutprand of Cremona, these slaves were trafficked to slavery in al-Andalus via Verdun, were some of them were selected to undergo castration to become eunuchs for the Muslim slave market in al-Andalus.

Traditionally, the slave traders acquiring the slaves in Prague and transporting them to the slave market of al-Andalus are said to have been dominated by the Jewish Radhanite merchants. While Christians were not allowed to enslave Christians and Muslims not allowed to enslave Muslims, Jewish slave traders had the advantage to move freely across religious borders, and supply Muslim slaves to the Christian world and Christian slaves to the Muslim world. as well as Pagan slaves to both. Both Christians and Muslims were prohibited from performing castrations, but there was no such ban for Jews, which made it possible for them to meet the great demand for eunuchs in the Muslim world.

The slaves were transported from Prague to Al-Andalus via France. While the church discouraged the sale of Christian slaves to Muslims, the sale of Pagans to Muslims was not met with such opposition. Louis the Fair granted his permission to Jewish merchants to traffick slaves through his Kingdom provided they were non-baptized Pagans.

The most lucrative slave market was the Islamic slavery in Al-Andalus. The Arabic Caliphate of Córdoba referred to the forests of Central and Eastern Europe, which came to function as a slave source supply, as the Bilad as-Saqaliba ("land of the slaves"). The Prague slave market was a part of a big net of slave trade in European Saqaliba slaves to the Muslim world. Ibn Hawqal wrote in the 10th-century:
 * ‘The country [of the Saqaliba] is long and wide....Half of their country...is raided by the Khurasanis [Khorezm] who take prisoners from it, while its northern half is raided by the Andalusians who buy them in Galicia, in France, in Lombardy and in Calabria so as to make them eunuchs, and thereafter they ferry them over to Egypt and Africa. All the Saqaliba eunuchs in the world come from Andalusia....They are castrated near this country. The operation is performed by Jewish merchants.'

In Islamic lands, the slave market had specific requirements. Female slaves were used for either domestic or sexual slavery as concubines. Male slaves were used for one of two categories: either for military slavery or as eunuchs. The latter category of male slaves were subjected to castration for the market. Many male slaves selected to be sold as eunuchs were subjected to castration in Verdun. The nature of the market for Saqaliba slaves meant that most Saqaliba slaves would have been prepubescent children when enslaved.

In Moorish al-Andalus, European Saqaliba-slaves were considered as exotic display objects with their light hair, skin and eye colors. White European slaves were viewed as luxury goods in Al-Andalus, where they could be sold for as much as 1,000 dinars, a substantial price.

The slaves were not always destined for the al-Andalus market; similar to Bohemia in Europe, al-Andalus was a religious border state for the Muslim world, and Saqaliba slaves were exported from there further to the Muslim world in the Middle East.

The Duchy of Bohemia and the Caliphate of Córdoba were both dependent on each other because of the from the slave trade; the Caliphate of Córdoba was dependent on enslaved bureaucrats and slave soldiers to build and manage their centralised state, while the new state of the Duchy of Bohemia built their economic prosperity in the profit earned by the slave trade with the Caliphate.

The saqaliba slave trade from Prague to al-Andalus via France lost its religious legitimacy when the Pagan Slavs of the North started to gradually adopt Christianity from the late 10th-century, which made them of bounds for Christian Bohemia to enslave and sell to Muslim al-Andalus.

Christian Europe did not approve of Christian slaves, and as Europe adopted Christianity almost entirely by the 11th-century slavery died out in Western Europe North of the Alps in the 12th- and 13th-centuries.

The disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba in the early 11th-century, which was completed by 1031, corresponded to a period of instability in the Duchy of Bohemia in parallel with the end of the slave trade between Bohemia and the Caliphate.

Other slave trade routes
During the Middle ages, Saracen pirates established themselves in bases in France, the Baleares, Southern Italy and Sicily, from which they raided the coasts of the Christian Mediterranean and exported their prisoners as Saqaliba slaves to the slave markets of the Muslim Middle East.

The Aghlabids of Ifriqiya was a base for Saracen attacks along the Spanish East coast as well as against Southern Italy from the early 9th-century; they attacked Rome in 845, Comacchio in 875-876, Monte Cassino in 882-83, and established the Emirate of Bari (847–871), the Emirate of Sicily (831–1091) and a base in Garigliano (882-906), which became bases of slave trade. During the warfare between Rome and the Byzantine Empire in Southern Italy in the 9th-century the Saracens made Southern Italy a supply source for a slave trade to Maghreb by the mid 9th-century; the Western Emperor Louis II complained in a letter to the Byzantine Emperor that the Byzantines in Naples guided the Saracens in their raids toward South Italy and aided them in their slave trade with Italians to North Africa, an accusation noted also by the Lombard Chronicler Erchempert.

Moorish Saracen pirates from al-Andalus attacked Marseille and Arles and established a base in Camargue, Fraxinetum or La Garde-Freinet-Les Mautes (888-972), from which they made slave raids in to France; the population fled in fear of the slave raids, which made it difficult for the Frankish to secure their Southern coast, and the Saracens of Fraxinetum exported the Frankisk prisoners they captured as slaves to the slave market of the Muslim Middle East.

The Saracens captured the Baleares in 903, and made slave raids also from this base toward the coasts of the Christian Mediterranean and Sicily.

While the Saracen bases in France was eliminated in 972 and Italy in 1091, this did not prevent the Saracen piracy slave trade of the Mediterranean; both Almoravid dynasty (1040-1147) and the Almohad Caliphate (1121–1269) approved of the slave raiding of Saracen pirates toward non-Muslim ships in Gibraltar and the Mediterranean for the purpose of slave raiding.

Saqalabid dynasties

 * See also: Slavery in Al-Andalus

Valencia
The following list is derived from.

 * Muhārak and Muẓaffar: 1010/11–1017/18
 * to Tortosa: 1017/18–1020/21
 * ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Abī ʿĀmir al-Manṣūr, son of Sanchuelo: 1020/21–1060
 * ʿAbd al-Malik ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Niẓām al-Dawla al-Muẓaffar, son of prec.: 1060–1065
 * to the Dhuʾl-Nūnids: 1065–1075
 * Abū Bakr ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Manṣūr, brother of prec.: 1075–1085
 * ʿUthmān ibn Abī Bakr al-Qāḍī, son of prec.: 1085
 * to the Dhuʾl-Nūnids

Dénia
The following list is derived from, who calls them the Banū Mujāhid. Mujāhid was a member of Muḥammad ibn Abi ʿĀmir's household.

 * Mujāhid ibn ʿAbd Allāh al-ʿĀmiri al-Muwaffaq: c.1012–1045
 * ʿAlī ibn Mujāhid Iqbāl al-Dawla: 1045–1076
 * to the Hūdids

Tortosa

 * Labib al-Fata al-Saqlabi (Valencia 1017–1019): c. 1009–bfr. 1039/40
 * Muqatil Sayf al-Milla: bfr. 1039/40–1053/4
 * Ya'la: 1053/4–1057/8
 * Nabil: 1057/8–1060
 * To Zaragoza: 1060–1081 or 2/3

Almeria

 * 1012 Aflah.
 * 1014 Khayran. Slavic slave from Cordoba Caliph palace, who dedicated his rule to the development of Almería.
 * 1028 Zuhayr, also a former Slavic slave from Cordoba
 * 1038 Abu Bakr al-Ramimi
 * 1038 Abd al-Aziz al-Mansur, al-Mansur's grandson, King of Valencia

From 1038 to 1041 Almería belonged to the Taifa of Valencia.

Usage

 * Geographer Ibn Khordadbeh (840–880) claimed that the Bulgar ruling title was "King of the Saqāliba" prior to the mid 7th century, meaning that the ruler held "a reservoir of potential slaves".
 * Traveller Ibn Fadlan (fl. 921–22) called the ruler of Volga Bulgaria the "King of the Saqaliba".
 * Polymath Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (850–934) described three main centers of the Saqaliba: Kuyaba, Slawiya, and Artania.
 * Traveller Ibrahim ibn Yaqub ( 961–62) placed the Saqāliba, Slavs, west of Bulgaria and east of other Slavs, in a mountainous land, and described them as violent and aggressive. It is believed that these were situated in the Western Balkans.

title: Saqaliba


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Heinrich Albertz

Heinrich Albertz (22 January 1915 – 18 May 1993) was a German Protestant theologian, priest and politician of the Social Democratic Party (SPD). He served as Governing Mayor of Berlin (West Berlin) from 1966 to 1967.

Life
Heinrich Albertz was born in Breslau (present-day Wrocław, Poland), in the Prussian province of Silesia, to the court preacher and consistorial councilor Hugo Albertz and his second wife Elisabeth, née Meinhof. His elder half brother was the Resistance fighter Martin Albertz. Having obtained his baccalaureate (Abitur) in 1933, he went on to study theology at the universities of Breslau, Halle and Berlin. Under the Nazi regime, he maintained contact to circles of the banned Social Democratic Party. As a member of the Confessing Church opposing the Nazis, he showed solidarity with the imprisoned pastor Martin Niemöller, was arrested several times and finally conscripted into the Wehrmacht in 1941.

After World War II Albertz moved to Celle, where the British occupation authorities entrusted him with the reception of expellees and displaced persons. He joined the SPD and in 1946 became a member of the Landtag of Lower Saxony. In 1948 he was appointed minister for expellee affairs in the Lower Saxon state cabinet under Minister-President Hinrich Wilhelm Kopf; in 1951 he became state minister of social affairs. Since 1950 he was also a member of the SPD federal board.

He was a Christian pacifist and opposed the production and placement of nuclear weapons on German soil.

When the Kopf cabinet was succeeded by the right-wing government of Minister-President Heinrich Hellwege upon the 1955 state elections, Albertz continued his career as a state secretary under the West Berlin mayor Otto Suhr. In 1961 he became Senator (minister) of the Interior under Mayor Willy Brandt and deputy mayor in 1963. When Brandt joined the German grand coalition government of Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Albertz succeeded him and was elected governing mayor of West Berlin by the Abgeordnetenhaus parliament on 14 December 1966.

Albertz, standing in the shadow of his popular predecessor, led the Social Democrats into the following state election held on 12 March 1967. Nevertheless, the SPD was able to maintain its absolute majority. Albertz' term in office was characterized by the rising student revolts culminating during the state visit by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and his wife Farah Pahlavi. On 2 June 1967, Pahlavi was received in West Berlin, accompanied by violent clashes of protesters with Iranian secret police collaborators and massive police forces, whereby the student Benno Ohnesorg was shot by police officer Karl-Heinz Kurras, an incident that became a turning point in the devolution of the German student movement. On 28 September Mayor Albertz was forced to resign after an investigation into the police's role in the killing. The Abgeordnetenhaus elected Klaus Schütz his successor.

From 1970 he worked as a pastor, from 1974 to 1979 in Berlin-Zehlendorf. When on 27 February 1975 the Movement 2 June militant group (named after the obit of Benno Ohnesorg) abducted the Christian Democrat candidate for Mayor of West Berlin Peter Lorenz, Albertz agreed to accompany the exchanged prisoners, among them Verena Becker and Gabriele Kröcher-Tiedemann, on their flight to South Yemen. Retired in 1979, he joined the German peace movement of the 1980s and several protests against the NATO Double-Track Decision.

Albertz died in a Bremen nursing home on 18 May 1993.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Heinrich Albertz


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The Front

The Front is a 1976 American drama film set against the Hollywood blacklist in the 1950s, when artists, writers, directors, and others were rendered unemployable, having been accused of subversive political activities in support of Communism or of being Communists themselves. It was written by Walter Bernstein, directed by Martin Ritt, and stars Woody Allen, Zero Mostel and Michael Murphy.

Several people involved in the making of the film—including screenwriter Bernstein, director Ritt, and actors Mostel, Herschel Bernardi, and Lloyd Gough—had been blacklisted. (The name of each in the closing credits is followed by "Blacklisted 19--" and the relevant year.) Bernstein was listed after being named in the Red Channels journal that identified alleged Communists and Communist sympathizers.

Plot
In New York City, 1953, at the height of the anti-Communist investigations of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), television screenwriter Alfred Miller is blacklisted and cannot get work. He asks his friend Howard Prince, a restaurant cashier and small-time bookie, to sign his name to Miller's television scripts in exchange for ten percent of the money Miller makes from them, i.e. to serve as a "front" for Miller. Howard agrees out of friendship and because he needs the money. The scripts are submitted to network producer Phil Sussman, who is pleased to have a writer not on the television blacklist. Howard's script also offers a plum role for Hecky Brown, one of Sussman's top actors.

Howard becomes such a success that Miller's two fellow screenwriter friends hire him to be their front as well. The quality of the scripts and Howard's ability to write so many impresses Florence Barrett, Sussman's idealistic script editor, who mistakes him for a principled artist. Howard begins dating her but changes the subject whenever she wants to discuss his work.

As investigators expose and blacklist Communists in the entertainment industry, Hecky Brown is fired from the show because six years earlier he marched in a May Day parade and subscribed to The Daily Worker, although he tells the investigators he did it merely to impress a woman he wanted to have sex with. In order to clear his name from the blacklist, Hecky is instructed to find out more about Howard Prince's involvement with the Communist Party, so he invites him to the Catskills, where Hecky is booked to perform on stage. The club owner short-changes Hecky on his promised salary, and when Hecky confronts him, the club owner fires him, denouncing him as a "communist son of a bitch". The professional humiliation and the inability to provide for his wife and children take their toll on Hecky and he kills himself by jumping out of a hotel window.

Howard witnesses other harsh results of the investigative actions of the communist-hunting "Freedom Information Services" on the network's programming. Suspicion is cast his way, and he is called to testify before the House Un-American Activities Committee. He privately tells Florence that he is not a writer, just a humble cashier.

Howard decides that he will respond to the Committee's questions evasively, enabling him to neither admit nor deny anything. After briefly enduring the HUAC questioning – including being asked to speak ill of the dead Hecky Brown, and being threatened with legal consequences for his admission of having placed bets in his capacity as a bookie (which is illegal), Howard takes a stand, telling the Committee that he does not recognize their authority to ask him such questions, and telling them to "go fuck yourselves" before leaving the interrogation room. The film ends as Howard is taken away in handcuffs, with Florence kissing him good-bye and many protesters cheering him on.

Reception

Critical reception of The Front was divided between those who thought it effectively and amusingly dealt with the topic of McCarthyism and those who thought it a superficial gloss instead of a pithy statement about the McCarthy era. In 1976, reviewing it for The New York Times, Vincent Canby acknowledged the film's lack of direct political commentary: "The Front is not the whole story of an especially unpleasant piece of American history. It may be faulted for oversimplification. Mr. Ritt and Mr. Bernstein, veterans of the blacklist, are not interested in subtleties. Yet, even in its comic moments, The Front works on the conscience. "It recreates the awful noise of ignorance that can still be heard." (Canby, 1976) Pauline Kael wrote in praise of the film and the performance of Woody Allen in particular: "At its most appealing, this movie says that people shouldn't be pressured to inform on their friends, that people shouldn't be humiliated in order to earn a living. Humbly, this film asks for fairness...When you see Woody Allen in one of his own films, in a peculiar way you take him for granted; here you appreciate his skill, because you miss him so much when he's offscreen."

Roger Ebert dismissed the political value of The Front: "What we get are the adventures of a schlemiel in wonderland". He felt that the Woody Allen character was too comic and unconvincing a writer to represent the true nature of "front" writers. He added that Hecky Brown was a worthwhile character: "The tragedy implied by this character tells us what we need to know about the blacklist's effect on people's lives; the rest of the movie adds almost nothing else".

As of December 2023, The Front holds a rating of 69% on Rotten Tomatoes from 26 reviews.

Accolades
For The Front, Walter Bernstein was nominated for the 1977 Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay and Zero Mostel was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor. Andrea Marcovicci was nominated for the 1977 "Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actress".

Historical basis
The movie draws from real life incidents in its depiction of the characters. A scene in which Hecky (played by Mostel) goes to entertain at a mountain resort, and then is cheated out of part of his fee, is based on an incident described by Bernstein in his memoirs Inside Out: A Memoir of the Blacklist. In the book, Bernstein describes how Mostel came to entertain at the Concord Hotel in the Catskills, where he used to entertain as a rising comic because he desperately needed the money. The manager of the Concord promised him $500, but when he arrived, reduced that to $250, according to Bernstein. In the movie, Hecky has a violent scene when, after the performance, he learns he has been cheated. In real life, Mostel was told before the performance and acted out his hostility during the performance by cursing at the customers, who thought it was part of the act.

Hecky Brown, and his suicide, was based on blacklisted actor Philip Loeb, a personal friend of Mostel who was investigated by HUAC and fired from his leading role in the television series The Goldbergs in 1951. He died by suicide in 1955. Mostel personally was motivated to participate in the project because he wanted to educate future generations of Americans. As he pointed out in his biography by Jared Brown, "It's part of this country, and a lot of kids don't even realize that blacklisting ever existed."

An informal collective of the blacklisted writers Bernstein, Arnold Manoff, and Abraham Polonsky is portrayed in an early scene in which the Murphy character, modeled on Bernstein, introduces the Allen character to two other blacklisted writers.

Musical adaptation
In 2008, a musical adaptation of The Front had a workshop in New York City. The musical, also titled The Front (or, alternatively, Lucky Break ) had music and lyrics by Paul Gordon and Jay Gruska, with a book and additional lyrics by Seth Friedman, and its workshop was co-directed by John Caird and Nell Balaban, starring Brian d'Arcy James as Howard Prince, Richard Kind as Hecky Brown, and Jayne Paterson as Florence Barrett.

title: The Front


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Talk:Taxi (2004 film)

Fair use rationale for Image:Taxi 2004 movie.jpg
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BetacommandBot (talk) 06:22, 24 January 2008 (UTC)

Plot summary
I've trimmed the plot summary. It's still a little long but I suppose it'll do. --Tony Sidaway 00:30, 27 January 2008 (UTC)

Release Format
Was this a made for DVD movie? Or did it make theaters and at what budget, box office takings, Etc.? Someone please edit page to explain. 168.103.81.73 (talk) 08:08, 17 August 2008 (UTC)

I NEED TO KNOW! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 147.4.161.59 (talk) 07:03, 11 September 2008 (UTC)

Glaring omission: Critics' response
...Critics effing hated this movie. Fever Pitch, too. Why isn't this mentioned in the article? Come on, people. --Ragemanchoo82 (talk) 08:18, 22 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Only a decade later I have added several reviews to the article. Almost no one wants to waster their time on film articles for films this underwhelming. It is a bad remake that doesn't even do a good job with the car chases, and Fallon is irritating. Even Queen Latifah is unable to help this mess. -- 109.79.69.130 (talk) 17:34, 8 August 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Taxi (2004 film)


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Eugen von Albori

Eugen Freiherr von Albori (or also known as Baron Eugen von Albori; 27 September 1838 – 4 September 1915) was an Austrian administrator. He served as the Austrian governor of Bosnia & Herzegovina between 1903 and 1907.

title: Eugen von Albori


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José Bernardo

Jose Bernardo may refer to:

 * José Bernardo (race driver), Portuguese rally driver in 1973 Rallye de Portugal
 * José Bernardo da Silva Cabral (1801–1869), Portuguese politician
 * José-Miguel Bernardo (born 1950), Spanish mathematician and statistician
 * José Bernardo Sánchez (1778–1833), Spanish missionary
 * José Carlos Bernardo (1945–2018), Brazilian footballer

title: José Bernardo


text:
John Fischer

John Fischer may refer to:

 * John Fischer (baseball) (1855–1942), Major League pitcher and first baseman
 * John Fischer (judge) (born 1948), Oklahoma Court of Civil Appeals
 * John Fischer (painter) (1786–1875), German painter
 * John Fischer (pianist) (1930–2016), jazz pianist
 * John Fischer (politician) (born 1947), Australian
 * John Fischer, mayor of Anaheim, California, 1876–1877
 * John Henry Fischer (1910–2009), academic administrator in Baltimore
 * John Martin Fischer (born 1952), professor of philosophy at the University of California, Riverside
 * Johnny Fischer (1912–1984), American golfer

title: John Fischer


text:
Meade Alcorn

Hugh Meade Alcorn Jr. (October 20, 1907 – January 13, 1992) was a U.S. lawyer and political figure. He was a native of Suffield, Connecticut.

Biography
He was born on October 20, 1907, to Cora Terry (Wells) and Hugh Mead Alcorn Sr.

He attended Dartmouth College and Yale Law School. An attorney, he was a partner in the once-prominent Connecticut law firm Tyler, Cooper & Alcorn.

Alcorn was a key figure in Connecticut politics following World War II. He served as State Representative, Republican floor leader, and then Speaker of the Connecticut House of Representatives. He also served as Hartford State's Attorney. As the Republican leader in the Connecticut General Assembly, he was often paired against John Bailey, his legendary Democratic counterpart. He was the Republican candidate for lieutenant governor in 1948, losing narrowly to Democrat William T. Carroll.

Alcorn joined the Republican National Committee in 1953, and was the chairman of the Republican National Committee between 1957 and 1959, during the presidency of Dwight Eisenhower. He was also the great-great nephew of U.S. Senator and Governor of Mississippi James Lusk Alcorn.

He died of a stroke on January 13, 1992.

Personal life
Alcorn was married to Marcia Powell Alcorn after the death of his first wife, Janet. He had only one daughter, named Eileen. His brother Howard W. Alcorn was chief justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court.

Meade was known publicly as "Hugh M. Alcorn, Jr." for much of his career. He adopted the name "Meade Alcorn" for his campaign for lieutenant governor in 1948. His middle name was "Meade" rather than "Mead" to distinguish him from his well-known father.

title: Meade Alcorn


text:
Priscilla Alden

Priscilla Alden (, c. 1602 – c. 1685) was a noted member of Massachusetts's Plymouth Colony of Pilgrims and the wife of fellow colonist John Alden (c. 1599 – 1687). They married in 1621 in Plymouth.

Biography

Priscilla was most likely born in Dorking in Surrey, the daughter of William and step-daughter of Alice Mullins. She was only seventeen when she boarded the Mayflower. She lost her father, step-mother and her brother Joseph during the first winter in Plymouth. She was then the only one of her family in the New World, although she had another brother and a sister who remained in England.

John Alden and Priscilla Mullins were probably the third couple to be married in Plymouth Colony. William Bradford's marriage to Alice Carpenter on August 14, 1623 is known to be the fourth. The first was that of Edward Winslow and Susannah White in 1621. Francis Eaton's marriage to his second wife Dorothy, maidservant to the Carvers, was possibly the second.

Priscilla is last found in the records in 1650, but oral tradition states that she died only a few years before her husband (which would be about 1680). She lies buried at the Miles Standish Burial Ground in Duxbury, Massachusetts. The exact location of her grave is unknown, but there is a marker honoring her.

Longfellow's poem

She is known to literary history as the unrequited love of newly widowed Captain Miles Standish, the colony's military advisor, in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's 1858 poem The Courtship of Miles Standish. According to the poem, Standish asked his good friend John Alden to propose to Priscilla on his behalf, only to have Priscilla ask, "Why don't you speak for yourself, John?"

Longfellow was a direct descendant of John and Priscilla, and based his poem on a romanticized version of a family tradition although, until recently, there was little independent historical evidence for the account. The basic story was apparently handed down in the Alden family and published by John and Priscilla's great-great-grandson Rev. Timothy Alden in 1814.

Scholars have recently confirmed the cherished place of romantic love in Pilgrim culture, and have documented the Indian war described by Longfellow. Circumstantial evidence of the love triangle also exists. Miles Standish and John Alden were likely roommates; Priscilla Mullins was the only single woman of marriageable age. The families of the alleged lovers remained close for several generations, moving together to Duxbury, Massachusetts, in the late 1620s.

The Alden children
Priscilla and John Alden had ten children, with a possible eleventh dying in infancy. It is presumed, although not documented, that the first three children were born in Plymouth, the remainder in Duxbury. The children were:

 * 1) Elizabeth. (1624/25–1717). Married William Pabodie (Peabody), a civic and military leader of Duxbury, where all thirteen of their children were born. They moved to Little Compton, Rhode Island, where Elizabeth died in 1717 at the age of about ninety-four. Their descendants were prominent in settling areas of Rhode Island and Connecticut. From Elizabeth's line comes the individual most credited with spreading the fame of John and Priscilla far and wide, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his Courtship of Miles Standish.
 * 2) John (1626–1701). Moved to Boston and married there Elizabeth (Phillips) Everill, widow of Abiel Everill. They had thirteen children. He was a mariner and became a naval commander of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He was a member of the Old South Church of Boston and his ancient slate headstone is embedded in the wall there. Perhaps the best known event of his life was when he was accused of witchcraft on a trip to Salem, spending fifteen weeks in a Boston jail. He escaped shortly before nine of the other victims were executed during the Salem witch trials. Alden was later exonerated.
 * 3) Joseph. (1627–1697)  Moved to Bridgewater where he was a farmer on land purchased earlier from the Indians by his father and Myles Standish. He married Mary Simmons. They had a total of seven children. Joseph died sometime after.
 * 4) Sarah. Her marriage to Myles Standish's son Alexander undercuts any idea of a long-standing feud between the Aldens and the Standish clan. In fact, there is much evidence to suggest that John and Myles remained lifelong friends or, at the minimum, associates. Sarah and Alexander lived in Duxbury until Sarah's death sometime before June 1688. (Alexander subsequently married Desire Doty, a twice-widowed daughter of Pilgrim Edward Doty.) They had seven or possibly eight children. Their home Alexander Standish House in Duxbury still stands.
 * 5) Jonathan. Married Abigail Hallett, December 10, 1672. Lived in Duxbury until his death February 14, 1697. He was the second owner of the Alden House which he received from his father. The house then passed to his own son John, one of his six children. At his funeral oration, Jonathan was described as "a sincere Christian, one whose heart was in the house of God even when his body was barred hence by restraints of many difficulties which confined him at home."
 * 6) Ruth. Married John Bass of Braintree, Massachusetts, where they lived and had seven children. Of the more illustrious descendants of this union came Presidents John Adams and John Quincy Adams. Ruth died on October 12, 1674.
 * 7) Rebecca. Married Thomas Delano of Duxbury by 1667, a son of Philip Delanoye, one of the original settlers of Duxbury. They had nine children. Died in Duxbury sometime after June 13, 1688.
 * 8) Mary. Married Deacon Samuel Allen, a union that produced at least one son, Joseph. Mary died in 1688. Joseph would go on to have several children of his own.
 * 9) Priscilla, born 1628. Married Captain John Thurber in 1645. They had 8 children. She died in 1692.

 * 1) David. Married Mary Southworth, daughter of Constant Southworth of Plymouth Colony. Died sometime during 1719. Six children. A man described as "a prominent member of the church, a man of great respectability and much employed in public business."

Legacy
Prescott W. Baston's Sebastian Miniatures produced pewter figurines of the Aldens.

title: Priscilla Alden


text: Category:Chemical numbering schemes

title: Category:Chemical numbering schemes


text:
Talk:Boston College

Oral history project about the conflict in Ireland absent
Greetings, everyone. One cannot help but notice the absence from the article of any mention of the famous "Belfast Project" undertaken by the Boston College in the early 2000s. (The project's people taped interviews with people involved in the conflict in Ireland in order to shape an oral history of "The Troubles"). Is there any reason for this omission? -The Gnome (talk) 08:03, 5 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Boston College


text:
Sigmund and the Sea Monsters

Sigmund and the Sea Monsters is an American children's television series that ran from September 8, 1973 to October 18, 1975, produced by Sid and Marty Krofft and aired on Saturday mornings. It was syndicated by itself from December 1975 to June 1978 and later as part of the Krofft Superstars show from 1978 to 1985.

The episodes included songs as part of the plot development. The character(s), generally Johnny, would sing a song about what he was thinking or feeling about something going on in his life, from things that made him happy to anxiety about girls.

While videotaping the first episode of Season Two, a hot light fell and started a fire. No one was injured, but the fire destroyed all of the sets and much of the costumes and other props. Most of Season Two was taped with minimal sets.

Plot
The show centered on two brothers named Johnny and Scott Stuart. While playing on the beach near Dead Man's Point, the two of them discover a friendly young sea monster named Sigmund who had been thrown out by his comically dysfunctional undersea family for refusing to frighten people. The boys hide Sigmund in their clubhouse.

Plotlines were very simple and straightforward, usually some variation on the idea of Sigmund doing something silly to arouse attention, and the boys working to prevent him from being found by Sigmund's brothers Blurp and Slurp who want Sigmund to scare people in order to impress their parents Sweet Mama Ooze and Big Daddy Ooze. The brothers also worked to hide Sigmund from humans such as their overbearing housekeeper Zelda and Sheriff Chuck Bevans.

Main characters

 * Sigmund Ooze (performed by Billy Barty, voiced by Walker Edmiston) – A sea monster who was kicked out of his family for not being able to scare a human.
 * Johnny and Scott Stuart (portrayed by Johnny Whitaker and Scott Kolden) – Two brothers who discovered Sigmund when they were playing at the beach

Ooze Family
The Ooze Family are a family of sea monsters that live out at Dead Man's Point. They kicked Sigmund out after he would not scare a human. Most episodes would have them trying to harm Johnny and Scott to no avail. The Ooze Family consists of:

 * Sweet Mama Ooze (performed by Van Snowden, voiced by Sidney Miller) – The matriarch of the Ooze family. Sweet Mama's characterization was based loosely on Phyllis Diller.
 * Big Daddy Ooze (performed by Joe A. Giamalva and Sharon Baird, voiced by Walker Edmiston) – The patriarch of the Ooze family. Big Daddy was a spoof of Archie Bunker from All in the Family.  In the sixth episode of the first season, he is identified as "Melvin Ooze" by a tax collector.
 * Blurp Ooze (performed by Larry Larsen, voiced by Walker Edmiston) – A brother of Sigmund.
 * Slurp Ooze (performed by Paul Gale, voiced by Walker Edmiston) – A brother of Sigmund. Slurp’s voice characterization was based loosely on that of the fictional character Gomer Pyle.
 * Prince – The Ooze family's pet lobster who acts like the family dog.

Humans

 * Zelda Marshall (portrayed by Mary Wickes) – The overbearing housekeeper who watches over Johnny and Scott.
 * Chuck Bevans (portrayed by Joe Higgins) – The local sheriff.
 * Gertrude Grouch (portrayed by Fran Ryan) – A housekeeper who briefly replaced Zelda during the second season. Gertrude was a tough USMC drill instructor. The boys were relieved when Zelda returned.
 * Miss Eddels (portrayed by Margaret Hamilton) – The elderly neighbor of Johnny and Scott.

Other characters

 * Sheldon (portrayed by Rip Taylor) – A magical "sea genie" who lives in a shell that debuted during the second season. Unfortunately, Sheldon was a bumbler and his "whammy" spells seldom worked properly.
 * Shelby (portrayed by Sparky Marcus) – A sea genie who is Sheldon's nephew.

Music
The songs for the show were co-written by Danny Janssen, Bobby Hart and Wes Farrell.

A cover of the show's theme song, performed by Tripping Daisy, is included on the 1995 tribute album Saturday Morning: Cartoons' Greatest Hits, produced by Ralph Sall for MCA Records.

Album
Eleven songs from the show were released on Johnny Whitaker's album Friends (Music from the Television Series 'Sigmund and the Sea Monsters') (Chelsea Records, BCL1-0332).

All songs written by Danny Janssen and Bobby Hart, except where noted.

Side 1

 * 1) "Friends" (Janssen, Hart, Farrell)
 * 2) "Keep It a Secret"
 * 3) "A Simple Song"
 * 4) "The Magician"
 * 5) "Monster Rock" (Janssen, Hart, Farrell)
 * 6) "It's Up to You"

Side 2

 * 1) "Can't Get You Off My Mind"
 * 2) "Running 'Round in Circles"
 * 3) "Lovin' Ain't Easy"
 * 4) "Sigmund and the Sea Monsters"
 * 5) "Day and Night"

Production
Sigmund and the Sea Monsters was the first Krofft Saturday morning production that was produced for more than one season. Previous entries H.R. Pufnstuf (1969), The Bugaloos (1970), and Lidsville (1971) were in production with new episodes for only a single season.

Sigmund, however, did not follow the "stranger in a strange land" premise as many of the previous Krofft shows had done. Other Krofft shows that did not follow the premise were The Bugaloos, Bigfoot and Wildboy, Pryor's Place and Wonderbug.

Costumes were created by Oliver Soublette.

One episode features an appearance by H.R. Pufnstuf and another that features Jack Wild (who played Jimmy on H.R. Pufnstuf).

The series was created and produced by Sid & Marty Krofft and Si Rose.

Home media
In the United States, the first season of the show was released on DVD in 2005 by Rhino Entertainment, featuring all 17 original broadcast episodes, uncut and digitally remastered. It was released again on September 6, 2011 from Vivendi Entertainment. Although there were plans for season two to be released on DVD, it was cancelled because of low sales. In Australia, the complete series was released in a region-free four-disk set by Beyond Home Entertainment. However this set (along with both U.S releases of season one) are now out of print and hard to find.

Reboot
In 2015 Sid and Marty Krofft announced that Amazon was partnering with them to create an updated version of Sigmund and the Sea Monsters. In June 2016, the pilot was released. In late 2016, it was announced that the pilot was picked up for a first season. Production for the first season occurred over the first half of 2017. A teaser trailer was released at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con. In this version of the series, David Arquette plays Captain Barnabus who believes sea monsters are real and devotes his life to capturing them. Instead of living with a housekeeper, the boys are spending the summer at their aunt Maxine's with their cousin Robyn when they discover Sigmund. Seven episodes were released on October 13, 2017. The rest of the cast consists of Solomon Stewart as Johnny, Kyle Harrison Breitkopf as Scott, Rebecca Bloom as Robyn, Eileen O'Connell as Aunt Maxine, Johnny Whitaker as Zach, Mark Povinelli as Sigmund, Drew Massey as the voice of Sigmund, Meegan Godfrey as Blurp, Michael Oosterom as the voice of Blurp, Dan Crespin as Slurp, Victor Yerrid as the voice of Slurp, Lexi Pearl as Mama, and Donna Kimball as the voice of Mama.

title: Sigmund and the Sea Monsters


text:
CFJP-DT

CFJP-DT (channel 35) is a television station in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, serving as the flagship station of the French-language network Noovo. It is owned and operated by network parent Bell Media alongside CTV outlet CFCF-DT (channel 12). The two stations share studios at the Bell Media building (formerly the Montréal Téléport), at the intersection of Boulevard René-Lévesque Est and Avenue Papineau in downtown Montreal; CFJP-DT's transmitter is located on Mount Royal.

History
The station was originally owned by the family of Jean Pouliot, then-owner of CFCF-TV. It was acquired by Cogeco in 2001 concurrently with Cogeco's acquisition of the network. It was later acquired by Remstar in June 2008, which had been owned by Cogeco and CTVglobemedia but entered bankruptcy protection in late 2007. The network was renamed V the following year. It was later reorganized into a separate entity named V Media Group, which was still majority-owned by Remstar, with a minority share held by a trust controlled by Remstar's owner, Maxime Rémillard. As an owned-and-operated station of the network, CFJP was part of V's takeover by Bell Media on May 15, 2020.

CFJP formerly had a rebroadcaster in Rimouski, CJPC-TV channel 18, but this switched to being a semi-satellite of CFTF-TV in June 2007.

Digital television and high definition
CFJP launched a high definition simulcast on June 4, 2007, and it's available on Vidéotron and Cogeco cable in Quebec. It signed on over the air on channel 42 from their studio building in Montreal in December 2007. However, digital television receivers display CFJP-TV's virtual channel as 35. After the analog television shutdown and digital conversion on August 31, 2011, CFJP-TV moved from its pre-transition channel number, 42, to its post-transition and old analog channel number, 35. Because of the placement of the digital broadcast antenna at a low elevation on top of a residential building in Montreal, the coverage area was greatly reduced as compared to its former analog signal, which broadcast from Mount Royal. Many viewers were no longer able to receive CFJP. The station moved its digital transmitter to Mount Royal on April 16, 2013, greatly increasing its coverage area.

title: CFJP-DT


text: Category:Traffic circles in New Jersey

title: Category:Traffic circles in New Jersey


text:
Talk:Saqaliba

from which the English word slave is also derived
i can't see why this is important and should be in the article, since slavs and saqaliba are therms from the common era to middle ages, when english language did not exist. not even the old english language. maybe slave is a celtic word? or frankish? and through which process slave derived from slav. some etymology link maybe?Edi1kanobi (talk) 19:30, 14 March 2014 (UTC)

 * You can see the etymology in the OED, which is cited in the text. The English word slave comes from OFrench esclave, from Med. Latin sclavus, from Byz. Greek σκλάβος. None of this is remotely controversial; that the Byzantines thought the Slavs were slaves is a regrettable (and indeed deplorable) fact, but it is a fact.
 * As for its relevance to the article: this is an article about an Arabic word for slave derived from the same Greek word; the English association is a fact of minor but not nonvaluable illustrative importance. -Senori (talk) 22:00, 14 March 2014 (UTC)
 * read about macedonian sclavinia. it was a state with kings. hacon and pribond. that is not what slaves have. slaves have nothing. and if they were slaves why did they attack and pillage much of Byzantium cities? shouldn't they be obidient? the word comes from slava-fame. take byzantine sources with caution. none of it means absolute thruth. it's just one way of looking at the things.Edi1kanobi (talk) 23:51, 14 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Etymological fallacy: just because something means something now doesn't impute anything on the ancient uses of the word. It doesn't matter what the ancient Slavs so described actually were, it's just the coincidence of history that their name became a word for someone in forced servitude (see the Slave people of Canada for something similar). -Senori (talk) 23:02, 12 August 2014 (UTC)

 * and once again scientists and etymologyst got it all wrong. sclavinoi, siklab or saqaliba means saka libi which roughly translates reads: saka people. read a bit about saka people. the first rulling class of persia. this article has nothing to do with slavery and the corrupt ways the english language picked up the words from other languages. when slavs(not slaves) had their literacy and a state, english people were still talking in vulgar french language.77.28.218.181 (talk) 21:37, 12 August 2014 (UTC)

Untitled
from VfD:

The article says it's a term for "Soldiers of fortune from western and eastern Europe", but a Google search turned up nothing.Senori 02:24, Dec 13, 2004 (UTC)
 * Note: the above comment was removed by user 216.165.38.142, who also added the comment below. — [[User:Knowledge Seeker|Knowledge Seeker দ (talk)]] 03:46, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

To find the definition, Source: "A History of the Arab Peoples" Albert Hourani page 189. Not everything can be found on the internet.
 * Keep and make it a stub. However, I do not appreciate anon's act of removing comments. Expanding the article would have been more appropriate - Skysmith 10:07, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: this seems real, but it would be nice if somebody could verify this and expand the article. Jeltz 12:03, 2004 Dec 13 (UTC)
 * It's misspelled for Saqaliba - which I've now moved it to, with expansion. - Mustafaa 14:57, 14 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, with spelling fix. But it should really be expanded. Katefan0 19:34, Dec 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep Saqaliba. I added the stub template. Paul August  ☎ 23:34, Dec 18, 2004 (UTC)

end moved discussion

Dbachmann's deletion
Reverted. The fact that russians cannot make chinese from japanese does not invalidate the fact that arabs could not make russians from poles. Not to say that this observation is important in the article's context. `'mikka (t) 17:35, 10 May 2006 (UTC)

thus in the Serb lands?
Ibrahim ibn Yaqub placed the people of "Saqalib" in the mountainous regions of Central Balkans, west of the Bulgarians and east from the "other Slavs" (Croats), thus in the Serb lands. The Saqalib had the reputation of being "the most courageous and violent".[2]

You have forgotten the Slovens men! And Ibrahim ibn Yaqub means surely not just Serb lands. That´s includes also Croat land!--Zrin22 (talk) 20:07, 1 March 2011 (UTC)
 * west from bulgarians and east from the other slavs could only mean Macedonia. there are no other slavs west from slovenia and bosnia and serbia.89.205.2.29 (talk) 22:08, 28 August 2013 (UTC)

Wrong date
"Theophanes mentions that the Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I settled a whole army of 5,000 Slavic mercenaries in Syria in the 660s." In 660s arabic muslim Ummayyad caliph? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.23.10.156 (talk) 22:27, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

Artanians
This term is cited as not fully explained in the article text, yet surely this is a reference to Carantanians, or derived from the name of the territory known as Carantania - inhabitants of the borderlands of present-day Northern Slovenia, Croatia and Austria in the period of the early Slavic settlement. This population would have been multi-ethnic, consisting not solely of Slavic tribes, but also remnants of the many earlier peoples who 'passed through' this territory during the Late Roman and Migration Periods, e.g. Sarmatians, Avars, Bulgars, Goths and groups from other Germanic tribes. 'Illyrians' (i.e. Albanians) and Greeks would almost certainly have featured among the slave population: the Arab slavers would have sought their human goods from all along the northern coasts of the Mediterranean, the Adriatic and the Aegean and their many islands. 86.162.246.47 (talk) 14:26, 16 April 2013 (UTC)

The term Saqaliba refers to ALL Europeans (Balkans, Italy, Iberia - Spain and Portugal, France, Britain, Ireland...) captured in wars or in peace from European coasts
Te word refers not only to Balkan Slavs but also to other Europeans who were kidnapped by slave traders, or captured in war periods, even from as far north as Iceland. Here is the resource: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/history/conant/mushin1998. It is very well referenced — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.100.242.0 (talk) 20:42, 14 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Saqaliba comes from "Siqlabi" and means "Slavic laborers". How come you omit Poland in your description if it is clearly stated that those Slavs of darker skin are nearer the sea ("west of the Bulgarians and east from the other Slavs" meaning they have to be Serbs) while those of more fair skin are further inland (Poles and Rusyns)? Since when North-Western Europeans (Germanics), and South-Western Europeans (Romanics) are Slavs? 192.162.150.105 (talk) 07:26, 30 July 2015 (UTC)

No, you are wrong. “Sakaliba“ doesn't mean slavs. Saqaliba is a direct translation of “Kipchak“ = “Pale Saka“. From the “Book of precious treasures” by Ibn Rusta (lived circa the first half of the 10-th c.) ... The Bulgarian territory is adjacent to the Burtases’ (Mordva/Mordvins/Mordovians, Finno-Ugric people, with m/b alternation) land. Bolgars live on the bank of the river, flowing to the Khozarian (Caspian) Sea and called Itil (Itil), which is running between Khozarian and Sakaliba (In Russian literature ‘Sakaliba’ - ‘Kipchaks’ are interpreted as ‘Slavs’, though on the east side of Itil were located Kipchaks, not the Slavs.) The Volga Bulgar king (btw his name was Almysh) is not mentioned by Ibn Fadlan as "king of bulgars, turks, AND saqaliba", but only as "king of saqaliba". That means his whole country was full of the saqaliba, so could he be named as their king, right? In controversy with that we know in Volga Bulgaia there were not the slavs who were the majority, but bulgars and turks, finno-ugric and there were some slavs but the country was not made of full slavs and not even the majority were slavs. So, if the king of Volga Bulgaria was "King of Saqaliba", than we have a problem identifying Saqaliba with tha Slavs, because it is not possible that Ibn Fadlan made such a big mistake that he saw a lot of turk and bulgar fighters and for some reason he writes slavs (at that time: slaves).178.48.177.1 (talk) 07:39, 1 June 2017 (UTC)

Context?
When did this practice occur? During certain dynasties or throughout the period of the whole Ottoman Empire? Was it done by Arab countries outside of the Empire? Right now, while descriptive, there is no historical context that even provides a century when this practice occurred. 69.125.134.86 (talk) 17:37, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

Origin of term
rv'd edit containing the following:
 * Arab word Saqaliba could also come from much older Persian therm Saka. Saka or Saqaliba are known to babylonians as Gomer or Cimmerians or Celts.

No source listed, no Google hits. Needs a source. -Senori (talk) 22:05, 14 March 2014 (UTC)

Here are some sources Senori: “Sakaliba“ is a direct translation of “Kipchak“ = “Pale Saka“ From the “Book of precious treasures” by Ibn Rusta (lived circa the first half of the 10-th c.) ... The Bulgarian territory is adjacent to the Burtases’ (Mordva/Mordvins/Mordovians, Finno-Ugric people, with m/b alternation) land. Bolgars live on the bank of the river, flowing to the Khozarian (Caspian) Sea and called Itil (Itil), which is running between Khozarian and Sakaliba (In Russian literature ‘Sakaliba’ - ‘Kipchaks’ are interpreted as ‘Slavs’, though on the east side of Itil were located Kipchaks, not the Slavs.) The Volga Bulgar king (btw his name was Almysh) is not mentioned by Ibn Fadlan (who visited Almysh) as "king of bulgars, turks, AND saqaliba", but only as "king of saqaliba". That means his whole country was full of the saqaliba, so could he be named as their king, right? In controversy with that we know in Volga Bulgaia there were not the slavs who were the majority, but bulgars and turks, finno-ugric and there were some slavs but the country was not made of full slavs and not even the majority were slavs. So, if the king of Volga Bulgaria was "King of Saqaliba", than we have a problem identifying Saqaliba with tha Slavs, because it is not possible that Ibn Fadlan made such a big mistake that he saw a lot of turk and bulgar fighters and for some reason he writes slavs (at that time: slaves). 178.48.177.1 (talk) 07:42, 1 June 2017 (UTC)

Slavery template should be removed
The Arabic word Saqaliba did not mean "slave." This word referred to the inhabitants of eastern Europe (wither they were Slavic, Turkic, Uralic, etc.). The Volga Bulghar king was called by Ibn Fadlan "King of the Saqaliba." He obviously did not mean "King of the slaves." The slavery tag on this article is misleading and should be removed.--HD86 (talk) 16:54, 3 January 2015 (UTC)
 * Saqaliba, despite meaning "the Slavic workers", became the term to describe the SLAVic SLAVes, because the Muslims saw ALL Slavs as potential Slaves. 192.162.150.105 (talk) 10:47, 2 September 2015 (UTC)

“Sakaliba“ is a direct translation of “Kipchak“ = “Pale Saka“ From the “Book of precious treasures” by Ibn Rusta (lived circa the first half of the 10-th c.) ... The Bulgarian territory is adjacent to the Burtases’ (Mordva/Mordvins/Mordovians, Finno-Ugric people, with m/b alternation) land. Bolgars live on the bank of the river, flowing to the Khozarian (Caspian) Sea and called Itil (Itil), which is running between Khozarian and Sakaliba (In Russian literature ‘Sakaliba’ - ‘Kipchaks’ are interpreted as ‘Slavs’, though on the east side of Itil were located Kipchaks, not the Slavs.

About what HD86 says: the Volga Bulgar king (btw his name was Almysh) is not mentioned by Ibn Fadlan as "king of bulgars, turks, AND saqaliba", but only as "king of saqaliba". That means his whole country was full of the saqaliba, so could he be named as their king, right? In controversy with that we know in Volga Bulgaia there were not the slavs who were the majority, but bulgars and turks, finno-ugric and there were some slavs but the country was not made of full slavs and not even the majority were slavs. So, if the king of Volga Bulgaria was "King of Saqaliba", than we have a problem identifying Saqaliba with tha Slavs, because it is not possible that Ibn Fadlan made such a big mistake that he saw a lot of turk and bulgar fighters and for some reason he writes slavs (at that time: slaves).

178.48.177.1 (talk) 07:33, 1 June 2017 (UTC)

Eastimated regions of Saqaliba origin
It ts deemed that the Saqaliba were mostly Poles and Serbs. The geographical descriptions perfectly fit to the territories of East-Central Europe and South-Eastern Europe. 192.162.150.105 (talk) 11:31, 17 July 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Saqaliba


text:
Joseph Sadoc Alemany

Joseph Sadoc Alemany y Conill, O.P. (Spanish: José Sadoc Alemany y Conill; July 3, 1814 – April 14, 1888) was a Spanish Catholic clergyman, who served most of his career in California. He served as the first Bishop of Monterey (1850–53) and then as Archbishop of San Francisco (1853–84). He was a member of the Dominican Order.

Early life
Alemany was born in Vic, Catalonia, on July 3, 1814, to Antoni Alemany i Font and Miquela dels Sants Conill i Saborit.

Alemany entered the Dominican Order in 1821 and pursued his theological studies at the convents of Trumpt and Garona. His solemn profession of religious vows made in September 1831, the same year that his protégé, Patrick Manogue was born in Ireland. He was then sent to Rome to study at the College of St. Thomas in Rome, the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, commonly referred to as the Angelicum, where in 1840 he was made Lector in Theology.

Alemany was ordained a priest in Viterbo Cathedral on March 11, 1837, by Archbishop Gaspare Bernardo Pianetti. During his studies in Rome, he had an audience with Pope Gregory XVI.

Career

The Dominican superiors sent Alemany to the United States in 1841. The first years of his missionary activity were spent in Nashville and Memphis, Tennessee, and in 1847, he was made provincial of the order of Dominicans in the state of Ohio. He eventually become a naturalized United States citizen.

In 1848, Alemany was appointed Prior Provincial of the Dominican Province of St. Joseph.

In 1850 his abilities attracted the attention of the papal court during his presence at the general chapter of the order. Summoned to Rome, Alemany met on June 11, 1850, with Cardinal Giacomo Filippo Fransoni, informed of his appointment as Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Monterey in California. Alemany replied, "No." Pope Pius IX ordered Alemany to a private audience on June 16. Pope Pius told Alemany, "You must go to California....Where others are drawn by gold, you must carry the Cross." Fransoni consecrated Alemany as Bishop of Monterey on June 30, 1850, in Rome; thus, becoming the first American bishop in California.

Monterey
Before leaving Europe, Alemany determined that he would need the help of a community of religious women for the education of the children of his new territory. He traveled around, visiting various monasteries of Dominican nuns. When he arrived in Paris, he went to the Monastery of the Cross there, where he presented his request for volunteers among the Dominican Sisters. He had one recruit, Sister Mary of the Cross Goemaere, O.P., a Belgian novice.

Alemany soon set sail with her and a fellow Dominican friar, Francis Sadoc Vilarrasa, O.P., arriving in San Francisco on December 6, 1850. Goemaere then founded a community in Monterey which was to become the Dominican Sisters of San Rafael.

San Francisco
Leaving Rome immediately, he brought to his new see religious of both sexes, with whose aid he founded various institutions of learning in California.

When the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco was erected July 29, 1853, Alemany was appointed by Pope Pius as its first archbishop. Alemany arrived in San Francisco finding three established Catholic parishes Mission Dolores (San Francisco de Asís) (1776), St. Francis of Assisi (1849) and St. Patrick (1851). As Archbishop of San Francisco, Alemany presided over what became a multinational diocese, owing to the influx of people during the California Gold Rush, and parishes were established for San Francisco's Italian, Irish, French, German and Mexican communities.

Catholic religious institutes were also active during his tenure, with the Society of Jesus establishing Santa Clara University and the University of San Francisco, the De La Salle Christian Brothers taking over the diocesan Saint Mary's College, and the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur establishing in San Jose the Notre Dame de Namur University, and the Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary establishing in Oakland the Holy Names University. He and Vilarosa also founded the Dominican Province of the Most Holy Name in 1851, and the Dominican Sisters of San Rafael and Dominican Sisters of Mission San Jose were established in the archdiocese in 1851 and 1876, respectively.

As Bishop of Monterey Alemany had filed a petition with the Public Land Commission on February 19, 1853, for the return of all former mission lands in California. As Archbishop of San Francisco he sought Fee Ownership of 1,051.44 acres (for all practical intents being the exact area of land occupied by the original mission buildings, cemeteries, and gardens) was subsequently conveyed to the Church, along with the Cañada de los Pinos (or College Rancho) in Santa Barbara County comprising 35499.73 acre, and La Laguna in San Luis Obispo County, consisting of 4157.02 acre. The scope of his authority was large, as the Diocese of Monterey originally encompassed the entire area of the former Mexican province of Alta California, while the Archdiocese of San Francisco encompassed all of the state of California north of Monterey Bay as well as territories that would become Nevada and Utah. However, Alemany wished to return to missionary work and requested a coadjutor bishop. In 1883, Bishop Patrick William Riordan was appointed by Pope Leo XIII coadjutor, and would succeed Alemany upon the latter's resignation as archbishop in 1884.

Later life

After his resignation, Alemany left San Francisco in May 1885 to return to his homeland. In the course of the journey east he toured New York, was presented by Catholic General William Rosecrans to President Grover Cleveland. He arrived in Italy, having an audience with Pope Leo XIII and was appointed titular archbishop of Pelusium.

Alemany returned to Catalonia in a Valencian convent, intending to devote the remainder of his life to the rehabilitation of the Dominican order in Spain, and he died there on April 14, 1888. He was buried in the Church of Sant Domènec in his native Vic.

In 1965, Alemany's body was brought back to San Francisco after a requiem Mass said by Archbishop Joseph T. McGucken at the Old Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Immaculate Conception. His remains were buried in the Archbishops' Crypt in the mausoleum in Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California.

He was also an author, publishing his view of The Life of St. Dominick.

Alemany Boulevard and the Alemany Maze in San Francisco, Bishop Alemany High School in Mission Hills, California and the Archbishop Alemany Library at Dominican University of California in San Rafael are all named in his honor.

title: Joseph Sadoc Alemany


text: Talk:University of Delaware

title: Talk:University of Delaware


text:
Ear of Dionysius

The Ear of Dionysius (Orecchio di Dionisio) is a limestone cave carved out of the Temenites hill in the city of Syracuse, on the island of Sicily in Italy. Its name, given by the painter Michelangelo da Caravaggio, comes from its similarity in shape to the human ear. The name is also linked to echoes in the cave.

Geology
The Ear of Dionysius was most likely formed out of an old limestone quarry. It is 23 metres high and extends 65 metres back into the cliff. Horizontally, it bends in an approximate "S" shape; vertically it is tapered at the top like a teardrop. Because of its shape, the Ear has extremely good acoustics, making even a small sound resonate throughout the cave.

Purpose
This cave was dug in Greek/Roman times to provide water storage for Syracuse. A narrow tunnel was dug first. This tunnel was widened by digging down and sideways afterwards, giving the cave its unusual shape. The small narrow tunnel is still visible on the top of this artificial cave. An earthquake struck this area causing damage, and the cave became unusable for water storage afterwards.

The cave was named after Dionysius I of Syracuse who used the cave as a prison, and would listen to hear what his prisoners were saying about him through the echoes in the cave.

History
The name of the cave was coined in 1608 by the painter Caravaggio, who was shown the grotto by the mathematician, antiquarian and archaeologist Vincenzo Mirabella. It refers to the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse. According to legend, Dionysius used the cave as a prison for political dissidents, and by means of the perfect acoustics eavesdropped on the plans and secrets of his captives. Another legend claims that Dionysius carved the cave in its shape so that it would amplify the screams of prisoners being tortured in it. The sound-focusing effect can no longer be heard because access to the focal point is no longer possible. The visitors of the cave can however still hear the echo while they are in the Ear of Dionysius.

Because of its reputation for acoustic flawlessness, the Ear of Dionysius has also come to refer to a type of ear trumpet that has a flexible tube. The term 'Ear of Dionysius' can also refer to surveillance, specifically for political gain.

In popular culture
The cave is featured as the location of the tomb of Archimedes in the 2023 film Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny.

title: Ear of Dionysius


text:
User:Al guy/maps

This page contains material on making maps for Wikipedia. See my user page for examples of some of the maps I've made. Contact me if you have further ideas, questions, or comments.

Data
Maps generally require good source material. I generally use GIS data and have listed some sources below. The Map page contains some non-GIS sources such as blank png sources.

GIS data is vector data containing info about its relation to real life (lattitude, longtitude, size, elevation, etc.). This type of data can not be used directly with most graphics programs. I use the ESRI .shp file format for my projects and all the following sources provide data in that format or the data can easily be converted into that format.

North America:
 * Bureau of Transportation Statistic contains politcal boundaries (state/province), road and rail data for Canada, US and Mexico. (public domain)
 * a conversion tool available from their website can be used to convert the data to ESRI .shp format

Canada:
 * GeoGratis detailed provincial and national data. (available under suitable license)
 * provided in .shp format

Software
I have used two free software packages to manipulate the GIS data. Both allow you to import 'themes', such as political boundaries, roads, rail, water, etc. I have found that fGIS has more powerful query features (allows you to only display 'CP' track) and can reproject your data (from geographic -> Mercator). For graphics software, I use GIMP.
 * ESRI ArcExplorer - the free viewer from ESRI which also sells full GIS manipulation software.
 * fGIS - from the University of Wisconsin. I recently started using this software and am finding it in some ways superior to ArcExplorer]

Making Maps
Generally, my procedure is to import the data into the GIS software, identify which data I want to display, resize and zoom to display just the data I want to show in my map, export each theme to a separate layer in GIMP (via clipboard or by saving to files), then colourize and label in GIMP.
 * 1) Importing: only import the data you think you might use since some data sets are huge (50+ MB).
 * 2) Displaying in GIS: don't worry about picking colours in the GIS software because it is generally easier to manipulate the colours in GIMP.
 * 3) Sizing: I have found that deciding on the size of your map using the GIS software works best. Resizing in GIMP usually causes details to disappear - the GIS software will display a road as a 1pixel line regardless of the zoom factor but if you resize in GIMP, the 1pixel line might disappear.
 * 4) Layers: In GIMP, put each theme (rail, political, water) on separate layers. Make upper layers transparent by 'selecting by color', selecting the background colour of the upper layer, and selecting 'clear'.
 * 5) Colours: I try to use the colours from the Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Maps.
 * 6) GIMP tricks: to emphasize 1 pixel roads/rail, select the road ('select by color' or 'by continuous') then 'enlarge' by 1 pixel, then fill with your preferred colour.

title: User:Al guy/maps


text:
Talk:Emil Rulez

Sorry -- since the page did not point to anywhere, and the title seemed to suggest very clearly a personal vanity page, I csd'ed it. Confusion now corrected. Hou Shuang 02:28, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Emil Rulez


text:
File talk:Apaches Ba-keitz-ogie, (The Yellow Coyote), called Dutchy Chiricahua scout (F19052 DPLW).jpg

 * (moved from User_talk:Ish_ishwar):

Hi, you just uploaded Image:Mescalero tipis.jpg and it needs some sort of copyright tag. Ie, if it is GNU FDL then add or if public domain. Evil Monkey → Talk 22:18, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * I dont know about this. I believe the photograph is public domain, but the Denver Public Library says its pages are copyrighted with permission given for fair use.  I guess this applies to the digital reproductions?  I dont know.  If the digital images are copyrighted then I suppose Wikipedia people will have to contact the library if they want to sell this.  Since you probably know more about this can you verify the status?  I have labelled all my uploaded pictures with 3 fair use tags.  Cheers!
 * - Ish ishwar 22:41, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Having read through the copyright stuff I've decided to go with seeing as the image was created at the turn of the century. Evil Monkey → Talk
 * Hi. Thank for your work.  I will change all my uploaded pics to this tag.  Thanks again.  Nice day to you.  -  Ish ishwar 02:24, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
File talk:Chiricahua Apaches as they arrived at Carlisle from Fort Marion, Florida (F26703 DPLW).jpg

 * (moved from User_talk:Ish_ishwar):

Hi, you just uploaded Image:Mescalero tipis.jpg and it needs some sort of copyright tag. Ie, if it is GNU FDL then add or if public domain. Evil Monkey → Talk 22:18, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * I dont know about this. I believe the photograph is public domain, but the Denver Public Library says its pages are copyrighted with permission given for fair use.  I guess this applies to the digital reproductions?  I dont know.  If the digital images are copyrighted then I suppose Wikipedia people will have to contact the library if they want to sell this.  Since you probably know more about this can you verify the status?  I have labelled all my uploaded pictures with 3 fair use tags.  Cheers!
 * - Ish ishwar 22:41, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Having read through the copyright stuff I've decided to go with seeing as the image was created at the turn of the century. Evil Monkey → Talk
 * Hi. Thank for your work.  I will change all my uploaded pics to this tag.  Thanks again.  Nice day to you.  -  Ish ishwar 02:24, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
File talk:Chiricahua Apache Hattie Tom.jpg

 * (moved from User_talk:Ish_ishwar):

Hi, you just uploaded Image:Mescalero tipis.jpg and it needs some sort of copyright tag. Ie, if it is GNU FDL then add or if public domain. Evil Monkey → Talk 22:18, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * I dont know about this. I believe the photograph is public domain, but the Denver Public Library says its pages are copyrighted with permission given for fair use.  I guess this applies to the digital reproductions?  I dont know.  If the digital images are copyrighted then I suppose Wikipedia people will have to contact the library if they want to sell this.  Since you probably know more about this can you verify the status?  I have labelled all my uploaded pictures with 3 fair use tags.  Cheers!
 * - Ish ishwar 22:41, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Having read through the copyright stuff I've decided to go with seeing as the image was created at the turn of the century. Evil Monkey → Talk
 * Hi. Thank for your work.  I will change all my uploaded pics to this tag.  Thanks again.  Nice day to you.  -  Ish ishwar 02:24, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
File talk:Gorgonia, Mescalero medicine man.jpg

 * (moved from User_talk:Ish_ishwar):

Hi, you just uploaded Image:Mescalero tipis.jpg and it needs some sort of copyright tag. Ie, if it is GNU FDL then add or if public domain. Evil Monkey → Talk 22:18, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * I dont know about this. I believe the photograph is public domain, but the Denver Public Library says its pages are copyrighted with permission given for fair use.  I guess this applies to the digital reproductions?  I dont know.  If the digital images are copyrighted then I suppose Wikipedia people will have to contact the library if they want to sell this.  Since you probably know more about this can you verify the status?  I have labelled all my uploaded pictures with 3 fair use tags.  Cheers!
 * - Ish ishwar 22:41, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Having read through the copyright stuff I've decided to go with seeing as the image was created at the turn of the century. Evil Monkey → Talk
 * Hi. Thank for your work.  I will change all my uploaded pics to this tag.  Thanks again.  Nice day to you.  -  Ish ishwar 02:24, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
File talk:San Carlos Apache woman (F24259 DPLW).jpg

 * (moved from User_talk:Ish_ishwar):

Hi, you just uploaded Image:Mescalero tipis.jpg and it needs some sort of copyright tag. Ie, if it is GNU FDL then add or if public domain. Evil Monkey → Talk 22:18, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * I dont know about this. I believe the photograph is public domain, but the Denver Public Library says its pages are copyrighted with permission given for fair use.  I guess this applies to the digital reproductions?  I dont know.  If the digital images are copyrighted then I suppose Wikipedia people will have to contact the library if they want to sell this.  Since you probably know more about this can you verify the status?  I have labelled all my uploaded pictures with 3 fair use tags.  Cheers!
 * - Ish ishwar 22:41, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Having read through the copyright stuff I've decided to go with seeing as the image was created at the turn of the century. Evil Monkey → Talk
 * Hi. Thank for your work.  I will change all my uploaded pics to this tag.  Thanks again.  Nice day to you.  -  Ish ishwar 02:24, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
Arturo Alessandri

Arturo Fortunato Alessandri Palma (December 20, 1868 – August 24, 1950) was a Chilean political figure and reformer who served thrice as president of Chile, first from 1920 to 1924, then from March to October 1925, and finally from 1932 to 1938.

Early life
Arturo Alessandri was the son of Pedro Alessandri Vargas and Susana Palma Guzmán. His grandfather, Pietro Allesandri Tarzi, was an Italian immigrant from Tuscany who had arrived in Chile from Argentina. Alessandri’s father, Pedro, became head of the family at the age of 19; at the time of Alessandri’s birth, he ran an estate in Longaví. At the age of 12, Alessandri enrolled at the Sacred Hearts High School, where his brothers and father had studied.

At the age of 20, Alessandri began his legal studies at the University of Chile. In 1891, while studying, he participated in the newspaper La Justicia, which was opposed to then President José Manuel Balmaceda. After graduating in 1893, Alessandri married Rosa Ester Rodríguez Velasco, with whom he had 9 children.

In 1897, Alessandri began his political career, becoming a member of the Liberal Party and representative of Curicó, a seat he would keep for nearly 20 years. In 1915, already aspiring to the presidency, Alessandri challenged the senator of Tarapacá Province, Arturo del Río; he won a hard-fought victory, from where he earned the nickname of "León de Tarapacá" ("Lion of Tarapacá").

In 1920, Alessandri was the Liberal Alliance candidate for president, narrowly defeating his opponent of the Coalition Party, Luis Barros Borgoño. With speeches favoring the working class, Alessandri alarmed Chilean conservatives, who felt their interests were in jeopardy. Since the opposition controlled the National Congress, Alessandri favored strengthening the executive power, which lacked political weight before the Congress (Parliamentary Era).

First administration
During most of 1924, Chile had been politically paralyzed by a conflict between the President and the conservatively controlled Congress, who refused to enact the laws that he submitted. On September 3, 1924, a group of 56 military officers protested for their low salaries, in the incident known as the ruido de sables (or "saber-rattling"). The next day the same group of young military officers led by Colonel Marmaduque Grove and Major Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, created the "military committee" to defend themselves from the government. On September 5, the "military committee" demanded of President Alessandri the dismissal of three of his ministers, including the Minister of War; the enactment of a labor code, the passage of an income tax law, and the improvement of the military salaries. Alessandri had no option but to appoint General Luis Altamirano, the Army Inspector General, as head of a new cabinet. On September 8, General Altamirano appeared in front of Congress to demand the passage of eight laws, including Alessandri's labor code. Congress didn't dare to protest, and the laws were passed in a matter of hours.

At that point, Alessandri felt that he had become just a pawn of the military and on September 9, he resigned, and requested asylum at the US Embassy. Congress refused to accept his resignation, and instead granted him a six-month constitutional leave of absence. He left the country immediately for Italy. On September 11, a military Junta — the September Junta — was established to rule the country in his absence.

Second administration
The September Junta was not homogeneous, and quickly a progressive wing, headed by Marmaduke Grove and Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, developed contacts with the Comité Obrero Nacional and others labour organizations who advocated for Alessandri's return. This led to a coup in January 1925, directed by Colonel Grove who handed out the power to General Pedro Dartnell as interim president while waiting for Alessandri's return. Dartnell formed the January Junta, before retroceding the power to Alessandri on March 20, 1925. Alessandri had a new Constitution drafted, and approved by plebiscite by 134,421 voters on August 30. The Constitution, which was promulgated on September 18, 1925, reinforced presidential powers over the legislative. Furthermore, Alessandri created a Central Bank, initiating the first rupture with laissez faire policies.

His second government began with the support of left-wing and radical groups. However, this second group began to distance itself from the President. In March 1925, Alessandri's government repressed a demonstration, leading to the Marusia massacre, soon followed by La Coruña massacre. This break with the working classes caused him to try to maintain a right-wing-radical alliance until 1937, when it took a turn towards the left. In order to face the threats of a coup, Alessandri relied on the republican forces, entrusted with repressing any intent to revolt and never to get involved in politics. They were created shortly before Alessandri's return, as a consequence of the civil movement. They functioned in secret and then publicly, marching in a great parade May 7, 1933, in front of the President, who saluted them. They auto-disbanded in 1936, having considered their mission complete. The President asked the Parliament on several opportunities for the state of constitutional exception, resulting in illegal actions, such as the famous burning of the Topaze Magazine issue No. 285, which depicted a caricature of Alessandri he considered offensive.

That time was also marked by the appearance of new violent occurrences, such as the rural rebellion of Ránquil and their bloody repression, and the Nazi-inspired National Socialist Movement of Chile of Jorge González von Marées. In the economic sphere, the recovery of the crisis of 1929 was begun with the work of the Treasury Minister Gustavo Ross, a pragmatic liberal who implemented a "towards in" approach to growth. With respect to nitrates, he dissolved COSACH and created the COVENSA (Corporation of Nitrate and Iodine Sale), a multi-faceted distributor and not a producer. He balanced the fiscal deficit with new taxes and resumed payment of the external debt, with losses for holders of Chilean bonds. When they reached a surplus, they focused on public works. The construction of the National Stadium in Santiago, inaugurated in December 1938, stands out.

The degree of Alessandri's responsibility in the 1938 Seguro Obrero massacre has been a subject of speculation.

Public life after the presidency
His political life did not end with his presidency. Due to the death of the communist Senator of Curico, Talca, Linares and Maule, Amador Pairoa, he participated in a complementary Senatorial election and won, returning to the Senate on November 8. In 1949 he was reelected but this time for Santiago, while also chosen to be President of this body.

He was of vital importance in the presidential elections of 1942 and 1946, in the first by causing a division of votes of the liberals, supporting Juan Antonio Ríos, and in the second by presenting himself as a preliminary candidate of the liberals. He later yielded his candidacy to his son Fernando, resulting in the division of the presidential candidates of the right and conservative support for Dr. Eduardo Cruz-Coke, in turn favoring the victory of Gabriel González Videla. While President of the Senate of Chile, Alessandri died at the age of 82, on August 24, 1950, and was replaced by his son Fernando Alessandri. One of his other sons, Jorge Alessandri, was president of Chile from 1958 to 1964.

Foreign Honours
🇩🇰 Denmark: 🇵🇹 Portugal: 🇪🇸 Spain:
 * Order of the Dannebrog S.K.svg Grand Cross with Diamonds of the Order of the Dannebrog (4 October 1937)
 * PRT Military Order of the Tower and of the Sword - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword (6 July 1925)
 * Spanish Grand Cross of Naval Merit Ribbon.png Grand Cross of the Order of Naval Merit (1912)

title: Arturo Alessandri