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Norwegian dialects

Norwegian dialects (dialekter) are commonly divided into four main groups, 'Northern Norwegian' (nordnorsk), 'Central Norwegian' (trøndersk), 'Western Norwegian' (vestlandsk), and 'Eastern Norwegian' (østnorsk). Sometimes 'Midland Norwegian' (midlandsmål) and/or 'South Norwegian' (sørlandsk) are considered fifth or sixth groups.

The dialects are generally mutually intelligible, but differ significantly with regard to accent, grammar, syntax, and vocabulary. If not accustomed to a particular dialect, even a native Norwegian speaker may have difficulty understanding it. Dialects can be as local as farm clusters, but many linguists note an ongoing regionalization, diminishing, or even elimination of local variations.

Spoken Norwegian typically does not exactly follow the written languages Bokmål and Nynorsk or the more conservative Riksmål and Høgnorsk, except in parts of Finnmark (where the original Sami population learned Norwegian as a second language). Rather, most people speak in their own local dialect. There is no "standard" spoken Norwegian.

Dialect groups

 * West and South Norwegian
 * South Norwegian (most of Agder county plus Fyresdal, Nissedal, Drangedal, and Kragerø in Telemark county)
 * South-West Norwegian (the inland parts of Sogn, most of Hordaland (except the city of Bergen), Rogaland county, and western parts of Agder county)
 * Bergen Norwegian or Bergensk (the city of Bergen and immediate surroundings)
 * North-West Norwegian (the districts of Romsdal, Sunnmøre, Nordfjord, Sunnfjord and outer parts of Sogn)
 * North Norwegian
 * Helgeland Norwegian (Nordland county south of Saltfjellet, except for Bindal Municipality)
 * Nordland Norwegian (Nordland county north of Saltfjellet)
 * Troms Norwegian (Troms county, except for Bardu Municipality and Målselv Municipality)
 * Finnmark Norwegian Finnmark county, except for northern Kautokeino, northern Karasjok, Tana and Nesseby.
 * East Norwegian
 * Vikvær Norwegian (Vestfold county, Østfold county, Bohuslän in Sweden, adjacent lowland parts of Telemark county, Buskerud county, and Akershus county)
 * Middle East Norwegian (Ringerike, Modum, Oslo and Romerike)
 * Oppland Norwegian (southern Hedmark and south-eastern Oppland)
 * Østerdal Norwegian (northern Hedmark and Bardu Municipality in northern Norway)
 * Midland Norwegian
 * Gudbrandsdal Norwegian (northern Oppland)
 * Valdres and Hallingdal Norwegian (south-west Oppland and western Buskerud)
 * Western Telemark Norwegian (Vinje Municipality, Tokke Municipality and Kviteseid Municipality)
 * Eastern Telemark Norwegian (Tinn Municipality, Hjartdal Municipality, Midt-Telemark Municipality, Notodden Municipality and upper Numedal)
 * Trøndelag Norwegian
 * Outer Trøndelag Norwegian (Nordmøre, outer Sør-Trøndelag, and Fosen)
 * Inner Trøndelag Norwegian (inner Sør-Trøndelag, Innherad, Lierne Municipality, and Snåsa Municipality)
 * Trondheim Norwegian (Trondheim Municipality)
 * Namdal Norwegian (Namdalen and surrounding coastal areas)
 * South-eastern Trøndersk (Røros Municipality, Selbu Municipality, Tydal Municipality, Holtålen Municipality, Oppdal Municipality)
 * Jämtlandic (Jämtland in Sweden)
 * American Norwegian

Dialect branches

 * National Norwegian
 * Nordnorsk (Northern Norway)
 * Bodø dialect (Bodø)
 * Brønnøy dialect (Brønnøy)
 * Helgeland dialect (Helgeland)
 * other dialects
 * Trøndersk (Trøndelag)
 * Trondheim dialect (Trondheim)
 * Fosen dialect (Fosen)
 * Härjedal dialect (Härjedalen)
 * Jämtland dialects (Jämtland province)
 * Meldal dialect (Meldal)
 * Tydal dialect (Tydal)
 * other dialects
 * Vestlandsk (Western and Southern Norway)
 * West (Vestlandet)
 * Bergen dialect (Bergen)
 * Haugesund dialect (Haugesund)
 * Jærsk dialect (Jæren district)
 * Karmøy dialect (Karmøy)
 * Nordmøre dialects (Nordmøre)
 * Kristiansunds dialect
 * Sunndalsøra dialect (Sunndalsøra)
 * Romsdal dialect (Romsdal)
 * Sandnes dialect (Sandnes)
 * Sogn dialect (Sogn district)
 * Sunnmøre dialect (Sunnmøre)
 * Stavanger dialect (Stavanger)
 * Strilar dialect (Midhordland district)
 * South (Sørlandet)
 * Arendal dialect (Arendal region)
 * Valle-Setesdalsk dialect (Upper Setesdal, Valle)
 * other dialects
 * Østlandsk (Eastern Norway)
 * Flatbygd dialects (Lowland districts)
 * Vikværsk dialects (Viken district)
 * Drammen dialect (Drammen region)
 * Follo dialect (Follo)
 * Vestfold dialects (Vestfold)
 * Tønsberg dialect (Tønsberg and Færder)
 * Andebu dialect (Andebu)
 * Revetal dialect (Re)
 * Østfold dialects (Østfold)
 * Fredrikstad dialect (Fredrikstad region)
 * Inner Østfold dialect (Inner Østfold)
 * Bohuslän dialect (Bohuslän province)
 * Grenland dialect (Grenland district)
 * Midtøstland dialects (Mid-east districts)
 * Urban East Norwegian (Metropolitan area of Oslo)
 * Oslo dialect (Oslo)
 * Asker and Bærum dialect, this is the dialect that is closest to the standard Norwegian language. (Asker and Bærum)
 * Romerike dialect (Romerike)
 * Ringerike dialects (Ringerike district)
 * Hønefoss dialect (Hønefoss)
 * Ådal dialect (Ådal)
 * Moing dialects (Modum)
 * Oppland dialect (Opplandene district)
 * Hedmark dialects (Hedmark)
 * Solung dialect (Solør)
 * Hadeland dialect (Hadeland district)
 * Østerdal dialect (Viken district)
 * Särna-Idre dialect (Särna and Idre)
 * Midland dialects (Norway) (Midland districts)
 * Gudbrandsdal dialect (Gudbrandsdalen, Oppland and Upper Folldal, Hedmark)
 * Hallingdal-Valdres dialects (Hallingdal, Valdres)
 * Hallingdal dialect
 * Valdris dialect (Valdres district)
 * Telemark-Numedal dialects (Telemark and Numedal)
 * Bø dialect
 * other dialects

Evolution
Owing to geography and climate, Norwegian communities were often isolated from each other until the early 20th century. As a result, local dialects had a tendency to be influenced by each other in singular ways while developing their own idiosyncrasies. Oppdal Municipality, for example, has characteristics in common with coastal dialects to the west, the dialects of northern Gudbrandsdalen to the south, and other dialects in Sør-Trøndelag from the north. The linguist Einar Haugen documented the particulars of the Oppdal dialect, and the writer Inge Krokann used it as a literary device. Other transitional dialects include the dialects of Romsdal and Arendal.

On the other hand, newly industrialized communities near sources of hydroelectric power have developed dialects consistent with the region but in many ways unique. Studies in such places as Høyanger, Odda, Tyssedal, Rjukan, Notodden, Sauda, and others show that koineization has effected the formation of new dialects in these areas.

Similarly, in the early 20th century a dialect closely approximating standard Bokmål arose in and around railway stations. This was known as stasjonsspråk ("station language") and may have contributed to changes in dialect around these centers.

Social dynamics
Until the 20th century, upward social mobility in a city like Oslo could in some cases require conforming speech to standard Riksmål. Studies show that even today, speakers of rural dialects may tend to change their usage in formal settings to approximate the formal written language. This has led to various countercultural movements ranging from the adoption of traditional forms of Oslo dialects among political radicals in Oslo, to movements preserving local dialects. There is widespread and growing acceptance that Norwegian linguistic diversity is worth preserving.

The trend today is a regionalisation of the dialects causing smaller dialectal traits to disappear and rural dialects to merge with their nearest larger dialectal variety.

There is no standard dialect for the Norwegian language as a whole, and all dialects are by now mutually intelligible. Hence, widely different dialects are used frequently and alongside each other, in almost every aspect of society. Criticism of a dialect may be considered criticism of someone's personal identity and place of upbringing, and is considered impolite. Not using one's proper dialect would be bordering on awkward in many situations, as it may signal a wish to take on an identity or a background which one does not have. Dialects are also an area from which to derive humour both in professional and household situations.

Distinctions
There are many ways to distinguish among Norwegian dialects. These criteria are drawn from the work Vårt Eget Språk/Talemålet (1987) by Egil Børre Johnsen. These criteria generally provide the analytical means for identifying most dialects, though most Norwegians rely on experience to tell them apart.

Infinitive forms
One of the most important differences among dialects is which ending, if any, verbs have in the infinitive form. In Old Norwegian, most verbs had an infinitive ending (-a), and likewise in a modern Norwegian dialect, most of the verbs of the dialect either have or would have had an infinitive ending. There are five varieties of the infinitive ending in Norwegian dialects, constituting two groups:

One ending (western dialects)
 * Infinitive ending with -a, e.g., å vera, å bita, common in southwestern Norway, including the areas surrounding Bergen (although not in the city of Bergen itself) and Stavanger (city)
 * Infinitive ending with -e, e.g., å være, å bite, common in Troms, Finnmark, areas of Sogn og Fjordane and Møre og Romsdal, southern counties, and a few other areas.
 * Apocopic infinitive, where no vowel is added to the infinitive form, e.g., å vær, å bit, common in certain areas of Nordland

Two different endings (eastern dialects)
 * Split infinitive, in which some verbs end with -a while others end with -e; e.g. å væra versus å bite, common in Eastern Norway
 * Split infinitive, with apocope, e.g., å væra (værra/vårrå/varra) versus å bit, common in some areas in Sør-Trøndelag and Nord-Trøndelag

The split distribution of endings is related to the syllable length of the verb in Old Norse. "Short-syllable" (kortstava) verbs in Norse kept their endings. The "long-syllable" (langstava) verbs lost their (unstressed) endings or had them converted to -e.

Dative case
The original Germanic contextual difference between the dative and accusative cases, standardized in modern German and Icelandic, has degenerated in spoken Danish and Swedish, a tendency which spread to Bokmål too. Ivar Aasen treated the dative case in detail in his work, Norsk Grammatik (1848), and use of Norwegian dative as a living grammatical case can be found in a few of the earliest Landsmål texts. However, the dative case has never been part of official Landsmål/Nynorsk.

It is, however, present in some spoken dialects north of Oslo, Romsdal, and south and northeast of Trondheim. The grammatical phenomenon is highly threatened in the mentioned areas, while most speakers of conservative varieties have been highly influenced by the national standard languages, using only the traditional accusative word form in both cases. Often, though not always, the difference in meaning between the dative and accusative word forms can thus be lost, requiring the speaker to add more words to specify what was actually meant, to avoid potential loss of information.

Future tense
There are regional variations in the use of future tense, for example, "He is going to travel.":
 * Han kommer/kjem til å reise.
 * Han blir å reise.
 * Han blir reisan.
 * Han skal reise.

Syntax
Syntax can vary greatly between dialects, and the tense is important for the listener to get the meaning. For instance, a question can be formed without the traditional "asking-words" (how, where, what, who..)

For example, the sentence Hvor mye er klokken? (in Bokmål), Kor mykje er klokka? (in Nynorsk), literally: "How much is the clock?" i.e. "What time is it?" can be put in, among others, the following forms:
 * E klokka mykje? (Is the clock much?) (stress is on "the clock")
 * E a mytti, klokka? (Is it much, the clock?) (stress on "is")
 * Ka e klokka? (literally: "What is the clock?")
 * Ka klokka e? (literally: What the clock is?), or, using another word for clock, Ke ure' e?
 * Å er 'o? (literally: What is she?).

Diphthongization of monophthongs
Old Norse had the diphthongs, , and , but the Norwegian spoken in the area around Setesdal has shifted two of the traditional diphthongs and innovated four more from long vowels, and, in some cases, also short vowels.

West Norwegian dialects have also innovated new diphthongs. In Midtre you can find the following:

Monophthongization of diphthongs
The Old Norse diphthongs, , and have experienced monophthongization in certain dialects of modern Norwegian.

This shift originated in Old East Norse, which is reflected in the fact that Swedish and Danish overwhelmingly exhibit this change. Monophthongization in Norway ends on the coast west of Trondheim and extends southeast in a triangle into central Sweden. Some Norwegian dialects, east of Molde, for example, have lost only and.

Leveling
(Jamning/Jevning in Norwegian) This is a phenomenon in which the root vowel and end vowel in a word approximate each other. For example, the old Norse viku has become våkkå or vukku in certain dialects. There are two varieties in Norwegian dialects – one in which the two vowels become identical, the other where they are only similar. Leveling exists only in inland areas in Southern Norway, and areas around Trondheim.

Vowel shift in strong verbs
In all but Oslo and coastal areas just south of the capital, the present tense of certain verbs take on a new vowel (umlaut), e.g., å fare becomes fer (in Oslo, it becomes farer).

Eliminating in the plural indefinite form
In some areas, the is not pronounced in all or some words in their plural indefinite form. There are four categories:
 * The is retained – most of Eastern Norway, the South-Eastern coast, and across to areas north and east of Stavanger.
 * The disappears altogether – Southern tip of Norway, coastal areas north of Bergen, and inland almost to Trondheim.
 * The is retained in certain words but not in others – coastal areas around Trondheim, and most of Northern Norway
 * The is retained in certain words and in weak feminine nouns, but not in others – one coast area in Nordland.

Phonetic realization of
Most dialects realize as the alveolar tap  or alveolar trill. However, for the last 200 years the uvular approximant has been gaining ground in Western and Southern Norwegian dialects, with Kristiansand, Stavanger, and Bergen as centers. The uvular R has also been adopted in aspiring patricians in and around Oslo, to the point that it was for some time fashionable to "import" governesses from the Kristiansand area. In certain regions, such as Oslo, the flap has become realized as a retroflex flap (generally called "thick L"), which exists only in Norway, a few regions in Sweden, and in completely unrelated languages. The sound coexists with other retroflexions in Norwegian dialects. In some areas it also applies to words that end with "rd," for example with gard (farm) being pronounced. The uvular R has gained less acceptance in eastern regions, and linguists speculate that dialects that use retroflexes have a "natural defense" against uvular R and thus will not adopt it. However, the dialect of Arendal retains the retroflexes, while featuring the uvular R in remaining positions, e.g. rart.

In large parts of Northern Norway, especially in the northern parts of Nordland county and southern parts of Troms county, as well as several parts of Finnmark county, another variant is still common: the voiced post-alveolar sibilant fricative. In front of voiceless consonants, the realisation of this R is unvoiced as well, to. Thus, where one in the southern and Trøndelag dialects will get or  or, in areas realising voiced R as , one will get.

Palatalization
In areas north of an isogloss running between Oslo and Bergen, palatalization occurs for the n (IPA ), l, t and d  sounds in varying degrees. Areas just south and southwest of Trondheim palatalize both the main and subordinate syllable in words (e.g., ), but other areas only palatalize the main syllable.

Voicing of plosives
Voiceless stops have become voiced  intervocalically after long vowels (,  vs., ) on the extreme southern coast of Norway, including Kristiansand, Mandal and Stavanger. The same phenomenon appears in Sør-Trøndelag and one area in Nordland.

Segmentation
The geminate in southwestern Norway has become, while just east in southcentral Norwegian the final  is lost, leaving. The same sequence has been palatalized in Northern Norway, leaving the palatal lateral.

Assimilation
The second consonant in the consonant clusters, , and has assimilated to the first across most of Norway, leaving , , and  respectively. Western Norway, though not in Bergen, retains the cluster. In Northern Norway this same cluster is realized as the palatal lateral.

Consonant shift in conjugation of masculine nouns
Although used less frequently, a subtle shift takes place in conjugating a masculine noun from indefinitive to definitive, e.g., from bekk to bekkjen (, [beçːen] or ). This is found in rural dialects along the coast from Farsund Municipality to the border between Troms and Finnmark.

The kj - sj merger
Many people, especially in the younger generation, have lost the differentiation between the (written $\langlekj\rangle$) and  (written $\langlesj\rangle$) sounds, realizing both as. This is by many considered to be a normal development in language change (although as most language changes, the older generation and more conservative language users often lament the degradation of the language). The functional load is relatively low, and as often happens, similar sounds with low functional loads merge.

Tonemes and intonation
There are great differences between the intonation systems of different Norwegian dialects.

First person pronoun, nominative plural
Three variations of the first person plural nominative pronoun exist in Norwegian dialects:
 * Vi, (pronounced ), common in parts of Eastern Norway, most of Northern Norway, coastal areas close to Trondheim, and one sliver of Western Norway
 * Me, mø or mi, in Southern and most of Western Norway, areas inland of Trondheim, and a few smaller areas
 * Oss, common in areas of Sør-Trøndelag, Gudbrandsdalen, Nordmøre and parts of Sunnmøre.

First person pronoun, nominative singular
There is considerable variety in the way the first person singular nominative pronoun is pronounced in Norwegian dialects. They appear to fall into three groups, within which there are also variations:
 * E(g) and æ(i)(g), in which the hard 'g' may or may not be included. This is common in most of Southern and Western Norway, Trøndelag, and most of Northern Norway. In some areas of Western Norway, it is common to say ej.
 * I (pronounced ), in a few areas in Western Norway (Romsdal/Molde) and Snåsa in Nord Trøndelag
 * Jé, jè , or jei , in areas around Oslo, and north along the Swedish border, almost to Trondheim, as well as one region in Troms

The word "not"
The Norwegian word for the English not exists in these main categories:
 * ikke – Oslo, Kristiansand, Bergen, Ålesund, most of Finnmark, Vestfold and lowland parts of Telemark, and some cities in Nordland.
 * ikkje – most of Southern, Northern, Western Norway and high-land parts of Telemark.
 * ittj – Trøndelag
 * ikkj - parts of Salten District, Nordland
 * itte or ittje  – areas north of Oslo, along the Swedish border
 * inte, ente or ette  – Mostly along the Swedish border south of Oslo in Østfold
 * kje/e'kje
 * isje/itsje

Examples of the sentence "I am not hungry," in Norwegian:
 * ikke: Jeg er ikke sulten. (Bokmål)
 * ikkje: Eg er ikkje svolten. (Nynorsk)
 * ikkje: I e ikkje sulten. (Romsdal)
 * ittj: Æ e ittj sopin. (Trøndelag)
 * ikkj: E e ikkj sulten. (Salten)
 * ke: Æ e ke sulten. (Narvik)
 * ente: Je er'nte sulten. (Hærland)

Interrogative words
Some common interrogative words take on forms such as:

title: Norwegian dialects


text:
Radu Mazăre

Radu Ştefan Mazăre (born 5 July 1968) is a Romanian ex-politician. His political activity began with his election to the lower house of the Parliament on the Democratic Party (PD) list, which he left in 1997 to serve as an independent. In 2000, he defeated all party-supported contestants to be elected mayor of Constanța, one of Romania's largest cities and its foremost seaport. Joining the Social Democratic Party (PSD) in 2003, he went on to win the following three elections with a comfortable majority. In 2015, during his fourth term, Mazăre resigned amid accusations of corruption, citing the unbearable stress caused by what he claimed to be politically motivated investigations. In 2017, he fled while under bail to Madagascar, claiming the right of asylum, but he was extradited back to Romania on 20 May 2019 to serve a 9-year sentence in prison. His brother, Alexandru Mazăre, also served as an MP.

Education
He is a graduate of the "Mircea cel Bătrân" Naval Academy (Electromechanics Department) in Constanța, class of 1991.

Career
He founded the now-defunct Telegraf newspaper, the now-defunct Neptun TV channel and was a shareholder of the Conpress Holding. He joined the Democratic Party (PD) and was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1996. He later resigned due to "differences between electoral promises and [the] realities of government".

Controversies
He is considered one of the top 300 richest people in Romania and was accused of being a so-called "local baron" of the Social Democratic Party (PSD).

In November 2008, The Diplomat reported that the National Anti-corruption Department had accused Mazăre, along with 36 other municipal employees, of corruption, abuse of public service, forgery, and criminal complicity. The group was charged with giving €114 million ($144 million) worth of state-owned land along the coast of the Black Sea and public beaches in Constanta and Mamaia to individuals, including Mazăre's family. Mazăre was awarded 5,000 Romanian Lei in damages after the Anti-corruption Department refused to provide information about the qualification of the experts. Another controversial event took place in July 2009 when, during a fashion show, Radu Mazăre participated wearing a Nazi Wehrmacht uniform, together with his son, who was also wearing a Nazi uniform. He explained that he "always liked this uniform, and admired the rigorous organization of the German army". According to Mazăre, "I checked it before I put it on but the swastika was very small and I didn't see it". Two days later he issued a public apology to Jewish organisations, declaring that by wearing the uniform he wanted to pay homage to Claus von Stauffenberg, a leading member of the failed plot to kill Adolf Hitler during World War II.

Radu Mazăre in the year 2003 introduced the "tax for increasing the degree of peace and security in carrying out economic activities in Constanța, Mamaia and Sat Vacanţa" (taxa pentru creșterea gradului de liniște și siguranță în derularea activităților economice în Constanța, Mamaia și Sat Vacanță). This tax was attacked and canceled by the prefect of Constanța county Dănuț Culețu in 2006. Although this tax was considered abusive, it was reintroduced in disagreement with 31337 debtors from Constanta, in 2009. Among the population, this tax was also called: "Mazăre's Protection tax" or ”The Al Capone Tax”. The tax remained uncontested until 2015, when the president of the ACIA, civic activist Andrei Popescu, initiated a campaign to collect signatures to end this abuse. The campaign had a real support from the people of Constanta, gathering over 7,000 signatories.

In early 2015, Mazăre was placed under indictment and investigated for corruption-related offenses by the National Anticorruption Directorate.

In July 2017, after nine years of trial, Mazăre was convicted and given a three-year suspended sentence for the illegal sales.

At the end of 2017, Mazăre fled to Madagascar, where he owns a holiday resort, asking for the right of asylum.

In May 2018, Mazăre received a six and a half-year prison sentence for abuse of power in a case related to the sale of a 15,000 sqm-plot of land in the Mamaia resort, subject to appeal. Subsequently, on 8 February 2019, Mazăre was handed a final 9-year imprisonment sentence in the Mamaia affair. In May 2019 he was repatriated to Romania under an international warrant, to serve 9 years in prison.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Radu Mazăre


text:
Montgomery C. Meigs

Montgomery Cunningham Meigs (May 3, 1816 – January 2, 1892) was a career United States Army officer and military and civil engineer, who served as Quartermaster General of the U.S. Army during and after the American Civil War. Although a Southerner from Georgia, Meigs strongly opposed secession and supported the Union. His record as Quartermaster General was regarded as outstanding, both in effectiveness and in ethical probity, and Secretary of State William H. Seward viewed Meigs' leadership and contributions as key factors in the Union victory in the war.

Meigs was one of the principal architects of Arlington National Cemetery. Meigs's decision to locate the cemetery on Robert E. Lee's family estate, Arlington House, was partly a gesture to humiliate Lee for siding with the Confederacy.

Early life and education
Meigs was born in Augusta, Georgia, in May 1816. He was the son of Dr. Charles Delucena Meigs and Mary Montgomery Meigs. His father was a nationally known obstetrician and professor of obstetrics at Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia. His grandfather, Josiah Meigs, graduated from Yale University, where he was a classmate of future dictionary creator Noah Webster and American Revolutionary War general and politician Oliver Wolcott, and later was president of the University of Georgia. Montgomery Meigs' mother, Mary, was the granddaughter of a Scottish family from Brigend with somewhat distant claims to a baronetcy, which emigrated to America in 1701.

Meigs' father apprenticed as a physician in Philadelphia until 1812, at which time he moved to Athens, Georgia. He enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia three years later, in 1815, the same year he began to practice medicine in Georgia. Charles Meigs received his medical degree from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine in 1817, and that summer he moved his family, which then included a one-year-old Montgomery, to Philadelphia and established a practice there. The Meigs family was wealthy and well-connected, and Charles Meigs was a strong supporter of the Democratic Party. Meigs had an extremely good memory, and his father instilled in him a sense of duty and a desire to pursue honorable causes. Young Montgomery received schooling at the Franklin Institute and then a preparatory school for the University of Pennsylvania. Meigs learned French, German, and Latin, and studied art, literature, and poetry. He enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania when he was only 15 years old. A hard worker, he was one of the top students at the university.

The Meigs family had extensive ties to the military and to the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York. Montgomery Meigs wished to serve in the United States Army. West Point was the only well established engineering school in the United States at the time. Through family connections, Meigs won an appointment to West Point, entering in 1832. He excelled academically at West Point, although he said he spent too much time with athletics and outdoor activities. He was among the top three students in French and mathematics, and did well in history. He graduated fifth out of a class of 49 in 1836, and he had more good conduct merits that ranked in the top third his class.

He received a commission as a second lieutenant in the 1st U.S. Artillery, but most of his army service was with the Corps of Engineers, in which he worked on important engineering projects.

In his early assignments, Meigs helped build Fort Mifflin and Fort Delaware, both on the Delaware River, and Fort Wayne on the Detroit River. He also served under the command of then-Lt. Robert E. Lee to make navigational improvements on the Mississippi River. Beginning in 1844, Meigs also was involved with the construction of Fort Montgomery on Lake Champlain in upstate New York.

Within a few days of each other, in late March 1853, Meigs became responsible for supervising both the building of the Washington Aqueduct and the enlargement of the United States Capitol. His favorite pre-Civil War engineering project was the Washington Aqueduct, which he supervised from 1852 to 1860. It involved constructing the monumental Union Arch Bridge across Cabin John Creek, designed by Alfred L. Rives, which for 50 years remained the longest single-span masonry arch in the world. From 1853 to 1859, he also supervised the building of the wings and dome of the United States Capitol and, from 1855 to 1859, the extension of the General Post Office Building.

In the fall of 1860, as a result of a disagreement over procurement contracts, Meigs incurred the ill will of the Secretary of War, John B. Floyd, and was banished to Tortugas in the Gulf of Mexico to construct fortifications there and at Key West, including Fort Jefferson, Florida. Upon the resignation of Floyd a few months later, Meigs was recalled to his work on the aqueduct at Washington.

Civil War
Just before the outbreak of the Civil War, Meigs and Lt. Col. Erasmus D. Keyes were quietly charged by President Abraham Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward with drawing up a plan for the relief of Fort Pickens in Florida, by means of a secret expedition. In April 1861, together with Lieutenant David D. Porter of the Navy, they carried out the expedition, embarking under orders from the President without the knowledge of either the Secretary of the Navy or the Secretary of War.

On May 14, 1861, Meigs was appointed colonel, 11th U.S. Infantry, and on the following day, promoted to brigadier general and Quartermaster General of the Army. The previous Quartermaster General, Joseph Johnston, had resigned and become a general in the Confederate Army. Meigs established a reputation for being efficient, hard-driving, and scrupulously honest. He molded a large and somewhat diffuse department into a great tool of war. He was one of the first to fully appreciate the importance of logistical preparations in military planning, and under his leadership, supplies moved forward and troops were transported over long distances with ever-greater efficiency.

James G. Blaine, commenting on Meigs' work in the quartermaster's office, said: "Montgomery C. Meigs, one of the ablest graduates of the Military Academy, was kept from the command of troops by the inestimably important services he performed as Quartermaster General. Perhaps in the military history of the world there never was so large an amount of money disbursed upon the order of a single man ... The aggregate sum could not have been less during the war than fifteen hundred million dollars, accurately vouched and accounted for to the last cent."

U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward's estimated that "without the services of this eminent soldier the national cause must have been lost or deeply imperiled."

While Meigs served as Quartermaster General throughout the war he went on an extensive inspection tour from August 1863 to January 1864. During that time Colonel Charles Thomas acted in his stead back in Washington, D.C. Meigs' field services during the Civil War included command of Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant's base of supplies at Fredericksburg and Belle Plain, Virginia (1864); command of a division of War Department employees in the defense of Washington at the time of Jubal A. Early's raid (July 11 to 14, 1864); personally supervising the refitting and supplying of Major General William T. Sherman's army at Savannah (January 5 to 29, 1865), Goldsboro, and Raleigh, North Carolina and reopening Sherman's lines of supply (March to April 1865). He was brevetted to major general on July 5, 1864.

A staunch Unionist, Meigs detested the Confederacy. His feelings led directly to the establishment of Arlington National Cemetery. On July 16, 1862, Congress passed legislation authorizing the U.S. federal government to purchase land for national cemeteries for military dead, and put the U.S. Army Quartermaster General in charge of this program. The Soldiers' Home in Washington, D.C., and the Alexandria Cemetery were the primary burying grounds for war dead in the D.C. area, but by late 1863 both cemeteries were full. In May 1864, Union forces suffered large numbers of dead in the Battle of the Wilderness. Meigs ordered that an examination of eligible sites be made for the establishment for a large new national military cemetery. Within weeks, his staff reported that Arlington Estate was the most suitable property in the area. The property was high and free from floods (which might unearth graves), it had a view of the District of Columbia, and it was aesthetically pleasing. It was also the home of Robert E. Lee, future General-in-Chief of the Confederacy, whom Meigs considered a traitor, and denying Lee use of his home after the war was a valuable political consideration. Although the first military burial at Arlington had been made on May 13, Meigs did not authorize establishment of burials until June 15, 1864. Meigs ordered that the estate be surveyed and that 200 acre be set aside for use as a cemetery.

The logistics system
There was a notable disparity between the Union and Confederate logistical situations. The Confederacy had a longstanding supply deficit, which only intensified as the war dragged on. Union forces, on the other hand, usually had enough food, ammunition, weapons, and other supplies. The Union logistics system, even as it penetrated deeper into the South, maintained its efficiency. Historians credit these achievements to Meigs. Union quartermasters were responsible for most of the $3 billion spent for the war. They operated out of sixteen major depots, which formed the basis of the system of procurement and supply throughout the war. As the war expanded, operation of these depots became much more complex, with an overlapping and interweaving relationship between the army and government operated factories, private factories, and numerous middlemen. The purchase of goods and services through contracts supervised by the quartermasters accounted for most of federal military expenditures, apart from the wages of the soldiers. The quartermasters supervised their own soldiers, and cooperated closely with state officials, manufacturers and wholesalers trying to sell directly to the army; and representatives of civilian workers looking for higher pay at government factories. The complex system was closely monitored by congressmen anxious to ensure that their districts won their share of contracts. The system grew in efficiency to the point Union troops on long marches would simply throw away excess knapsacks, bedrolls, overcoats, and other pieces of clothing and equipment that they felt were weighing them down, fully confident that they would be resupplied at some point in the near future.

Wartime deaths
In October 1864, his son, 1st Lieutenant John Rodgers Meigs, was killed at Swift Run Gap in Virginia and was buried at a Georgetown Cemetery. Lt. Meigs was part of a three-man patrol which ran into a three-man Confederate patrol. Lt. Meigs was killed, one man was captured, and one man escaped. To the end of his life, Meigs believed that his son had been murdered after being captured—despite evidence to the contrary. The younger Meigs was laid to rest in Oak Hill Cemetery in Georgetown in Washington, D.C. Both Abraham Lincoln and Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton attended the interment. He was later re-interred at Arlington National Cemetery.

Meigs was also present for Lincoln's death. At 10:00 pm on the evening of April 14, 1865, Meigs heard that William Seward had been attacked by a knife-wielding assailant. Meigs rushed to Rodgers House, Seward's home on Lafayette Square just across the street from the White House. Shortly after arriving at Seward's home, Meigs learned of the shooting of Lincoln. He rushed to the Petersen House across from Ford's Theatre, where Lincoln lay dying. Meigs stood at the front door of the house for the rest of the deathwatch. He alone decided who was admitted to the house. When Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15, Meigs moved into the parlor to sit with the president's body. During Lincoln's funeral procession in the city five days later, Meigs rode at the head of two battalions of quartermaster corps soldiers.

Role in developing Arlington National Cemetery
Meigs played a critical role in developing Arlington National Cemetery, both during the Civil War and afterward.

Although most burials initially occurred near the freedmen's cemetery in the estate's northeast corner, in mid-June 1864 Meigs ordered that burials commence immediately on the grounds of Arlington House. Brigadier General René Edward De Russy was living in Arlington House at the time and opposed the burial of bodies close to his quarters, forcing new interments to occur far to the west (in what is now Section 1 of the cemetery). But Meigs still demanded that officers be buried on the grounds of the mansion, around the Lees' former flower garden. The first officer burial had occurred there on May 17, but with Meigs' order another 44 officers were buried along the southern and eastern sides within a month. By May 31, more than 2,600 burials had occurred in the cemetery, and Meigs ordered that a white picket fence be constructed around the burial grounds. In December 1865, Robert E. Lee's brother, Smith Lee, visited Arlington House and observed that the house could be made livable again if the graves around the flower garden were removed. Meigs hated Lee for betraying the Union, and ordered that more burials occur near the house to make it politically impossible for disinterment to occur.

Meigs himself designed and implemented most of the changes at the cemetery in the 15 years after the war. In 1865, for example, Meigs decided to build a monument to Civil War dead in the center of a grove of trees west of the Lee's flower garden. U.S. Army troops were dispatched to investigate every battlefield within a 35 mi radius of the city of Washington, D.C. The bodies of 2,111 Union and Confederate dead were collected, most of them from the battlefields of First and Second Bull Run, as well as the Union army's retreat along the Rappahannock River (which occurred after both battles). Although Meigs had not intended to collect the remains of Confederate war dead, the inability to identify remains meant that both Union and Confederate dead were interred below the cenotaph. U.S. Army engineers chopped down most of the trees and dug a circular pit about 20 ft wide and 20 ft deep into the earth. The walls and floor were lined with brick, and it was segmented it into compartments with mortared brick walls. Into each compartment were placed a different body part: skulls, legs, arms, ribs, etc. The vault was half full by the time it was ready for sealing in September 1866. Meigs designed a 6 ft tall, 12 ft long, 4 ft wide grey granite and concrete cenotaph to rest on top of the burial vault. The Civil War Unknowns Monument consists of two long, light grey granite slabs, with the shorter ends formed by sandwiching a smaller slab between the longer two. On the west face was an inscription describing the number of dead in the vault below, and honoring the "unknowns of the Civil War". Originally, a Rodman gun was placed on each corner, and a pyramid of shot adorned the center of the lid. A circular walk, centered 45 ft from the center of the memorial, provided access. A walk led east to the flower garden, and another west to the road. Sod was laid around the memorial, and planting beds filled with annual plants emplaced.

Meigs made additional major changes to the cemetery in the 1870s. In 1870, he ordered that a "Sylvan Hall"—a series of three cruciform tree plantings, one inside the other—be planted in the "Field of the Dead" (in what is now Section 13). A year later, Meigs ordered the McClellan Gate constructed. Located just west of the intersection of what is today McClellan and Eisenhower Drives, this was originally Arlington National Cemetery's main gate. Built of red sandstone and red brick, the name "MCCLELLAN" tops the simple rectangular gate in gilt letters. But just below the name was inscribed the name "MEIGS"—a tribute to himself which Meigs could not help making. Due to the growing importance of the cemetery as well as the much larger crowds attending Memorial Day observances, Meigs also decided a formal meeting space at the cemetery was needed. A grove of trees southwest of Arlington House was cut down, and an amphitheater (today known as the Tanner Amphitheater) was constructed in 1874. Meigs himself designed the amphitheater.

Meigs continued to work to ensure that the Lee family could never take control of Arlington. In 1882, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in United States v. Lee that the seizure of the Arlington estate at a tax sale by the United States was illegal, and returned the estate to George Washington Custis Lee, General Lee's oldest son. He, in turn, sold the estate back to the U.S. government for $150,000 in 1883. To commemorate the retention of the estate, in 1884 Meigs ordered that a Temple of Fame be erected in the Lee flower garden. The U.S. Patent Office building had suffered a massive fire in 1877. It was torn down and rebuilt in 1879, but the work went very slowly. Meigs ordered that stone columns, pediments, and entablatures which had been saved from the Patent Office be used to construct the Temple of Fame. The Temple was a round, Greek Revival, temple-like structure with Doric columns supporting a central dome. Inscribed on the pediment supporting the dome were the names of great Americans such as George Washington, Ulysses S. Grant, Abraham Lincoln, and David Farragut. A year after it was built, the names of Union Civil War generals were carved into its columns. Since not enough marble was available to rebuild the dome, a tin dome (molded and painted to look like marble) was installed, instead. The Temple of Fame was demolished in 1967.

Postbellum career and death
Meigs became a permanent resident of the District of Columbia after the war. He purchased a home located at 1239 Vermont Avenue NW (at the corner of Vermont Avenue and N Street).

As Quartermaster General after the Civil War, Meigs supervised plans for the new War Department building (constructed between 1866 and 1867), the National Museum (constructed in 1876), the extension of the Washington Aqueduct (constructed in 1876), and for a hall of records (constructed in 1878). Along with fellow Quartermaster Brigadier General Roeliff Brinkerhoff, Meigs edited a volume entitled, The Volunteer Quartermaster, a treatise which was considered the standard guide for the officers and employees of the quartermaster's department up until World War I.

From 1866 to 1868, to recuperate from the strain of his war service, Meigs visited Europe. From 1875 to 1876, he made another visit to study the organization of European armies, this time with nephew and Army officer Montgomery M. Macomb assigned as aide-de-camp. After his retirement on February 6, 1882, he was succeeded by Daniel H. Rucker and became architect of the Pension Office Building, now home to the National Building Museum. He was a regent of the Smithsonian Institution, a member of the American Philosophical Society, a co-founder of the Philosophical Society of Washington, and one of the earliest members of the National Academy of Sciences.

Pension Building (1882 to 1887)
Following the end of the Civil War, the US Congress passed legislation that greatly extended the scope of pension coverage for both veterans and their survivors and dependents, notably their widows and orphans. This greatly increased the number of staff needed to administer the new benefits system. More than 1,500 clerks were required, and a new building was needed to house them. Meigs was chosen to design and construct the new building, now the National Building Museum. He broke away from the established Greco-Roman models that had been the basis of government buildings in Washington, D.C., until then, and was to continue following the completion of the Pension Building. Meigs based his design on Italian Renaissance precedents, notably Rome's Palazzo Farnese and Palazzo della Cancelleria.

Included in his design was a 1200 ft long sculptured frieze executed by Caspar Buberl. Since creating a work of sculpture of that size was well out of Meigs's budget, he had Buberl create 28 different scenes (totaling 69 ft in length), which were then mixed and slightly modified to create the continuous 1200 ft long parade that includes over 1,300 figures. Because of the way the 28 sections are modified and mixed up, only somewhat careful examination reveals the frieze to be the same figures repeated over and over. The sculpture includes infantry, navy, artillery, cavalry, and medical components, as well as a good deal of the supply and quartermaster functions. Meigs's correspondence with Buberl reveals that Meigs insisted that one teamster, "must be a negro, a plantation slave, freed by war," be included in the quartermaster panel. This figure was ultimately to assume a position in the center, over the west entrance to the building.

When Philip Sheridan was asked to comment on the building, his reply echoed the sentiment of many of the Washington establishment of the day, that the only thing that he could find wrong with the building was that it was fireproof. (A similar quote is also attributed to William T. Sherman, so the story might well be apocryphal.) The completed building, sometimes referred to as "Meigs's Old Red Barn", was created by using more than 15,000,000 bricks, which, according to the wits of the day, were all counted by the parsimonious Meigs.

Death
Meigs contracted a cold on December 27, 1891. Within a few days, it turned into pneumonia. Meigs died at home at 5:00 pm on January 2, 1892. His body was interred with high military honors in Arlington National Cemetery. General orders issued at the time of his death declared, "the Army has rarely possessed an officer ... who was entrusted by the government with a great variety of weighty responsibilities, or who proved himself more worthy of confidence."

Family
In 1841, Meigs married Louisa Rodgers (1816–1879), the daughter of Commodore John Rodgers. Their children included:

 * John Rodgers Meigs (1842–1864), a West Point graduate and Army officer who was killed in action during the Civil War
 * Mary Montgomery Meigs (1843–1930), the wife of Army officer Joseph Hancock Taylor, who was the son of Union Army Brigadier General Joseph Pannell Taylor, and nephew of President Zachary Taylor
 * Charles Delucena Meigs (1845–1853), who was named for Meigs' father
 * Montgomery Meigs (1847–1931), a civil engineer who enjoyed a long career in railroad, bridge, canal, power plant, and road construction
 * Vincent Trowbridge Meigs (1851–1853)
 * Louisa Rodgers Meigs (1854–1922), the wife of British journalist Archibald Forbes

Honors

 * General Meigs was inducted into the Quartermaster Hall of Fame in its charter year of 1986.
 * In 2012, the Georgia Historical Society erected a historical marker at the birthplace of Gen. Montgomery C. Meigs in Augusta, Georgia.
 * Camp Meigs, in Readville, Massachusetts was named after him.

Ships

 * General Meigs, a Quartermaster Corps passenger and freight steamer built in 1892 and serving in the early 20th century.
 * USAT Meigs, an Army transport ship sunk at Darwin, Northern Territory.
 * USS General M. C. Meigs (AP-116), a troop transport launched in 1944, serving in WWII and Korea.

title: Montgomery C. Meigs


text:
Talk:Handedness

name dropping
Can we do something about all the scientists who have decided to name drop themselves in the article?

nonsense
70-90% right handed, 10% lefthanded. 30% both. Shame.

at least say stas are divided. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Danja (talk • contribs) 21:22, 24 January 2015

/* Genetic factors */ deletion due to failed verification
This statement does not correlate with the citations provided.

''"Other mechanisms may play a role in handedness, for example hormone signalling. Medland et al.[21] found a CAG repeat length variant in the androgen receptor gene (AR) that is positively correlated with left-handedness in females, and negatively correlated in males. This same variant is positively correlated with testosterone levels in males, and negatively correlated in females." This may help to explain why there are more left-handed men than women (around 12% in men versus 10% in women globally).[3] However, another study has found that this variant is instead associated with mixed-handedness in males (and not left-handedness), conflicting with the original results.[22]''

One citation provided is a meta-study, that doesn't give explanation on why "left handedness" is more prevalent in males, just that it is more prevalent in males, the other citation provided states the exact opposite of the above text:

Behav Genet. 2005 Nov;35(6):735-44. Opposite effects of androgen receptor CAG repeat length on increased risk of left-handedness in males and females.

"Likelihood of left handedness increased in those individuals with variants of the androgen receptor associated with lower testosterone levels"

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 161.130.97.37 (talk • contribs) 18:26, 12 November 2013

"thats left" means correct.Only 10 percent of exceptional creative genius in the world
Yes handiness means skilled. So for people who write with the left, using the right means wrong. With a likelihood to be more clumsy.

Still I like that many can use both efficiently.There are so many tasks that include both fine motor and gross motor skills that every one should have a different preference fro writing, chopping wood and use both for carrying things. The truly dumb would open a fridge door, take out the juice, put it on the counter and then closed the door using only one hand.Forcing people to convert caused enough loss, but to limit your self to the concept of being right handed or left-handed when we have two is truly disabling.

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.176.239.135 (talk • contribs) 03:53, 6 May 2015

Mice; Keyboards and Mobile Phones
At time of writing, the article says nothing about mice, or keyboards or text messages on mobile phones? MountVic127 (talk) 03:57, 19 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Handedness


text:
Talk:Kleene star

Closure
Isn't closure implicit if we talk about an operation "on M"? (anonymous)

I think closure would be implied by saying operation in M. Tortoise3 12:48, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

Pumping Lemma
The pumping lemmas (regular and context-free) are very important observations in language theory, and the Kleene closure is essential to their use, so I think a link to the pumping lemma would be quite appropriate. Any objections? Aragorn2 09:42, 29 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Definition
The notes that say "0/1 denotes...events" seem to be taken out of context...? Tortoise3 12:18, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

Pronounciation
How is it pronounced?
 * See here: Stephen Kleene. Hermel (talk) 21:09, 25 January 2009 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 04:13, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

Is $$V_1$$ defined?
It seems to me that $$V_1$$ is left undefined here:
 * $$ V_{i+1}=\{wv : w\in V_i \mbox{ and } v \in V\}\,$$ where $$i > 0\,.$$

Shouldn't i say "where $$i \geq 0$$ " ?

I didn't correct it since I'm new in this area.

User:Nillerdk 13:42, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Fixed by User:141.162.101.50 User:Nillerdk (talk) 06:17, 25 May 2008 (UTC)

Empty Set
Is the empty string ALWAYS in the Kleene Closure of a set? Even the Kleene closure of the empty set? The "given V0=lambda" on this article is unclear. Thanks

Mangledorf (talk) 04:10, 25 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, indeed. Just plug the empty set into the definition. (The definition is standard, compare any introductory textbook in automata theory, e.g. Hopcroft/Motwani/Ullman.) Hermel (talk) 21:14, 25 January 2009 (UTC)

Idempotence
I think the article should mention that both the star and plus are idempotent operators, including a proof.

--MedeaMelana (talk) 19:41, 27 June 2009 (UTC)

Asterisk in Kleene plus
The askerisk on $$\N$$ in the definition of $$V^+$$ implies that the natural numbers do not include $$0$$. As this isn't explicitly stated and this article is about the Kleene star, using the same asterisk symbol, it might be better to define $$ V^+=\bigcup_{i \in \N, i > 0} V_i$$. --128.227.113.10 (talk) 22:03, 23 October 2009 (UTC) Shouldn't the Kleene plus have it's own wiki page? DHarlan 18 Dec 2012

Concatenation
Is the phrase $$ \varnothing \varnothing ^* $$ shorthand for $$ \varnothing $$ concatenated with $$ \varnothing ^* $$? There's no symbol (or lack thereof) defined for set concatenation defined in this article, although I've read elsewhere (e.g. Fundamentals of the theory of computation: principles and practice - Raymond Greenlaw, H. James Hoover - 1998) that $$ \circ $$ should be used:

 * $$ \varnothing ^+ = \varnothing \circ \varnothing ^* =\{\}= \varnothing $$

… then $$ V_2 $$ would become $$ V \circ V $$

Xaje (talk) 18:12, 27 October 2009 (UTC)

 * ("Machines, Languages, and Computation", Peter J. Denning, Jack B. Dennis & Joseph E. Qualitz, 1978) uses $$\bullet$$ or $$\cdot$$ (hard to be sure which, it's somewhere in-between) for concatenation of both strings and sets of strings. ("Introduction to Formal Grammars", M. Gross & A. Lentin, 1970) calls the concatenation of two languages their product, and it is normal practice in mathematics to leave out the symbol for the product operator. Gross & Lentin state that this product operator is associative but not commutative, and use a superscript to denote powers (multiple concatenations of the set with itself). So I guess no symbol is needed after all, but a clarifying explanation of product/concatenation could be in order. Olli Niemitalo (talk) 14:55, 12 January 2012 (UTC)
 * I explained the product notation in the example, perhaps not the best place but I didn't want to make big changes. Olli Niemitalo (talk) 18:48, 12 January 2012 (UTC)

Lambda representing empty word?
Isn't ε the standard way of representing the empty word? At least the article on Extended Backus–Naur Form uses ε, not λ... --NetRolller 3D  22:36, 7 March 2010 (UTC) No, see the article on empty word. Hermel (talk) 09:02, 11 March 2010 (UTC)

Original introduction?
In which document was the Kleene star introduced? This should be added to the references. Jodi.a.schneider (talk) 14:11, 16 February 2011 (UTC)

definition in less formal terms
For the educated layman (at least this one), processing the procedural definitions in the lede involves a lot of effort and "I think that works out to...". I'm moving the relatively plain-English definition "the collection of all possible finite-length strings generated from the symbols in V" from Definition and notation up to the lede. Thnidu (talk) 12:52, 30 July 2011 (UTC)

When V*=V ?
Given a set V define

V0 = { ε } (the language consisting only of the empty string),

V1 = V

and define recursively the set

Vi+1 = { wv : w ∈ Vi and v ∈ V } for each i>0.

If V is a formal language, then Vi, the i-th power of the set V, is a shorthand for the concatenation of set V with itself i times. That is, Vi can be understood to be the set of all strings that can be represented as the concatenation of i strings in V.

The definition of Kleene star on V is[2] V*=∪i in ℕVi = { ε } ∪ V1 ∪ V2 ∪ V3 ∪ V4 ∪ .... -- Given as Definition.

But if V={ε};

V*=∪i in ℕVi = { ε } ∪ V1 ∪ V2 ∪ V3 ∪ V4 ∪ ....          = { ε } ∪ V, since V contains only a single empty string, all the possible concatenations lead to only V.

Now, that can be = { ε } ∪ { ε } = { ε } --> according to the definition of union. Right? Considering V* is a set of "strings", not a set of "sets and strings". Or, = { ε } ∪ {{ ε } } = { ε, { ε } }, if V* is a set of "sets and strings". I need to know which of these is the right explanation.

And thus, if V= { ε } => V*=V=V+ ?? -- Ananya, Kolkata (India) --Aaniya B (talk) 07:06, 28 December 2013 (UTC)

 * Your first explanation is correct: Following the definition, if V={ε} we have V0 = {ε}, as well as V1= {ε}. When building the set V2 according to the recursive definition, the only valid choices are w=ε and v=ε (there are no other elements in V0 and V1, respectively), so we have V2 = {εε} = {ε}. The same applies to V3 = {εε} = {ε}, and so on. Thus we have Vi = {ε} for all i. Now V* is the infinite union of all Vi, that is, V*=∪i in ℕVi = { ε } ∪ V1 ∪ V2 ∪ V3 ∪ V4 ∪ ... = { ε }. Hermel (talk) 10:10, 28 December 2013 (UTC)

Link to Power Set
The Power Set describes the set generated by the Kleene star operation, but neither page references the other. I suggest making the relationship explicit. SMesser (talk) 21:45, 1 December 2014 (UTC)
 * What do you mean by describes?
 * Given a set A, its power set P(A) is usually, if not always, disjoint from its Kleene star A*, since the former contains sets while the latter contains strings, which are two quite different kinds of mathematical objects. For example, if A = { 0,1 } is the set of binary digit symbols, then P(A) = { {}, {0}, {1}, {0,1} } is a set consisting of 4 members, while A* = { ε, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, 001, ... } is the infinite set of all binary numbers (leading zeroes allowed). Note that e.g. 01 and 10 are different strings, but {0,1} and {1,0} and {0,0,1} and {0,1,1,0} all denote the same set. So I can't see a correspondance between power set and Kleene star.
 * Maybe the article isn't sufficiently clear in that point and should be improved? - Jochen Burghardt (talk) 12:33, 2 December 2014 (UTC)

"V*" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect V*. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2020 May 9 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. 1234qwer1234qwer4 (talk) 16:58, 9 May 2020 (UTC)

Contradicts Wikipedia article about Cartesian product of sets
One sentence includes this phrase:

"... concatenation is an associative and noncommutative product, sharing these properties with the Cartesian product of sets."

But the Wikipedia article Cartesian product states that Cartesian product as defined in set theory is not associative:

"''Strictly speaking, the Cartesian product is not associative (unless one of the involved sets is empty).
 * $$(A\times B)\times C \neq A \times (B \times C)$$''".

This contradiction ought to be resolved by someone knowledgeable about the subject.50.234.60.130 (talk) 14:15, 23 December 2020 (UTC)

 * Thanks for noticing! Indeed, the sets $$(A\times B)\times C$$ and $$A \times (B \times C)$$ are usually different. However, they also are always isomorphic: $$f: ((A\times B)\times C) \to (A \times (B \times C))$$, defined by $$f(x) = ( \pi_l(\pi_l(x)), ( \pi_r(\pi_l(x)) , \pi_r(x) ))$$, i.e. such that $$f(((a,b),c)) = (a,(b,c))$$ is a bijection. Mathematicians often "confuse" being equal and being isomorphic. So, not-so-strictly speaking, $$(A\times B)\times C$$ and $$A \times (B \times C)$$ are equal. The article Cartesian product itself tacitly relies on this "sloppy" language when it uses products of more than 2 sets; e.g. "$$X_1 \times \ldots \times X_n$$" in section Cartesian product presupposes that paranthezation doesn't really matter; it says that the product "can be identified" with its leftmost-possible paranthezation, this "identification" just employs an isomorphism similar to my above example. — I'll try to come up with a note along the above lines and add it to the article Cartesian product. - Jochen Burghardt (talk) 17:10, 23 December 2020 (UTC)

 * On second thought, a similar argument would apply to commutativity: $$A\times B$$ and $$B \times A$$, too, are usually different, but always isomorphic.

 * As a result, I now consider the analogy to Cartesian product as misleading. If there is no objection, I'll remove it from Kleene star. - Jochen Burghardt (talk) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)

 * ✅ I removed the phrase, but didn't make any further changes. - Jochen Burghardt (talk) 14:07, 2 January 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kleene star


text: Category:People from Pennsylvania

title: Category:People from Pennsylvania


text:
Christian Democratic Union (Ecuador)

The Christian Democratic Union  (Unión Demócrata Cristiana, UDC), formerly known as Popular Democracy (Democracia Popular, DP') was a Christian democratic political party in Ecuador. It was formed in the 1970s by centrist Christian Democrats who had left the Social Christian Party and the left wing of the Conservative Party who were oriented towards Liberation theology. It officially registered as a political party in 1979. It was originally considered a centre-left party. Later in the 1990s, it shifted to the centre-right.

It reached its first great success in 1978 when party member Osvaldo Hurtado became the running mate on the successful presidential ticket of Jaime Roldós of the Concentration of People's Forces. Hurtado served as President of Ecuador from 1981 to 1984 due to Roldós's death in office. It was Ecuador's largest political party, having won 35% of the seats in the 1998 elections to the Congreso Nacional. In the 1998 presidential elections, party member Jamil Mahuad was elected president, and after a coup d'état and brief military rule, he was succeeded in 2000 by the vice-president, Gustavo Noboa, who was also in the party.

At the legislative elections, 20 October 2002, the party won 4 out of 100 seats. In 2006, it dropped the name of Popular Democracy and took the current one. At the elections, held in October 2006, it won 2 seats in the Congress. It had no presidential candidate.

The UDC was a member of the Christian Democrat Organization of America, continental organization of the Centrist Democrat International.

In 2013, the UDC was dissolved after the National Congress of the party.

title: Christian Democratic Union (Ecuador)


text:
Francis II Rákóczi

Francis II Rákóczi (II. Rákóczi Ferenc, ; 27 March 1676 – 8 April 1735) was a Hungarian nobleman and leader of Rákóczi's War of Independence against the Habsburgs in 1703–1711 as the prince (fejedelem) of the Estates Confederated for Liberty of the Kingdom of Hungary. He was also Prince of Transylvania, an Imperial Prince, and a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece. Today he is considered a national hero in Hungary.

His name is historically also spelled Rákóczy, in II. Rákóczi Ferenc, in František II. Rákoci, in Franz II. Rákóczi, in Franjo II. Rákóczy (Rakoci, Rakoczy), in Francisc Rákóczi al II-lea, in Ференц II Ракоци.

Although the Hungarian parliament offered Rákóczi the royal crown, he refused it, choosing instead the temporary title of the "Ruling Prince of Hungary". Rákóczi intended to bear this military-sounding title only during the anti-Habsburg war of independence. By refusing the royal crown, he proclaimed to Hungary that it was not his personal ambition that drove the war of liberation against the Habsburg dynasty.

Childhood
He was the richest landlord in the Kingdom of Hungary and the count (comes perpetuus) of the Comitatus Sarossiensis (in Hungarian Sáros) from 1694 on. He was the third of three children born to Francis I Rákóczi, elected ruling prince of Transylvania, and Ilona Zrínyi, who was the daughter of Petar Zrinski, Ban of Croatia, and niece of Petar's older brother, Miklós Zrínyi. His paternal grandfather George Rákóczi II and great-grandfather George I Rákóczi were also Princes of Transylvania. He had a brother, George, who died as a baby before Francis was born, and a sister, Julianna Rákóczi, later Countess of Aspremont-Lynden, who was four years older than Francis. His father died when he was four months old.

Upon Ferenc I's death, his widow requested guardianship of her children; however, the advisors of Emperor Leopold I insisted that he retain guardianship of both Ferenc and his sister, especially as Francis I had willed this before death. Despite further difficulties, Zrínyi was able to raise her children, while the Emperor retained legal guardianship. The family lived in the castle of Munkács (today Mukacheve, in Ukraine), Sárospatak and Regéc until 1680, when Ferenc's paternal grandmother, Sofia Báthory, died. Then, they moved permanently into the castle of Munkács. Rákóczi retained strong affection for this place throughout his life. Aside from his mother, Rákóczi's key educators were György Kőrössy, castellan to the family, and János Badinyi.

End of the Thököly uprising
Zrínyi's second husband, Imre Thököly, took little interest in Rákóczi's education, as he was by then heavily involved in politics. However, the failure of the Turks to capture the Habsburg capital in the Battle of Vienna in 1683 frustrated Thököly's plans to become King of Upper Hungary. When the Turks began to grow suspicious of his intentions, Thököly proposed sending the young Rákóczi to Constantinople as a guarantee of his goodwill. But Rákóczi's mother opposed this plan, not wishing to be separated from her son.

In 1686 Antonio Carafa besieged their residence, the castle of Munkács. Zrínyi successfully led the defence of the castle for three years, but capitulated in 1688. The two Rákóczi children fell again under the guardianship of Leopold I, and moved to Vienna with their mother. They regained their possessions, but could not leave the city without the Emperor's permission.

At the age of 17, the Emperor emancipated Rákóczi from his mother, thereby allowing him to own property. His sister Julianna had interceded for him after marrying a powerful Austrian, General Aspremont. Rákóczi lived with the Aspremonts until his marriage in September 1694, to 15-year-old Princess Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Wanfried, daughter of Charles, Landgrave of Hesse-Wanfried and a descendant of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary. The couple moved to the Rákóczi castle at Sárospatak, where Rákóczi began to manage his properties.

The Treaty of Karlowitz on 26 January 1699, forced Thököly and Zrínyi into exile. Rákóczi remained in Vienna under the Emperor's supervision. Relying on the prevalent anti-Habsburg sentiment, remnants of Thököly's peasant army started a new uprising in the Hegyalja region of Northeastern present-day Hungary, which was part of the property of the Rákóczi family. They captured the castles of Tokaj, Sárospatak and Sátoraljaújhely, and asked Rákóczi to become their leader, but he was not eager to head what appeared to be a minor peasant rebellion. He quickly returned to Vienna, where he tried his best to clear his name.

Rákóczi then befriended Count Miklós Bercsényi, whose property at Ungvár (today Ужгород (Uzhhorod), in Ukraine), lay next to his own. Bercsényi was a highly educated man, the third richest man in the kingdom (after Rákóczi and Simon Forgách), and was related to most of the Hungarian aristocracy.

Rákóczi uprising
As the House of Habsburg was on the verge of dying out in Spain, France was looking for allies in its fight against Austrian hegemony. Consequently, they established contact with Rákóczi and promised support if he took up the cause of Hungarian independence. An Austrian spy seized this correspondence and brought it to the attention of the Emperor. As a direct result of this, Rákóczi was arrested on 18 April 1700, and imprisoned in the fortress of Wiener Neustadt (south of Vienna). It became obvious during the preliminary hearings that, just as in the case of his grandfather Péter Zrínyi, the only possible sentence for Ferenc was death. With the aid of his pregnant wife Amelia and the prison commander, Rákóczi managed to escape and flee to Poland. Here he met with Bercsényi again, and together they resumed contact with the French court. Three years later, the War of the Spanish Succession caused a large part of the Austrian forces in the Kingdom of Hungary to temporarily leave the country. Taking advantage of the situation, Kuruc forces began a new uprising in Munkács, and Rákóczi was asked to head it. He decided to invest his energies in a war of national liberation, and accepted the request. On 15 June 1703, another group of about 3000 armed men headed by Tamás Esze joined him near the Polish city of Ławoczne. Bercsényi arrived too, with French funds and 600 Polish mercenaries. Most of the Hungarian nobility did not support Rákóczi's uprising, because they considered it to be no more than a peasant rebellion. Rákóczi's famous call to the nobility of Szabolcs County seemed to be in vain. He did manage to convince the Hajduk (Hungarian soldiers) (emancipated peasant warriors) to join his forces, so his forces controlled most of Kingdom of Hungary to the east and north of the Danube by late September 1703. He continued by conquering Transdanubia soon after. Since the Austrians had to fight Rákóczi on several fronts, they felt obliged to enter negotiations with him. However, the victory of Austrian and British forces against a combined French-Bavarian army in the Battle of Blenheim on 13 August 1704, provided an advantage not only in the War of the Spanish Succession, but also prevented the union of Rákóczi's forces with their French-Bavarian allies. This placed Rákóczi into a difficult military and financial situation. French support gradually diminished, and a larger army was needed to occupy the already-won land. Meanwhile, supplying the current army with arms and food was beyond his means. He tried to solve this problem by creating a new copper-based coinage, which was not easily accepted in Hungary as people were used to silver coins. Nevertheless, Rákóczi managed to maintain his military advantage for a while – but after 1706, his army was forced into retreat.

A meeting of the Hungarian Diet (consisting of 6 bishops, 36 aristocrats and about 1000 representatives of the lower nobility of 25 counties), held near Szécsény (Nógrád County) in September 1705, elected Rákóczi to be the "vezérlő fejedelem" – (ruling) prince – of the Confederated Estates of the Kingdom of Hungary, to be assisted by a 24-member Senate. Rákóczi and the Senate were assigned joint responsibility for the conduct of foreign affairs, including peace talks.

Encouraged by England and the Netherlands, peace talks started again on 27 October 1705 between the Hungarians and the Emperor. Both sides varied their strategy according to the military situation. One stumbling block was the sovereignty over Transylvania – neither side was prepared to give it up. Rákóczi's proposed treaty with the French was stalled, so he became convinced that only a declaration of independence would make it acceptable for various powers to negotiate with him. In 1706, his wife (whom he had not seen in 5 years, along with their sons József and György) and his sister were both sent as peace ambassadors, but Rákóczi rejected their efforts on behalf of the Emperor.

In 1707 during the Great Northern War he was one of the candidates to the throne of Poland, supported by Elżbieta Sieniawska.

On Rákóczi's recommendation, and with Bercsényi's support, another meeting of the Diet held at Ónod (Borsod county) declared the deposition of the House of Habsburg from the Hungarian throne on 13 June 1707. But neither this act, nor the copper currency issued to avoid monetary inflation, were successful. Louis XIV refused to enter into treaties with Prince Rákóczi, leaving the Hungarians without allies. There remained the possibility of an alliance with Imperial Russia, but this did not materialize either.

At the Battle of Trencsén (German: Trentschin, Latin: Trentsinium, Comitatus Trentsiniensis, today Trenčín in Slovakia), on 3 August 1708 Rákóczi's horse stumbled, and he fell to the ground, which knocked him unconscious. The Kuruc forces thought him dead and fled. This defeat was fatal for the uprising. Numerous Kuruc leaders transferred their allegiance to the Emperor, hoping for clemency. Rákóczi's forces became restricted to the area around Munkács and Szabolcs County. Not trusting the word of János Pálffy, who was the Emperor's envoy charged with negotiations with the rebels, the Prince left the Kingdom of Hungary for Poland on 21 February 1711.

Peace agreement
In Rákóczi's absence, Sándor Károlyi was named Commander-in-Chief of the Hungarian forces, and quickly negotiated a peace agreement with János Pálffy. Under its provisions, 12,000 rebels laid down their arms, handed over their flags and took an oath of allegiance to the Emperor on 1 May 1711 in the fields outside Majtény, in Szatmár county.

The Peace of Szatmár did not treat Rákóczi particularly badly. He was assured clemency if he took an oath of allegiance to the Emperor, as well as the freedom to move to Poland if he wanted to leave the Kingdom of Hungary. He did not accept these conditions, doubting the honesty of the Habsburg court, and he did not even recognize the legality of the Peace Treaty, as it had been signed after the death of the Emperor Joseph I on 17 April 1711, which terminated the plenipotential authority of János Pálffy. Subsequently, his Hungarian properties, Munkács and its castle, Szentmiklós (today Palanok Castle, Mukacheve and Chynadiyovo, Ukraine) and 200 villages were confiscated (and, in 1726, given by Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor to Elector-Archbishop Lothar Franz von Schönborn who had helped to defeat Rákóczi).

Exile
Rákóczi was offered the Polish Crown twice, supported by Tsar Peter I of Russia. He turned the offers down, though, and remained in Poland until 1712, where he was the honored guest of the Polish aristocracy. For a while he lived in Gdańsk under the pseudonym of Count of Sáros.

He left Gdańsk on 16 November 1712, and went to England, where Queen Anne, pressured by the Habsburgs, refused to receive him. Rákóczi then crossed the Channel to France, landing in Dieppe on 13 January 1713. On 27 April he handed a memorandum to Louis XIV reminding him of his past services to France and asking him not to forget Hungary during the coming peace negotiations for the War of the Spanish Succession. But neither the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 nor the Treaty of Rastatt in 1714 made any mention of Hungary or Rákóczi. No provisions were even made to allow Rákóczi's two sons, who were kept under surveillance in Vienna, to rejoin their father.

Prince Rákóczi, although not recognized officially by France, was much in favour in the French court. But after the death of Louis XIV on 1 September 1715, he decided to accept the invitation of the Ottoman Empire (still at war with the Habsburgs) to move there. He left France in September 1717, with an entourage of 40 people. and landed at Gallipoli on 10 October 1717. He was received with honors, but his desire to head up a separate Christian army to help in the fight against the Habsburgs was not under serious consideration.

The Ottoman Empire signed the Peace Treaty of Passarowitz with Austria on 21 July 1718. Among its provisions was the refusal of the Turks to extradite the exiled Hungarians. Two years later, the Austrian envoy requested that the exiles be turned over, but the Sultan refused as a matter of honor. Rákóczi and his entourage were settled in the town of Tekirdağ (Rodostó in Hungarian), relatively distant from the Ottoman capital, and a large Hungarian colony grew up around this town on the Sea of Marmara. Bercsényi, Count Simon Forgách, Count Antal Esterházy, Count Mihály Csáky, Miklós Sibrik, Zsigmond Zay, the two Pápays, and Colonel Ádám Jávorka were among many who settled there, sharing the sentiment of the writer Kelemen Mikes, who said, "I had no special reason to leave my country, except that I greatly loved the Prince."

Rákóczi lived in the Turkish town of Tekirdağ for 18 years. He adopted a set routine: rising early, attending daily Mass, writing and reading in the mornings, and carpentry in the afternoons; visited occasionally by his son, György Rákóczi. Further military troubles in 1733 in Poland awakened his hopes of a possible return to Hungary, but they were not fulfilled. Rákóczi was 59 years old when he died on 8 April 1735.

Rákóczi's last will, dated 27 October 1733, left something to all his family members as well as to his fellow exiles. He left separate letters to be sent to the Sultan and to France’s Ambassador to Constantinople, asking them not to forget about his fellow exiles. His internal organs were buried in the Greek church of Rodosto, while his heart was sent to France. After obtaining the permission of the Turkish authorities, Rákóczi's body was taken by his faithful chamberlain Kelemen Mikes to Constantinople on 6 July 1735 for burial in Saint-Benoît (then Jesuit) French church in Galata, where he was buried, according to his last wishes, next to his mother Ilona Zrínyi.

His remains were moved on 29 October 1906 to the St. Elisabeth Cathedral in Kassa, Hungary (today Košice, Slovakia), where he is buried with his mother Ilona and his son.

Personal life
On 26 September 1694 in Cologne, he married Landgravine Charlotte Amalie of Hesse-Wanfried, member of the Hesse-Wanfried branch of the House of Hesse, eldest daughter of Charles, Landgrave of Hesse-Wanfried by his second wife, Countess Alexandrine Juliane of Leiningen-Dagsburg (1651-1703). They had:
 * Lipót Lajos György Rákóczi (1696-1699)
 * József Rákóczi, Duke of Munkács (1700-1738), never married but had an illegitimate daughter:
 * Maria Elisabeta (1736-1786), a nun (Sister Josephine Charlotte), lived and died in Paris, France
 * György Rákóczi, Duke of Makovica (1701-1752), married firstly Marquise de Béthune and had one son; married secondly Margarete Suzanne Pinthereau de Bois I’Isle (1702-1768).
 * György Rákóczi(1740-1743)
 * Sárolta Rákóczi (1706-1706)

Timeline

 * Early life
 * 27 March 1676 – Rákóczi is born.
 * 26 January 1699 – Treaty of Karlowitz forces Emmeric Thököly and Ilona Zrínyi into exile.
 * 11 February 1701 – Negotiations begin with Louis XIV concerning the Hungarian struggle for independence.
 * February, 1701 – Correspondence is seized by an Austrian spy. Rákóczi is jailed, but escapes being sentenced to death.
 * The War of Independence
 * 15 June 1703 – Rákóczi meets Tamás Esze and his army on the Hungarian border.
 * 26 September 1703 – Large portions of Hungary are under Rákóczi's control.
 * 13 August 1704 – The Habsburgs (with British help) defeat the combined French-Bavarian army, thus depriving Rákóczi of an important ally.
 * 15 May 1705 – Death of Emperor Leopold I, accession of Joseph I to the throne.
 * 20 September 1705 – The Diet of Szécsény proclaims Rákóczi as the ruling Prince and establishes a governing structure for the country.
 * 27 October 1705 – Peace negotiations begin.
 * 13 June 1707 – The Diet of Ónod deposes the House of Habsburg from the Hungarian throne.
 * End of the war, peace treaty
 * 3 August 1708 – Kuruc defeated at the Battle of Trencsén.
 * 22 January 1710 – Battle of Romhány, one of the last battles of the war (a Kuruc loss, or a draw).
 * 21 February 1711 – Rákóczi goes into exile.
 * 1 May 1711 – Hungarian forces surrender near Szatmár.
 * Exile
 * 13 January 1713 – Rákóczi arrives in Dieppe, France.
 * 10 October 1717 – Rákóczi arrives in Turkey.
 * 8 April 1735 – Dies in Tekirdağ.

Memory
Francis II is remembered a Hungarian national hero, and is honored in various ways by modern Hungarians.

Memorials
His equestrian statue with the famous motto Cum Deo Pro Patria et Libertate ("With God for Fatherland and Liberty") written on its red marble base was erected in front of the Hungarian Parliament Building on Lajos Kossuth Square in 1937, the work of János Pásztor. In the 1950s, the first two words, Cum Deo (i.e., "With God"), were removed for ideological reasons; in 1989, they were restored.

When, after 1945, the great Millennium Monument on Heroes' Square was purged of statues of the Habsburg kings of Hungary, the best Hungarian sculptor of the period, Zsigmond Kisfaludi Strobl, made a new statue of Rákóczi instead of King Lipót II. It was erected in 1953 together with a relief on the base depicting the meeting of Rákóczy and Tamás Esze.

Places and institutions
There are 11 Rákóczi streets and 3 Rákóczi squares in Budapest (see: Public place names of Budapest), including one of the most prominent avenues, named Rákóczi út ("Rákóczi Avenue"), forming the boundary between Districts VII and VIII. The street was named after him on 28 October 1906 when his remains were brought back to Hungary from Turkey and a long funeral march went along the street to the Eastern Railway Station. Rákóczi tér, in District VIII, was also named after him in 1874. A bridge on the Danube at Budapest is named Rákóczi Bridge after him.

In Hungary two villages bear the name of Rákóczi. Rákóczifalva in Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok County was established in 1883 on the former estate of Rákóczi where the Prince had a hunting lodge. The neighbouring Rákócziújfalu became an independent village in 1950 (before that it was part of Rákóczifalva).

The village of Zavadka, today in Ukraine next to the Veretski Pass (Hungarian: Vereckei-hágó) where Rákóczi arrived at Hungary in the beginning of the uprising in 1703 and where he said goodbye to his followers in 1711 going into exile was renamed Rákócziszállás in 1889. The neighbouring village of Podpolóc (today Pidpolozzya) where Rákóczi spent a night in 1703 was renamed that year Vezérszállás. After 1918 the two villages got back their former names.

Mount Bovcar (today Bovtsars'kyy Verkh in present-day Ukraine) and the neighbouring Bovcar Spring was named by the local Rusyn people after Rákóczi who drank from the spring on 18 February 1711. Bovcar (Бовцар) means "the Tsar was here" in Rusyn language.

The library of Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén county in Miskolc (II. Rákóczi Ferenc Megyei Könyvtár) is named after him.

The house in which he lived has been transformed into Rákóczi Museum, Tekirdağ, open to the visitors every day except Mondays.

Banknotes
Rákóczi's portrait can be found on Hungarian banknotes. Before it was withdrawn from circulation, it was on the 50-forint note. Since then it has been transferred to the 500-forint note.

Rákóczi March
A well-known patriotic tune of the 18th–19th centuries (composer unknown) is named after Rákóczi, as it was reputed to be his favourite, although actually it was composed only in the 1730s. Hector Berlioz orchestrated the piece, and it was also used by Franz Liszt as the basis of his Hungarian Rhapsody No.15. The Rákóczy March remains a popular piece of Hungarian state and military celebrations.

title: Francis II Rákóczi


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Thrillington

Thrillington is an album produced by English musician Paul McCartney, under the pseudonym Percy "Thrills" Thrillington. It was released in April 1977 in the UK and in May 1977 in the US. It is an instrumental covers album of Paul and Linda McCartney's 1971 album Ram.

Recorded in June 1971, the album was shelved upon the formation of Wings, and not released for nearly six years. When Thrillington was finally issued, it did not attract much attention, and did not chart. McCartney initially kept his involvement with the project a secret; nevertheless, the project's nature and the rather bizarre pseudonym chosen for the credited artist led the few contemporary reviewers who wrote about Thrillington to conclude that "Percy Thrillington" was in fact McCartney working incognito. McCartney formally revealed himself to be Percy Thrillington in 1989, and the following year also admitted to being "Clint Harrigan", who wrote the album's liner notes.

In addition to reissues in 1995 and 2018, Thrillington was re-issued as part of the deluxe edition of Ram in 2012.

History
The album was recorded in June 1971 and with an intended release shortly thereafter. Paul McCartney produced the sessions, although he did not play or sing at all on the album, and all arrangements were by Richard Anthony Hewson, who was asked to work on the orchestration before Ram had yet been released. The album was completed in three days of recording sessions, but when Paul and Linda decided to form Wings, the (at that point untitled) Thrillington album was shelved.

Years later, in late 1976, McCartney decided to release the long-in-storage project, and devised a plan to publicize the album while obscuring his own involvement with it. In preparation for the release of Thrillington, McCartney invented the fictitious socialite Percy Thrillington, and even took out ads in various UK music papers announcing Thrillington's so-called comings and goings to generate curiosity and interest.

Released in April 1977, McCartney's name was mentioned only in the main liner notes where he is described as a friend of Percy. Thrillington went mostly unnoticed upon its release although it was reviewed by Rolling Stone magazine and mentioned in the "Random Notes" section. Variety also reviewed the album, noting that "Whether Percy Thrillington is Paul McCartney or not is really irrelevant. What matters is that he (they) is (are) having fun."

Because it was widely assumed that Thrillington was the product of McCartney working under a pseudonym, the album became a collector's item. McCartney finally admitted his role to journalist Peter Palmiere at a Los Angeles press conference on 27 November 1989 during his world tour: "What a great question to end the conference. The world needs to know! But seriously it was me and Linda – and we kept it a secret for a long time but now the world knows! – you blew it!"

In 1990 Paul McCartney also admitted to Palmiere, via an autograph request, that he was indeed Clint Harrigan – the liner notes writer for Thrillington and Wings' Wild Life album. The first person to reveal the identity of Clint Harrigan was John Lennon, who stated as much during a well-publicised letter feud with McCartney in Melody Maker ("And your writing inside of the Wings album [Wild Life] isn't exactly the Realist is it?") in December 1971. The full story of the Thrillington album was told in detail in 1995 in Beatles fanzine Good Day Sunshine and in music journalist Ian Peel's book The Unknown Paul McCartney (Reynolds & Hearn, 2002). Peel tracked down various musicians who brought McCartney's vision to life – including Richard Hewson, Herbie Flowers and the Mike Sammes Singers – as well as those that were involved in creating its mythology.

Re-release
Thrillington was issued on CD in 1995 and 2018, the latter with an accompanying vinyl version.

Thrillington was re-issued as part of the deluxe edition of Ram on 21 May 2012. To coincide with this release, McCartney started a Twitter account under the Thrillington name, posting tweets in a manner similar to the original newspaper announcements. The album was re-issued on CD, vinyl, and limited edition coloured vinyl on 18 May 2018.

Musicians

 * Richard Hewson – conductor
 * Vic Flick – guitars
 * Herbie Flowers – bass guitar
 * Steve Gray – piano
 * Clem Cattini – drums
 * Jim Lawless – percussion
 * Chris Karan – guica
 * Members of the Swingle Singers and the Mike Sammes Singers, led by Mike Sammes – backing vocals

Production

 * Percy "Thrills" Thrillington – producer
 * Richard Hewson – arranger
 * Tony Clark – engineer
 * Hipgnosis – artwork
 * Jeff Cummings – cover art
 * Clint Harrigan – liner notes
 * Phil Smee – package design

title: Thrillington


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Category:People from West Virginia

This category includes people who were identified with the future West Virginia before the partition of Virginia in 1863

title: Category:People from West Virginia


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Talk:1950 Atlantic hurricane season

Hurricane Dog
Hey, I am DYING for some info on this storm. Was it stronger than Gilbert? It had winds of the same intensity as Gilbert's and it was a Category 5 for THREE DAYS according to Unisys Yet we didn't have the technology to measure the sea level pressure of storms out at sea (@%&#$!) Any information would be appreciated. Thanks.

-E. Brown, Hurricane enthusiast   18:07 hrs 12/15/04

 * You might want to try the Monthly Weather Review hurricane archives. Be warned, the file for 1950 is a 17 MB PDF. Between that and the HURDAT-derived information at Unisys, I think that's pretty much it for information. -- Cyrius|✎ 20:01, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Thanks

-E. Brown, Hurricane enthusiast

I highly doubt it. Judging by its location, it may have been a weak Category 5 hurricane, but I'm not buying the 165 knot deal. How reliable was the technology anyway? All they had was recon, and we saw what they did with 1960's Ethel (140 knots with 981 pressure, yea right). Just my own opinion. We'll find out when the re-analysis gets there next year. Hurricanehink 19:45, 20 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Pressure measuring technology may have been bad back then but wind measuring technology was even worse. There is absolutely no way to know how strong the storm was.  Jdorje 22:22, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I disagree. The wind measurement I believe was actually 160 knots and it was taken by a plane that flew into the storm. The problem was that Hurricane Hunting planes back then could not be equipped with pressure reading instruments. Technology just hadn't advanced that far yet. The planes did, however, have an anemometer on board. This would give them a pretty accurate reading of flight-level winds. The only iffy spot would be that they could have miscalculated the conversion of flight-level winds to surface winds. That part of meterological mathematics was still blurry back then.

 * E. Brown, Hurricane enthusiast - Squawk Box 02:57, 10 October 2005 (UTC)

 * If wind measurement was so good in 1950, how come in 1992 they were off by a full 20 mph in measuring andrew? Not until after 1995 did they have the technology to measure ground wind speed.  In older hurricanes I strongly suspect all hurricane-hunter measurements are of the air speed, meaning all older cat5 storms would need to have their top wind speed knocked down by 10% (making camille 175 mph, dog 165 mph, etc.). Jdorje 01:22, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Hink, I know its probably too late, but Ethel 981 measurement was taken when she was a strengthening cat 3. There is no measurement for that storm at Cat 5 status. Cyclone1 12:33, 25 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Ethel's a joke, IMO. There's no way it strengthened and weakened that rapidly. Most likely it was a Cat 2/3 based on the pressure. Hurricanehink 14:17, 25 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree, although there's no way to know for sure. Fortunately this is an argument we can leave to the NHC re-assessment people. — jdorje (talk) 02:38, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

 * The hurricane hunter planes of the time are known to have inaccurate wind measurements. It's possible Dog wasn't even a Category 5, much less the 160kt madness. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 70.124.148.146 (talk • contribs).

 * Very true. Look at Hurricane Andrew, like Jdorje said. Wind measurements weren't accurate until relatively recently. Hurricanehink ( talk ) 19:19, 16 May 2006 (UTC)

 * In the reanalisys of 1944-1953 season says that Dog only peaked 145 mph making a category 4 hurricane Khaled98 (talk) 16:46, 27 October 2012 (UTC)

The Mystery of Mike
Like Kendra, Mike was a system that was not considered tropical after-the-fact. Mike and Kendra will be addressed in the hurricane reanalysis. The associated changes have been made on this page, the 1966 Atlantic hurricane season page, and the notable tropical cyclone page. Thegreatdr 20:31, 10 August 2006 (UTC)

Added a reference. Thegreatdr 06:28, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

Dead link
During several automated bot runs the following external link was found to be unavailable. Please check if the link is in fact down and fix or remove it in that case!

 * http://web.archive.org/web/20080516214705/http://blogs.usatoday.com/weather/2006/09/on_this_date_in_2.html
 * In 1950 Atlantic hurricane season on 2011-05-25 03:24:40, 403 Forbidden
 * In 1950 Atlantic hurricane season on 2011-06-04 17:23:53, 403 Forbidden

--JeffGBot (talk) 17:24, 4 June 2011 (UTC)

Accumulated Cyclone Energy - Atlantic Basin or Global?
There are a couple of references in the article to records for the years 1950 and 2005 in regards to Accumulated Cyclone Energy [ACE], are these for Atlantic basin numbers or are they global or a mixture of the two? If anyone has this information please update those refs, its a potentially significant issue if we're not talking about the Atlantic basin figures. Atani (talk) 20:45, 16 December 2012 (UTC)

. TropicalAnalystwx13 (talk) 20:57, 16 December 2012 (UTC) Thanks!Atani (talk) 23:04, 16 December 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110604063810/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_master.html to http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_master.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1950.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090510091256/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/NHR-Cuba.pdf to http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/NHR-Cuba.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110604063810/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_master.html to http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_master.html
 * Added archive http://www.webcitation.org/6Mu4tV7pK?url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1950.pdf to http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1950.pdf

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 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1950.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120913015942/http://acd.ucar.edu/~drews/hurricane/SeparatingTheACE.html to http://acd.ucar.edu/~drews/hurricane/SeparatingTheACE.html
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1950.pdf

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title: Talk:1950 Atlantic hurricane season


text: Category:People from Wisconsin

title: Category:People from Wisconsin


text:
Topaz (disambiguation)

Topaz is a mineral or gemstone.

Topaz may also refer to:

Fictional characters and places

 * Topaz (Marvel Comics), a comic book sorceress
 * Agent Topaz, a character from the anime Sonic X
 * Topaz Trollhopper, a character from the animated series Trollz
 * Topaz Mortmain, a character from Dodie Smith's novel I Capture the Castle and its subsequent film adaptation
 * Topaz, a character in Steven Universe
 * Topaz, a playable character in Honkai: Star Rail

Film and television

 * Topaz (1945 film), an amateur film documenting the World War II Japanese-American internment camp Topaz
 * Topaz (1969 film), a film directed by Alfred Hitchcock, based on the novel by Leon Uris
 * Topaz (1991 film), a Japanese film
 * Topacio, (Spanish for Topaz), a 1984 Venezuelan telenovela

Literature

 * "Sir Thopas", one of The Canterbury Tales
 * Topaz (novel), a 1967 novel by Leon Uris

Music

 * Topaz (The Rippingtons album), 1999
 * Topaz (Erik Friedlander album), 1999
 * Topaz (Israel Nash album), 2021
 * Topaz, a band consisting of Billy Cross, Rob Stoner and Jasper Hutchison
 * "Topaz", an instrumental song by Journey from their self-titled debut album Journey
 * "Topaz", a song by the B-52s from their album Cosmic Thing
 * "Topaz", a 2015 single by Jupiter

Biology

 * Topaz (apple), a variety of apple
 * Topaz (hummingbird), two species of hummingbirds in the genus Topaza
 * Ruby topaz (Chrysolampis mosquitus), a species of hummingbird
 * Topaz, a protein crystallography-related product of the company Fluidigm

Organizations

 * Topaz (bookmaker), in Azerbaijan
 * Topaz Energy, a defunct petroleum retail chain in Ireland purchased by Circle K
 * TOPAZ (think tank), in the Czech Republic

Computer related

 * Topaz, the Ruby (programming language) implementation
 * Topaz, the proprietary file format developed for the Amazon Kindle e-reader
 * Topaz, the codename for HTC Touch Diamond2, a smartphone by HTC
 * Project ToPaZ, an early codename for the GNOME 3 environment

People

 * Dudu Topaz (1946–2009), Israeli TV personality and actor
 * Topaz, a cryptonym for Rainer Rupp (b. 1945), spy for East Germany who worked at NATO headquarters in Brussels
 * William Topaz McGonagall (1825-1902), a Scottish poet.
 * Topaz Winters (b. 1999) Pen name of poet Priyanka Aiyer

Australia

 * Topaz, Queensland, a locality in the Tablelands Region, Queensland, Australia

United States

 * Topaz, California
 * Topaz, Missouri
 * Topaz Hotel, Washington, D.C.
 * Topaz War Relocation Center, west of Delta, Utah

Vehicles

 * Ekolot KR-030 Topaz, a Polish ultralight aircraft
 * Mercury Topaz, a car made by Ford Motor Company from 1984 to 1994
 * Topper Topaz, a sailing dinghy which can be rigged with 1, 2 or 3 sails
 * The Future Imagery Architecture radar imaging satellites

Vessels

 * Topaz (ship), the sailing ship captained by Mayhew Folger that rediscovered Pitcairn Island
 * Topaz (yacht), luxury motor yacht constructed by Lürssen in 2012

Other uses

 * TOPAZ nuclear reactor, a series of lightweight nuclear reactors flown in space by the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation
 * An apprentice in a lascar ship's crew
 * Topasses, a group of people of Portuguese descent in East Timor.

title: Topaz (disambiguation)