text:
Talk:Reactive armour

error in image
im purty sure I go tit worng. let me know if the signs are wrong, the movement of current always confuses me too, I knwo that should be electrn flow so I htin its okay.Wolfmankurd 22:29, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

The text contains the following sentence: "Though it was once quite common for a dozen or so infantrymen to ride on the outside of a tank's hull, this is not done with ERA plated vehicles—for obvious reasons."

The alleged link between external ridership and ERA is unconvincing. It is certainly not 'obvious'. Sitting on an ERA plate when it explodes is indeed a hazard to life. However, it is hardly relevant since sitting on the impact zone of an anti-tank missile is also lethal.

What do others think? Bobblewik (talk) 18:25, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * You are quite correct. Any hit which would set off ERA would also be hazardous to anyone riding the tank anyway. Besides, modern ERA explosion doesn't even necessarily destroy the box it's in. --Mikoyan21 14:39, 31 January 2006 (UTC)
 * There's a lot more explosive in an ERA box than in a typical incoming warhead, and there is a serious fragmentation and blast damage risk to those standing or sitting nearby. The US doesn't typically let people ride tanks because tanks attract fire, and people fall off and get run over fairly often (a serious hazard in training, and a significant hazard in combat), and the US has plenty of Humvees and M-2 IFVs.  Other countries tended to both want to reduce training injuries and keep people away from the ERA blocks, and restricted tank riding at the same time.  You saw it a bit in Chechenyia with Russian tanks, but they lost a fair number of infantry to the secondary ERA explosions and stopped doing it.

 * I support putting the article back for that reason... Georgewilliamherbert 21:38, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

From memory, T54 and T55 used to be very similar. In my (albeit somewhat outdated) experience, the greatest difference between T54 and T55 was that the gun in T54 had only vertical gyro stabilization while in T55 it was stabilized both vertically and laterally. One unintended consequence of the lateral stabilzation was that, if one forgot to switch it off when going back on the road, the turret (and the gun) could end up pointing sideways thus collecting telegraph poles or anything else in that direction.

Can someone find a picture or diagram of this?

This? Wolfmankurd 17:08, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

Electric Reactive Armor
I recently saw a Discovery Channel program that featured Electric reactive armor technology. I think the program was called "Weapons of the 21st Century", or something like that.

In the program, they tested slabs of Electric reactive armor mounted like side skirts on an English Warrior armored vehicle. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warrior_Tracked_Armoured_Vehicles

On the side, they placed an RPG rocket facing directly into the reactive armor.

They detonated RPG rounds 3 times into the armor, and the armor didn't appear damaged, even though the narrator remarked that the armor slabs only had "dents."

If this is so, then the diagram in the article here somewhat appears different since the RPG didn't even penetrate or make a hole.

Im not gonna change anything in the article here, but it really made me think about its function. Jak722 22:20, 11 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I have personally seen electric reactive armor (also called 'electromagnetic armor') hit by an RPG. The outer layer gets holed by the jet, and dented by the explosion of the charge. The key is what happens to the jet between the two plates; it gets disrupted so that it either doesn't come out the back side or it comes out incoherently. -Amatulic 03:19, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

Added several references to the Electric Armor Section. Since multiple terms might be in use, I think I'll also add a (also known as) comment to that effect. Mgmirkin 06:13, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

References I added: http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2002/08/54641 http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,539143,00.html http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/08/19/nmod19.xml http://itvibe.com/news/2627/ http://www.armedforces-int.com/categories/electric-armour/new-age-electric-armour-tough-enough-to-face-modern-threats.asp http://www.defense-update.com/features/du-1-04/reactive-armor.htm http://www.defense-update.com/features/du-1-04/passive-armor.htm Will assume these are uncontroversial (several by Wired and respectable news outlets, several by armed forces/technology watchdog sites, I assume). Mgmirkin 06:13, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Oops, forgot to add the ITvibe.com site as a reference. Added it. Also forgot to mention I removed the "This section doesn't cite any references" tag. Hope nobody minds. Plenty of valid references now! Mgmirkin

Have also redirected common alternate terms (electric armor, electromagnetic armor, electric reactive armor, electromagnetic reactive armor) here, as well as alternate spellings of alternate terms (armor and armour). Hope that's all relatively non-controversial. If not, feel free to controvert it & note why. Mgmirkin 06:33, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

Speaking of which... Is it technically electric armour or armor? Currently the article uses the British spelling with an OUR, but I'm wondering if this should use the American spelling with only the OR suffix? Petty question, but probably valid. How does one know which takes precedent? Don't want to start a row over British vs. American English. Doesn't matter to me. Just not sure which is more correct or more prevalent. How does one decide? Mgmirkin 06:33, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

Spelling
Is it just me or isn't it kind of weird that the article is 'Reactive armour' but almost every other instance of the article, 'armour' is spelt 'armor'? Shouldn't the English spelling with the 'u' be used? --Remy Suen 11:47, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Yup. Going back through the history, it looks like the article was always a mix, from the very beginning.  We should pick one spelling and tidy up the article:  British, U.S., or my preference: Canadian English.  I'll harmonize the article text with the title, anyway.  —Michael Z. 2006-08-04 14:43 Z

 * Wikipedia policy is that the dialect the article was started with is the precedent for that article and for that article only, except when it is relevant to only a particular english-speaking region, in which case the local dialect takes precedent. Sojourner001 (talk) 19:44, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

reactive armor is already being used
I read about an aircraft carrier, that utilizes this kind of armor. I don't know it's lemma, but it was an article in the english wikipedia. 92.227.179.176 (talk) 19:46, 21 October 2010 (UTC)

Distroyer1 13:34, 7 October 2007 (UTC) I have a friend who works in a factory that armors american trucks and jeeps for iraq. they are using electronic reactive armor for over 3 years

Generally the UK uses Electric Armor (EA) and the US uses Electro Magnetic Armor (EMA) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Sevun (talk • contribs) 17:43, 8 August 2010 (UTC)

Short video about electric reactive armour
This site: [] has a short video about electric reactive armour.Agre22 (talk) 15:15, 6 April 2009 (UTC)agre22

Electric Reactive Armour - encyclopedic or Science Fiction ?
OK, so it's 2011 - did Electric Reactive Armour actually happen ? We have had lots of Snatch Landrovers blown up in Afghanistan, and replaced with something beefier, IIRC. I haven't heard Electric RA mentioned in the last couple of years. I'm tempted to call bullshit on Electric RA and delete the section !

I don't think Wikipedia should be speculating on future developments which may or may not happen. It seems odd that this section has 7 citations whereas the rest of the article that is established technology only has 2 ! "Methinks the lady doth protest too much".

U.S. Military Uses the Force (Wired News) 2002 publication.
 * ... stops the jets by zapping them with tens of thousands of amps of current. This vaporizes some of the deadly copper jets ...

'Star Trek' shields to protect supertanks (The Guardian) 2002 publication.
 * ... use powerful magnets to melt and destroy incoming missiles and shells ...
 * ... using electrical fields ...
 * ... plating that is more than 2ft thick ...
 * ... capacitors inside the tank which would send a mighty electrical current surging through the metal coils at the base of the smart armour ...
 * ... 800 millimetres of steel armour ...

'Electric armour' vaporises anti-tank grenades and shells link dead - now
 * ... highly-charged capacitor that is connected to two separate metal plates on the tank's exterior ...
 * ... jet of molten copper penetrates both plates. This makes a connection and thousands of amps vaporises the molten copper ...

MoD Develops 'Electric Armour' error - it/web blog removed

New Age Electric Armor - Tough enough to face modern threats link dead - now (March 2010)
 * ... researchers are working ...

Add-On - Reactive Armor Suits
 * ... Explosive Reactive armor ...

not electric ! removed

Advanced Add-on Armor for Light Vehicles 2004
 * ... Further in the future ... electromagnetic armor, which deforms and reshapes the penetrating rounds or plasma jet ...
 * ... United Defense expects that the concept could mature in a few years, if adequate funding is made available ...

--195.137.93.171 (talk) 08:56, 28 April 2011 (UTC)

Electric Reactive Armour - better sources
For some reason my web connection will only allow me to post a small section - sorry! I'm not adding these links because I don't think blue-sky research is encyclopedic.

One should bear in mind that stuff that works will remain classified, and unclassified documents will only contain stuff that doesn't work. There will also be a certain amount of mis-information to baffle the enemy (eg "eat carrots to improve night vision - radar? what radar?")

Some projects will always be used to attract more research funding - they will rarely be abandoned, even when clearly hopeless.

I believe Richard Feynman also used the example of a nuclear aircraft as a boondoggle project that would (obviously to a technical person) always remain in the research phase, and never actually work. See Nuclear aircraft and Convair X-6 !

Googling [Electric armour site:dstl.gov.uk] turns up some interesting stuff - in Annual Reports and Accounts, and a Powerpoint presentation ! The images of the test match the LiveLeaks video

Just to keep up with the UK MoD, the Yanks also trumpeted a successful trial in 2005
 * ... The EMA package successfully defeated a shaped charge threat during live fire testing Feb. 22 at Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland...

Then the Brits bought the company and re-trumpeted the success as their own.

However it remained to be developed as of 19th May 2008 Designed for the requirements of tomorrow delivered today
 * future technologies that are not fully developed today, such as: electric armour, fuel cells, electric guns and remote control etc.

--195.137.93.171 (talk) 11:06, 28 April 2011 (UTC)--195.137.93.171 (talk) 08:56, 28 April 2011 (UTC)

Electric Reactive armour - energy requirements
How much energy is needed?

The Powerpoint says

7.62mm sniper round = 4000 Joules of energy (would move a man at 1mph !)

RPG7 round has 347% of the energy areal density of a 120mm APFSDS

Scaling the areas (120x120)/(7.62x7.62) = 248x

4000J * 248 * 347% = 3440000 J

So, 3 MegaJoules.

The biggest capacitors I know are for Car Audio.

eg http://www.farnell.com/datasheets/314432.pdf

The biggest weigh a kilogram, and store < 10 Joules in almost a litre of volume.

I really have little faith that technology will bring the energy density down by 1000x.

It might be best to move the 'Electric Armour' section from the main topic to its discussion page.

Feel free ! --195.137.93.171 (talk) 12:12, 28 April 2011 (UTC)

HEAT Rounds Not Very Hot
The metal jet in a shaped-charge warhead moves extremely rapidly, but it remains a metallic fluid at all times - no plasma is ever formed in the metallic jet itself! This is the only way in which it can remain dense enough to penetrate armor. If it were heated to the temperature required to form even a weak plasma, it would try to expand on its own, thus disrupting the shape of the jet and reducing the penetration depth. See the "HEAT" wiki page for a good discussion of this. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.55.200.20 (talk) 20:24, 21 November 2012 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was not moved. --BDD (talk) 17:32, 31 January 2013 (UTC)

Reactive armour → Reactive armor – The entire article uses the spelling without the U, and was that way in the original version of the article as well. —Torchiest talkedits 14:21, 6 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Question - not immediately relevant to move to US spelling, but any idea how long has the Category:Vehicle armour been redlinked as "Category:Vehicle armor"? Seems a bit odd. In ictu oculi (talk) 16:28, 6 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Looks like all the spellings, including the category, were changed in this edit. I'll fix the cat. —Torchiest talkedits 16:55, 6 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Comment - the article started out under "Armour" and "Armor", this edit changed it: JoshuSasori (talk) 02:09, 7 January 2013 (UTC)
 * That edit was from 2006. I think it's been changed back and forth a few times, but the 2002 original article was "armor". —Torchiest talkedits 02:21, 7 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Support per nom, WP:RETAIN. -- 76.65.128.43 (talk) 06:06, 7 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Wow, that doesn't seem to apply at all, the usage is totally inconsistent, the title is one way and the article text is another way. JoshuSasori (talk) 04:02, 8 January 2013 (UTC)

 * Support - one way or the other must be used. The initial usage was inconsistent, so WP:RETAIN does not apply. The current active editors favour "armor". Thus, let it be "armor". JoshuSasori (talk) 04:10, 8 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Oppose. As far as I can see, the article has always been titled using the British spelling. That being the case, and considering there's no good reason to favour one version of English over another in this subject, it should be the content that's altered to suit, not the title. Incidentally, our generic article is at armour. -- Necrothesp (talk) 20:52, 9 January 2013 (UTC)
 * There has been some fiddling around with the articles, see here and here. —Torchiest talkedits 21:00, 9 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Comment. Apart from the initial two stub versions, which consistently used armor, the spelling in the early versions of this article is mixed. The first time a non-stub version had consistent spelling of armor/armour was in 2005, using armour, but note favor was unchanged. In recent years, the article has usually been mainly or consistently in British English. The recent article–title discrepancy was introduced on 2012-10-06 with these two edits that converted all British spellings to American ones.  It appears that the article has always existed at Reactive armour, though there was a history merge with Reactive armor (dated 2009-07-29). Whether it's moved or not, the outcome of this RM should determine this article's spelling. SSR (talk) 07:11, 10 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Oppose after reading Some standardized rigour's comments, the article text should also be moved back to "armour". JoshuSasori (talk) 11:13, 17 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Oppose as per SSR's comments. The edits made at violated WP:ENGVAR and the spelling in the article should be restored to armour. Zarcadia (talk) 15:40, 18 January 2013 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Back plate?
Wait, the back plate traveling backward is supposed to help mitigate the explosion? How is this acheived? By installing it with spacers and having it explode against the hull? Granted even a few inches would help, but I always thought it was fixed directly to the armor, and the back plate stayed stationary. AnnaGoFast (talk) 06:49, 29 December 2017 (UTC)

All AT weapons pierce armour?
The opening paragraph suggests that "Essentially all anti-tank munitions work by piercing the armour"; I'd strongly suggest that's not true in particular for High-explosive squash head rounds which don't pierce armour at all. Jellyfish dave (talk) 22:22, 7 March 2022 (UTC)

 * You're right that not "all" AT weapons are intended to penetrate armor- squash rounds are one counter example, as well as things like Molotov cocktails or other large incendiary weapons. However, the two *main* threats to tanks on the modern battlefield are dense penetrators, like the M829 APFSDS, and high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) weaponry, which relies on creating an explosively formed penetrator (EFP). By far, the most common threat is HEAT EFPs, as this concept forms the basis of all modern rocket and missile based anti-tank weapons. Squash rounds are effectively defeated these days by composite or gapped armor and spall liners, and where carried are more intended to be used as high explosive rounds to defeat bunkers and obstacles rather than attacking other tanks.
 * If I were to re-write the offending paragraph, I would say something like: "Essentially all modern anti-tank munitions are designed to pierce the armor by concentrating force at a point, and reactive armors are designed to disrupt that physical process of concentration. Reactive armor defeats explosively formed penetrators by disrupting the jet of molten metal, and defeats kinetic penetrators by shattering or yawing the penetrator, so that in both cases the force of the attack is spread across a larger area than intended. Reactive armour can be defeated with multiple hits in the same place, such as by tandem-charge weapons, which fire two or more shaped charges in rapid succession. If vehicle armor is penetrated then weapon fragments enter the vehicle at high velocity and bounce around, killing the crew inside, disabling vital mechanical systems, or both." 165.134.222.240 (talk) 20:33, 8 March 2022 (UTC)

Is SLERA real?
From what I see in the article and in some web sources with suspiciously similar text, SLERA is presented like it's really a different type of ERA. But are there really any working systems and reliable sources to claim that it's totally real and has its use? I've only found some mentions in media, nothing verifiable. RajatonRakkaus (talk) 11:59, 26 July 2023 (UTC)

 * https://patents.google.com/patent/US7360479B2/en 88.97.228.233 (talk) 02:03, 19 July 2024 (UTC)
 * "B. Self-Limiting Explosive Reactive Armor (SLERA):
 * Self-Limiting ERA provides reasonable performance, substantially better than NERA (see below), though less than ERA, with reduced effects on vehicle structures, as compared to ERA. The energetic material layer in SLERA has the potential of being classified as a passive material (NATO specification). SLERA can provide good multiple-hit capability in modular configuration. Thus, while the energetic material used in SLERA is not as effective as fully detonable explosives, this type of reactive armor may provide a more practical option than ERA owing to its survivability characteristics." 88.97.228.233 (talk) 02:05, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

Expert.
I'm not sure what it is, but I feel as if we need a Military Expert to revise this article. BeeboMan (talk) 23:22, 15 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Reactive armour


text:
Action! (programming language)

Action! is a procedural programming language and integrated development environment written by Clinton Parker for the Atari 8-bit computers. The language, which is similar to ALGOL, compiles to high-performance code for the MOS Technology 6502 of the Atari computers. Action! was distributed on ROM cartridge by Optimized Systems Software starting in 1983. It was one of the company's first bank-switched 16 kB "Super Cartridges". The runtime library is stored in the cartridge; to make a standalone application requires the '''Action! Toolkit''' which was sold separately by OSS.

Parker, working with Henry Baker, had previously developed Micro-SPL, a systems programming language for the Xerox Alto. Action! is largely a port of Micro-SPL concepts to the Atari with changes to support the 6502 processor and the addition of an integrated fullscreen editor and debugger.

Action! was used to develop at least two commercial products—the HomePak productivity suite and Games Computers Play client program—and numerous programs in ANALOG Computing and Antic magazines. The editor inspired the PaperClip word processor. The language was not ported to other platforms.

The assembly language source code for Action! was made available under the GNU General Public License by the author in 2015.

Development environment
Action! is one of the earlier examples of the OSS SuperCartridge format. Although ROM cartridges for the Atari could support 16 kB, OSS opted for bank-switching 16 kB, organized as four 4 kB blocks, mapped onto 8kB of address space. The lower 4 kB did not change, and system could bank switch between the other three blocks by changing the value in address $AFFF. This allowed for more RAM available for user programs.

Action! used this design by breaking the system into four sections, the editor, the compiler, a monitor for testing code and switching between the editor and compiler, and the run-time library. The run-time library is stored in the cartridge itself. To distribute standalone applications requires a separate run-time package which was sold by OSS as the Action! Toolkit.

Action! constructs were designed to map cleanly to 6502 opcodes, to provide high performance without needing complex optimizations in the one-pass compiler. For example, local variables are assigned fixed addresses in memory, instead of being allocated on a stack of activation records. This eliminates the significant overhead associated with stack management, which is especially difficult in the case of the 6502's 256-byte stack. However, this precludes the use of recursion.

Unlike the integrated Atari BASIC and Atari Assembler Editor environments, the Action! editor does not use line numbers. It has a fullscreen, scrolling display capable of displaying two windows, and includes block operations and global search and replace.

The monitor serves as a debugger, allowing an entire program or individual functions to be run, memory to be displayed and modified, and program execution to be traced.

Data types
Action! has three fundamental data types, all of which are numeric.

BYTE is internally represented as an unsigned 8-bit integer. Values range from 0 to 255. The CHAR keyword can also be used to declare BYTE variables.

BYTE age=[21]     ; declare age and initialize it to the value 21 BYTE leftMargin=82 ; declare leftMargin at address 82

CARDinal is internally represented as an unsigned 16-bit integer. Values range from 0 to 65,535.

CARD population=$600            ; declare population and store it at address 1536 and 1537 CARD prevYear, curYear, nextYear ; use commas to declare multiple variables

INTeger is internally represented as a signed 16-bit integer. Values range from -32,768 to 32,767.

INT veryCold = [-10] INT profitsQ1, profitsQ2, ; declaring multiple variables can profitsQ3, profitsQ4  ; span across multiple lines

Action! also has ARRAYs, POINTERs and user-defined TYPEs. No floating point support is provided.

An example of a user-defined TYPE:

TYPE CORD=[CARD x,y] CORD point point.x=42 point.y=23

Reserved words
A reserved word is any identifier or symbol that the Action! compiler recognizes as something special. It can be an operator, a data type name, a statement, or a compiler directive.

AND      FI         OR         UNTIL    =     (   ARRAY     FOR        POINTER    WHILE    <>    ) BYTE     FUNC       PROC       XOR      #. CARD     IF         RETURN     +        >     [ CHAR     INCLUDE    RSH        -        >=    ] DEFINE   INT        SET        *        <     "   DO        LSH        STEP       /        <=    '   ELSE      MOD        THEN       &        $     ;   ELSEIF    MODULE     TO         %        ^   EXIT      OD         TYPE       !        @

Example code
The following is example code for Sieve of Eratosthenes written in Action!. In order to increase performance, it disables the ANTIC graphics coprocessor, preventing its DMA engine from "stealing" CPU cycles during computation.

BYTE RTCLOK=20, ; addr of sys timer SDMCTL=559 ; DMA control BYTE ARRAY FLAGS(8190) CARD COUNT,I,K,PRIME,TIME PROC SIEVE SDMCTL=0 ; shut off Antic RTCLOK=0 ; reset the clock to zero COUNT=0        ; init count FOR I=0 TO 8190 ; and flags DO    FLAGS(I)='T ; "'T" is a compiler-provided constant for True OD  FOR I=0 TO 8190 ; now run the sieve DO    IF FLAGS(I)='T THEN PRIME=I+I+3 K=I+PRIME WHILE K<=8190 DO        FLAGS(K)='F ; "'F" is a compiler-provided constant for False K==+PRIME OD      COUNT==+1 FI    OD   TIME=RTCLOK ; get timer reading SDMCTL=34  ; restore screen PRINTF("%E %U PRIMES IN",COUNT) PRINTF("%E %U JIFFIES",TIME) RETURN

Micro-SPL
While taking his postgraduate studies, Parker started working part-time at Xerox PARC working on printer drivers. He later moved to the Xerox Alto project where he wrote several games for the system. His PhD was in natural language parsing and he had worked on compiler theory during his graduate work.

Henry Baker and Parker released Micro-SPL in September 1979. Micro-SPL was intended to be used as a systems programming language on the Xerox Alto workstation computer, which was normally programmed in BCPL. The Alto used a microcode system which the BCPL compiler output. Micro-SPL output the same format, allowing BCPL programs to call Micro-SPL programs.

Aside from differences in syntax, the main difference between Micro-SPL and BCPL, and the reason for its existence, was that Micro-SPL produced code that was many times faster than the native BCPL compiler. In general, Micro-SPL programs were expected to run about ten times as fast as BCPL, and about half as fast as good hand-written microcode. In comparison to microcode, they claimed it would take half as long to write and 10% of the time to debug it.

Action!
It was during this period that Parker purchased an Atari computer for use at home. He was disappointed with the lack of development systems for it, which was the impetus for creating Action! Parker considered releasing the system himself, but decided to partner with Optimized Systems Software (OSS) for sales and distribution. OSS focused on utilities and programming languages like BASIC XL, so this was a natural fit for Action! Sales were strong enough for Parker to make a living off the royalties for several years.

The IBM PC had C compilers available, and Parker decided there was no point in porting Action! to that platform. As the sales of the Atari 8-bit computers wound down in North America, OSS wound down as well. Late in its history Action! distribution moved from OSS to Electronic Arts, but they did little with the language and sales ended shortly after. In a 2015 interview, Parker expressed his surprise in the level of interest in the language continued to receive, suggesting it was greater than it had been in the late 1980s.

Reception
Brian Moriarty, in a February 1984 review for ANALOG Computing, concluded that Action! was "one of the most valuable development tools ever published for the Atari." He cited the manual as the only weak point of the package, claiming it "suffers from lack of confidence, uncertain organization and a shortage of good, hard technical data."

Leo Laporte reviewed Action in the May/June 1984 edition of Hi-Res. He began the review, "This is the best thing to happen to Atari since Nolan Bushnell figured out people would play ping-pong on a TV screen." Laporte praised the editor, noting its split-screen and cut and paste capabilities and describing it as a "complete word processing system that's very responsive." He said that Action! ran about 200 times as fast as Atari BASIC, concluding that "This language is like a finely tuned racing car."

BYTE in 1985 praised the compilation and execution speed of software written in Action! Using their Byte Sieve benchmark as a test, ten iterations of the sieve completed in 18 seconds in Action!, compared to 10 seconds for assembly and 38 minutes in BASIC. The magazine also lauded the language's editor. BYTE reported that the language resembled C closely enough to "routinely convert programs between the two", and approved of its pointer support. The magazine concluded that "Action! is easy to use, quick, and efficient. It can exploit the Atari's full power. Action! puts programming for the Atari in a whole new dimension."

Ian Chadwick wrote in Mapping the Atari that "Action! is probably the best language yet for the Atari; it's a bit like C and Pascal, with a dash of Forth. I recommend it."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Action! (programming language)


text:
Kherson Oblast

Kherson Oblast (Херсонська область, ; Херсонская область), also known as Khersonshchyna (Херсонщина, ), is an oblast (province) in southern Ukraine. It is located just north of Crimea. Its administrative center is Kherson, on the northern or right bank of the Dnieper river, which bisects the oblast. The oblast has an area of 28,461 km2 and a population of It is considered the 'fruit basket' of the country, as much of its agricultural production is dispersed throughout the country, with production peaking during the summer months.

Most of the area of the oblast has been under Russian military occupation since early in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. On 30 September 2022, Russia claimed to annex Kherson Oblast, along with the Donetsk (Donetsk People's Republic), Luhansk (Luhansk People's Republic) and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, but the referendums and subsequent claimed annexations are internationally unrecognized. Ukraine recaptured the whole area on the right bank of the Dnieper, including Kherson city, by mid-November 2022, in the Kherson counteroffensive.

History
Historically, at various times, the territory was ruled either entirely or partly by Scythia, ancient Greeks, Old Great Bulgaria, Khazars, Kipchaks, the Byzantine Empire, Kyivan Rus', Italians, the Mongol Empire, Lithuania, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire, Poland and Russia. Medieval towns of greatest importance were the former Byzantine, Kyivan Rus' and Genoese trading port of Oleshia and former Lithuanian customs point and Polish and Turkish fortress of Tawan/Kazikermen, now Beryslav. In 1917–1920 the territory at various times passed between the Ukrainians, Bolsheviks and White Russians, decisively becoming part Soviet Ukraine in 1920. It was the scene of Soviet genocidal crimes, chiefly the Holodomor of 1932–1933 and part of the Katyn massacre of 1940. During World War II, it was occupied by Germany from 1941 to 1944.

The province was established in 1944 within Soviet Ukraine.

In the 1991 Ukrainian independence referendum, 90.13% of votes in Kherson Oblast were in favor of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine.

A survey conducted by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology in December 2014 found that 90.9% of the oblast's population opposed their region joining Russia, 1% supported the idea, and the rest were undecided or did not respond.

Russian invasion
Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine began on 24 February 2022, Russian forces have occupied most of the oblast, with government by the "Kherson military–civilian administration" from 28 April to 30 September 2022.

On 27 July 2022, the Ukrainian army destroyed the Antonivka Road Bridge as part of its wider campaign to isolate the Russian 49th Combined Arms Army on the right bank of the Dnieper river. On 31 August, it was reported that the defenders of the occupied Kherson territory were the 49th Combined Arms Army and what was left of the 35th Combined Arms Army.

On 5 September it was announced that the newly-installed Russian administration had postponed its plans to hold a referendum on the planned secession from Ukraine. The plebiscite had been scheduled to occur on 11 September, in order to coincide with the Russian electoral calendar. Due to the contestation of the oblast by the Ukrainian forces, it was found to be impractical to hold at this time.

On 23–27 September 2022, the Russian Federation held referendums in the occupied territories of Kherson and Zaporizhzhia oblasts for "independence and subsequent entry into the Russian Federation", recognized by most states to be staged and against international law.

On 29 September, the Russian Federation recognized Kherson Oblast as an independent state. On 30 September, Russian president Vladimir Putin announced the annexation of the Kherson Oblast and three other Ukrainian territories, and signed "accession decrees" that are widely considered to be illegal. At that time, Russia was not in control of the province as a whole.

The United Nations General Assembly subsequently passed a resolution calling on countries not to recognise what it described as an "attempted illegal annexation" and demanded that Russia "immediately, completely and unconditionally withdraw".

On 9 November 2022, the city of Kherson and a remaining pocket of land on the right bank of the Dnieper were recaptured by Ukrainian forces. The territory on the left bank is still under Russian control.

On 6 June 2023, the Kakhovka Dam was breached, causing extensive flooding and prompting mass evacuations in the oblast.

Russian authorities claimed that Russian President Vladimir Putin won 88.12% of the vote in the occupied Kherson region in the 2024 Russian presidential election, which has been described as rigged and fraudulent.

Geography

Kherson Oblast is bordered by Dnipropetrovsk Oblast to the north, the Black Sea and Crimea to the south, Mykolaiv Oblast to the west, and the Azov Sea and Zaporizhzhia Oblast to the east. The Dnieper River, which includes the Kakhovka Reservoir, runs through the oblast.

Before the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, two bridges spanned the Dniper: the Khakovsky Bridge near Nova Kakhovka and the Antonivka Road Bridge at Kherson. Another significant bridge, the Daryivka Bridge crosses the Inhulets river and connects Kherson via the M14 highway to Beryslav, the other abutment of the Khakovsky Bridge.

The oblast's Henichesk Raion includes the northern portion of the Arabat Spit, a thin strip of land between the brackish Syvash and the Sea of Azov that is geographically part of the Crimean Peninsula. Due to Russia gaining de facto control of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea in 2014, this strip within Kherson Oblast was the only part of the Crimean Peninsula under Ukrainian control immediately prior to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.

Historically, it is located in Yedisan (north-western part), Zaporizhzhia (northern part) and Pryazovia (southern and eastern parts).

Kherson is the only city with a population over 100,000. Four other cities have over 30,000 – they are, in order from largest, Nova Kakhovka, Kakhovka, Oleshky and Henichesk.

Administrative divisions
Until the 2020 re-organisation, the Kherson Oblast was administratively subdivided into 18 raions (districts) and 3 municipalities. The municipalities – Kherson (administrative center of the oblast), Nova Kakhovka, and Kakhovka – were directly subordinate to the oblast government. The Kherson municipality was subdivided into 3 urban districts. All information below was current as of 2015.

.* Note: Though the administrative center of the raion is housed in the city/town that it is named after, cities do not answer to the raion authorities only towns do; instead they are directly subordinated to the oblast government and therefore are not counted as part of raion statistics.

At a lower level of administration, these district-level administrations are subdivided into:
 * Settlements – 697, including:
 * Villages – 658; – See List of villages in Kherson Oblast
 * Cities/Urban-type settlements – 36, including:
 * Cities of raion subordinance – 4 (Beryslav, Henichesk, Skadovsk, Tavriisk, and Oleshky);
 * Urban-type settlement – 30;
 * Selsovets – 260.

The local administration of the oblast is controlled by the Kherson Oblast Rada. The governor of the oblast is the Kherson Oblast Rada speaker, appointed by the President of Ukraine.

Demographics
The population of the oblast is 1,083,367 (2012), which is 2.4% of the total population of Ukraine. It is also ranked 21st by its population. The population density is 38 per km2.

About 61.5% or 745,400 people live in urban areas of the Oblast and 38.5% or 467,600 people live in agricultural centers/villages. Men make up 46.7% or 565,400 people of the population, women make up 53.3% or 644,600 people, and pensioners make up 26.2% or 317,400 people of the Oblast population.

Ukrainian National Census (2001):
 * Ukrainians – 82.0%
 * Russians – 14.1%
 * Belarusians – 0.7%
 * Meskhetian Turks – 0.5%
 * Crimean Tatars – 0.5%
 * Others – 2.2%

Age structure
 * 0–14 years: 15.1% (male 83,397/female 79,303)
 * 15–64 years: 70.5% (male 364,907/female 393,933)
 * 65 years and over: 14.4% (male 50,404/female 104,856) (2013 official)

Median age
 * total: 39.5 years
 * male: 36.2 years
 * female: 42.7 years (2013 official)

Attractions

 * Askania-Nova
 * Lake Lemuria

title: Kherson Oblast


text:
Adrar Plateau

The Adrar (هضبة آدرار, Berber for "mountain" ) is a highland natural and historical region of the Sahara Desert in northern Mauritania. The Adrar Region, an administrative division of Mauritania, is named after the traditional region. It is sometimes called Adrar Tamar to distinguish it from other areas called Adrar in the Sahara.

Geography
The Adrar is an arid plateau, known for its gorges, regs (stony deserts) and sand dunes. Structurally the Adrar is a low central massif which rises to over 700 m above sea level just east of Atar near the Amojjar Pass on the track to Chinguetti, then loses elevation and becomes subsumed by dunes to the south and east. Limited cultivation is only possible in the gorges at lower elevations such like oued Seguellil, where the water table is high enough to support large palm groves.

Features include the Oued el Abiod or 'White Valley', a dune-filled fault line along which many small settlements and palm groves are found. The Guelb Aouelloul crater is 3.1 million-old impact crater which was studied by the noted Saharan scholar Théodore Monod. To the east beyond Ouadane is the distinctive Richat Structure, an uplifted and then heavily eroded dome of strata approximately 40 km across and whose concentric rings resemble an impact crater when observed from space.

The Adrar region is home to a small human population, centered on the town of Atar. The ancient town of Ouadane, formerly an important caravan and gold-trading centre, is located towards the eastern edge of the Adrar. Chinguetti is another important historical town in the region.

History
The Adrar was settled in the Neolithic era as shown by cave and rock paintings found in the area such as the Agrour Amogjar. The more recent aridification has left much of the archaeology intact, most notable several stone circles, e.g. Atar Stone Circle, and the later town of Azougui.

Beginning in the mid-17th century, migrants from the Adrar Plateau region moved into the Tagant Plateau and displaced the native population.

title: Adrar Plateau


text:
Neurotmesis

Neurotmesis (in Greek tmesis signifies "to cut") is part of Seddon's classification scheme used to classify nerve damage. It is the most serious nerve injury in the scheme. In this type of injury, both the nerve and the nerve sheath are disrupted. While partial recovery may occur, complete recovery is impossible.

Symptoms
Symptoms of neurotmesis include but are not limited to pain, dysesthesias (uncomfortable sensations), and complete loss of sensory and motor function of the affected nerve.

Anatomy
Neurotmesis occurs in the peripheral nervous system and most often in the upper-limb (arms), accounting for 73.5% of all peripheral nerve injury cases. Of these cases, the ulnar nerve was most often injured. Peripheral nerves are structured so that the axons are surrounded by most often a myelinated sheath and then an endoneurium. A perineurium surrounds that and the outermost layer is considered the epineurium. When injury occurs, "local vascular trauma leads to hemorrhage and edema (swelling), which results in vigorous inflammatory response resulting in scarring of the injured segment. In most cases, due to the extreme nature of the injury, there is typically complete loss of function.

Mechanisms
Trauma is the most frequent cause of peripheral nerve lesions. There are two classifications of trauma which include civilian trauma and military trauma. Civilian trauma is most commonly caused by motor vehicle accidents but also by lacerations caused by glass, knives, fans, saw blades or fractures and occasionally sports injuries. Of the civilian injuries, stretch injuries are the most common types and are considered to be a closed injury, where the tissue is unexposed. Stretch injures are commonly the result of dislocation, such as a shoulder dislocation that stretches nerves. Opposite of civilian trauma, there is military trauma which most commonly results in open injuries from blasts often by bombs or improvised explosive devices. Other mechanisms of injury are less common but include ischemia, thermal, electric shock, radiation, adverse reactions to certain chemotherapy medications, percussion and vibration.

Diagnosis
With Seddon's classification of nerve injuries, it is often tough to identify whether a particular nerve injury is neurotmesis, or axonotmesis, which has damage to the nerve fibres but preservation of the nerve trunk. Due to the damage involved in both of these conditions they will both show paralysis of muscles that are supplied by nerves below the site of the lesion, and will have sensory deficits in accordance with the individual nerves that are damaged. The only way to know for sure if a nerve injury is in fact neurotmesis is to allow for the normal progression of nerve regeneration to take place (nerves regenerate at a rate of approximately 2–4 mm/day proximal to the lesion), and if, after that time, there is still profound muscle paralysis and degeneration in these areas, then it is likely to have been a neurotmesis injury.

Neurotmesis is diagnosed through clinical evaluation of symptoms, physical evaluation, and other diagnostic studies. Patients often undergo a series of muscle strength tests, sensory exam which includes feeling the sensation of light touch, pinprick, vibration, and others. Other tests involved with diagnosis of nerve injury are electromyography (EMG) and nerve conduction studies (NCS). These help to distinguish upper from lower motor neuron disorder as well as diagnose primary muscle disease.

Classification
Peripheral nerve injuries can be classified in two different ways. Neurotmesis is classified under the Seddon system which is defined by three grades of nerve injury. The mildest grade is referred to as neurapraxia and is characterized by a reduction or complete blockage of conduction across a segment of nerve while axonal continuity is maintained and nerve conduction is preserved. These injuries are almost always reversed and a recovery takes place within days or weeks. The second classification of the Seddon system is referred to as axonotmesis which is a more severe case of peripheral nerve injury. Axonotmesis is classified by an interruption of the axons, but a preservation of the surrounding connective tissues around the axon. These injuries can heal themselves at about 1mm/day, therefore resulting in recovery to be possible but at a slower rate than neurapraxia. The last and most severe case of peripheral nerve injury is known as neurotmesis, which in most cases cannot be completely recovered from even with surgical repair.

The second classification of nerve injury is known as the Sunderland classification which is more complex and specific. This classification uses five different degrees of nerve injury, the first one being the least severe and the equivalent to neurapraxia and the most severe being the fifth degree and having the same classification as neurotmesis. The second through fourth degrees are dependent on the variance of axon discontinuity and are classified under Seddon's classification of axonotmesis.

Treatment
The first line of treatment is often to treat the patient's pain with neuropathic drugs such as tricyclic antidepressants, serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and anticonvulsants. The second lines of drugs to treat pain are non-steroidal anti-inflammatories, tramadol, and opioids. Other techniques used to facilitate healing of the nerve and pain are either static or dynamic splinting that can both help protect the injured part as well as improve function. Sometimes surgery is an option, although the prognosis is still very poor of regaining function of the affected nerve. The goal of surgery is to join healthy nerve to unhealthy nerve. The most common surgical techniques include external neurolysis, end-to-end repair, nerve grafting, and nerve transfer from somewhere else in the body.

Prognosis
People with neurotmesis often face a poor prognosis. They will more than likely never regain full functionality of the affected nerve, but surgical techniques do give people a better chance at regaining some function. Current research is focused on new ways to regenerate nerves and advance surgical techniques.

title: Neurotmesis


text:
Axonotmesis

Axonotmesis is an injury to the peripheral nerve of one of the extremities of the body. The axons and their myelin sheath are damaged in this kind of injury, but the endoneurium, perineurium and epineurium remain intact. Motor and sensory functions distal to the point of injury are completely lost over time leading to Wallerian degeneration due to ischemia, or loss of blood supply. Axonotmesis is usually the result of a more severe crush or contusion than neurapraxia.

Axonotmesis mainly follows a stretch injury. These stretch injuries can either dislocate joints or fracture a limb, due to which peripheral nerves are severed. If the sharp pain from the exposed axon of the nerve is not observed, one can identify a nerve injury from abnormal sensations in their limb. A doctor may ask for a nerve conduction velocity (NCV) test to completely diagnose the issue. If diagnosed as nerve injury, electromyography performed after 3 to 4 weeks shows signs of denervations and fibrillations, or irregular connections and contractions of muscles.

Injury classification
There are two kinds of nerve injury classifications:

Sunderland's Stage II classification

 * Endoneurial tube remains intact
 * Emergence of Wallerian degeneration
 * Can be detected with Tinel's sign

Sunderland's Stage III classification

 * Endoneurial tube is damaged
 * Perineurium remains intact
 * Scarring occurs
 * Intrafascicular fibrosis occurs due to edema

Sunderland's Stage IV classification

 * Perineurium is damaged
 * Epineurium remains intact
 * Neuroma could occur
 * Surgery is required for treatment

Assessment
A nerve contains sensory fibers, motor fibers, or both. Sensory fibers lesions cause the sensory problems below to the site of injury. Motor fibers injuries may involve lower motor neurons, sympathetic fibers, and or both.

Assessment items include:
 * Sensory fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system.
 * Motor fibers that allow movement of skeletal muscle.
 * Sympathetic fibers that innervate the skin and blood vessels of the four extremities.

In assessment, sensory-motor defects may be mild, moderate, or severe. Damage to motor fibers results in paralysis of the muscles. Nervous plexus injuries create more signs and symptoms from sensory-motor problems (such as brachial plexus injuries). In these cases, the prognosis depends on the amount of damage and the degree of functional impairment.

Changes in EMG
Electromyography (EMG) is a medical test performed to evaluate and record the electrical activity (electromyogram) produced by skeletal muscles using an instrument called electromyograph. In axonotmesis, EMG changes (2 to 3 weeks after injury) in the denervated muscles include:
 * 1) Fibrillation potentials (FP)
 * 2) Positive sharp waves

Changes in NCV (nerve conduction velocity)
EMG test is often performed together with another test called nerve conduction study, which measures the conducting function of nerves. NCV study shows loss of nerve conduction in the distal segment (3 to 4 days after injury). According to NCV study, in axonotmesis there is an absence of distal sensory-motor responses.

Treatment
Schwann cells provide the nerve with protection through the production of Nerve Growth Factors, and because these cells are intact this kind of nerve injury can be cured and normal feeling and sensations can be restored. Surgery can be done in order to help the nerve heal. The surgery will help with nerve regeneration, providing guidance to the nerve sprouts on where to attach on the proximal side of the injury. Damaged nerve axons can reattach themselves after surgery. Treatment of axonotmesis also consists of:
 * Physical therapy or Occupational Therapy. Physical or Occupational therapy aims include:
 * Pain relief
 * Maintain range of motion
 * Reducing muscular atrophy
 * Patient education
 * Use of assistive devices (Orthotic needs)

Prognosis
The prognosis is usually good in terms of recovery. Rate of recovery depends on the distance from the site of injury, and axonal regeneration can go up to 1 inch per month. Complete recovery can take anywhere from 6 months to a year.

title: Axonotmesis


text:
Neurapraxia

Neurapraxia is a disorder of the peripheral nervous system in which there is a temporary loss of motor and sensory function due to blockage of nerve conduction, usually lasting an average of six to eight weeks before full recovery. Neurapraxia is derived from the word apraxia, meaning “loss or impairment of the ability to execute complex coordinated movements without muscular or sensory impairment”.

This condition is typically caused by a blunt neural injury due to external blows or shock-like injuries to muscle fibers and skeletal nerve fibers, which leads to repeated or prolonged pressure buildup on the nerve. As a result of this pressure, ischemia occurs, a neural lesion results, and the human body naturally responds with edema extending in all directions from the source of the pressure. This lesion causes a complete or partial action potential conduction block over a segment of a nerve fiber and thus a reduction or loss of function in parts of the neural connection downstream from the lesion, leading to muscle weakness.

Neurapraxia results in temporary damage to the myelin sheath but leaves the nerve intact and is an impermanent condition; thus, Wallerian degeneration does not occur in neurapraxia. In order for the condition to be considered neurapraxia, according to the Seddon classification system of peripheral nerve injury, there must be a complete and relatively rapid recovery of motor and sensory function once nerve conduction has been restored; otherwise, the injury would be classified as axonotmesis or neurotmesis. Thus, neurapraxia is the mildest classification of peripheral nerve injury.

Neurapraxia is very common in professional athletes, especially American football players, and is a condition that can and should be treated by a physician.

Signs and symptoms
A variety of nerve types can be subjected to neurapraxia and therefore symptoms of the injury range in degree and intensity. Common symptoms of neurapraxia are disturbances in sensation, weakness of muscle, vasomotor and sudomotor paralysis in the region of the affected nerve or nerves, and abnormal sensitivity of the nerve at the point of injury. It has been observed that subjective sensory symptoms include numbness, tingling, and burning sensations at the site of the injury. Objective sensory symptoms are generally minimal in regards to touch, pain, heat, and cold. In cases of motor neuron neurapraxia, symptoms consist of flaccid paralysis of the muscles innervated by the injured nerve or nerves. Symptoms are often transient and only last for a short period of time immediately following the injury. However, in severe cases of neurapraxia, symptoms can persist for weeks or months at a time.

Causes
The cause of neurapraxia is a neural lesion which causes a temporary block of nerve conduction without transection of the axon. A conduction block is classified as a 40% reduction in action potential amplitude over a short distance on the nerve, or a 50% reduction for a longer distance on the nerve. In neurapraxia, stimulation to the injured nerve results in a greater reduction in the action potential amplitude on the proximal site of the injury as opposed to the distal site.

Anatomy
Neurapraxia occurs in the peripheral nervous system typically in the ulnar, median, and radial nerves of the upper body and in the sciatic and peroneal nerves of the lower body. Peripheral nerves are myelinated, relatively large, spatially complex cells whose size and connectivity typically make them more susceptible to damage and compromise their capacity to self-repair, although this is not the case in neurapraxia. Microscopic evidence has shown that there is damage to the myelin sheath, but not to the axon. Therefore, distal nerve fibers do not degenerate and the myelin damage can be repaired.

Order of pathology
The order of pathology within the first 24 hours after injury follows a general pattern of nerve injury. The first physical manifestation of the injury is focal swelling adjacent to the site of the injury. In the cellular dimension, a fragmentation of neurotubules and neurofilaments occurs as a result of pressure exerted on the nerve. Axons swell at some sites and are compressed at others, leading to a beaded appearance.

Mechanisms of injury
There are several mechanisms of nerve injury including mechanical lesions, ischemia, immunologic attack, metabolic disorder, toxic agents, and exposure to radiation. The most common mechanism of injury is nerve compression in which external pressure causes decreased blood flow to the nerve and deformation of the nerve fibers. Repeated or prolonged compression of the nerve results in ischemia and ultimately edema above and below the source of the pressure (I). The thinning of myelin sheaths or focal demyelination are the main consequences of the injury that lead to conduction blockage.

Seddon classification
There are three distinct classifications and degrees of nerve injury:
 * Neurotmesis is the most serious degree of nerve injury. It involves the disruption of the nerve and the nerve sheath.
 * Axonotmesis occurs when the majority of the supporting structures of the nerve are preserved, but disruption of the nerve fibers is still observed. Wallerian degeneration often occurs in the near the proximity of the injury site.
 * Neurapraxia is least serious form of nerve injury.

There are two different forms of mechanical nerve injury involving neurapraxia. The underlying causes of transient nerve injury typically include a brief ischemic episode or any form of compression. More persistent forms of nerve injury involve demyelination and axonal constriction. In certain circumstances, diagnosing neurapraxia can be uncomfortable because of the presence of severe neuropathic pain. Neuropathic pain is an indication that the lesion of the nerve is still in progress. Diagnosis of neurapraxia is almost always followed by a quick and complete recovery period.

Treatment and recovery
The entire nerve is involved in the response to traumatic injuries. The outcome of nerve repair is dependent on the degree of the nerve injury and the circumstances at the site of injury. Since neurapraxia is the least serious form of peripheral nerve injury, recovery and treatment are not extensive. Once the cause of neurapraxia is eliminated, recovery of the lesions in the nerve occurs within a short time span.

Non-operative treatment
Neurapraxia is often treated and cured by non-operative means. The primary goals of treatment are to maintain the proper nutrition of the paralyzed muscles, prevent contraction by the antagonists of the paralyzed muscles, and to consistently keep the joints mobile. A splint is often used in cases of neurapraxia because it is able to maintain a relaxed position of the paralyzed muscle. The splint prevents the paralyzed muscle from being overstretched either by the force of gravity or by other non-paralyzed antagonists. During the recovery period of neurapraxia, it is essential that the joints constantly undergo passive movement in order to preserve proper mobility. If joints are kept mobile, the limb has the best possible chance of benefit from the return of nervous function. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications can also help to reduce swelling at the injury site. In addition to these non-operative remedies, it is suggested that muscles affected by neurapraxia be kept warm at all times. Circulation in the limb is stimulated with the use of heat. Once voluntary movement has returned to the muscle, recovery and treatment continues by the participation in active exercises. Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy are common sources of treatment during these early stages of restoration of active movement. Almost all cases of neurapraxia can be completely treated by non-operative means.

Treating cervical cord neurapraxia on the field
According to medical professionals with the Cleveland Clinic, once an athlete suffers from an episode of cervical spinal cord neurapraxia, team physician or athletic trainer first stabilize the head and neck followed by a thorough neurologic inspection. If the injury is deemed severe, injured parties should be taken to a hospital for evaluation. Athletes that suffer from severe episodes of neurapraxia are urged to consult orthopaedic or spinal medical specialists. In mild cases of neurapraxia, the athlete is able to remove themselves from the field of play. However, the athlete is still advised to seek medical consultation.

Prognosis
In cases of neurapraxia, the function of the nerves are temporarily impaired. However, the prognosis for recovery from neurapraxia is efficient and quick. Recovery begins within two to three weeks after the injury occurs, and it is complete within six to eight weeks. There are instances when function is not completely restored until four months after the instance of injury. The recovery period of neurapraxia is not an entirely ordered process, but the recovery is always complete and fast.

Epidemiology

Neurapraxia is most commonly observed in athletes involved in collision sports, such as American football. Athletes participating in collision sports most often suffer from cervical cord neurapraxia, also known as transient neurapraxia. Cervical cord neurapraxia is the result of a severe collision in which a blow to the crown of the athlete's head forcefully extends or compresses the neck. Numbness, stinging, and/or weakness in the arms, legs or both, distinguish cervical cord neurapraxia. Typical episodes of transient neurapraxia only last a few seconds and symptoms dissipate entirely. Though the severity of the injury can range, transient neurapraxia does not lead to permanent paralysis of the affected muscles. Subsequent spinal cord injury after an episode of cervical cord neurapraxia has not been observed. However, athletes who experience an episode of transient cervical neurapraxia face an approximately 50% chance of a repeat episode if they continue to participate in collision sports.

American football
Cervical cord neurapraxia among American football players is commonly observed in athletes playing positions involving high-speed collisions and open-field tackling. Cases of neurapraxia in the National Football League were first described in 1986 by Joseph Torg, M.D., founder of the National Football Head and Neck Injury Registry (established in 1975). As a result of Dr. Torg's findings the NFL as well as other levels of American football have outlawed the act of spearing, or the lowering of the head and hitting an opponent with the crown of the helmet. The cervical spine cannot properly absorb the force of a collision when the head is even slightly lowered as is the case in spearing. In addition to outlawing acts such as spearing, prevention of neurapraxia on the football field relies on instruction and reinforcement of proper tackling technique by coaches and trainers.

In popular culture
In M*A*S*H Season 4 Episode one, Benjamin "Hawkeye" Pierce claims that Walter "Radar" O'Reilly has neurapraxia as an excuse for driving past a military checkpoint. Hawkeye lies about the causes and treatments to keep them from getting into trouble. When questioned by Radar if it was a real disease, he answered "Yes, but only people that bite their nails can get it" (which Radar was currently doing).

title: Neurapraxia


text:
Rail transport in Italy

The Italian railway system is one of the most important parts of the infrastructure of Italy, with a total length of 24227 km of which active lines are 16723 km. The network has recently grown with the construction of the new high-speed rail network. Italy is a member of the International Union of Railways (UIC). The UIC Country Code for Italy is 83.

The network
RFI (Rete Ferroviaria Italiana, Italian Rail Network), a state owned infrastructure manager which administers most of the Italian rail infrastructure. The Italian railway system has a length of 19394 km, of which 18071 km standard gauge. The active lines are 16723 km, of which 7505 km are double tracks. Italy has 2,507 people and 12.46 km2 per kilometer of rail track, giving Italy the world's 13th largest rail network.

Lines are divided into 3 categories:
 * fundamental lines (fondamentali), which have high traffic and good infrastructure quality, comprise all the main lines between major cities throughout the country. Fundamental lines are 6131 km long;
 * complementary lines (complementari), which have less traffic and are responsible for connecting medium or small regional centers. Most of these lines are single track and some are not electrified;
 * node lines (di nodo), which link complementary and fundamental lines near metropolitan areas for a total 936 km.

Most of the Italian network is electrified (11921 km). Electric system is 3 kV DC on conventional lines and 25 kV AC on high-speed lines.

A major part of the Italian rail network is managed and operated by RFI (Rete Ferroviaria Italiana, Italian Rail Network). Other regional agencies, mostly owned by public entities such as regional governments, operate on the Italian network.

Travellers who often make use of the railway during their stay in Italy might use Rail Passes, such as the European Inter-Rail or Italy's national and regional passes. These rail passes allow travellers the freedom to use regional trains during the validity period, but all high-speed and intercity trains require a 10-euro reservation fee. Regional passes, such as "Io viaggio ovunque Lombardia", offer one-day, multiple-day and monthly period of validity. There are also saver passes for adults, who travel as a group, with savings up to 20%. Foreign travellers should purchase these passes in advance, so that the passes could be delivered by post prior to the trip. When using the rail passes, the date of travel needs to be filled in before boarding the trains.

Companies certified to run railways in Italy are:

 * From 2000
 * Ferrovie dello Stato S.p. A.
 * Trenitalia S.p. A.

 * From 2001
 * Metronapoli S.p. A.
 * Ferrovie Nord Milano Esercizio S.p. A.
 * Rail Traction Company S.p. A.

 * From 2002
 * Del Fungo Giera Servizi Ferroviari S.p. A.
 * Gruppo Torinese Trasporti S.p. A.(ex SATTI)
 * SERFER Servizi Ferroviari S.r.l.
 * Hupac S.p. A.

 * From 2003
 * Ferrovie Emilia Romagna S.r.l.
 * La Ferroviaria Italiana S.p. A.
 * Cargo Nord S.r.l.
 * Ferrovie Adriatico Sangritana S.r.l.
 * Sistemi Territoriali S.p. A.
 * Strade Ferrate del Mediterraneo S.r.l.
 * Swiss Rail Cargo Italy S.r.l.

 * From 2004
 * SBB Cargo Italia S.r.l.
 * Ferrovie Nord Cargo S.r.l.
 * Azienda Consorziale Trasporti di Reggio Emilia
 * Ferrovia Alifana e Benevento Napoli S.r.l.
 * Ferrovie Nord Milano Trasporti S.r.l.

 * From 2005
 * Trasporto Ferroviario Toscano S.p. A. (La Ferroviaria Italiana S.p. A.)
 * Ferrovie Centrali Umbre S.r.l.
 * Railion Italia S.r.l. (ex S.F.M.)
 * Rail One S.p. A.
 * Azienda Trasporti Collettivi e Mobilità S.p. A.
 * A.T.C. Bologna S.p. A.
 * Monferail S.r.l.

 * From 2006
 * SAD - Trasporto Locale S.p.A.
 * Nord Cargo S.r.l. (ex Ferrovie Nord Cargo S.r.l.)
 * Arenaways S.p.A.

History
The first line to be built on the peninsula was the Naples–Portici line, in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which was 7.64 km long and was inaugurated on 3 October 1839, nine years after the world's first "modern" inter-city railway, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The following year the firm Holzhammer of Bolzano was granted the "Imperial-Royal privilege" to build the Milano–Monza line (12 km), the second railway built in Italy, in the then Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, a part of the Austrian Empire.

After the creation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, a project was started to build a network from the Alps to Sicily, in order to connect the country. After unification, construction of new lines was boosted: in 1875, with the completion of the section Orte-Orvieto, the direct Florence–Rome line was completed, reducing the travel time of the former route passing through Foligno-Terontola. Private companies were definitively bought back by the Italian state on 1 July 1905, with the creation of the Ferrovie dello Stato (State Railways), or FFSS, with a total of 10,557 km of lines, of which it already owned 9686 km. The move was completed the following year with the acquisition of the remaining SFM network: by then FFSS possessed 13,075 km of lines, of which 1917 km with double tracks.

The period from 1922 to 1939 was heavy with important construction and modernisation programmes for the Italian railways, which also incorporated 400 km from the Ferrovie Reali Sarde of Sardinia. The most important programme was that of the Rome–Naples and Bologna–Florence direttissimas ("most direct lines"): the first reduced the travel time from the two cities by an hour and a half; the second, announced proudly as "constructing Fascism", included the second longest tunnel in the world at the time. Electrification on 3,000 V direct current was introduced, which later supplanted the existing three-phase system. Other improvements included automatic blocks, light signals, construction of numerous main stations (Milan Central, Napoli Mergellina, Roma Ostiense and others) and other technical modernisations. The first high-speed train was the Italian ETR 200, which in July 1939 went from Milan to Florence at 165 km/h, with a top speed of 203 km/h. With this service, the railway was able to compete with the upcoming airplanes. The Second World War stopped these services.

After World War II, Italy started to repair the damaged railways, and built nearly 20000 km of new tracks. Entire lines were out of action and much of the rolling stock destroyed. Thanks to the Marshall Plan, in the following years they could be rebuilt, although the possibility of reorganizing the network was missed due to short-sighted policies. The main Battipaglia-Reggio Calabria line (running along the west coast) was doubled, while a program of updating of infrastructures, superstructures, services, colour-light signalling and cars was updated or extended. The three-phase lines were gradually turned into standard 3,000 V dc lines.

Increasing numbers of steam locomotives were replaced by electric or diesel ones; in the 1960s also the first unified passenger cars appeared and the first attempts of interoperability with foreign companies were started, culminating in the creation of Trans Europe Express services. Nowadays the rail tracks and infrastructure are managed by Rete Ferroviaria Italiana (RFI), while the train and the passenger section is managed mostly by Trenitalia. Both are Ferrovie dello Stato (FS) subsidiaries, once the only train operator in Italy.

High-speed rail
High-speed trains were developed during the 1960s. E444 locomotives were the first standard locomotives capable of top speed of 200 km/h, while an ALe 601 electrical multiple unit (EMU) reached a speed of 240 km/h during a test. Other EMUs, such as the ETR 220, ETR 250 and ETR 300, were also updated for speeds up to 200 km/h. The braking systems of cars were updated to match the increased travelling speeds.

On 25 June 1970, work was started on the Rome–Florence Direttissima, the first high-speed line in Italy and in Europe. It included the 5,375 m bridge on the Paglia river, then the longest in Europe. Works were completed in the early 1990s.

In 1975, a program for a widespread updating of the rolling stock was launched. However, as it was decided to put more emphasis on local traffic, this caused a shifting of resources from the ongoing high-speed projects, with their subsequent slowing or, in some cases, total abandonment. Therefore, 160 E.656 electric and 35 D.345 locomotives for short-medium range traffic were acquired, together with 80 EMUs of the ALe 801/940 class, 120 ALn 668 diesel railcars. Some 1,000 much-needed passenger and 7,000 freight cars were also ordered.

In the 1990s, work started on the Treno Alta Velocità (TAV) project, which involved building a new high-speed network on the routes Milan – (Bologna–Florence–Rome–Naples) – Salerno, Turin – (Milan–Verona–Venice) – Trieste and Milan–Genoa. Most of the planned lines have already been opened, while international links with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia are underway.

Most of the Rome–Naples line opened in December 2005, the Turin–Milan line partially opened in February 2006 and the Milan–Bologna line opened in December 2008. The remaining sections of the Rome–Naples and the Turin–Milan lines and the Bologna–Florence line were completed in December 2009. All these lines are designed for speeds up to 300 km/h. Since then, it is possible to travel from Turin to Salerno (ca. 950 km) in less than 5 hours. More than 100 trains per day are operated.

Other proposed high-speed lines are Salerno-Reggio Calabria (connected to Sicily with the future bridge over the Strait of Messina ), Palermo-Catania and Naples–Bari.

The main public operator of high-speed trains (alta velocità AV, formerly Eurostar Italia) is Trenitalia, part of FSI. Trains are divided into three categories (called "Le Frecce"): Frecciarossa ("Red arrow") trains operate at a maximum of 300 km/h on dedicated high-speed tracks; Frecciargento (Silver arrow) trains operate at a maximum of 250 km/h on both high-speed and mainline tracks; Frecciabianca (White arrow) trains operate at a maximum of 200 km/h on mainline tracks only.

Since 2012, a new and Italy's first private train operator, NTV (branded as Italo), run high-speed services in competition with Trenitalia. Even nowadays, Italy is the only country in Europe with a private high-speed train operator.

Construction of the Milan-Venice high-speed line has begun in 2013 and in December 2016 the Milan-Treviglio-Brescia section has been opened to passenger traffic; the Milan-Genoa high-speed line (Terzo Valico dei Giovi) is also under construction.

Today it is possible to travel from Rome to Milan in less than 3 hours (2h 55' without intermediate stops) with the Frecciarossa 1000, the new high-speed train. As of June 2024, there are 46 Trenitalia and 33 Italo round-trip high speed trains every weekday that cover this route,

Night trains

The Nightjet of the Austrian Federal Railways (ÖBB) serves different big cities in Italy like Rome, Venice, Florence and Milano. The trains can be used for rides inside Italy as well as for journeys abroad.

Nightjet trains offers beds in sleeper carriages (Nightjet's most comfortable service category), couchette carriages, and seated carriages. On certain connections, cars can also be transported on the train. Bikes can be transported in a bike transport bag, or on some connections also in special bike racks.

Intercity trains
With the introduction of high-speed trains, intercity trains are limited to few services per day on mainline and regional tracks.

The daytime services (InterCity IC), while not frequent and limited to one or two trains per route, are essential in providing access to cities and towns off the railway's mainline network. The main routes are Trieste to Rome (stopping at Venice, Bologna, Prato, Florence and Arezzo), Milan to Rome (stopping at Genoa, La Spezia, Pisa and Livorno / stopping at Parma, Modena, Bologna, Prato, Florence and Arezzo), Bologna to Lecce (stopping at Rimini, Ancona, Pescara, Bari and Brindisi) and Rome to Reggio di Calabria (stopping at Latina and Naples). In addition, the Intercity trains provide a more economical means of long-distance rail travel within Italy.

The night trains (Intercity Notte ICN) have sleeper compartments and washrooms, but no showers on board. Main routes are Rome to Bolzano/Bozen (calling at Florence, Bologna, Verona, Rovereto and Trento), Milan to Lecce (calling at Piacenza, Parma, Reggio Emilia, Modena, Bologna, Faenza, Forlì, Cesena, Rimini, Ancona, Pescara, Bari and Brindisi), Turin to Lecce (calling at Alessandria, Voghera, Piacenza, Parma, Bologna, Rimini, Pescara, Termoli, San Severo,Foggia, Barletta, Bisceglie, Molfetta, Bari, Monopoli, Fasano, Ostuni and Brindisi) and Reggio di Calabria to Turin (calling at Naples, Rome, Livorno, La Spezia and Genova). Most portions of these ICN services run during the night; since most services take 10 to 15 hours to complete a one-way journey, their day-time portion provide extra train connections to complement with the Intercity services.

There are a total of 86 intercity trains running within Italy per day.

Regional trains
Trenitalia operates regional services (both fast veloce RV and stopping REG) throughout Italy. Regional train agencies exist: their train schedules are largely connected to and shown on Trenitalia, and tickets for such train services can be purchased through Trenitalia's national network. Other regional agencies have separate ticket systems which are not mutually exchangeable with that of Trenitalia. These "regional" tickets could be purchased at local newsagents or tobacco stores instead.

 * Trentino-Alto Adige / Trentino-Südtirol: Südtirol Bahn (South Tyrol Railway) runs regional services on Ala/Ahl-am-Etsch to Bolzano/Bozen (calling at Rovereto/Rofreit, Trento/Trient and Mezzocorona/Kronmetz), Bolzano/Bozen to Merano/Meran, Bressanone/Brixen to San Candido/Innichen, and a direct "Tirol regional express REX" service between Bolzano/Bozen in Italy and Innsbruck in Austria.
 * Veneto: Sistemi Territoriali runs regional trains in Veneto region.
 * Lombardy: Trenord runs the Malpensa Express airport train, many Milan's suburban lines and most regional train services in Lombardy. Trenord also co-operates with DB and ÖBB on the EuroCity Verona-Munich service, and with SBB CFF FFS (joint-venture TiLo) on the regional express and suburban trains between Lombardy and the towns of Canton of Ticino, such as Lugano, Locarno, Cadenazzo, Bellinzona and Mendrisio.
 * Emilia-Romagna: Trasporto Passeggeri Emilia-Romagna provides vital connections across cities on different mainline networks, including Modena, Parma, Suzzara, Ferrara, Reggio Emilia and Bologna.
 * Tuscany: La Ferroviaria Italiana operates in Arezzo province.
 * Abruzzo: Sangritana runs daily services between Pescara and Lanciano.

In addition to these agencies, there's a great deal of other little operators, such as AMT Genova for the Genova-Casella railway.

Stations

Italy's top ten railway stations by annual passengers are:

Metro
7 cities have metro systems:

Commuter rail

15 cities have commuter rail systems; cities without wikilink are those listed just above for their metro rail system.
 * Bari (Bari metropolitan railway service, 3 lines)
 * Bologna (Bologna metropolitan railway service, 8 lines)
 * Cagliari, 1 line
 * Catanzaro, 2 lines
 * Genoa (Genoa urban railway service, 3 lines)
 * Messina, 1 line
 * Milan (Milan suburban railway service, 12 lines)
 * Naples, 8 lines
 * Palermo (Palermo metropolitan railway service, 2 lines)
 * Perugia, 1 line
 * Potenza, 1 line
 * Reggio Calabria, 1 line
 * Rome (FL lines, 8 lines)
 * Salerno (Salerno metropolitan railway service, 1 line)
 * Turin (Turin metropolitan railway service, 8 lines)

Airport shuttles

Airport shuttle buses are highly developed and convenient for rail travellers. Most airports in Italy are not connected to the railway network, except for Rome Fiumicino Airport, Milan Malpensa Airport and Turin Caselle Airport. In Bologna, there is the monorail Marconi Express, connecting Bologna Airport to the main railway station. Linate Airport in Milan has been connected to line 4 of the Milan metro since 2022.

 * Venice: Venezia-Mestre station - Marco Polo Airport (50 minutes) and Treviso Airport
 * Milan: Milano Centrale station - Malpensa Airport (1 hour 5 minutes), Linate Airport (35 minutes) and Milan Bergamo Airport (1 hour)
 * Brescia: Brescia station - Milan Bergamo Airport (1 hour)
 * Rome: Rome Termini station - Fiumicino Airport (31 minutes)
 * Verona: Verona Porta Nuova station - Villafranca "Catullo" Airport (20 minutes)
 * Bologna: Centrale station - Bologna Airport (20 minutes) - Route modified in November 2020. It shifted from route BLQ (Bologna Centrale Station-Bologna Airport) to route 944 Ospedale Maggiore-Bologna Airport
 * Pescara Centrale station - Abruzzo Airport (10 minutes)
 * Pisa: Pisa Centrale station - San Giusto Airport (5 minutes)
 * Florence: Firenze S M Novella station - Florence Airport

Rail links to adjacent countries

Italy has 11 rail border crossings over the Alpine mountains with her neighbouring countries: six are designated as mainline tracks and two are metre-gauge tracks. The six mainline border crossings are: two with France (one for Nice and Marseille; the other for Lyon and Dijon), two with Switzerland (one for Brig, Bern and Geneva; the other for Chiasso, Lugano, Lucerne and Zürich), and two with Austria (one for Innsbruck; the other for Villach, Graz and Vienna). The two-metre-gauge track crossings are located at the border town of Tirano (enters Switzerland's Canton Graubünden/Grisons) and Domodossola (enters Switzerland's Locarno).

There is a railway line connecting Italy's northeastern port of Trieste to Slovenia, but no passenger or freight services operate on this track. Consequently, there is no direct connections between Trieste and Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, despite the proximity of both cities.

 * Italy-France: Marseille-Ventimiglia railway, currently EuroCity trains of Thello Milan-Marseille and one EuroNight train of RZD Moscow-Nice.
 * Italy-France: Fréjus Rail Tunnel at 1338 m above sea, currently SNCF TGV trains Milan-Paris and Turin-Paris and EuroNight trains of Thello Venice-Paris
 * Italy-Switzerland: Domodossola–Locarno railway metre-gauge trains
 * Italy-Switzerland: Simplon Tunnel, currently EuroCity trains of SBB CFF FFS Milan-Geneva and Milan-Bern
 * Italy-Switzerland: connecting Varese (Italy) to Bellinzona (Switzerland) and runs on the eastern coast of Lake Maggiore
 * Italy-Switzerland: Milan–Chiasso railway, currently EuroCity trains of SBB CFF FFS Milan-Zürich
 * Italy-Switzerland: Bernina railway at 2253 m above sea, metre-gauge trains of RhB Tirano-St. Moritz and the Bernina Express tourist train
 * Italy-Austria: Brenner railway at 1371 m above sea, currently EuroCity trains of ÖBB-DB Munich-Verona and Munich-Venice/Bologna, and DB CityNightLine Munich-Rome/Milan
 * Italy-Austria: at 1175 m above sea connecting San Candido/Innichen (Italy) and Lienz (Austria)
 * Italy-Austria: connecting Venice and Udine (Italy) to Villach (Austria), currently EuroCity trains of ÖBB Venice-Vienna, EuroNight trains of ÖBB Vienna-Rome/Milan, and DB CityNightLine Munich-Venice
 * Italy-Slovenia: Tarvisio–Ljubljana Railway

The Vatican City is also linked to Italy with a railway line serving a single railway station, the Vatican City railway station. This line is used only for special occasions. San Marino used to have a narrow gauge rail connection with Italy; this was dismantled in 1944.

All links have the same gauge.
 * Austria — voltage change 3 kV DC/15 kV AC
 * France — voltage change 3 kV DC/25 kV AC or 1.5 kV DC
 * Slovenia — same voltage
 * Switzerland — voltage change 3 kV DC/15 kV AC (plus two narrow gauge lines, same voltage)
 * Vatican City — no electrification
 * San Marino — closed, narrow gauge

Stations on the border are:
 * Roma San Pietro is the border station of the Rome-Vatican City railway
 * Ventimiglia is the border station on the Genoa-Nice main line.
 * Olivetta San Michele and Limone Piemonte on both sides of the Tenda Railway
 * Modane is the border station on the Turin-Lyon main line (Fréjus Tunnel line).
 * Domodossola is the border station of the Milan-Bern/Geneva main line (Simplon Tunnel line).
 * Ribellasca is on the Vigezzina.
 * Luino is the border station of the Oleggio–Pino railway.
 * Chiasso is the border station of the Milan-Zürich main line (Gotthard Tunnel line).
 * Tirano is the terminus on the Italian side of the Bernina line of the Rhätische Bahn.
 * Brenner is the border station of the Verona-Innsbruck main line (Brenner railway).
 * San Candido is the border station of the Fortezza-Lienz secondary line.
 * Tarvisio Boscoverde is the border station of the Venezia-Wien main line (Austrian Southern Railway line).
 * Gorizia Centrale station serves as link to the Slovenian Railways, through the station of Nova Gorica, which can be entered also directly by pedestrians from the Italian side.
 * Villa Opicina (Villa Opicina, Trieste) serves as link to the Slovenian Railways, through the stations of Sežana and Repentabor.

Heritage railways

In Italy the heritage railways institute is recognized and protected by law no. 128 of 9 August 2017, which has as its objective the protection and valorisation of disused, suspended or abolished railway lines, of particular cultural, landscape and tourist value, including both railway routes and stations and the related works of art and appurtenances, on which, upon proposal of the regions to which they belong, tourism-type traffic management is applied (art. 2, paragraph 1). At the same time, the law identified a first list of 18 tourist railways, considered to be of particular value (art. 2, paragraph 2).

The list is periodically updated by decree of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport, in agreement with the Ministry of Economy and Finance and the Ministry of Culture, also taking into account the reports in the State-Regions Conference, a list which in 2022 reached 26 railway lines. According to article 1, law 128/2017 has as its purpose: "the protection and valorisation of railway sections of particular cultural, landscape and tourist value, which include railway routes, stations and related works of art and appurtenances, and of the historic and tourist rolling stock authorized to travel along them, as well as the regulation of the use of ferrocycles".

Below is the list of railway lines recognized as tourist railways by Italian legislation.

a) pursuant to art. 2 paragraph 2 law 128/2017:
 * 1) Sulmona-Castel di Sangro section of the Sulmona–Isernia railway
 * 2) Cosenza-Camigliatello–San Giovanni in Fiore railway
 * 3) Avellino–Rocchetta Sant'Antonio railway
 * 4) Gemona del Friuli–Sacile railway
 * 5) Palazzolo–Paratico railway
 * 6) Castel di Sangro-Carpinone section of the Sulmona-Isernia railway
 * 7) Ceva–Ormea railway
 * 8) Mandas–Arbatax railway
 * 9) Isili–Sorgono railway
 * 10) Sassari–Tempio-Palau railway
 * 11) Macomer–Bosa railway
 * 12) Alcantara–Randazzo railway
 * 13) Castelvetrano-Porto Palo section of the Castelvetrano–Porto Empedocle railway
 * 14) Agrigento Bassa-Porto Empedocle section of the Castelvetrano-Porto Empedocle railway
 * 15) Noto–Pachino railway
 * 16) Asciano–Monte Antico railway
 * 17) Civitavecchia–Orte railway
 * 18) Fano–Urbino railway

b) pursuant to the Ministerial Decree of 30 March 2022:
 * 1) Chivasso–Asti railway
 * 2) Castagnole–Asti-Mortara railway
 * 3) Alba-Nizza Monferrato section of the Alessandria–Cavallermaggiore railway
 * 4) Novara–Varallo railway
 * 5) Fabriano-Pergola section of the Urbino–Fabriano railway
 * 6) Sicignano degli Alburni–Lagonegro railway
 * 7) Rocchetta Sant'Antonio–Gioia del Colle railway
 * 8) Cuneo–Mondovì railway
 * 9) Malnate Olona-Swiss border section of the Valmorea railway.

The Bernina railway line is a single-track railway line forming part of the Rhaetian Railway (RhB). It links the spa resort of St. Moritz, in the canton of Graubünden, Switzerland, with the town of Tirano, in the Province of Sondrio, Italy, via the Bernina Pass. Reaching a height of 2,253 m above sea level, it is the third highest railway crossing in Europe. It also ranks as the highest adhesion railway of the continent, and –with inclines of up to 7% –as one of the steepest adhesion railways in the world. The elevation difference on the section between the Bernina Pass and Tirano is 1824 m, allowing passengers to view glaciers along the line. On 7 July 2008, the Bernina line and the Albula railway line, which also forms part of the RhB, were recorded in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, under the name Rhaetian Railway in the Albula / Bernina Landscapes. The whole site is a cross-border joint Swiss-Italian heritage area. Trains operating on the Bernina line include the Bernina Express.

In July 2023, Ferrovie dello Stato established a new company, the "FS Treni Turistici Italiani" (English: FS Italian Tourist Trains), with the mission "to propose an offer of railway services expressly designed and calibrated for quality, sustainable tourism and attentive to rediscovering the riches of the Italian territory. Tourism that can experience the train journey as an integral moment of the holiday, an element of quality in the overall tourist experience". There are three service areas proposed:
 * Luxury trains, which includes the circulation of the "Orient Express - La Dolce Vita" from 2024, and Venice Simplon Orient Express, already operating on European routes;
 * Express and historic trains, with the express trains of the 1980s and 1990s which being redeveloped and modernized in the railway workshops of Rimini, while the historic trains are used for journeys that include stops with guided tours and tastings;
 * Regional trains, also with trips that include experiential tourist stops, which pass through places rich in history, with villages and areas of landscape, naturalistic, food and wine and agri-food interest.

Funding
The Italian railways are partially funded by the government, receiving €8.1 billion in 2009.

Categories and types of trains
These are the major service categories and models of Italian trains.

title: Rail transport in Italy