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German Wikipedia

The German Wikipedia (Deutschsprachige Wikipedia) is the German-language edition of Wikipedia, a free and publicly editable online encyclopedia.

Founded on 16 March 2001, it is the second-oldest Wikipedia (after the English Wikipedia). It has articles, making it the -largest edition of Wikipedia by number of articles  behind the English Wikipedia and the mostly bot-generated Cebuano Wikipedia. It has the second-largest number of edits behind the English Wikipedia and over 260,000 disambiguation pages. On 7 November 2011 German Wikipedia became the second edition of Wikipedia, after the English edition, to exceed 100 million page edits.

The German Wikipedia is criticized because of several ongoing political manipulations by paid editors who overwhelm a small number of administrators.

Early history
The German edition of Wikipedia was the first non-English Wikipedia subdomain, and was originally named deutsche.wikipedia.com. Its creation was announced by Jimmy Wales on 16 March 2001. One of the earliest snapshots of the home page, dated 21 March 2001 (revision #9), can be seen at the Wayback Machine site. Aside from the home page, creation of articles in the German Wikipedia started as early as April 2001, apparently with translations of Nupedia articles. After the Catalan Wikipedia, the German Wikipedia was the second non-English edition to contain articles; The earliest article still available on Wikipedia's site is apparently Polymerase-Kettenreaktion, dated May 2001.

Andrew Lih wrote that the hacker culture in Germany and the verein concept solidified the German Wikipedia's culture. The geography of Europe facilitated face-to-face meetups among German Wikipedians.

Growth, coverage and popularity
On 27 December 2009, the German Wikipedia exceeded 1,000,000 articles, becoming the first edition after the English-language Wikipedia to do so. The millionth article was Ernie Wasson. In November 2008, 90% of the edition's articles had more than 512 bytes, 49% had more than 2 kilobytes, and the average article size was 3,476 bytes. In the middle of 2009, this edition had nearly 250,000 biographies and in December 2006 more than 48,500 disambiguations.

Compared to the English Wikipedia, the German edition tends to be more selective in its coverage, often rejecting small stubs, articles about individual fictional characters and similar materials. Instead, there is usually one article about all the characters from a specific fictional setting, usually only when the setting is considered important enough (for example, all characters from Star Wars are listed in a single article). A dedicated article about a single fictional entity generally exists only if the character in question has a very significant impact on popular culture (for example, Hercule Poirot). Andrew Lih wrote that German Wikipedia users believe that "having no article at all is better than a very bad article." Therefore, growth on the German Wikipedia leveled before it did for the English Wikipedia, with accelerating growth in article count shifting to constant growth in mid-2006. The number of users signing up for accounts began to steadily decline in 2007 through 2008.

The number of volunteer authors began to stagnate in 2007 and has decreased since that. In Germany, the number of regularly active authors fell by more than a third from the peak of 9,254 at the beginning of 2008 to 5,862 at the end of 2015.

The January 2005 Google Zeitgeist announced that "Wikipedia" was the eighth most-searched query on www.google.de. In February 2005, Wikipedia reached third place behind Firefox and Valentine's Day. In June 2005, Wikipedia ranked first.

Lack of diversity, decline of authors and paid editing
On the 20th anniversary of Wikipedia, the German-language edition faced a number of problems. According to German media the most significant are the a lack of diversity, a decline in active users and the influence of paid editing. While in 2006, 8,614 authors were active in the German Wikipedia, in December 2018 there were only 5,262. Active Wikipedians even only saw about 300 people as the "hard core" of the German Wikipedia who write articles.

As the number of authors decreases, the influence of a few increases, researchers found. The scientist Taha Yasseri describes those authors as "super editors" who write an excessive number of Wikipedia articles and thus keep the community project alive. It is problematic when "super editors" dominate much-discussed articles, build up an elite circle among themselves and "defend" their area. With the withdrawal of users and an interpretation of the rules that is not always perceived as appropriate, German Wikipedia can hardly counter the influence of lobby groups and paid editing.

the size of the German Wikipedia database is about 6 gigabytes.

Language and varieties of German
Separate Wikipedias have been created for several other varieties of German, including Alemannic German (als:), Luxembourgish (lb:), Pennsylvania German (pdc:), Ripuarian (including Kölsch; ksh:); Yiddish; Low German (nds:) and Bavarian (bar:). These however, have less popularity than the German Wikipedia. There are also the Dutch Low Saxon (nds-nl:) and the Mennonite Low German Wikipedia.

Characteristics
The German Wikipedia is different from the English Wikipedia in a number of aspects. Similarly, the Checkuser function is rarely used to confirm usage of multiple accounts by the same person, as suspicious accounts are often blocked on sight.
 * Compared to the English Wikipedia, different criteria of encyclopedic notability are expressed through the judgments of the editors for deciding if an article about a topic should be allowed. The criteria for notability are more specific; each field has its own specific guidelines.
 * There are no fair use provisions. Images and other media that are accepted on the English Wikipedia as fair use may not be suitable for the German Wikipedia. However, the threshold of originality for works of applied art is set much higher, which often allows the use of company logos and similar icons, too.
 * The use of scholarly sources, in preference over journalistic and other types of sources, is more strongly encouraged. The German Verifiability (Belege) guideline classifies scholarly sources as inherently more reliable than non-academic sources; the latter's use is – in theory at least – only permitted if there is a lack of published academic sources covering a topic.
 * In September 2005, Erik Möller voiced concern that "long term page protection is used excessively on the German Wikipedia": on 14 September 2005, 253 pages had been in a fully protected state (only editable by admins) for more than two weeks. This was the highest total of any of the Wikipedias, with the second-highest being 166 pages in the Japanese Wikipedia and 138 in the English Wikipedia., the German Wikipedia still had the highest percentage of semi-protected articles (articles not editable by unregistered or recently registered users) – 0.281% – among the ten largest Wikipedias, but in terms of the fraction of fully protected articles (0.0261%) it ranked fourth, behind the Japanese, Portuguese and English Wikipedias.
 * Handling of vandalism and other abuse is less structured: vandals are sometimes blocked on their first edit and without warning if their edit clearly shows lack of interest for actual encyclopaedic work. This is especially true if added text includes unlawful statements, such as Holocaust denial.
 * Articles on indisputably notable subjects may be deleted if they are deemed too short. While the requirements for minimal articles (called stubs) are equivalent, the German and the English Wikipedia differ greatly in the way they are put into practice.
 * On 28 December 2005, it was decided to eliminate the Category "stub" (and the corresponding template identifying articles as stubs) from the German Wikipedia.
 * Users do not have to create an account in order to start a new article.
 * Unlike the Cebuano, Polish, Dutch, Italian, Swedish or many other Wikipedias, the German one does not contain large collections of bot-generated geographical stubs or similar articles.
 * The German Wikipedia version did not have an Arbitration Committee until May 2007. Currently, German Wikipedia's Arbitration Committee plays only a minor role in Wikipedia politics.
 * Categories are singular and are not differentiated for gender. Categories are usually introduced only for a minimum of ten entries and are not always subdivided even for larger numbers of items, so that current categories often describe only one property (e.g., nationality). Other categories are subdivided, but differently from in the English Wikipedia. For example, "chemists" are subdivided by century, not by nationality. University professors, on the other hand, will usually be categorized according to where they teach.
 * The equivalent to the English Wikipedia's featured articles and good articles are exzellente Artikel (excellent articles) and lesenswerte Artikel (good articles; literally: articles "worth reading").
 * In 2005, there was a discussion and poll resulting in the decision to phase out the use of local image uploads and to exclusively use Wikimedia Commons for images and other media in the future. The attempt to implement this lasted for about a year and the German "Upload file" page displayed a large pointer to Commons in this time, but since December 2006, there is again a local image upload page without any pointer to Wikimedia Commons. This was prompted by the deletion of images on Commons that are acceptable according to German Wikipedia policies.
 * Starting in December 2004, German Wikipedians pioneered Persondata ("Personendaten"), a special format for meta data about persons (name, birth date and place, etc.), introduced in the English Wikipedia in December 2005. In the beginning, the main aim of this system was to aid the search features of the DVD edition of the German Wikipedia (see below). During its introduction in January 2005, Personendaten were added to some 30,000 biographical articles on the live Wikipedia, partly aided by a somewhat automatic tool. The template is currently deprecated and is no longer on any pages.
 * Like The Signpost in the English Wikipedia, the German Wikipedia also has its own internal newspaper, the Kurier. However, the Kurier is laid out on a single page and is not issued weekly but is continually updated by interested Wikipedians, with older articles being archived.
 * In German "Wikipedia" is pronounced [ˌvɪkiˈpeːdia].

Reviewed versions
At Wikimania 2006, Jimmy Wales announced that the German institute a system of "stable article versions", also known as sighting, on a trial basis. The system went live in May 2008. Certain users, so-called "active sighters", are now able to mark article versions as "reviewed", indicating that the text contains no obvious vandalism. A note in the top right corner of the screen indicates to the reader whether or not the present version of an article has already been reviewed, and provides access to the most recent reviewed version or a more current, unreviewed version as needed.

The German Wikipedia has two levels of sighting status which act like the English Wikipedia's pending changes protection: Passive sighter and Active sighter. The former is able to make changes to articles go live immediately if the last edit is marked as sighted, while only the latter allows manually reviewing pending changes.

Events
The first real-life meetup of Wikipedians took place in October 2003 in Munich. As a result of this meeting regularly striking round tables (called "Wikipedia-Stammtisch") established themselves at various places in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. The round tables have become an important aspect of collegial exchange within the German-speaking community.

Each spring and autumn, the German Wikipedia organizes a writing contest, where a community-elected jury rates nominated articles. Prizes are sponsored by individual community members and companies. The first contest was held in October 2004 – the article Kloster Lehnin (Lehnin Abbey) was selected as the winner from 44 nominated articles. The second contest, held in March 2005, saw 52 contributions, and the third, in September 2005, 70. A trial to extend the contest to an international level met with limited success, with only the Dutch, English and Japanese Wikipedias participating.

For the March 2006 writing contest, the 150 nominated articles were split into three sections: history and society (56 nominations), arts and humanities (36), and science (46). The article on the Brown Bear (German: Braunbär) won, and of the nominated 27 articles reached featured status a few weeks after the contest. In March 2007, the sixth contest was held, with the winner being the article on the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (German: Haager Konvention zum Schutz von Kulturgut bei bewaffneten Konflikten).

German Wikipedians organized the first international Wikipedia conference, Wikimania 2005, in August 2005 in Frankfurt. Some 300 people from over 50 countries attended the three-day conference.

From 17 March to 15 April 2006, the Göttingen State and University Library held a special exhibition documenting the first five years of Wikipedia.

In 2006, the University of Göttingen hosted the first Wikipedia Academy. The academy was intended to familiarize the academic world with Wikimedia projects. In 2007, the second such meeting took place, organized in conjunction with the Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur (Academy of Science and Literature) in Mainz as part of the German Jahr der Geisteswissenschaften (Year of the Humanities), which was decreed by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research. A third meeting was organized on 20–21 June 2008 in Berlin, during the Jahr der Mathematik (Year of Mathematics); the meeting was hosted by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

German Wikipedians have since organised the Foto-Workshop meeting of photographers, with participants from 10 countries.

Contacts with Brockhaus
In April 2004, a complete list of article titles from the leading German encyclopedia Brockhaus was uploaded to the German Wikipedia, in an apparent attempt to facilitate the creation of still missing articles. A representative of Brockhaus asked for and obtained the deletion of what was believed to be a copyright infringement. As a result of the developing email conversation, a group of five Wikipedians visited the "new media" group of Brockhaus in Mannheim on 1 July 2004. The friendly meeting saw a lively discussion of the differing approaches to writing an encyclopedia; it became clear that Brockhaus had closely observed Wikipedia for quite some time.

Subsidies from the German government
In June 2007, a project on renewable resources (WikiProjekt Nachwachsende Rohstoffe) was initiated, the goal being to write and improve articles on the topic. The project was run for three years and was subsidized by the German Ministry of Agriculture with approximately €80,000 a year. It was organised and managed by the private company "nova-Institut GmbH". Nova GmbH and Wikimedia Deutschland e. V. fund the project with approximately €60,000 a year in addition, so the budget is approximately €420,000 in total.

These funds were mainly used to organise the project and also to search for experts in the field who have not contributed to Wikipedia yet. Nova may also have paid expense allowances to authors.

Most-disputed articles
According to a 2013 Oxford University study, the article on Croatia was the most disputed article on the German Wikipedia. The top ten most disputed articles then also included Adolf Hitler, Scientology, and Rudolf Steiner. One of the largest disputes about simple sentences, however, concerned the Donauturm in Vienna. Whilst the observation tower shares some architectural aspects with the Fernsehturm Stuttgart, it was never planned for TV broadcasting purposes. The German Wikipedia had a rather lengthy (about 600,000 characters) discussion about the suitable title and categories, inasmuch as numerous Austrian authors denied the description of Donauturm as a "TV tower". The Spiegel coverage of the issue cited a participant with "On good days, Wikipedia is better than any TV soap".

Reviews and research
In September 2004, the computer magazine c't compared the German Wikipedia with the Brockhaus Multimedia encyclopedia and the German edition of Microsoft's Encarta. On a scale from 0 to 5, Wikipedia ranked first with a score of 3.4. A few weeks later, the weekly newspaper Die Zeit also compared content from Wikipedia with other reference works and found that Wikipedia only has to "share its lead position in the field of natural science." The DVD version of Spring 2005 received a rather negative review by Björn Hoffmann – product manager working for the Bibliographisches Institut & F.A. Brockhaus in July 2005.

In November 2005 the OpenUsability project in cooperation with the Berlin-based Relevantive AG conducted a usability test of the German Wikipedia. The study focused on finding information and included a set of recommendations to change the MediaWiki interface. In February 2006, the open usability project led a second test which focused on the experience of new editors. The reports were published in English.

A second test by c't in February 2007 used 150 search terms, of which 56 were closely evaluated, to compare four digital encyclopedias: Bertelsmann Enzyklopädie 2007, Brockhaus Multimedial premium 2007, Encarta 2007 Enzyklopädie and Wikipedia. With respect to concerns about the reliability of Wikipedia, it concluded: "We did not find more errors in the texts of the free encyclopedia than in those of its commercial competitors".

In December 2007, German magazine Stern published the results of a comparison between the German Wikipedia and the online version of the 15-volume edition of Brockhaus Enzyklopädie. The test was commissioned to a research institute (Cologne-based WIND GmbH), whose analysts assessed 50 articles from each encyclopedia (covering politics, business, sports, science, culture, entertainment, geography, medicine, history and religion) on four criteria (accuracy, completeness, timeliness and clarity), and judged Wikipedia articles to be more accurate on average (1.6 on a scale from 1 to 6, versus 2.3 for Brockhaus with lower = better). Wikipedia's coverage was also found to be more complete and up to date; however, Brockhaus was judged to be more clearly written, while several Wikipedia articles were criticized as being too complicated for non-experts, and many as too lengthy.

In 2015, a group of young historians reviewed the Massaker von Katyn article, which was deemed "excellent" by Wikipedia authors. They pointed out more than 130 factual errors and remarked that the article completely ignores the new scientific literature.

CD November 2004
In November 2004, Directmedia Publishing GmbH started distributing a CD-ROM containing a German Wikipedia snapshot. Some 40,000 CDs were sent to registered customers of directmedia. The price was 3 euros per CD.

The display and search software used for the project, Digibib, had been developed by Directmedia Publishing for earlier publications; it ran on Windows and Mac OS X (and now also on Linux). The Wikipedia articles had to be converted to the XML format used by Digibib.

To produce the CD, a dump of the live Wikipedia had been copied to a separate server, where a team of 70 Wikipedians vetted the material, deleting nonsense articles and obvious copyright violations. Questionable articles were added to a special list, to be reviewed later. The final CD contained 132,000 articles and 1,200 images.

The ISO image was distributed for free via eMule and BitTorrent. In December, the CHIP computer magazine placed the Wikipedia data on the DVD that it distributes with every issue. The Wikipedia materials are published under GFDL while the Digibib software may only be copied for non-commercial use, except the Linux version which is GPLed.

CD/DVD April 2005
A new release of Wikipedia content was published by Directmedia on 6 April 2005. This package consisted of a 2.7 GB DVD and a separate bootable CDROM (running a version of Linux with Firefox). The CDROM did not contain all the data, but was included to accommodate users without DVD-drives. The DVD used Directmedia's Digibib software and article format; everything could be installed to a hard drive. In addition, the DVD contained an HTML tree, as well as Wikipedia articles formatted for use with PDAs (specifically, the Mobipocket and TomeRaider formats).

The production of the DVD motivated the Personendaten project (see above).

The vetting process was similar to the one for the CD described above and took place on a separate MediaWiki server. The process took about a week and involved 33 Wikipedians, communicating on IRC. To prevent duplication of work, editors would protect every article that they had reviewed; links to protected articles were shown in green. Lists of potential spammed or vandalized articles had been produced ahead of time with SQL queries. Unacceptable articles were simply deleted on the spot. While the XML articles for the earlier CD version had been produced from HTML, this time a script was used to convert Wiki markup directly to the Digibib format. The final DVD contained about 205,000 articles, with every article linking to a list of contributors.

Directmedia sold 30,000 DVDs, at €9.90 each. This price included 16% taxes and a one-euro donation to Wikimedia Deutschland; production costs were about €2. The DVD image can also be downloaded for free.

Following the successful launch of the DVD, Directmedia donated high-resolution pictures of 10,000 public domain paintings to Wikimedia Commons (see related Signpost story).

DVD/book December 2005
The next edition of Wikipedia content was issued in December 2005 by the publisher Zenodot Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, a sister company of Directmedia. A 139-page book explaining Wikipedia, its history and policies was accompanied by a 7.5 GB DVD containing 300,000 articles and 100,000 images. The book with DVD is sold for €9.90; both are also available for free download.

The vetting process for this version was different and did not involve human intervention. A "white list" of trusted Wikipedians was assembled, the last 10 days of every article's history were examined, and the last version edited by a white-listed Wikipedian was chosen for the DVD. If no such version existed, the last version older than 10 days was used. Articles nominated for cleanup or deletion were not used.

DVD December 2006/2007 and 2007/2008
The December 2006–2007 and 2007–2008 edition can be downloaded from dvd.wikimedia.org.

Wikipress series
The December 2005 book about Wikipedia was the first in a series titled Wikipress. These books, published by Zenodot, consisted of a collection of Wikipedia articles about a common topic, selected and edited by so-called "Wikipeditors" who may receive compensation from Directmedia. The books were assembled on a separate server from those used for the regular German Wikipedia pages. Every Wikipress book was accompanied by an "edit card", a post card that readers could send in to edit the book's contents. Wikipress books about the Nobel Peace Prize, bicycles, Antarctica, the Solar System, and Hip hop, amongst others, were released, and other books on topics as diverse as Whales, Conspiracy theories, Manga, Astrophysics, and the Red Cross were in the works. Due to lack of interest, the project was ended after a few books.

100 volume Wikipedia
The publisher Zenodot announced in January 2006 that they intend to publish the complete German Wikipedia in print, 100 volumes with 800 pages each, starting with the letter A in October 2006, followed by two volumes each month thereafter, to end with Z in 2010. The project, code named WP 1.0, was to be supported by 25 editors employed by Zenodot as well as a scientific advisory board. Changes made to articles before publication would also be available for incorporation into the online Wikipedia.

In March 2006, Zenodot organized a "community day" to meet with Wikipedians and discuss the project. Groups of Wikipedians had already begun to polish articles with titles Aa-Af in selected topics. In late March it was announced that the project was put on hold and no books would be published in 2006; the reason given was that community support was lacking.

Bertelsmann
On 22 April 2008, the publisher Bertelsmann announced that it planned to publish a one-volume encyclopedia in September using content from the German-language Wikipedia. The volume was planned to include abbreviated entries for the 50,000 most commonly used search terms of the prior two years. The book is priced at 19.95 euros, with one euro from every sale going to the German chapter of the Wikimedia Foundation. It was released on 15 September 2008 in hardcover, containing 992 pages and many illustrations.

Deletions
The German Wikipedia has been criticized for the deletion of articles because they seem "irrelevant" to those who deleted them, even though they seem expedient, meaningful, well written and extensive enough to other people. These discussions have received press coverage in computer magazines as well as in mainstream media.

Unauthorized uses
While everyone is free to use Wikipedia content, there are certain conditions, such as attribution, a copy of the license text and no non-free derivative works (see Creative Commons licenses and GNU Free Documentation License for details).

In March 2005, the German news magazine Der Spiegel published an article on the Rwandan genocide in its online edition; it was a copy of Wikipedia's article. The article was taken down soon after and replaced with an apology.

In April 2005, the encyclopedia Brockhaus published an article about the new pope Josef Ratzinger in its online edition. Because of its close similarity to Wikipedia's article, suspicion arose right away that the Brockhaus article might have been plagiarism. The article was removed soon after but Brockhaus did not apologize or admit guilt (see The Signpost ).

Large-scale copyright infringement (2003–2005)
In mid-November 2005, it was discovered that an anonymous user had entered hundreds of articles from older encyclopedias that had been published from the 1960s to the 1980s in East Germany. The articles were mainly on topics in philosophy and related areas. The user had started in December 2003.

A press release was issued and numerous editors started to remove the copyright protected materials. This was made difficult by the fact that the old encyclopedias were not online and not easily available from many West German libraries, and that the user had used numerous different IP addresses. The Directmedia DVD had to be updated.

Bertrand Meyer article hoax
On 28 December 2005, the article about computer scientist Bertrand Meyer (creator of the Eiffel programming language) was edited by an anonymous user, falsely reporting that Meyer had died four days earlier. The hoax was reported five days later by the Heise News Ticker and the article was immediately corrected. Major news media in Germany and Switzerland picked up on the story. Meyer himself went on to publish a positive evaluation of Wikipedia, concluding, "The system succumbed to one of its potential flaws, and quickly healed itself. This doesn't affect the big picture. Just like those about me, rumors about Wikipedia's downfall have been grossly exaggerated."

Naming Tron
In 2006, Wikimedia Deutschland, the German chapter of the US Wikimedia Foundation, was drawn into a legal dispute between the parents of the deceased German computer hacker Boris "Tron" Floricic and the Foundation. The parents did not wish Floricic's real name to be publicly mentioned, and in December 2005 they obtained a preliminary injunction in a Berlin court against the American Wikimedia Foundation, requiring removal of Floricic's name from Wikipedia. The name was not removed. On 19 January 2006 they obtained a second injunction, this time against Wikimedia Deutschland, prohibiting the address  (which is under control of Wikimedia Deutschland) to redirect to the German Wikipedia at   (which is controlled by the Wikimedia Foundation and hosts the actual encyclopedia) as long as Wikipedia mentioned Floricic's name. Wikimedia Deutschland complied and replaced the redirect with a note explaining the situation, but without mentioning the Tron case specifically. The German Wikipedia remained accessible through  during this time. One day later, Wikimedia Deutschland achieved a suspension of the injunction, and linked from the note at  to the German Wikipedia. On 9 February, the court invalidated the injunction, ruling that neither the rights of the deceased nor the rights of the parents were affected by publishing the name; this ruling was upheld on appeal, decided 12 May.

Lutz Heilmann controversy
In November 2008, Lutz Heilmann, a member of the German parliament, obtained a preliminary injunction against Wikimedia Deutschland e. V., forbidding the forwarding of  to. According to Focus Online, Heilmann objected to claims that he had not completed his university degree, and that he had participated in a business venture involving pornography. The report also suggests that the Wikipedia article had been repeatedly altered in line with his claims by an anonymous user operating within the Bundestag building, but Heilmann denied having been involved in an edit war. Wikimedia Germany displayed a page explaining the situation. Heilmann announced on 16 November that he would drop the legal proceedings against Wikimedia Deutschland, regretting that many uninvolved users of the encyclopedia had been affected.

Superprotect and Media Viewer controversy
In 2014, the Wikimedia Foundation (WMF) "superprotected" a JavaScript file on German Wikipedia so that no German editors, not even administrators, were allowed to edit it. This was in response towards controversy surrounding the new Media Viewer (see The Signpost ). Many German editors left over this dispute. An open letter to the WMF was signed by almost 1,000 Wikimedians. In April 2015 Erik Möller left the WMF; the "superprotect" feature was disabled in November.

Reiss Engelhorn Museum
In 2015, the Reiss Engelhorn Museum sued the WMF and its German chapter Wikimedia Deutschland for alleged copyright violations of 17 public domain pictures.

Parodies and forks
In the millennium years, parodies of the German Wikipedia include Kamelopedia, created in April 2004, Stupidedia, created in December 2004, and the German version of Uncyclopedia, created in August 2005.

Ulrich Fuchs, a longtime contributor to the German Wikipedia, produced a fork known as Wikiweise in April 2005. It was ad-supported, used its own software (but a similar wiki markup), admited only registered editors, and prominently displayed the real names of every article's major contributors. It has since gone offline.

Copyright law
On 21 March 2019, the German Wikipedia went offline to inform users about the European Union's copyright law reformation, the Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market, which had been voted on in the European Parliament on 27 March 2019. Opponents of the reformation were concerned about the restriction of fundamental rights including a free press and the freedom of speech and arts. The blackouts' purpose was to both inform and protest this controversial decision.

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Edgar Reitz

Edgar Reitz (born 1 November 1932) is a German filmmaker and Professor of Film at the Staatliche Hochschule für Gestaltung (State University of Design) in Karlsruhe. He is best-known for his internationally acclaimed Heimat film series (1984-2013).

Early life and education
Reitz was born in Morbach, Hunsrück. His father Robert was a watchmaker and his business in Morbach was later taken over by Reitz's brother Guido. Reitz's interest in acting and producing plays began in his school years in Simmern, where he was encouraged by his German teacher Karl Windhäuser. After taking his Abitur, he studied German studies, journalism, art history and theatre studies in Munich from 1952. His first experiences in film-making however were not theoretical; he worked as a camera, editing, and production assistant from 1953.

His interests in the advancement of new developments in film went as far as he cooperated with Wolfgang Georgsdorf and his Osmodrama in 2016 which led to a complete scent synchronisation of his movie “home from home” which premiered as an allegedly well functioned cinema on 17 July 2016.

Institut für Filmgestaltung
In 1963 along with Alexander Kluge he founded the Institut für Filmgestaltung (Institute for Film Design) which was affiliated to the Ulm School of Design, where he taught film directing and camera theory until the School of Design closed in 1968. As part of the group around Kluge, Reitz was a participant in the Oberhausen Manifesto which was announced at the Oberhausen Short Film Festival of 1962. With this manifesto young German filmmakers demanded nothing less than a new form of cinema: "Der alte Film ist tot. Wir glauben an den neuen." ("The old film is dead. We believe in the new film"). The manifesto is associated with the motto "Papas Kino ist tot" ("Papa's cinema is dead"). Subsequently, the concept of the auteur gained in popularity in Germany, and Reitz played a significant role in shaping this concept in the following years.

Awards
Reitz received one of his first awards for his film Mahlzeiten which was awarded the prize for best debut work at the Venice Film Festival in 1967. In 1971 he founded Edgar Reitz Filmproduktion (ERF) in Munich. He now began to collaborate on films with his former academic colleague Alexander Kluge amongst them the 1974 fictitious documentary In Gefahr und größter Not bringt der Mittelweg den Tod. The lavish production costs of the 1979 film The Tailor of Ulm, which portrays the downfall of the aviation pioneer Albrecht Berblinger, caused Reitz's own financial circumstances to suffer. The film was entered into the 11th Moscow International Film Festival. It was during this crisis that the idea for a film project about his homeland, the Hunsrück, first came to Reitz. What began as an attempt at self-discovery, ultimately broadened out into the Heimat trilogy (from 1984), which met with critical acclaim, an enthusiastic international audience, and numerous prizes. With this epic and monumental production, Reitz achieved a quite new perspective, an approach, both poetical and realistic, to the past of Germany as it might have played out in the provinces.

In 2004 Reitz was awarded the Carl Zuckmayer Medal by the state of Rhineland-Palatinate for his life's work. In the same year, he received the Master of Cinema Award of the International Filmfestival Mannheim-Heidelberg. Reitz is married to the singer and actress Salome Kammer (who appeared in Heimats 2 and 3) and lives in Munich.

He is an atheist.

Selected filmography

 * Lust for Love (Mahlzeiten) (1967)
 * Cardillac (1970)
 * Trip to Vienna (Die Reise nach Wien) (1973)
 * In Danger and Deep Distress, the Middleway Spells Certain Death (In Gefahr und größter Not bringt der Mittelweg den Tod) (1974) (co-director: Alexander Kluge)
 * Zero Hour (Stunde Null) (1977)
 * "Grenzstation" in Germany in Autumn (Deutschland im Herbst) (1978)
 * The Tailor from Ulm (Der Schneider von Ulm) (1978)
 * Heimat (1984, TV series)
 * Home from Home (Die andere Heimat) (2013)

Miscellaneous

 * Eight Hundred Times Lonely (800 Mal Einsam – Ein Tag mit dem Filmemacher Edgar Reitz) (2019), film portrait of Edgar Reitz by the German filmmaker Anna Hepp
 * Filmstunde_23 Subject: Filmmaking

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Lord Justice Clerk

The Lord Justice Clerk is the second most senior judge in Scotland, after the Lord President of the Court of Session. The current Lord Justice Clerk is Leeona Dorrian, Lady Dorrian, who was appointed to the position on 13 April 2016. in June 2024 Lady Dorrian has announced her intention to retire from judicial office on 3 February 2025.

History
In modern times, most judges appointed as Lord Justice Clerk later become Lord President of the Court of Session.

Originally clericus justiciarie or Clerk to the Court of Justiciary, the counterpart in the criminal courts of the Lord Clerk Register, the status of the office increased over time and the Justice-Clerk came to claim a seat on the Bench by practice and custom. This was recognised by the Privy Council of Scotland in 1663 and the Lord Justice Clerk became the effective head of the reformed High Court of Justiciary in 1672 when the court was reconstituted. The Lord Justice Clerk now rarely presides at criminal trials in the High Court, with most of his or her time being spent dealing with civil and criminal appeals.

The Lord Justice Clerk has the title in both the Court of Session and the High Court of Justiciary and, as President of the Second Division of the Inner House, is in charge of the Second Division of Judges of the Inner House of the Court of Session. The office is one of the Great Officers of State of Scotland.

Officeholders

 * William de Camera - Justice-Clerk to David II (1324–71)
 * Adam Forester
 * Before 1374: Alan de Lawedre of Whitslaid & Haltoun, etc.
 * 1426: James de Lawedre (d. after 1459)(Grandson of Alan)
 * 1478: William Halket of Belsico
 * 1489/90: Richard Lawson of Heirigs
 * 1507: James Henderson of Fordel (k. Battle of Flodden 1513)
 * 1513: James Wishhart of Pittarrow
 * 1524: Nicholas Crawfurd of Oxengangs
 * 1537: Adam Otterburn of Reidhall
 * 1537: Thomas Scot of Pitgorn
 * 1539: Thomas Bellenden of Auchnoule
 * 1540: Henry Balnaves
 * 1547: Sir John Bellenden of Auchnole & Broughton (d.1576)
 * 1577: Sir Lewis Bellenden of Auchnole & Broughton (d.1591)
 * 1591: Sir John Cockburn of Ormiston (d.1623)
 * 1625: Sir George Elphinstone of Blythswood
 * 1634: Sir James Carmichael of that Ilk
 * 1637: Sir John Hamilton of Orbiston
 * 1651: Sir Robert Moray
 * 1663: Sir John Home, of Renton, Lord Renton
 * 1671: Sir James Lockhart of Lee (d. 4 June 1674)
 * 1674: Sir William Lockhart of Lee
 * 1675: Sir Thomas Wallace of Craigie, Lord Craigie
 * 1680: Richard Maitland, 4th Earl of Lauderdale
 * 1684: Sir James Foulis of Colinton, Lord Colinton
 * 1688: Sir John Dalrymple, 1st Earl of Stair
 * 1690: Sir George Campbell of Cessnock
 * 1692: Sir Adam Cockburn of Ormiston, Lord Ormiston
 * 1699: Sir John Maxwell of Pollok, Lord Pollok
 * 1702: Roderick Mackenzie of Prestonhall, Lord Prestonhall
 * 1704: Sir William Hamilton of Whitelaw, Lord Whitelaw
 * 1705: Sir Adam Cockburn of Ormiston, Lord Ormiston
 * 1710: Sir James Erskine, Lord Grange
 * 1735: Andrew Fletcher, Lord Milton
 * 1748: Charles Erskine, Lord Tinwald
 * 1763: Gilbert Elliot, Lord Minto
 * 1766: Thomas Miller, Lord Barskimming
 * 1787: Robert Macqueen, Lord Braxfield
 * 1799: David Rae, Lord Eskgrove
 * 1804: Charles Hope, Lord Granton
 * 1811: David Boyle, Lord Boyle
 * 1841: John Hope, Lord Hope
 * 1858: John Inglis, Lord Glencorse
 * 1867: George Patton, Lord Glenalmond
 * 1869: James Moncreiff, Lord Moncreiff
 * 1888: John Macdonald, Lord Kingsburgh
 * 1915: Charles Dickson, Lord Dickson
 * 1922: Robert Munro, Lord Alness
 * 1933: Craigie Aitchison, Lord Aitchison
 * 1941: Thomas Cooper, Lord Cooper
 * 1947: Alexander Moncrieff, Lord Moncrieff
 * 1947: George Thomson, Lord Thomson
 * 1962: William Grant, Lord Grant
 * 1972: John Wheatley, Baron Wheatley
 * 1985: Donald Ross, Lord Ross
 * 1997: William Cullen, Lord Cullen
 * 2001: Brian Gill, Lord Gill
 * 2012: Colin Sutherland, Lord Carloway
 * 2016: Leeona Dorrian, Lady Dorrian

title: Lord Justice Clerk


text: Template:Politics of Portugal

title: Template:Politics of Portugal


text:
Template:Politics of Puerto Rico

{{Documentation|content=

title: Template:Politics of Puerto Rico


text:
Carnet de Passages en Douane

The Carnet de Passages en Douane is a customs document that identifies a traveller's motor vehicle or other valuable equipment or baggage. It is required in order to take a motor vehicle into a significant number of countries around the world. The CPD system is managed by the Federation Internationale de l'automobile, duly mandated by the World customs organization and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.

Usage
The carnet allows travellers to temporarily import their vehicles, or other items of value such as broadcasting equipment, without having to leave a cash deposit at the border. It is, in essence, an international guarantee for payment of customs duties and taxes to a government should the vehicle or item not be re-exported from that country. Persons who temporarily import their vehicles or items into countries where the Carnet is required must agree to obey the laws and regulations of that country and particularly the conditions of temporary importation.

The Carnet contains relevant information about the items or vehicle – make, model, colour, engine capacity, seating capacity, registration number, owner and value.

In order to obtain a carnet, the owner of the items is required to provide a security based on the countries traveled to, age and market value of the items. Generally, four types of security are acceptable from motoring organisations:

 * Cash bond
 * Banker's letter of indemnity
 * Insurance policy
 * Loss Prevention Security – US and Canada only

The l'Alliance Internationale de Tourisme / Federation Internationale de l'Automobile (AIT/FIA) is the International Organizational body that advocates and maintains oversight of CPDs. The AIT/FIA is responsible for the inventory and distribution of CPDs within its CPD network of issuing and guaranteeing organizations. Recently, in May 2021, the AIT/FIA introduced the e-CPD Distribution system for the electronic issuance and authentication of CPDs. This was done to reflect the need for digitalization of official documents, these documents were originally mandated for cross-border mobility use by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).

As the new eCPD Distribution mechanism was implemented, a new rebranding effort was done as well for CPDs.

Countries where a Carnet de Passages en Douane is required
The map below is based on the Overlanding Associations website, which is daily updated with additional information.

Varying sources differ slightly on exactly which countries require a carnet, however generally the following countries require a carnet for private vehicle entry.

Africa
Required for

 * 🇪🇬 Egypt
 * 🇱🇸 Lesotho
 * 🇱🇾 Libya
 * 🇲🇼 Malawi
 * 🇸🇸 South Sudan

Recommended for
 * 🇧🇯 Benin
 * 🇧🇫 Burkina Faso
 * 🇨🇲 Cameroon
 * 🇨🇫 Central African Republic
 * 🇹🇩 Chad
 * DR Congo
 * 🇩🇯 Djibouti
 * 🇪🇹 Ethiopia
 * 🇬🇲 Gambia
 * 🇬🇭 Ghana
 * 🇬🇼 Guinea-Bissau
 * Ivory Coast
 * 🇲🇱 Mali
 * 🇳🇪 Niger
 * 🇳🇬 Nigeria
 * 🇷🇼 Rwanda
 * 🇸🇳 Senegal
 * 🇹🇬 Togo
 * 🇿🇲 Zambia
 * 🇿🇼 Zimbabwe

Americas
Note that as of 2016 the carnet is rarely used on the South American continent, in spite of the lingering perceptions suggested by entries here.

Required for
 * 🇧🇷 Brazil
 * 🇨🇴 Colombia (only recommended according to some sources) not required if Canadian
 * 🇪🇨 Ecuador (only recommended according to some sources) not required if Canadian
 * 🇯🇲 Jamaica
 * 🇵🇪 Peru (only recommended according to some sources) not required if Canadian
 * 🇹🇹 Trinidad and Tobago
 * 🇻🇪 Venezuela (only recommended according to some sources) not required if Canadian

Unless Canadian, recommended for
 * 🇦🇷 Argentina
 * 🇨🇱 Chile
 * 🇺🇾 Uruguay

Asia & Middle East
Required for Recommended for
 * 🇧🇭 Bahrain
 * Brunei
 * East Timor
 * 🇮🇳 India
 * 🇮🇩 Indonesia
 * 🇮🇷 Iran
 * 🇯🇵 Japan
 * 🇰🇼 Kuwait
 * 🇲🇾 Malaysia
 * 🇳🇵 Nepal
 * 🇴🇲 Oman
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan
 * 🇶🇦 Qatar
 * 🇸🇬 Singapore
 * 🇱🇰 Sri Lanka
 * UAE
 * 🇲🇲 Myanmar
 * 🇧🇩 Bangladesh Foreigners cannot bring their own car to Bangladesh
 * 🇯🇴 Jordan
 * Syria

Oceania

 * 🇦🇺 Australia
 * 🇳🇿 New Zealand

title: Carnet de Passages en Douane


text: Category:The Jetsons

title: Category:The Jetsons


text:
Leontine Sagan

Leontine Sagan (born Leontine Schlesinger; 13 February 1889 – 20 May 1974) was an Austrian-Hungarian theatre director and actress of Jewish descent. She is best known for directing Mädchen in Uniform (1931).

Along with directing for both cinema and the stage, Sagan also acted in several films. She died in Pretoria, South Africa in 1974, at the age of 85.

Personal life
Born in either Budapest or Vienna in 1889, Sagan trained with Max Reinhardt, who is best known for his elaborate and imaginative sets and theatrics. In 1899, as a child, she moved to South Africa with her family just before the Second Boer War. She was educated in a German-language school in Johannesburg. In her later years, Sagan married publisher and writer Dr. Victor Fleischer; the union was childless.

Career
Sagan directed three films. She is best remembered for the first of two films she directed, Mädchen in Uniform (1931). It has an all-female cast and was ground-breaking not only for its portrayal of lesbian and pedagogical eros, but also for the production's co-operative and profit-sharing financial arrangements. Whether Sagan herself was a lesbian is unknown; the book Women Film Directors lists her as "lesbian film director" as she directed Christa Winsloe's play, said to contain lesbian themes.

In her teenage years, she worked as a stage actress in Germany and Austria. Some films that Sagan appeared in include The Holy Mountain (1926), The Great Leap (1927), The White Ecstasy (1930), and Die Nacht der Regisseure (1994). It was not until 1931, when Sagan became involved behind the scenes, that she gained international attention after directing her most significant film Mädchen in Uniform.

Following the debut of this film, Sagan moved to England. In England, she directed Men of Tomorrow and worked for the film director Alexander Korda at Korda’s Studios. She later worked as a theatre producer in Manchester. She was also the first female producer at London's Drury Lane, where she successfully presided over a series of Ivor Novello's musicals in the West End: Glamorous Night (1935), Careless Rapture (1936), Crest of the Wave (1937), The Dancing Years (1939) and Arc de Triomphe (1943). The popularity of these shows is credited with saving Drury Lane from potential closure in the 1930s. Towards the end of her career, Sagan moved to South Africa and became an influential director in South African theatre, and co-founded the National Theatre in Johannesburg. In February 1948 she directed the NTO's first English production Dear Brutus by J.M. Barrie, followed by An Inspector Calls. Directed In Theatre Street for the East Rand Theatre Club in 1950. (Leontine Sagan - ESAT. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Dec. 2016.)

Filmography
* Mädchen in Uniform (1931) Sagan’s most significant film featured an all-female cast. It was the first film in Germany to be produced cooperatively (both the crew and cast obtained shares rather than a salary). Mädchen in Uniform is based on the play by Christa Winsloe. It survived but was much censored until the 1970s. Eleanor Roosevelt is credited with helping to revoke its censorship in the US. It was released in its surviving form on video-tape, with English subtitles, in the US in 1994 and in the UK in 2000. The film centers on an all-girls boarding school. It examines various emotional and physical pressures caused by the authoritarian rule and militarism of the Prussian headmistress. It is thought to be an anti-fascist film that critiques the Prussian education system. Many critics also argue that the film is suggesting of feminist notions, since the women characters openly express their emotions and sexual orientations.

The film is among the first to suggest lesbian themes. Throughout Mädchen in Uniform, girls are depicted holding hands, shown dressing and undressing, and in one scene two women are depicted kissing on the lips.The film’s main character Manuela, a 14-year-old girl, develops a crush on her teacher Fräulein von Bernburg, which affects her performance in her class and in the school's theatre production. Manuela eventually has a public and drunken breakdown in which she confesses her love for Fräulein von Bernburg, after which she is sanctioned by the headmistress, but supported by her fellow students. The headmistress forbids Fräulein von Bernburg to see or speak to Manuela again. Manuela nearly kills herself but is found and saved. The film was banned by the Nazis as 'decadent', but it has left a significant mark on history for its female imagery and anti-militaristic themes. This film was influential at women’s film festivals in the 1970s.

Books

 * Lights and Shadows: The autobiography of Leontine Sagan, Johannesburg 1996
 * Michael Eckardt (ed.): Leontine Sagan. Licht und Schatten. Schauspielerin und Regisseurin auf vier Kontinenten. Hentrich & Hentrich, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-941450-12-7.

title: Leontine Sagan


text: User talk:68.223.227.202

title: User talk:68.223.227.202


text:
Talk:David Johnson

Candidates for Entries
The following pages link to here (up to 500 are shown):

 * Liverpool F.C.
 * Grand Teton National Park
 * Talk:Twelve-step program (User:David Johnson contributed to that talk page.)
 * List of Governors of South Carolina
 * List of encyclopedia topics (19)
 * Live in the Classic City
 * Results of the Canadian federal election, 2004
 * Alien vs. Predator (movie)
 * David Caplan
 * U.S. Senate election, 2000
 * David Fairclough

Just to give us some idea how many David Johnsons there might be.  18:25, Dec 5, 2004 (UTC)

I'm not changing the above list, especially since see i nothing distinguishing all three strikethrus from the rest. But at present:
 * Have specific articles:
 * Liverpool F.C. (David Johnson (footballer born 1951))
 * Results of the Canadian federal election, 2004 (David Johnson (Canadian politician))
 * David S. Johnson, computer scientist
 * Brief mention in more general articles, and no specific article:
 * List of Governors of South Carolina (1846)
 * Alien vs. Predator (movie) (cinematographer)
 * U.S. Senate election, 2000 (Indiana)
 * No valid connection:
 * Grand Teton National Park - Name has been corrected
 * Unknown:
 * Live in the Classic City
 * David Caplan
 * David Fairclough

Removal of Waterloo U Pres
I've removed By luck, i found UW's next president: David Johnston, bcz it notes that
 * David Johnson, President of the University of Waterloo.
 * The Ontario minister of education, David Johnson, doesn't even spell his name the same way.

So i'm adding to List of people by name: Joh and leaving --Jerzy·t 02:34, 2005 August 10 (UTC)
 * Johnston, David L., (b. 1940 or 1941), Canadian jurist & academic administrator
 * David Johnson, Ontario minister of education  for someone who thinks he's notable enuf to worry about.

Red links removed
Below is a list of the red-linked people I removed, none of whom seem particularly notable to me--but who knows? I thought the list (plus one removed earlier by another editor) should be kept for future reference, in case an article is created, or another editor seriously disagrees with my judgement as to notability:

 * David Johnson (American politician), Indiana challenger in U.S. Senate election, 2000 (1 link)
 * David Johnson (American tennis player), competed in the U.S. National Championships (now known as the U.S. Open) in men's singles 1938 - 1941 and 1944 (5--all from U.S. National Championships list/index articles)
 * David Johnson (cinematographer), cinematographer on Alien vs. Predator (film) (5)
 * David Johnson (DJ), a presenter on Belfast's U105 radio station (1--also mentioned but not linked in the U105 article)
 * David Johnson (journalist), reporter for Idaho's Lewiston Morning Tribune (0)
 * David Johnson (presenter) Northern Irish radio and TV presenter (0, or 1 if this David Johnson is the same as David Johnson (DJ) above--and I'm assuming he is)
 * David Johnson (soccer player born 1984), American soccer player for Los Angeles Galaxy (3)
 * David E. Johnson (political economist) (born 1985), Franco-Texan political economist (0)

-- Shelf Skewed  Talk  05:45, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

 * I decided to return the cinematographer & the American soccer player to the article since each is linked to a few articles (5 and 3, respectively). Added to the above list David Johnson (American tennis player), and the number of pages (in parentheses) that link to the dab page that refer to each person -- Shelf Skewed  Talk  17:40, 22 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Strike throughs returned to page as "What links here"s. Lewiston journalist unlinked from article Steve Hartman. -- Shelf Skewed  Talk  03:01, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:David Johnson


text: User talk:216.43.185.4

title: User talk:216.43.185.4


text: User talk:63.156.160.8

title: User talk:63.156.160.8


text:
Hongkong Post

Hongkong Post is a government department of Hong Kong responsible for postal services, though operated as a trading fund. Founded in 1841, it was known as Postal Department or Post Office before the handover of Hong Kong in 1997. It has been a sub-member of the Universal Postal Union since 1877, and is a separate entity from China Post.

History
Merchants traded in Hong Kong on the two sides of Victoria Harbour as early as before the British possession in 1842. They complained about the absence of proper postal services and therefore the Postal Department was established.

The department was founded on 28 August 1841, but the first post office (known as 書信館 at that time), situated near the current site of St. John's Cathedral, opened on 12 November 1841. At first, its right to operation belonged to the Royal Mail, until its transfer to the Postmaster General on 1 May 1860.

On 8 December 1862, the office issued the first set of Hong Kong postal stamps. Before this time, only British troops in Hong Kong could use British stamps, while other local residents did not have access to British stamps. Until the handover of Hong Kong to China in 1997, mail for British forces serving in the then-colony used the British Forces Post Office number, BFPO 1.

The office introduced automated mail sorting in 1989, and machines were installed in the General Post Office.

There is no post code system in Hong Kong, although one has been under consideration since 2000.

Since August 1995, the office has operated as a trading fund and the full title of the head of the Office became "Postmaster General and general manager of the Post Office Trading Fund".

Postal history
During the colonial era, Hong Kong produced postage stamps simply bearing the name Hong Kong, printed alongside the likenesses (in profile) of the reigning monarchs of the United Kingdom, or royal symbols (for example, "EIIR").

Since Hong Kong's transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997, stamps issued have borne the name "Hong Kong, China". British Hong Kong postage stamps are no longer valid for prepayment of postage and cannot be repurchased by the Post Office.

Post offices
As of 2023, Hongkong Post operates 122 post offices (including 3 mobile post offices) throughout Hong Kong. The detailed locations and opening hours of the post offices are on the Hongkong Post website.

iPostal Kiosk
In mid-2021, Hongkong Post launched iPostal Kisok which offers an automated posting service and enables the public to post mail, purchase postage label and make postage enquiry round-the clock. As of July 2023, there are 23 kiosks located across the city.

Post boxes
Hong Kong imported post-boxes from the UK until the practice was discontinued in the 1980s. Before 1997, the post boxes were painted red, as in the United Kingdom, and were engraved with the royal cypher – for example, "EIIR" to represent Queen Elizabeth II. According to fans of Hong Kong's history, featuring the regal insignia on many of the George V and George VI post boxes in Hong Kong are unique as they are different in design from other British post boxes in the world. Since the transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997, the livery of the boxes became green, and were adorned with the new Hongkong Post logo.

As of October 2015, there are 1,148 free-standing post-boxes in Hong Kong; only 59 colonial post boxes bearing the royal insignia were still in service. In late 2014 Hongkong Post reaffirmed its policy that the remaining 59 colonial-era post boxes would only be replaced if they were seriously damaged or no longer meet the demand of its customers.

Controversy
This department of government said in March 2015 that it was considering covering up the regal insignia on these post boxes, on grounds that it was "not desirable to have postboxes that show various royal cyphers from different British reigns" and to "avoid confusion". Controversy ignited in September upon confirmation that royal cyphers would be covered up by fixing metal plates on all but seven of the historical post boxes. The decision was decried by the Conservancy Association, the Mailboxes Searching Team, and activists opposed to the push of pro-Beijing politicians to "de-colonialise" Hong Kong. According to legislator Claudia Mo of the Civic Party, senior HK Post officials she talked with affirmed that the order to obscure regal insignia on the 59 colonial post boxes came from the Commerce and Economic Development Bureau (CEDB), which Mo said pointed to a political and not administrative decision.

Post
In addition to making its income from traditional postal delivery, Hongkong Post also sells philatelic products, and is used by the Government and utility companies to accept payment from customers.

Philately
Hongkong Post Stamps was a division set up in 1974, charged with promoting and popularising stamp collecting, to meet the ever-increasing demand for Hong Kong stamps by collectors. The division conducts three main areas of work:

 * stamp product design and production
 * fulfilment and advance ordering service
 * philatelic marketing.

Owing to the territory's conservative stamp-issuing policy, stamp collecting in Hong Kong is a popular hobby. Different types of attractively designed stamp products are also popular with stamp collectors around the world.

Root certificate
Since 2000, Hongkong Post is a recognized root certificate authority and issues digital certificates under the trade name "e-Cert".

Other
Hongkong Post also provides services listed below:

 * Local Courier Post
 * Speedpost
 * Periodicals/Circular/Direct mail services
 * e-Post
 * e-Cert (Electronic Certificate for e-commerce)
 * e-Business
 * Franking machine
 * Postal remittance service (to Canada, Mainland China, Indonesia, Japan, Nepal and the Philippines)
 * Electronic remittance service (through Western Union)
 * PayThruPost (Bill payment)
 * Logistics, etc.

Incidents

 * In 2005, newspapers revealed the presence of pinhole cameras in Cheung Sha Wan Post Office, and this was perceived as a violation of people's privacy. Hongkong Post explained that the cameras were necessary for facilitating police investigations into several suspected theft cases.
 * In March 2007, two postal staff lost three bags of mail, destined for Wan Chai and the Eastern District, in the management offices of Hongkong Post buildings. Although Hongkong Post eventually found one of the lost bags, 400 letters were reportedly lost.
 * In December 2019, Hongkong Post made a notable announcement regarding a modification to one of its new stamp designs. The original design featured black-clad children and the Hongkong Post stated the changes were solely made for aesthetic reasons. But online commentators argued that this change was likely an attempt to avoid any resemblance between black-clad children with anti-government protesters at the time.
 * As the demand for delivery services during the coronavirus pandemic surged since November 2020, scammers have cheated more than 100 Hongkongers out of HKD $2.2 million through phishing text messages and emails claiming to be from Hongkong Post.

Achievements

 * Winner of the 2005 "Hong Kong Awards for Industries – Productivity and Quality Award" for achievement in productivity enhancement and total quality management.
 * Winner of the Caring Organisation Logo 2005/06 by the Hong Kong Council of Social Service.
 * Winner of the Gold Level Certification in the Universal Postal Union EMS Cooperative Audit and Measurement Programme 2005.
 * Winner of the Web Care Award 2005 – Gold Prize from Internet Professional Association.
 * Guinness World Record holder for the largest stamp mosaic.

title: Hongkong Post


text:
Zero Minus Ten

Zero Minus Ten, published in 1997, is the first novel by Raymond Benson featuring Ian Fleming's James Bond following John Gardner's departure in 1996. Published in the United Kingdom by Hodder & Stoughton and in America by Putnam, the book is set in Hong Kong, China, Jamaica, England and some parts of Western Australia.

Benson's working title for the novel was No Tears for Hong Kong; this was eventually used as the title for the last chapter in the novel.

Continuity
According to Raymond Benson, as far as character continuity was concerned, he had been given free lease by Ian Fleming Publications (then Glidrose Publications) to follow or ignore other continuation authors as he saw fit. Benson took a middle-of-the-road approach to this. While Benson treats Ian Fleming's novels as strictly canon, Gardner's novels are not, though there are some aspects that he adopts.

For instance, in Gardner's Win, Lose or Die Bond is promoted to Captain, but Benson's novels have Bond holding the rank of Commander again with no explanation. Some of Gardner's original recurring characters are also not present, including Ann Reilly (aka Q'ute), who, by the end of Gardner's era, had taken over Q Branch from Major Boothroyd; Benson features Major Boothroyd, again, with no explanation. Some of Gardner's changes do remain—for instance, Benson's Bond continues to smoke cigarettes from H. Simmons of Burlington Arcade, which dates from Gardner's For Special Services (1982). Additionally, the Bond girls Fredericka von Grüsse (Never Send Flowers / SeaFire), Harriet Horner (Scorpius), and Easy St. John (Death is Forever) are all mentioned. Benson's other novels also retain aspects of Gardner's series, though there is just as much that he ignores.

Some elements of the films also carry over into Benson's novels. M, for instance, is not Sir Miles Messervy, but the female M who was first introduced in the film GoldenEye (1995), although Gardner also introduced this character in his novelisation of that film and retained the character through his final novel COLD (1996). Bond also reverts to using his trusty Walther PPK, claiming he had switched to other guns (notably the ASP in Gardner's later novels), but felt that it was time he used it again. The follow-up to Zero Minus Ten, the novelization to Tomorrow Never Dies, has Bond switching to the Walther P99, which remains Bond's main weapon throughout Benson's novels. Later novels by Benson also attempt to insert some of the characters from the films into his story. In The Facts of Death, for instance, Admiral Hargreaves is present at a party.

Plot summary
As the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the British to the People's Republic of China nears, Bond is given ten days to investigate a series of terrorist attacks that could disrupt the fragile handover and cause the breakout of a large-scale war. Simultaneously a nuclear bomb is test-detonated in the Australian outback. In Hong Kong, Bond suspects a British shipping magnate, Guy Thackeray, who he catches cheating at mahjong at a casino in Macau. Later, after cheating the cheater and winning a large sum of Thackeray's money, Bond attends a press conference where Thackeray announces that he is selling his company, EurAsia Enterprises, to the Chinese; not disclosed to the public is that this is due to a long-forgotten legal document that grants the descendants of Li Wei Tam ownership of the company if the British were to ever lose control of Hong Kong. Because the descendants were believed to have abandoned China, General Wong claims the document on behalf of the Chinese government and forces Thackeray out. Immediately following the announcement, Thackeray is killed by a car bomb planted by an unknown assassin, the latest of a series of assassinations that claimed the lives of the entire EurAsia board of directors, as well as several employees.

Through his Hong Kong contact, T.Y. Woo, Bond also investigates Li Xu Nan, the Triad head of the Dragon Wing society and the rightful descendant of Li Wei Tam. Li's identity as the Triad head is supposed to be a secret, though after Bond involves a hostess, Sunni Pei, 007 is forced to protect her from the Triads for breaking an oath of secrecy. When she is finally captured, Bond makes a deal, off the record, to go to Guangzhou and retrieve the long-forgotten document from General Wong that will give Li Xu Nan ownership of EurAsia Enterprises upon the handover at midnight on 1 July 1997. Through Li's contacts, Bond successfully travels and meets General Wong in Guangzhou under the guise of a solicitor from England. Bond's cover is later blown and T.Y. Woo, who followed Bond, is executed. Bond avenges his friend's death by killing General Wong, stealing the document, which he hand-delivers to Li Xu Nan, and rescuing Sunni Pei.

With Li Xu Nan in Bond's debt, Bond uses Li's contacts to go to Australia to investigate EurAsia Enterprises and find a link between it and the nuclear blast. As it turns out Thackeray is very much alive and has been mining unreported uranium in Australia to make his own nuclear bomb, which he plans to detonate in Hong Kong at the moment the handover takes place in retaliation for the loss of his family's legacy. Returning to Hong Kong, Bond, Li Xu Nan, and a Royal Navy captain track down Thackeray's nuclear bomb and defuse it. The battle claims the lives of Li Xu Nan as well as Thackeray, who is drowned by Bond in the harbour.

Major characters

 * James Bond – British Secret Service agent sent to investigate numerous terrorist attacks in Hong Kong as the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong from the British to the People's Republic of China nears.
 * M – The successor to Sir Miles Messervy and the head of the British Secret Service, she sends Bond to investigate a number of terrorist attacks in Hong Kong that could potentially disrupt the fragile handover and cause the breakout of a large-scale war.
 * Guy Thackeray – A British shipping magnate, his company EurAsia Enterprises is being stripped from him when the handover takes place on 1 July 1997. In retaliation Thackeray uses his company to build, test, and attempt to detonate a nuclear bomb in Hong Kong, making it uninhabitable.
 * General Wong – A general from the People's Republic of China. Although a member of the Communist Party, he is a corrupt and greedy leader who attempts to claim EurAsia Enterprises not only for China, but for himself.
 * Li Xu Nan – The head of the Dragon Wing Triad. He is the rightful descendant of Li Wei Tam and heir to EurAsia Enterprises when the handover takes place on 1 July 1997.
 * Sunni Pei – A "Blue Lantern" (associated non-member) of the Dragon Wing Triad, she seemingly betrays Li Xu Nan by giving up his identity at a club to Bond. Subsequently, Bond feels obliged to protect her once Li Xu Nan issues a death warrant for her.
 * T.Y. Woo – Working for the British Secret Service station in Hong Kong, he meets Bond upon his arrival. He later sets up Bond in a mahjong game at a casino in Macau so that Bond can get to know Guy Thackeray.

Trivia

 * As the novel begins, Bond is in Jamaica at his newly purchased estate that he dubs "Shamelady". The estate was previously owned by a "well-known British journalist and author." The author is in fact Ian Fleming and the estate, Goldeneye, where Fleming wrote every James Bond novel till his death in 1964. Shamelady was suggested to Fleming in 1952 for Goldeneye by his wife, Ann Rothermere. "Shame Lady" is another name for the plant mimosa pudica.

Publication History

 * UK first hardback edition, Hodder & Stoughton (ISBN 0-340-68448-8), 3 April 1997
 * US first hardback edition, Putnam (ISBN 0-399-14257-6), 5 May, 1997
 * UK paperback edition, Coronet Books (ISBN 0-340-68449-6), 5 March 1998
 * US paperback edition, Jove Books (ISBN 0-515-12336-6), August 1998
 * Reissue with new introduction by Raymond Benson, Ian Fleming Publications, 5 October, 2023

title: Zero Minus Ten


text: Wikipedia:Meetup/London/images

title: Wikipedia:Meetup/London/images


text: User talk:69.173.179.79

title: User talk:69.173.179.79


text:
Sinus Lunicus

Sinus Lunicus (Latin for "Bay of Lunik") is an area of lunar mare along the southeast edge of the Mare Imbrium on the Earth's Moon. It is formed by the area enclosed by the prominent craters Archimedes to the southwest, Autolycus to the southeast, and Aristillus to the northeast. The bay is open to the northwest, and faces the Montes Spitzbergen, a small chain of mountains. This bay was named the Bay of Lunik by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 1970 to honor the landing site of Luna 2, the first human space probe to make contact with another interplanetary body. The Luna 2 landed in the gap between the craters Archimedes and Autolycus on September 14, 1959.

The selenographic coordinates of Sinus Lunicus are 32.4° N and 1.9° W. Its diameter is 120 kilometers. The most distinctive features on the bay are the complex outer ramparts of ejecta from the craters Aristillus and Autolycus, and the small satellite craters Archimedes C and Archimedes D. The albedo of the surface is brightened by overlapping ray material from Autolycus and Aristillus.

title: Sinus Lunicus


text: User talk:69.171.36.2

title: User talk:69.171.36.2


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Little Woodbury

Little Woodbury is the name of an Iron Age archaeological site in Britford parish, near Salisbury in the English county of Wiltshire. The site, which is just north of Salisbury District Hospital, is a scheduled monument.

The site lies about 1+1/4 mi south of the centre of Salisbury and 1 mi north of Odstock village, at. It was partially excavated in 1938 and 1939 by Gerhard Bersu. In excavations like Little Woodbury he introduced the revolutionary approaches in the excavation of settlements (e.g. the identification of timber post remains) developed in continental Europe during previous decades.

Discovery and excavation
Gerhard Bersu, a German archaeologist who had been driven to Britain following discrimination by the Nazis, was commissioned in 1938 by the Prehistoric Society to excavate the site in order to improve knowledge of early British settlement sites, which were until then poorly understood. A settlement had been identified at the site through aerial archaeology by O.G.S. Crawford almost twenty years previously, when he had seen a circular enclosure as a cropmark.

Bersu worked at the site from 12 June to 18 September 1938, and 12 June to 19 July 1939. He dug a network of 4-5m wide parallel trenches, one after the other, across the site. By this method he was able to identify a large roundhouse and several other domestic features such as corn-drying frames, granaries, and storage pits. The postholes of the roundhouse enabled Bersu to argue that these structures were the common domestic building type of the Iron Age; prior to his work it was thought that people lived in clusters of pit-dwellings in the ground.

Through Bersu's identification of animal bone and cereal grains, he convinced other archaeologists to re-evaluate the large holes they had found as storage pits. Though he only excavated around 190 pits, Bersu estimated that there were roughly 360 more unexcavated ones further underground. He posited that since the storage pits could only be used for a limited amount of time before pests and putrefaction set in, they were often replaced by new pits, with only around 12 being open at a time. Stratified layers of loose chalk, humus-soil, burnt and unburnt flints, small potsherds, bones, and powdered ash showed evidence of the pits being refilled as soon as new pits were dug.

During his identification of timber post remains, Bersu was able to assemble a ground-plan of the main roundhouse. It was composed of four elements: two outer rings of post-holes (with a max diameter of 15 m), another concentric ring of post-holes (1.5-2 m further in), a group of posts in a square formation (4 m from the inner ring), and a gap (3 m wide) in the east side of the two outer rings marking the entrance. However, Bersu had difficulty deciding what the configuration of a reconstruction would look like.

When war broke out in 1939, work stopped and Bersu was interned on the Isle of Man. He never returned to the site and post-excavation work was never fully completed. Regardless, Bersu's discoveries inspired excavations like West Harling and Itford Hill when it came to the identification of Iron Age settlements.

Roundhouse reconstruction
In 2008, a recreation of the roundhouse was built at the Butser Ancient Farm open-air museum in Hampshire.

title: Little Woodbury


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Pinus johannis

Pinus johannis, the Johann's pine, is a pine in the pinyon pine group, native to North America. The range extends from southeast Arizona and southwest New Mexico, United States, south in Mexico along the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Sierra Madre Oriental to southern Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí. It occurs at moderate to high altitudes, from 1600 - 3000 m, in cool, dry climate conditions.

Description
Pinus johannis is a small to medium-size tree, often just a shrub, reaching 4 - 10 m tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 50 cm. The bark is grey-brown, thin and scaly at the base of the trunk. The leaves ('needles') are in mixed fascicles of three and four, slender, 3 – long, and deep green to blue-green, with stomata confined to a bright white band on the inner surfaces.

The cones are globose, 2 – long and 2 – broad when closed, green at first, ripening yellow-brown when 16–18 months old, with only a small number of thin, fragile scales, typically 6-12 fertile scales. The cones open to 3 – broad when mature, holding the seeds on the scales after opening. The seeds are 9 – long, with a thick shell, a white endosperm, and a vestigial 1 – wing; they are dispersed by the Mexican jay, which plucks the seeds out of the open cones. The jay, which uses the seeds as a major food resource, stores many of the seeds for later use; some of these stored seeds are not used and are able to grow into new trees.

Pinus johannis is nearly dioecious: nearly all individuals produce either male or female cones only, and trees do not appear to change their sex expression over time.

History
Pinus johannis is a recently described pinyon pine, discovered by Elbert L. Little in 1968 when comparing pinyons growing in Arizona with those of typical Mexican pinyon (Pinus cembroides) in Mexico; he described it as a variety of Mexican pinyon, Pinus cembroides var. bicolor, noting the very different stomatal placing on the leaves; it also differs in needle number, with 3–4 per fascicle, rather than 2–3; in the cones having thinner scales; and in having a denser, more rounded crown. Further research by the French botanist Marie-Françoise Robert-Passini, the American botanists Dana K. Bailey and Frank G. Hawksworth and others, has shown that it is better treated as a distinct species. Although often occurring together with Mexican pinyon, it is reproductively isolated from that by its pollination being a month to two months later in summer, rather than in spring, thereby preventing hybridisation.

As Robert-Passini and Bailey & Hawksworth were working in different areas at about the same time, it was raised to species rank twice, first as Pinus johannis by Robert-Passini (naming it after her husband Jean) examining specimens in the Sierra Madre Oriental in Mexico, and then later as Pinus discolor by Bailey & Hawksworth examining specimens in the northern Sierra Madre Occidental in Arizona.

There are slight differences between the plants in the two ranges; those in the eastern being more shrubby and with larger cones than those in the western range, and also differences in the resin composition; they are though generally very similar and recognition of both as separate species from each other does not appear warranted.

Some botanists also still include P. johannis in Mexican pinyon as a variety or even not distinguished at all, accounting for reports of "Mexican pinyon" in Arizona and New Mexico. This is despite the two frequently occurring together at the same sites with no hybridisation.

Pinus johannis is most closely allied to Orizaba pinyon (Pinus orizabensis) and Potosi pinyon (Pinus culminicola), with which it shares the leaf structure with the stomata confined to the inner faces; it differs from the former in the smaller cones and seeds, and from the latter in fewer needles per fascicle (3–4 vs 5).

Uses
The edible pine nut seeds are collected in Mexico to a small extent.

The white-glaucous inner surfaces of the needles make it a very attractive small tree, suitable for parks and large gardens.

title: Pinus johannis


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Macario Sakay

Macario Sakay y de León (March 1, 1878 – September 13, 1907) was a Filipino general who took part in the 1896 Philippine Revolution against the Spanish Empire and in the Philippine–American War. After the war was declared over by the United States in 1902, Sakay continued resistance by leading guerrilla raids. The following year he established the Tagalog Republic with himself as president.

Early life
Macario Sakay de León was born on March 1, 1878, along Tabora Street, Tondo, in the City of Manila. He first worked as an apprentice in a kalesa (carriage) manufacturing shop. He was also a tailor and a stage actor, performing in a number of plays including Principe Baldovino, Doce Pares de Francia, and Amante de la Corona.

An original member of the Katipunan movement, which he joined in 1894, he fought alongside Andrés Bonifacio against the Spanish throughout the Philippine Revolution. In 1899, he continued the struggle for Philippine independence against the United States. Early in the Philippine–American War, he was jailed for seditious activities, and later released as part of an amnesty.

After the war
Sakay was one of the founders of the Partido Nacionalista (unrelated to the present Nacionalista Party founded in 1907), which sought to achieve Philippine independence through legal means. The party appealed to the Philippine Commission, but the Commission passed the Sedition Law, which prohibited any form of propaganda advocating independence. Sakay took up arms again.

After the capture of Aguinaldo
Contrary to popular belief, the Philippine resistance to American rule did not end with the capture of General Emilio Aguinaldo. Several forces remained at large, including one led by Sakay. Sakay's rank and association within Aguinaldo's Revolutionary Government is unknown. When Aguinaldo surrendered to the US, Sakay seized the leadership of the revolution and declared himself Supreme President of the Tagalog Republic. He said this included all the islands of the Philippines from Luzon to Mindanao. Taking over the Morong–Nueva Ecija command and assigning his deputies to take charge of the other Tagalog regions, Sakay wrote a constitution in which traitors, or supporters of the enemy, were to be punished with exile, imprisonment, or death. In May 1902, Sakay and his men declared open resistance to the US and conducted guerrilla raids that lasted for several years.

Tagalog Republic
Around 1902, Sakay established the Tagalog Republic somewhere in the mountains of Rizal. His first military circulars and presidential orders as "President and Commander-in-Chief" were issued in 1903. Sakay's military circular No. 1 was dated May 5, 1903, and his Presidential Order No. 1 was dated March 18, 1903.

Military organization
In Sakay's military circular No. 7, dated June 19, 1903, the government of the Tagalog Republic (called the "Republic of the Philippines") affirmed the formation of an organized army. The army units were composed of Kabohans (eight soldiers, equivalent to a squad), Camilleros (nine soldiers), Companias (117 soldiers, equivalent to a company, and Batalions (801 soldiers, equivalent to battalion). However, in Sakay's Second Manifesto, dated April 5, 1904, it said the exact number of soldiers in the army could not be ascertained. There are insufficient documents to provide a basis for historians to speculate on the size of the Republic's army, but these demonstrate that Sakay's army existed and that it was led by officers appointed and commissioned by Sakay himself.

In Sakay's presidential order No. 2, dated May 8, 1903, the government, in search of sources of weapons to carry out its struggle against the Americans, said that it was willing to confer military rank on citizens who could turn over firearms to the Presidential Office or any of the headquarters under its command. Ranks would be conferred by the following schedule: 10 to 15 firearms, rank of lieutenant; 16 to 25 firearms, captain; 26 to 36 firearms, major; 40 to 50 firearms, colonel. In Sakay's military order No. 5, dated May 25, 1903, the government assigned the following color codes for the divisions of its army: artillery (red), infantry (light blue), cavalry (dark blue), engineering (dark brown), chief-of-staff (dark green), sanitary (yellow), and marines (gray).

Planned kidnapping
According to General Leon Villafuerte, his, Carreon's and Sakay's forces planned to kidnap Alice Roosevelt Longworth, the daughter of President Theodore Roosevelt, who was planning to visit the Philippines. The plan was to trade her to the Americans in exchange for the immediate recognition of Philippine independence. The kidnapping was not attempted since Longworth postponed her trip by train to Baguio.

Surrender and betrayal
In 1905, Filipino labour leader Dominador Gómez was authorised by Governor-General Henry Clay Ide to negotiate for the surrender of Sakay and his men. Gómez met with Sakay at his camp and argued that the establishment of a national assembly was being held up by Sakay's intransigence, and that its establishment would be the first step toward Filipino independence. Sakay agreed to end his resistance on the condition that a general amnesty be granted to his men, that they be permitted to carry firearms, and that he and his officers be permitted to leave the country. Gómez assured Sakay that these conditions would be acceptable to the Americans, and Sakay's emissary, General León Villafuerte, obtained agreement to them from the American Governor-General.

Sakay believed that the struggle had shifted to constitutional means, and that the establishment of the assembly was a means to win independence. As a result, he surrendered on July 14, 1906, descending from the mountains on the promise of an amnesty for him and his officials, and the formation of a Philippine Assembly composed of Filipinos that would serve as the "gate of freedom". With Villafuerte, Sakay travelled to Manila, where they were welcomed and invited to receptions and banquets.

One invitation came from the Constabulary Chief, American Colonel Harry H. Bandholtz, to a party in Cavite hosted by the acting governor Colonel Louis J. Van Schaick on July 17; it was a trap. Sakay and his principal lieutenants were disarmed and arrested while the party was in progress. At his trial, Sakay was accused of bandolerismo "under the Brigandage Act of Nov. 12, 1902, which interpreted all acts of armed resistance to American rule as banditry." The American colonial Supreme Court of the Philippines upheld the decision. Sakay was convicted and sentenced to death, and hanged on September 13, 1907.

Before his death, he made the following statement: "Death comes to all of us sooner or later, so I will face the Almighty calmly. But I want to tell you that we are not bandits and robbers, as the Americans have accused us, but members of the revolutionary force that defended our mother country, the Philippines! Farewell! Long live the Republic and may our independence be born in the future! Long live the Philippines!"

He was buried at Manila North Cemetery later that day.

Legacy

 * A life-sized statue of Sakay was unveiled at the Plaza Morga in Tondo, by the Manila Historical Heritage Commission on September 13, 2008, the 101st anniversary of his death. That same month, the Senate adopted two separate resolutions honouring Sakay's life and his fellow freedom fighters for their contribution to the cause of independence.
 * Camp General Macario Sakay in Los Baños, Laguna was named after the general in January 2016, when Armed Forces of the Philippines Chief of Staff Gen. Hernando Iriberri issued General Order No. 30, changing the camp's name from Camp Eldridge, a name the camp had been given during the American occupation a century prior.

In popular culture

 * Sakay was noted for keeping long hair. His name is used in the Philippines to refer to persons needing a haircut.
 * Portrayed by Salvador Zaragoza in the 1939 film Sakay.
 * Portrayed by Julio Díaz in the 1993 film, Sakay.
 * Portrayed by Dindo Arroyo in the 1997 TV series, Bayani and 2012 film, El Presidente.
 * Portrayed by Jerald Napoles in the 2013 TV series, Katipunan.
 * Portrayed by Remus Japitana Villanueva in the 2017 Tanghalang Pilipino musical, Aurelio Sedisyoso: A Rock Sarswela.

title: Macario Sakay


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Chris Fill's marketing communications planning framework


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Antipope Victor IV (1159–1164)

Victor IV (born Octavian or Octavianus: Ottaviano dei Crescenzi Ottaviani di Monticelli) (1095 – 20 April 1164) was elected as a Ghibelline antipope in 1159, following the death of Pope Adrian IV and the election of Alexander III. His election was supported by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. He took the name Victor IV, not acknowledging Antipope Victor IV of 1138, whose holding of the papal office was deemed illegitimate.

Early life and career
Octaviano Monticelli belonged to the powerful Theophylacti house, whose members often became popes in the 10th through 12th centuries. He was appointed as rector of Benevento in May 1137, and cardinal priest of San Nicola in Carcere in 1138. In 1151 Octaviano became cardinal priest of Santa Cecilia. He was described by John of Salisbury as eloquent and refined, but petty and parsimonious. When he was sent with Cardinal Jordan of Santa Susanna as a papal legate to summon Conrad III of Germany to Italy to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor, he quarrelled with his co-legate and, in John of Salisbury's words, "made the Church a laughingstock". In Germany, he met Frederick, duke of Swabia, who would soon become the new Emperor Frederick Barbarossa; the cardinal was present at the imperial election.

Election
Following the death of Pope Adrian IV, the College of Cardinals gathered to elect a new pope. During the Papal election of 4–7 September 1159 they elected the chancellor Rolando, who assumed the title of Alexander III. However, five cardinals, the clergy of St. Peter's, and the Roman populace refused to recognize him and elected their own candidate Octaviano on 7 September 1159. He was very popular on account of his liberality, accessibility, and splendour of living. He was considered a great friend of the Germans and rested his hopes on the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. Yet it is not to be assumed that the emperor, busy with the Siege of Crema, had desired his election; Rolando was certainly not agreeable to him, yet neither was it to his interest to have an antipope.

Consecration
Victor IV was consecrated on 4 October in the abbey of Farfa by Cardinal-Bishop Imar of Tusculum, dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, assisted by Ubaldo, bishop of Ferentino and Riccardo, bishop of Melfi. With the armed assistance of Otto von Wittelsbach and his own armed groups in relatively short time he took control over the City of Rome and the Patrimony of St. Peter, while Alexander III took refuge in the territory of the Kingdom of Sicily, and later in France.

Synods
Both popes sent their legates to the Catholic kingdoms in order to secure their recognition. Frederick was at first neutral, but with clerical advice convoked a synod at Pavia in February 1160, which was attended by about fifty archbishops and bishops. The emperor, after the sacking of Crema the previous month, summoned both popes to Pavia. Alexander III declined, arguing that the pope should be subjected only to the judgment of God. Frederick then declared himself in favour of Victor IV, and the synod decided, as was to be expected, for Victor, and pronounced an anathema upon Alexander. On February 11, 1160, the council ended with a procession to Pavia Cathedral. Here Victor was received by the emperor, who, as a sign of humility, helped him to get off the horse and took him by the hand and led him to the altar and kissed his feet. Most of the episcopate of the Empire followed the decision of the synod. However, this attempt to secure Victor's recognition was never completely successful in Germany, since Bishop Eberhard of Salzburg was his principal opponent. In response, Alexander on his side excommunicated both Frederick I and Victor IV.

From 1159 to 1162, Victor participated in four councils; Pavia(February 1160), Lodi(June 1161), St.-Jean-de-Losne(September 1162), and Trier(November 1162). All were convened under the auspices to condemn Alexander III and his supporters.

Recognition
King Valdemar I of Denmark also gave his support to Victor IV, but the primate of Denmark archbishop Eskil of Lund became a partisan of Alexander III. It seems that Poland also supported Victor IV. Alexander was nevertheless able to gain the support of the rest of western Europe, because since the days of Hildebrand the power of the pope over the church in the various countries had increased so greatly that the kings of France and of England could not view with indifference a revival of such imperial control of the papacy as had been exercised by the Emperor Henry III. Therefore, France, England, Castile, Sweden, Norway, Scotland, Hungary, Sicily, and the Crusader states in Outremer recognized Alexander III as true pope, even if in some of these countries there were significant Victorine minorities in episcopates or among feudal rulers. The papal schism in Europe was now a fact.

In 1162, King Louis VII of France wavered once more. Frederick then attempted to convoke a joint council at Saint-Jean-de-Losne with Louis VII to decide the issue of who should be the pope. Louis neared the meeting site, but when he became aware that Frederick had stacked the votes for Alexander, Louis decided not to attend the council. As a result, the issue was not resolved at that time. This disastrous meeting had as its result that the king held firmly to the obedience of Alexander. During the years 1162–1165 Alexander lived in France, and from 1163 the pope exerted himself to gain more of Germany for his cause.

Death
All uncertainty came to an end on 20 April 1164. That day, while travelling with Rainald of Dassel, Victor IV died at Lucca. When Pope Alexander III learned of the death of his rival, he wept, and reprimanded his cardinals when they showed inappropriate delight. The clergy of the Lucca Cathedral and San Frediano would not allow Victor IV buried there because of his excommunication. Therefore, he was buried in a local monastery. When miracles were reported at his tomb, it was destroyed by order of Pope Gregory VIII in December 1187. Victor's successor was Paschal III.

title: Antipope Victor IV (1159–1164)


text:
Antipope Victor IV (1138)

Victor IV (died after April 1139) was an antipope for a short time, from March to 29 May 1138.

Biography
Possibly he was born in Ceccano, as Gregorio dei Conti di Ceccano.

Pope Paschal II created him cardinal-priest of SS. XII Apostoli, at the latest in 1102. He was with the pope at Bèze on 18 February 1107.

Investiture controversy
In February 1111, King Henry V came to Rome to demand his imperial coronation. On 12 February the ceremony took place at St. Peter's Basilica, and during the welcome at the door, the pope read out a decree, in which he repudiated lay investiture, and ordered all bishops to surrender their imperial fiefs to the emperor immediately and permanently. The king and the indignant bishops retired to discuss the shocking demand, and, as evening approached, the pope refused the coronation. After Mass, he and the cardinals were taken into custody by Henry's armed troops, and on 16 February, after a battle with the Romans in the Borgo, Henry and his captive prelates departed the city. The pope and sixteen cardinals, including Gregory of SS. XII Apostoli, were held captive for sixty-one days, while Henry pressed the pope to agree to his solution to the investiture controversy. On 18 April, at Ponte Mammolo on the Anio River, Gregory was one of the cardinals who were compelled to sign the papal promise to observe the agreement which Henry had drawn up.

In 1111, Pope Paschal delegated Cardinal Gregory to hold a synod in Veroli, to complete business which had begun in the papal court, concerning the crimes of the Archdeacon Grimaldi.

After Paschal's meeting with the emperor, criticism of him grew louder and louder, particularly from among the Gregorians, who saw the "Privilegium" as a betrayal of everything they had been doing to free the Church from the State. Paschal retreated from the scorn and the disdain to Terracina, where he was confronted on 5 July by the cardinals, led by Giovanni of Tusculum and Leo of Ostia. Pascal promised he would fix his error, but instead retreated farther, to the island of Ponza.

Pressure mounted on the pope until he was prevailed upon to summon a synod to deal with the "Privilege". The synod met on 18—23 March 1112, with more than 100 bishops in attendance. The leaders in the movement, who presented the documentary evidence to the Lateran synod, were: the papal legate in Aquitaine, Archbishop Gerard of Angoulême; the bishops Leo of Ostia and Galo of St. Pol-de-Leon; and the cardinals Robert of S. Eusebio and Gregory of SS. XII Apostolorum. It is said that they were responsible for drawing up the final statement, "Privilegium illud." The council emphatically condemned the "privilege" granted by Pope Paschal. In 1112 Paschal deposed him from his title because he had severely criticised (together with cardinal Robert of Sant'Eusebio, also subsequently deposed) Paschal's policy towards the emperor Henry V.

Cardinalate restored
In February 1119, shortly after the election of Calixtus II was announced in Rome, he and Cardinal Robert, along with numerous other schismatics, wrote to the new pope, congratulating that his election was neither simoniac nor motivated by "the tumour of ambition", and begging his pardon and absolution. Gregory and Robert both knew Archbishop Guy de Bourgogne of Vienne, when he attended the Roman synod of March 1112. They may also have known of Archbishop Guy's synod, held in October 1112, in which the council called Pope Paschal a simpleton (quod rex extorsit a vestra simplicitate) and excommunicated Henry V. Calixtus restored Gregory to his cardinalate, though his earliest subscription of a papal document is dated 6 April 1123; his signature in second place seems to indicate that he was restored without loss of seniority. He continued to subscribe to papal documents until the summer before the death of Pope Calixtus on 13 December 1124.

Cardinal Gregory also regularly subscribed documents for the new pope, Honorius II (Cardinal Lamberto, Bishop of Ostia). He was at the Lateran in 1125, 1126, 1127, 1128, and 1129.

On 11 April 1126, after a year-long contest of wills, Pope Honorius II excommunicated the abbot of Montecassino, Oderisio II (1123—1126), and all the monks in his faction. When the other faction attempted to conduct an election for his successor, as they claimed was their canonical right, civil war broke out in the Montecassino community between the supporters of Oderisio and the supporters of abbot Nicola (1126—1127). In the crisis, intending to exert papal control over a monastery which was far too independent, Pope Honorius sent Cardinal Gregory of SS. XII Apostolorum to Montecassino, with orders to sort out the situation and have elected the pope's candidate, Senioretto, the Provost of the monastery at Capua. This merely fired up Oderisius to hire troops and destroy the Rocca di Bantra, which was held by supporters of abbot Nicola. The election was not successfully managed by Cardinal Gregorio, and, in 1127, Honorius appointed Cardinal Conrad of S. Pudenziana to get Senioretto elected abbot, and then Cardinal Matteo, Bishop of Albano. After the surrender of Oderisio to the pope and the expulsion of Nicola for depleting the church treasury, a proper canonical election, achieved by papal intrusion, finally took place in July 1127.

Schism
In the papal election of 14 February 1130, he joined the obedience of Anacletus II (1130–1138). In February 1130, Gregory was one of the twenty-eight cardinals who wrote to Lothair, King of the Romans, explaining the events surrounding the papal election of 1130, and blaming Cardinal Aimeric for having attempted to carry out a coup-d'état. On 27 March 1130, Cardinal Gregory, along with thirteen other cardinals, subscribed a bull of Pope Anacletus confirming the privileges and property of the monastery of S. Paul outside-the-walls in Rome.

After the death of Pope Anacletus on 25 January 1138, his cardinals were in some uncertainty as to how to proceed. They, therefore, took counsel, first with the family of the Pierleoni, their most important supporters among the Roman aristocracy, and then with King Roger II of Sicily, their most important political ally in Italy. Robert advised them to hold the election. It was to his advantage to have another pope to oppose Innocent and Lothair. The cardinals, therefore, assembled for the election.

Cardinal Gregory was chosen as Anacletus' successor in mid-March 1138, taking the name Victor IV. However, through the negotiation skills of Bernard of Clairvaux, over a period of eight weeks, he was induced to make his submission to Pope Innocent II on 29 May 1138. Innocent had also bribed the brothers Pierleoni to change sides. Innocent initially restored him as cardinal of SS. Apostoli, but in the Second Lateran Council in April 1139 all the former adherents of Anacletus II were condemned and deposed, despite explicit promises given by Innocent. Then Gregory retired to the priorate of S. Eusebio in Fontanella. The date of his death is not recorded. A successor in the title of SS. Apostoli, Hildebrand, appears for the first time on January 4, 1157.

title: Antipope Victor IV (1138)