text:
Donna Jo Napoli

Donna Jo Napoli (born February 28, 1948) is an American writer of children's and young adult fiction, as well as a linguist. She currently is a professor at Swarthmore College teaching Linguistics in all different forms (music, Theater (structure), dance, Comparative Literature Studies). She has also taught linguistics at Smith College, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Georgetown University, the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, and the University of Pennsylvania.

Early life and personal life
Donna Jo Napoli was born the youngest of four children in Miami, February 28, 1948, to an Italian-American family. After correcting an eyesight problem left undiagnosed until the age of 10, Napoli became an avid reader. From then on she found solace in the escape provided by books, using reading as comfort during family troubles and instability stemming from her father's gambling problem.

Napoli has dual citizenship in the U.S. and Italy. She is married and has five children.

Education and linguistics career
She was accepted to Harvard University for undergraduate education and received both her B.S. (Mathematics, 1970) and M.A./Ph.D. (Romance Languages, 1973). Her PhD dissertation was titled The Two Si's of Italian: An Analysis of Reflexive, Inchoative, and Indefinite Subject Sentences in Modern Standard Italian and was published by the Indiana University Linguistics Club. A postdoctoral fellowship in linguistics at M.I.T. in 1974 led to her resulting career in the field.

Napoli began her linguistics career in generative syntax, with a focus on Italian and other Romance languages. Her subsequent work spanned many topics within generative syntax on Romance languages and English, including its interfaces with intonation, morphology, and other areas. She has worked in syntax, phonetics, phonology, morphology, historical and comparative linguistics, Romance studies, structure of American Sign Language, poetics, writing for ESL students, and mathematical and linguistic analysis of folk dance.

Her publications in linguistics include Syntactic argumentation (with Emily Rando). (Washington, DC: Georgetown Univ. Press, 1979), Syntax: Theory and Problems (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993), Linguistics: An introduction  (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996), Humour in sign languages: The linguistic underpinnings (with Rachel Sutton-Spence) (Dublin: Trinity Press, 2009), and L'animale parlante ("The speaking animal") (2004), written with Marina Nespor, along with dozens of articles in the scholarly journals.

In 2015, she was inducted as a Fellow of the Linguistic Society of America.

Writing career
Although Napoli always had a love of writing, she decided not to pursue it as a career in early life. Her professional writing career began with the publication of her first book, The Hero of Barletta, in 1988. Napoli's novels tackle real-world problems children of any age may face, including family hardships, anxiety, phobias, and illness. As explained in a 2012 TED Talk, Napoli finds it important that children read stories about real-life problems they may face, to help comfort those who are experiencing similar difficulties.

Her children's books have been translated into many languages, including different sign languages. Many of her children's books are retellings of fairy tales, including The Magic Circle, Crazy Jack, Spinners, Zel, Breath, Bound, Beast, and The Wager for older children, and The Prince of the Pond, Ugly, and Mogo the Third Warthog for younger children. Other children's stories are historical fiction based in Italy, including Daughter of Venice, For the Love of Venice, and The Smile. Napoli has won numerous awards for her work, including the Golden Kite Award given by the Society of Children’s Book Writers and Illustrators (for Stones in Water, and honor book Breath), the Sydney Taylor Award given by the Association of Jewish Libraries (for Stones in Water, and, honor book, The King of Mulberry Street and the Parents' Choice Gold Award (for Alligator Bayou and Silver awards for North and The King of Mulberry Street).

Work with Deaf communities
In the early 2000s, Donna Jo Napoli began a program of research on sign languages and developed connections within the Deaf community.

Napoli has contributed to linguistic research on sign languages, including the publication of the book Primary movement in sign languages in 2011.

Combining her interest in language and literature, Napoli has collaborated with others to create bimodal bilingual e-books for hearing parents to read to their deaf children. These are ebooks and videos that are both conveyed in oral language, and conveyed in sign language in a video. Languages represented in this project include American Sign Language, Brazilian Sign Language, Fijian Sign Language, Korean Sign Language, Irish Sign Language, Nepali Sign Language, Swedish Sign Language, and others. The books are translated into the oral language relevant for each signed language.

Young Adult novels

 * The Magic Circle, 1993 Dutton Penguin, 1995 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * Zel, 1996 Dutton Penguin, 1998 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * Song of the Magdalene, 1996 Scholastic, 1998 (Paperback), 2004 Simon & Schuster (Paperback)
 * Stones in Water, 1997, 1999 (Paperback) Dutton Penguin
 * For the Love of Venice, 1998, 2000 (Paperback) Delacorte Press
 * Sirena, 1998, 2000 (Paperback) Scholastic
 * Spinners, 1999, 2001 (Paperback) Dutton Penguin
 * Crazy Jack, 1999, 2001 (Paperback) Delacorte Press
 * Beast, 2000, 2002 (Paperback) Simon & Schuster
 * Daughter of Venice, 2002, 2003 (Paperback) Delacorte Press
 * The Great God Pan, 2003, 2005 (Paperback) Delacorte Press
 * Breath, 2003, 2005 (Paperback) Simon & Schuster
 * North, 2004, 2005 (Paperback) Greenwillow
 * Bound, 2004, 2006 Simon & Schuster
 * The King of Mulberry Street, 2005, 2007 (Paperback) Delacorte Press
 * Fire in the Hills, 2006, 2008 (Paperback) Dutton Press
 * Hush: An Irish Princess' Tale, 2007, 2008 (Paperback) Simon & Schuster
 * The Smile, 2008, 2009 (Paperback) Dutton Press
 * Alligator Bayou, 2009, 2010 (Paperback) Random House
 * The Wager, 2010, 2014 (Paperback) Henry Holt and Company
 * Skin, 2013 Skyscape
 * Storm, 2014 Simon & Schuster
 * Hidden: An Irish Princess' Tale, 2014 Paula Wiseman Books
 * Dark Shimmer, 2015 Random House

Elementary- and middle-school novels

 * Soccer Shock, 1991 Dutton Penguin, 1993 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * The Prince of the Pond, 1992 Dutton Penguin, 1994 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * When the Water Closes over my Head, 1994 Dutton Penguin, 1996 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * Shark Shock, 1994 Dutton Penguin, 1997 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * The Bravest Thing, 1995 Dutton Penguin, 1997 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * Jimmy, the Pickpocket of the Palace, 1995 Dutton Penguin, 1997 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * On Guard, 1997 Dutton Penguin, 1999 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * Trouble on the Tracks, 1998 Scholastic
 * Changing Tunes, 1998 Dutton Penguin, 2000 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * Shelley Shock, 2000 Dutton Penguin, 2002 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * Three Days, 2001 Dutton Penguin, 2003 Puffin Books (Paperback)
 * Gracie, the Pixie of the Puddle, 2004 Dutton Penguin
 * Sly the Sleuth and the Pet Mysteries, 2005 Dial Press, 2007 Scholastic (Paperback)
 * Ugly, 2006, 2008 (Paperback) Hyperion Books
 * Sly the Sleuth and the Sports Mysteries, 2006 Dial Press
 * Sly the Sleuth and the Food Mysteries, 2007 Dial Press
 * Mogo, the Third Warthog, 2008 Hyperion Books
 * Sly the Sleuth and the Code Mysteries, 2009 Dial Press
 * Lights On The Nile, 2011 HarperCollins
 * Treasury of Greek Mythology: Classic Stories of Gods, Goddesses, Heroes & Monsters, 2011 National Geographic
 * Treasury of Egyptian Mythology: Classic Stories of Gods, Goddesses, Monsters & Mortals, 2013 National Geographic
 * Treasury of Norse Mythology: Stories Of Intrigue, Trickery, Love & Revenge, 2015 National Geographic
 * Tales From the Arabian Nights: Stories of Adventure, Magic, Love, and Betrayal, 2016 National Geographic
 * Treasury of Bible Stories, 2019 National Geographic
 * Treasury of Magical Tales From Around the World, 2021 National Geographic
 * Words to Make a Friend, 2021 Random House Studio

The Angelwings Series
Published by Simon & Schuster 1999-2001

 * Friends Everywhere
 * Little Creatures
 * On Her Own
 * One Leap Forward
 * Give and Take
 * No Fair!
 * April Flowers
 * Playing Games
 * Lies and Lemons
 * Running Away
 * Know-It-All
 * New Voices
 * Left Out
 * Happy Holidays
 * Partners
 * Hang In There

Picture books and early readers

 * The Hero of Barletta, Illustrations by Dana Gustafson, Carolrhoda Books, 1988
 * Albert, Illustrations by Jim LaMarche, Harcourt, 2001
 * How Hungry are You?, Illustrations by Amy Walrod, Simon & Schuster, 2001
 * Rocky, the Cat who Barks, Illustrations by Tamara Petrosino, Dutton Children's Books, 2002
 * Flamingo Dream, Illustrated by Cathie Felstead, Greenwillow, 2002
 * Hotel Jungle, Illustrations by Kenneth J. Spengler, Mondo Publishing 2004
 * Pink Magic, Illustrations by Chad Cameron, Clarion Books, 2005
 * Bobby the Bold, Illustrations by Ard Hoyt, Dial Books for Young Readers, 2006
 * The Wishing Club: A Story About Fractions, Illustrations by Anna Currey, Henry Holt and Company, 2007
 * Corkscrew Counts: A Story About Multiplication, Illustrations by Anna Currey, Henry Holt and Company, 2008
 * Ready to Dream, Illustrations by Bronwyn Bancroft, Bloomsbury USA, 2009
 * The Earth Shook: A Persian Tale Illustrations by Gabi Swiatkowska Hyperion Books, 2009
 * Handy Stories to Read and Sign, Illustrations by Maureen Klusza, Gallaudet University Press, 2009
 * Mama Miti: Wangari Maathai and the Trees of Kenya, Illustrations by Kadir Nelson, Simon & Schuster, 2010
 * The Crossing, Illustrations by Jim Madsen, Simon & Schuster, 2011
 * A Single Pearl, Illustrations by Jim LaMarche, Hyperion Books, 2013
 * Hands & Hearts, Illustrations by Amy Bates, Abrams Books, 2014

 * As Night Falls: Creatures That Go Wild After, Illustrations by Felicita Sala, Random House Studio, 2023

eBooks

 * Hang In There, 2015
 * Left Out, 2015
 * Partners, 2015
 * Happy Holidays, 2015
 * Know-It-All, 2015
 * No Fair!, 2015
 * Playing Games, 2015
 * April Flowers, 2015
 * One Leap Forward, 2015
 * Give And Take, 2015
 * On Her Own, 2015
 * Song Of The Magdalene, 2015
 * Friends Everywhere, 2015
 * Little Creatures, 2015

title: Donna Jo Napoli


text:
Donald James Cowan

Donald James Cowan (January 3, 1883 – January 14, 1964) was a Canadian lawyer and politician. He represented Port Arthur—Thunder Bay in the House of Commons of Canada.

Born in Drumbo, Blenheim Township, Oxford County, Ontario, Cowan was the son of James D. Cowan and Elizabeth Taylor. Educated in Galt, at the University of Toronto and Osgoode Law School, he established a law practice in Port Arthur, Ontario, in 1908. In 1912, Cowan married Edith Ruby Anderson. He served three years 1913–1915 as an alderman and two years as mayor 1916–1917. Subsequently, he was city solicitor from January 1919 to November 1934. Cowan was appointed Crown attorney for Thunder Bay District, Ontario, in November 1925. In 1928, he was named King's Counsel. He was elected to the House of Commons as a Conservative in September 1926 and again in 1930. During his two terms in Parliament, he was a member of a select committee appointed to study possible amendments and changes to the British North America Act and promoted a Seaway treaty with the United States. In July 1935 he was rewarded by Prime Minister R. B. Bennett with the judgeship of Brant County, Ontario, only the third judge of that county since 1853. Cowan died in Brantford, Ontario, in 1964.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Donald James Cowan


text:
Talk:Dole Pineapple

from VfD:

Relatively sure that this is a redundant entry for Dole_Food_Company, but not 100%. Made it VFD instead of making it a redirect because I wasn't sure, hope thats the right action. 'Redirect' or 'Keep' ? Chaz 04:37, Dec 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * Just make it a redirect. If it isn't already in Dole Food Company, it should be.  Will make it a redirect myself.  Geogre 15:51, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

end moved discussion

title: Talk:Dole Pineapple


text:
Piper PA-44 Seminole

The Piper PA-44 Seminole is an American twin-engined light aircraft manufactured by Piper Aircraft.

The PA-44 is a development of the Piper Cherokee single-engined aircraft and is primarily used for multi-engined flight training.

The Seminole has been built in three production runs; from 1979 to 1982, 1989 to 1990, and continuously since 1995.

Design and development
The first production Seminoles are equipped with two 180 hp (135 kW) Lycoming O-360-E1A6D engines. The right-hand engine is a Lycoming LO-360-E1A6D variant, which turns in the opposite direction to the left-hand engine. This feature eliminates the critical engine and makes the aircraft more controllable in the event that an engine needs to be shut down or fails.

The first prototype Seminole made its maiden flight in May 1976 and the type was publicly announced on February 21, 1978. The Seminole was first certified on March 10, 1978, and introduced as a 1979 model year in late 1978. Gross weight is 3800 lbs (1723 kg).

Later production Seminoles were built with Lycoming O-360-A1H6 engines.

The PA-44-180T Turbo Seminole version was certified on November 29, 1979. It features two turbocharged 180 hp (135 kW) Lycoming TO-360-E1A6D engines, which offer a significant improvement in performance at high density altitude. The Turbo Seminole had its takeoff gross weight raised to 3925 lb (1780 kg), while the landing weight remained at 3800 lbs (1723 kg).

The PA-44 features a high T-tail similar to the T-tailed Arrow IV. The Seminole is visually similar to the Beechcraft Duchess.

Production of both versions of the Seminole was stopped in 1982, after 361 Seminoles and 87 Turbo Seminoles had been built. Production of the normally aspirated PA-44-180 restarted in 1988. Changes were limited to modifications to the aircraft's electrical systems and instrumentation. Production was stopped again in 1990 after 29 more aircraft had been delivered owing to Piper's financial problems. Production restarted again in 1995.

Variants

 * Normally aspirated version powered by two Lycoming O-360-E1A6D or two O-360-A1H6 engines.
 * Normally aspirated version powered by two Lycoming O-360-E1A6D or two O-360-A1H6 engines.

 * PA-44-180T Turbo Seminole
 * Turbocharged version powered by two Lycoming TO-360-E1A6D engines.

 * PA-44 Seminole DX
 * A proposed diesel-powered variant powered by two Continental Motors CD-170 engines.

Civil
The PA-44 is popular with air charter companies and flight schools, and is operated by private individuals and companies.

Military

 * Royal Jordanian Air Force
 * Peruvian Air Force
 * Peruvian Air Force
 * Peruvian Air Force

title: Piper PA-44 Seminole


text: User talk:68.2.179.85

title: User talk:68.2.179.85


text:
St Cuthbert's College

St Cuthbert's College can refer to different educational institutions that are named after Saint Cuthbert. These include:

 * St Cuthbert's College, Auckland, an independent, Presbyterian-based, day and boarding school for girls, located in Epsom, Auckland, New Zealand
 * St Cuthbert's College, Ushaw, a former name of Ushaw College, a former Roman Catholic seminary and licensed hall of residence of the University of Durham
 * St Cuthbert's College, Worksop, a former name of Worksop College, England
 * St Cuthbert's Society, one of sixteen collegiate bodies within the University of Durham

title: St Cuthbert's College


text:
Talk:Sharon Township, Pennsylvania

Some good links for more information on this area: *- Disscusses the difference between Townships, bouroughs, and settlements in early Pennsylvania

title: Talk:Sharon Township, Pennsylvania


text:
User talk:ObsessiveTougaFan

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! -℘yrop (talk) 04:40, Dec 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

title: User talk:ObsessiveTougaFan


text:
Talk:Hall-effect thruster

Reference to the Hall Effect
There is no reference in the article as to why the Hall Effect Thruster is so named. IMO there should be a reference to the Hall Effect and a link to the Hall Effect article in Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_effect). Tony (talk) 13:38, 21 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Now the Operation section says "This orbital rotation of the electrons is a circulating Hall current, and it is from this that the Hall thruster gets its name. " (with no reference). Hall effect does not mention Hall current. - Rod57 (talk) 01:22, 19 September 2020 (UTC)

Force?
In the intro, it says it generates about 1N of force. Later, it says it only typically produces 80mN of force...

Is one of these more correct, or are we dealing with different contexts? Please clarify 192.91.147.35 (talk) 15:44, 16 April 2010 (UTC)

Disputed
"HETs use the Hall effect to trap electrons and then use the electrons to ionize propellant, efficiently accelerate the ions to produce thrust, and neutralize the ions in the plume." This implies that the electrons that are trapped by the Hall effect neutralize the ions in the plume, which is not the case. The neutralizing electrons come from an external cathode, usually a hollow cathode or Lab6 cathode.

"the electrons essentially pull the whole thruster toward the ions and thus accelerate the spacecraft" -- I would reconsider this... it implies that the spacecraft would be accelerating towards the exhaust plume which is not the case. The spacecraft is accelerated away from the exhaust plume because of the momentum transfered to the exhaust.
 * I agree - I came to this page to present the same question. From http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/H/Halleffectthruster.htm : The axial electric field developed between the electrodes interacts with the radial magnetic field to produce, by the so-called Hall effect, a current in the azimuthal direction. This current, in turn, reacts against the magnetic field to generate a force on the propellant in the downstream axial direction. So it is the current generated by the rotating electron cloud that produces a solenoidal magnetic field that ...? - Leonard G. 03:26, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Also, the ions are not unaffected by the magnetic field within the device, but as they are heavy relative to the electrons they would not form the spiraling cloud as do the electrons (but within that field thay should take a helical path). The solenoidal nature of the magnetic field from the rotating electrons should at most tend to focus the ions while the acceleration exterior to the device would be from the repulsive force between the electrons and the ions.- Leonard G. 03:39, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

So fix it! 199.67.140.84 13:48, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

Ageeing with the dispute, thrust is momentum transferred to the exhaust. Please let us know, too, if circulating electrons are performing the ionization as the Xe enters at the anode? May I suggest that one invokes a Lorentz-force argument to explain the electron orbits, rather than the somewhat cryptic ExB? 80.167.170.174 21:42, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

The original claim that "the electrons essentially pull the whole thruster toward the ions and thus accelerate the spacecraft" is in fact correct. It was not quite clear from the original discussion but the spacecraft is pulled toward the ions which are upstream of the "virtual grid" of electrons (i.e. still inside the discharge channel), which would accelerate the spacecraft in the correct direction-- away from the exhaust plume. However, the discussion of exactly where and how the force is applied to the spacecraft can be quite confusing to someone wanting a general description of a Hall thruster so it might be best left unsaid.

problem with Image link
The image link at the begininning is not showing right. I don't know enough to fix it myself--not an obvious typo in the syntax.

Private U.S. firms making a hall thruster tugboat
Recently announced, the two private firms Andrews Space and SpaceDev are developing a hall thruster tugboat named SmallTug. It will transport cargo and satellites to the L1 Lagrange point near the moon. Anyway, I see that the ESA is represented, so I thought that the U.S. mission deserved some representation. Can we add this as an external link?

(or perhaps Micro-X Spacecraft Bus http://www.andrews-space.com/content-main.php?subsection=MTA3) - U.S.Citizen

I agree with the concensus above. Newton got it right once agaian. The acceleration of the vehicle is equal and in opposition to the average acceleration of the deionized xenon exhaust. - U.S.Citizen.

 * Did you mean to put this in the "Disputed" section? You can add comments to a section by clicking the "edit" link at the top of the section. —Keenan Pepper 16:31, 10 September 2006 (UTC)

Consistent naming
I propose consistently using "Hall thruster" (no cap T) throughout the article. Any disagreement? Sdsds 22:54, 24 March 2007 (UTC)
 * How about changing the article title to reflect this? The article is called Hall effect thruster, whereas it should be Hall thruster to be self consistent. Hall effect thruster should be maintained as a redirect. 59.167.18.132 14:34, 28 August 2007 (UTC)
 * I'm glad the article is still called Hall-effect thruster as that is surely the proper name. 'Hall thruster' seems a lazy and misleading contraction, as Hall discovered the effect rather than inventing the thruster ? - Rod57 (talk) 01:29, 19 September 2020 (UTC)

Diagram seems incorrect
Unless this is a different version of the hall effect thruster or something, the outer coil looks wrong to me.

See:

The outer coils should go around the outside of the magnetic material.

Also see: (although less clear, the windings aren't topologically the same as our diagram).

Also the wiki diagram doesn't show the radial field lines at all.WolfKeeper 18:41, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

The whole point is that the outer ring needs to be a north pole, and the inner ring a south pole (or vice versa) to get a radial field, that's not really what our diagram shows.WolfKeeper 18:44, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

Glowing discharge channels in picture?
I've seen a lot of Hall thrusters and I've never seen them appear to glow as they do in the image of the Russian SPT's. Is there blacklight illumination in that picture, were the thrusters running on some kind of bizarre luminescent fuel, or is this just a case of some bad photoshopping?

The image is from NASA, and those are real thrusters, but the lighting arrangement is just too strange. I'd vote for some more normal images to replace it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 141.212.57.239 (talk) 17:02, 10 September 2009 (UTC)

New tiny 2000-3500s thrusters for CubeSats

 * http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2012/microthrusters-could-propel-small-satellites-0817.html
 * http://web.mit.edu/aeroastro/labs/spl/research_ieps.htm

Someone should add those. In the hoped-for replenishable propellant (e.g. comet ices or Titan nitrogen) future, replacing the element is going to be a useful tradeoff with specific impulse, which means tiny is great. 71.212.250.193 (talk) 07:48, 18 August 2012 (UTC)

Consumption question
Could somebody clarify the consumption rate for Xenon during thrusting? That really is not clear in the "operation" section. Thanks! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 166.102.136.6 (talk) 14:22, 9 May 2017 (UTC)

Could mention X3 hall-effect thruster in development
Could mention X3 hall-effect thruster in development etc ? - Rod57 (talk) 01:11, 19 September 2020 (UTC)

Inconsistent use of Hall-effect thruster / Hall thruster
The first paragraph tells us that it is called a Hall-effect thruster, and mentions that it's sometimes called by other, similar terms such as Hall thruster. After the opening section however, almost the entire rest of the page (including two section titles) uses the term Hall thruster. Wouldn't it be better if all instances of 'Hall thruster' (after the first) were fixed up to be 'Hall-effect thruster'?

Out of Date
This wiki is rather out of date now and as mentioned previously is missing private companies that have been researching or testing them. 2A02:C7F:501E:3B00:900D:D18A:4E1E:404D (talk) 06:32, 7 December 2021 (UTC)

Are wall-less Hall thrusters the same as external discharge thrusters
talks of "wall-less Hall thrusters". Are they the same, just from a different maker ? - Rod57 (talk) 14:30, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

That ref also talks about benefits of a segmented electrode, eg. in reducing "breathing mode oscillation". - Rod57 (talk) 14:32, 29 December 2021 (UTC)

Krypton
In the section on Krypton, I note: [...ionization potential...] This means that thrusters utilizing krypton need to expend a slightly higher energy per molecule to ionize, which reduces efficiency. Additionally, krypton is a lighter molecule, so the unit mass per ionization energy is further reduced compared to xenon. Referring to "molecules" of Xenon or Krypton strikes me as odd, usually that term is reserved for multi-atom compounds. If nobody objects or beats me to it, I'll change that to atoms in a few days. Tarl N. ( discuss ) 03:55, 16 May 2022 (UTC)
 * However, these noble gases are still ionized during their time in the thrusters. It is as if the original editor thought of them as molar objects (one mole being 6.02214076×10^23 ions), after which they "return" to a neutral state (where would the electrons come from? There must be a distribution of velocities?). --Ancheta Wis    (talk  | contribs) 11:37, 16 May 2022 (UTC)
 * See Ionization energy : The unit conversion is 1eV = 96.485 kJ per mol)
 * The editor thinks in eV. I am replacing the instances of "molecule" to "ion" --Ancheta Wis   (talk  | contribs) 11:37, 16 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks, that's better than what I was planning. Tarl N. ( discuss ) 19:34, 16 May 2022 (UTC)

Cathode in diagram
I hope I am doing this correctly as it is my first comment in Wikipedia. It would really help to understand the function of the Hall thruster if the diagram would clearly label the cathode. I'm a physicist and go to the diagram first, to see if I can make sense of it. There is a label "cathode neutralizer" but it is not clear if that is the same as the cathode. Jdibbl (talk) 13:39, 27 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hall-effect thruster


text:
Quaudiophiliac

Quaudiophiliac (styled QuAUDIOPHILIAc) is a compilation album featuring music by Frank Zappa, released in DVD-Audio format by Barking Pumpkin Records in 2004. It compiles recordings he made while experimenting with quadraphonic, or four-channel, sound in the 1970s. Zappa prepared quadraphonic mixes of a number of his 1970s albums, with both Over-Nite Sensation (1973) and Apostrophe (') (1974) being released in discrete quadraphonic on Zappa's DiscReet Records label.

Produced by Zappa, and completed by his son, Dweezil Zappa, Quaudiophiliac includes several previously unreleased works in this format. The recordings date from as early as 1970, with "Chunga Basement", a version of the title track from Chunga's Revenge (1970). Also included are three tracks from the 1975 Royce Hall, UCLA concerts with the Abnuceals Emuukha Electric Orchestra which would become Orchestral Favorites (1979); plus a quad remix of a segment of Zappa's 1968 musique concrète masterpiece Lumpy Gravy.

Musicians

 * Frank Zappa – guitar, vocals, arranger, conductor
 * Napoleon Murphy Brock – vocals
 * Adrian Belew – guitar
 * George Duke – keyboards
 * Andre Lewis – keyboards
 * Ian Underwood – keyboards
 * Tommy Mars – keyboards, vocals
 * Don Preston - Minimoog
 * Max Bennett – bass guitar
 * Alex Dmochowski – bass guitar
 * Roy Estrada – bass guitar
 * Tom Fowler – bass guitar
 * Patrick O'Hearn – bass guitar
 * Terry Bozzio – drums, vocals
 * Aynsley Dunbar – drums
 * Chester Thompson – drums
 * Ed Mann – percussion
 * Mike Altschul – bass clarinet, bass flute, piccolo, bass saxophone, tenor saxophone
 * Sal Marquez – trumpet, flugelhorn
 * Billy Byers – trombone, baritone horn
 * Kenny Shroyer – trombone, baritone horn

Production

 * Frank Zappa – producer, engineer, mixing
 * Dweezil Zappa – producer, engineer
 * Jeff Skillen – executive producer
 * Gail Zappa – executive producer, art direction, photography
 * Art Kelm – technical support
 * Richard Landers – technical support
 * Fred Maher – technical support, artist relations
 * Stephen Marcussen – mastering
 * Jeff Levison – production supervisor
 * Jaime Ramírez – production coordination
 * Joe Travers – vault research
 * John "Buddy" Williams – photography, cover photo
 * Keith Lawler – package layout, design, photography

title: Quaudiophiliac


text:
Norðurljós

Norðurljós was an Icelandic mass media corporation. It owned the television stations Stöð 2, Sýn and PoppTíVí, several radio stations, including Bylgjan and the daily newspapers Fréttablaðið and DV. All of those were sold to the telecommunications company Og fjarskipti, and split into 365 ljósvakamiðlar (TV and radio stations) and 365 prentmiðlar (newspapers). It also used to own the stores Skífan, Office 1 Superstore (in Iceland), Sony Center Stores (in Iceland) and BT and the cinemas Smárabíó and Regnboginn, which were sold earlier to Dagur group.

title: Norðurljós


text:
Talk:Hate group/Archive 2

Hate groups and NRMs is a minor issue
So the section should be correspondingly relatively small. I worked hard to make it that way, so please do not add content to the section hate groups and NRMs unless there is a very good reason for it. I do not think that Phatgrrl had a good reason to expand it. Andries 16:32, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Of course you worked hard ... It would only be fair if you dsiclose your afdfiliation with trhe ex-premie group. Or do you want me to do give libnks to te conversatoons you have with them about how to "fix" this aritcle? The reason I expanded the aritcle is that I think your affiloiation wityh the ex-premie group does not give you the right to edit them "out" of the aritcvle. Disgraceful behaviour. They are a  hate group in my view and the view of others, and that has to be told in the atricle. --Phat grrl 16:46, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I did not edit the ex-premie group out of the article. I only ensured that the NRM controversy is given the place it deserves in the article, a small one, which should stay that way. And feel free to link to my public conversation with ex-premies about this here if it is related to the changes you want to suggest to the article. Andries 16:52, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * You are still not disclosing yiuor affiliations with the expremies. That it unfair and dihoenst. You shuold have done so before you editi their name out of the list of hate groups.
 * The article needs more wortk. I agree, and expansion on other mainstream areas of hate groups. Work on that but do noit remove the sexction about the hate-group ex-premie. --Phat grrl 16:58, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Phatgrrl, the fact that Elan Vital calls the ex-premies a hate groups had already been mentioned. I did not remove that. This does not deserve more than just mentioning. Who else apart from Elan Vital and, some, not even all, current students of Prem Rawat consider the ex-premies a hate group? This is just a family feud and the articles on Maharaji should digress on the family feud, not here in a general article about hate groups. I have to admit that I am partially responsible for the the relatively big section on NRMs but we should not be made worse by expanding it without a good reason. Andries 17:06, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * yiou are masterful at avoinding the issue here. You are affiliated to the ex-premies and promoting their points ofd view in wikipedia. You discuss with them sdtrategies to put their behaviour in best light. If it is a falmilty feud what the heck are you doing in their "family". They are useing you dont' you see it? the section about nrms explains trhat many ant-cultits use bigortry and hate to diminish the freedoms of others. BIGOTRY=HATE. I am shocked you don't see that. llike it or not, they are a hate grpup by the standars presxented in thsi ariticle. I am not asking to expand the nrm section. Expnad the other sections if you like, thanks--Phat grrl 17:17, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * There were only two non former followers on their forum i.e. Wim Haan who had written a scholarly article about the DLM in 1981 and me. The rest are all former followers. Besides I do not think that you have written in a NPOV way. No, I do not think that anti-cult activism is about bigotry. It is about offering people the possibility of making an informed choice by disclosing information that the groups themselves generally not disclose. Andries 17:26, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Yiuo keep avoiding the issue. Anyway, I don;t care to say any more. Your behaviour speaks for itslelf. Yiu have provedn that youi avoid talking resposnibilty for your covert actions in helping the expremies withot disclosing. your affiliation.
 * Anti-cult activism is about bigorty plain ans simple. Like it or not. What you thinkl is of no consequence, as you are an anti-cultist youreself. --Phat grrl 18:06, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * And please don't thinlk for a minute that I am disavdantaged because of my dislexia. I may not write well but I mean what I say. --Phat grrl 18:08, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Phat? Phat means Buddha in Vietnam.Very interesting. So you are the angry Buddha girl? Doesn't matter anyway. to make every person that exits a cult and speaks about that a level III apostate, make every activity against a cult some kind of crime in general, may be a tactic you prefer to follow, but is IMHO an extremely primitive attitude. this tactic is of course not your invention, it is well documented in the guidelines of scientology for example. there you can find that external critics that do not know of any internal activities are     relatively easy to handle, but the real enemies are those that have been part of the organisation and can reveal facts of the internal structure. please note, nobody here uses the term "hate" as often as your kind. Thomas h 09:22, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Removal of Ex-premies as a Hate Group
After posting this I will remove all mention of ex-premies (former followers of Prem Rawat) as a hate group in this article. Before anyone considers reverting my changes, they should consider my reasons for making them as listed here:-

 * The subject of Hate Groups is a serious subject and seriously impacts people's lives. Violence and fear resulting from racism and religious intolerance threaten communities, countries, and even global stability. This article should focus on the groups that properly belong in the category of 'hate group' as understood in normal language. If the definition in the article allows other groups that are clearly not hate groups to be included, then the definition is wrong. The subject of hate groups should not be belittled by allowing the article to become a battlefield in a minor online squabble between followers and former followers of a little known indian guru.

 * The only groups that claim that ex-premies are a hate group are Elan Vital and other followers of Prem Rawat in anonymous websites. Giving Elan Vital's claims credibility, by including them in this article, would mean that Philip Morris, Microsoft, Monsanto, Saddam Hussein, or any other public figure or organisation could discredit their critics on Wikipedia by claiming they are a hate group just as Elan Vital have done. Clearly this would be absurd. Elan Vital's clearly biased POV that ex-premies are a hate group is already included in the Prem Rawat criticism article, and has no scholarly value to be included elsewhere.

 * Almost all the justification for ex-premies being a hate group given on Elan Vital's sites is presented without any supporting evidence. Even where supporting evidence is given, the allegations do not by any definition justify the label 'hate group'.

 * Accusing a group of being a 'hate group' is a very serious allegation, and needs to be backed up by independent scholarly sources before being allowed in Wikipedia. Elan Vital does not constitute an independent scholarly source. Ex-premie.org is linked throughout the internet as an important resource on Prem Rawat/Elan Vital/Divine Light Mission. Apart from Elan Vital and anonymous followers' websites, none of these linking sites refer to ex-premies as a hate group. --John Brauns 23:09, 27 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * The fact described in the article is not that the ex-premies are a hate group. Let the reader decide that. What is described is the fact that they have been labeled as such by the organization that is the target of their criticism. That fact is of enough interest to warrant an inclusion in this article, in particular as it is presented as an example that corroborates the thesis on "internet terrorism" presented by the CESNUR article. Please note that this section of the article presents both side of the coin: anti-cult advocates labelling some NRM's "hate groups" and viceversa.
 * Please also note that the section starts with the follwing text: The classification of other groups as a hate group is more controversial and little or no consensus has developed as to whether political, religious or anti-religious movements deserve the label "hate group".

 * Very good point - if no such consensus has been established, and in the case of ex-premies, only the target of their criticism is labelling ex-premies as a hate group, then this article should focus on groups where a consensus has been established, and ex-premies should be discussed in the Prem Rawat - criticism article. --John Brauns 23:56, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I will revert and NPOV the lastest edits.--Zappaz 00:09, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Zappaz, you have not answered my point that it is absurd to repeat serious allegations, even in an NPOV manner, without any undependent corroboration. By your logic any organisation can call their critics a hate group and include that allegation in this article. You say the fact that Elan Vital call ex-premies a hate group is of interest. To whom? Anyone reading this article should expect a serious analysis of genuine hate groups, not repeated attempts by a religious cult to discredit their critics. I will remove the references until you can provide independent corroboration for this serious allegation. --John Brauns 08:00, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes John, if an organization call its critics a hate group in their literature, it would be OK to include that fact in this article, provided there are references. For example, Anton Hein considers Scientology a hate group, and this is stated in the article. --64.81.88.140 16:19, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * True, but there is a difference. Both Anton Hein and Sientology are well known. Andries 16:23, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Zappaz, please note that allegations and opinions have to be attributed. Weasel words like "Some say" are to be avoided according to the guidelines. Andries 00:33, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * You are right, Andries. I removed the text and added a wikilink about Cyberstalking instead (an article that I contributed to back in September). --Zappaz 00:45, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Zappaz, I do not understand why more than one sentence should be paid to this dispute about an obscure Indian guru in this article. I have to admit that I am to blame for mentioning the Elan Vital dispute here too but in hindsight, more than one sentence seems more than enough. Andries 00:49, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * One sentence is too much for such a serious, uncorroborated allegation.--John Brauns 08:00, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * As I said above, as long as we call this an uncorroborated allegation we are OK. You cannot censor the text because you don't agree with it. Please read NPOV. --Zappaz 16:09, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * John Brauns did not say that he deleted it because he did not like it. He said that he deleted it because he pointed to the facts that it was insignificant and that only some followers of an obscure guru consider the premies a hate group, not agreed with by anyone else. Considering these facts, I think it is crazy to spend more than one sentence to this family feud in a general article about hate groups. Andries 16:17, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I am afraid that we come to disagree yet again: I find the reference worthy of inclusion as I have expressed above. Let's work together on the rest of the article. I agree that it needs development. Go have a good night sleep and let's continue working on this tomorrow :)--Zappaz 00:55, 28 Nov

2004 (UTC)

I have explained myself quite clearly here already. I can understand John Braun's disgust about being labeled as belonging to a hate group, but that does not change anything. The ex-premies have been labeled profusely as such by the target of their criticism, and this explosive cocktail of apostasy, vitriolic criticism, cyberstalking tactics, internet terrorism against NRMs and the NRMs reaction (defense?) against that is definitively an area of interest for this article. --Zappaz 16:33, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Zappaz, your characterisation of ex-premies is simply not true. May I ask why you are contributing to this article? It has been suggested that you have been professionally employed by followers of Prem Rawat to discredit ex-premies. It certainly seems odd that you are active on the Prem Rawat articles, and are keen to produce an article on 'hate groups'. May I ask, what is your area of expertise? --John Brauns 23:53, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * FYI, John, the editor that started this whole thing is Andries. Check the history. I am not discrediting anyone, and your accussations are unwarranted and frivolous. Please do not join others with these conspiracy theories. It does not help your case. --Zappaz 03:20, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * There is an Islamist group who thinks that the ADL is hate group. Do you think that that should be listed too? There are plenty of obscure groups who consider mainstream groups hate groups. Should they all be mentioned? Andries 16:47, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * I am afraid that given current NPOV policy, it will be OK to do so if propertly attributed. --Zappaz 17:10, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * So if I put up a website claiming that Wikipedia is a hate group, then I could include that allegation here (properly attributed of course)? Can't you see the absurdity of this? --John Brauns 23:53, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Zappaz, labeled profusely, yes, but only by Elan Vital. What if I label everyday the US government as a hate group and make a website. Will I then get a whole paragraph? Andries 16:41, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * This is not about an individual. What it is discussed in this section is NRM's and hate group tactics and the passionate discourse surrounding it. This is a societal aspect that needs to be covered in the article, and it is.
 * Andries, pls leave this behind and help me in developing a great article about hate groups. I have expanded on your initial expansion, so let us continue. --Zappaz 17:10, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I will bring the article again to request for comments again because the there is clearly too much disagreement. Andries 20:16, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Ex-Premies fit the agreed-upon description
Based on the foundational and nominative descriptor, specifically:
 * Dehumanizing or demonizing the target;
 * Conspiracy theories, possibly not well backed up or referenced;

There is little doubt that the Ex-Premies fit the bill. One need only take a walk through their forum 8 pages, the archives of their earlier forums, and their webpage at www.ex-premie.org to see that they have:

1) utterly dehumanized Elan Vital (insisting that it is a "cult" and referring to their "monitor, lawyers and keepers") instead of people;

 * Richard, you took me to task for not refuting the allegations in your post, so here goes. Calling Elan Vital a cult is not dehumanising or demonising them. EV is listed as a cult in almost all cult lists by experts in the field. Former followers of Rawat, upon leaving, realise we were in a cult - not because ex-premie.org says so, but because we let go of our belief system and know it to be true.--John Brauns 22:36, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

2) dehumanized Prem Rawat (insisting that he is personally responsible entirely for everything these people find objectionable) and similarly in a dehumanizing way, rationalizing the unsupported slander and intrusions into his private life. Rawat has undeniably become the focus for their obsession (see "house of Drek" pages).

 * Ex-premies have discussed the oh so human characteristics of Prem Rawat since they first started chatting about him. It is premies who assign super-human characteristics to him. --John Brauns 22:36, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

3) assert, without foundation, conspiracies left and right, assuming facts with no evidence other than "ad hoc ergo propter hoc" reasoning.

 * I have no idea what you are talking about here. What conspiracies? --John Brauns 22:36, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Moreover, one of their members, Tom Gubler, confessed to their agenda under oath. Although I have seen ex-premies insist that the affidavit was obtained under duress, they are dishonest in not admitting that the Court reviewed this withdrawal and explicitly rejected taht withdrawal. Moreover, this was never appealed. It is, as the lawyers say, "res juducata": a thing decided.

 * Tom Gubler has stated on oath that he signed that affidavit without reading it, as he was terrified his premie wife would come home and discover what he had done. I had never heard of Tom Gubler before this incident, and he had never heard of me. The only ex-premie Tom know was John Macgregor. --John Brauns 22:36, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

There is no reasonable doubt that much of the documented speech of the ex-premies is hateful, inciting violence, and encouraging others to the same. Many ex-premies pretend that the purpose of this speech is merely cathartic, and helps them deal with their feelings. However, this is also disingenuous, as many more postings in the forum archives make it clear that the goal is to convince people to leave the practice of Knowledge, to avoid Rawat, and to interfere with the ability of people to listen to and follow his message.

 * There is no evidence that any of the regular contributors to ex-premie.org or the online forums have ever incited hatred or violence. Our goal is to present information on Prem Rawat and if current or prospective followers wish to follow his teachings knowing the facts, then they are free to do so. Elan Vital's goal is to suppress the information we are making available, and this hate group accusation is part of their increasingly desparate agenda. --John Brauns 22:36, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

While they may feel justified in that feeling, they are stuck with the facts, and with the definition. Perhaps if they moved on with their lives, instead of focussing on something that allegedly left, they would not have the hate group label stick so badly. Richard G. 22:05, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)(lexy)

 * Richard, why don't you focus on the allegations against Prem Rawat rather than scouring the internet looking for more ways to attack ex-premies? You do know that a former senior officer in Elan Vital (still a premie) admitted that the allegations on ex-premie.org are true, don't you? --John Brauns 22:36, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Richard, does your own hatred know no bounds? Ex-premies do not hate premies. We were premies for many years, some of us very recently. We still have many friends who are premies. Ex-premie.org and the forums exist to help premies, not to incite hatred or violence. Calling ex-premies a hate group is absurd, and is clearly a tactic by some premies to discourage remaining premies from reading our sites. The allegation is not supported by any independent body, and should not be in this article. I will continue removing the references until this dispute is looked at by independent Wikipedia contributors. --John Brauns 23:31, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Furthermore, in our internet squabbles, many of the tactics of premies, including Elan Vital, towards ex-premies are the tactics of a hate group, but I would not stoop to portray Elan Vital as a hate group on ex-premie.org. A cult, yes, but the nmany independent cult experts also label Elan Vital as a cult. I would like to invite independent reviewers to comment on this, and request a truce until they have done so. --John Brauns 23:47, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

John, you never once refute a single thing said above. All you do is meekly say "you don't hate premies." That is not nearly enough. (Lexy) Richard G. 02:50, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Lexy, what makes you an expert on hate-groups? What educational background do you have to define a hate-group? What evidence do you have (other than what appears on Elan Vital's website FAQs or on the One-Reality website) that substantiates calling Ex-premies a hate group? I noticed that you have also started to define what "Ex-premies" are in the article by the same name.  Ex-premies don't have an ideology, nor have ex-premies ever promoted violence against anyone (especially Prem Rawat and his family).  The individuals who use their names on the ex-premie forum have been especially diligent in making sure no one is allowed to issue personal threats against premies.

 * Given you have made these attempts to define what it means to have been a former follower of Rawat, I think I deserve an answer to these questions.

 * Thank you.
 * Another Ex-Premie 16:05, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

It is quite painful to see the level of denial demonstrated by the ex-premies posting here. Hate group or not, there is an evident agenda of hate visible to anyone willing to scratch the surface of the "sanititized" version of themselves they try to portray here. I mean, you have to blind not to see through that. A short collection of their so called "public service":
 * Inciting people via the Internet to drug and kidnap members of Maharaji's family.
 * Conducting physical assaults. Recently, Maharaji has received death threats once over the phone and once in person. There were also two attempts to assault him physically.
 * Inciting people to poison water at the IRCC Conference Centre near Brisbane during a convention.
 * Mounting campaigns of telephone calls and letter writing to the employers of Maharaji's students "warning" them that they employ "a member of a dangerous cult." This caused several of Maharaji's students to lose their jobs or have to close their business.
 * Filing formal complaints to professional regulatory bodies to have the law and psychology licences of Maharaji's students revoked. Fortunately, no regulatory body found any allegations worthy of formal investigation.
 * Calling the editors of newspapers publishing fair articles about Maharaji (at times up to 40 calls a day), intimidating them into recanting their articles.
 * Harassing by telephone and Internet the author of academic articles about Maharaji, emailing his supervisor to have him rescind a fair article about Maharaji.
 * Stalking the venues where Elan Vital holds public meetings, contacting the proprietors and flooding them with threats that there may be a demonstration. Then sending defamatory statements about Elan Vital to the proprietors.
 * Trying to learn what entities Elan Vital does business with, and then flooding those entities with "friendly warnings" about who Elan Vital "really" is. The hate group's goal is to get contracted business cancelled. One hate group member, a Vancouver-based criminal lawyer specialising in defending drug dealers and rapists, has repeatedly boasted of conducting similar harassment.
 * Publishing on the Internet the floor plans of Maharaji's house (where his wife and children reside), publishing his personal telephone number and encouraging people to call him.
 * Systematically calling the venues where Maharaji holds events, feeding them slanderous information and trying to cause them to cancel the event.
 * Publishing on the Internet details about the private lives and sexual preferences of students of Maharaji and registering these documents with Internet search engines so that people searching these people's names would immediately read this private information.
 * Spoofing an email address of the Elan Vital lawyer in Australia and sending thousands of messages to colleagues and professionals, with the purpose of harassing this laywer and his firm

 * It is easy to list unsupported allegations, and even easier to do so anonymously. Perhaps you could give readers here a reason to take your largely bizarre accusations seriously. --John Brauns 00:07, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hate group/Archive 2


text:
Mechagodzilla

Mechagodzilla (メカゴジラ) is a fictional mecha character that first appeared in the 1974 film Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla. In its debut appearance, Mechagodzilla is depicted as an extraterrestrial villain, a robot created by alien invaders to confront and destroy Godzilla. In subsequent iterations, Mechagodzilla is usually depicted as a man-made robotic weapon designed to defend Japan against Godzilla and other kaiju. In all incarnations, the character is portrayed as a robotic doppelgänger of Godzilla with a vast array of high-tech weaponry. Along with King Ghidorah, Mechagodzilla is commonly considered to be an archenemy of Godzilla.

Development
Mechagodzilla was conceived in 1974 as a more serious villain than its immediate two predecessors, Gigan and Megalon, whose films were considered creative disasters. According to Tomoyuki Tanaka, Mechagodzilla was inspired by both Mechani-Kong from the previous Toho film King Kong Escapes and the robot anime genre, which was popular at the time. Effects director Teruyoshi Nakano also felt that a mechanical monster was cheaper to construct than the mutated animals Godzilla had previously faced. As the resulting Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla proved to be a greater critical success than previous 1970s Godzilla films, the character was revived in 1975's Terror of Mechagodzilla. The film's screenplay was based on the winning entry of a story-writing competition won by Yukiko Takayama, who continued the darker tone of the previous film by adding the subplot of Mechagodzilla being cybernetically connected to a young woman. Mechagodzilla's design remained largely unchanged from its previous appearance, though it was made to look thinner and more angular, with a darker sheen and an MG2 insignia emblazoned on its upper arms. The film's original draft was going to have Mechagodzilla destroy Tokyo utterly, though the destruction was cut down for budgetary reasons.

Mechagodzilla was brought back in 1993's Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II, as the success of Godzilla vs. Mothra and the popularity of its main antagonist Mothra spurred Toho into reintroducing familiar characters rather than inventing new ones. Originally, the new Mechagodzilla was to be named "Berserk", and was envisioned as being a much more organic Godzilla-like creature which would later turn on its creators after becoming infected with a computer virus which makes it self-aware. Berserk would subsequently absorb more and more machinery, to the point of degenerating into a mass of metal and wires, though this concept was rejected early in pre-production. As Mechagodzilla was intended to be a military defense weapon rather than an alien construct, the character was redesigned as looking sleeker and smoother. It was portrayed by suit actor Wataru Fukuda, and consisted of multiple separate elements which were worn like plate armor. Special effects artist Koichi Kawakita originally envisioned Mechagodzilla being able to split into aerial and terrestrial units, though this idea was scrapped in favor of the character merging with the flying battleship Garuda. The film was promoted through the children's program Adventure Godzilla-land, which portrayed Godzilla and Mechagodzilla as rival news anchors reporting on the events of the upcoming movie. Composer Akira Ifukube wrote a theme for Mechagodzilla incorporating a slow battle march with heavy percussion and pentatonic phrasing.

The decision to incorporate Mechagodzilla into the Millennium series was taken by producer Shōgo Tomiyama, who gave the general outline of what would become the story of Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla to Godzilla vs. Megaguirus director Masaaki Tezuka. Tezuka instructed his staff to research both cybernetics and DNA engineering in order to make the character scientifically plausible. Tezuka had initially wanted Mechagodzilla to be a much speedier robot than the one on film, envisioning it as becoming progressively more agile during its fight against Godzilla as the latter tore off its opponent's armaments. This incarnation of Mechagodzilla was deliberately shown being airlifted by carriers rather than flying directly into battle as the previous two incarnations had done, as Tezuka felt that it made little sense for Mechagodzilla to drain its energy in such a manner. Upon being asked why the Mechagodzilla suit wasn't painted with military camouflage colors, Tezuka answered that "Mechagodzilla doesn't need to hide." Tezuka had originally intended to have both Godzilla and Mechagodzilla die at the end of the film, but was forced to change this on the insistence of Toho managers, who felt that such an ending was too dark for a New Year movie release.

In the 2003 sequel Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S., creature designer Shinichi Wakasa used the same mold to create a redesigned Mechagodzilla, which was meant to look more weathered than its predecessor. According to production designer Shinki Nishikawa, several other changes were made to the Mechagodzilla design's head, chest and arms in order to make the character look less heroic and more machine-like. The robot's back unit was reduced in size and flipped upside down, and the head was made smaller. As the previous design's shoulder cannons were considered uneven and unsophisticated-looking because of their rectangular shape, special effects director Eiichi Asada made them more pentagonal. As the character was supposed to rely more on its forearm cannons than in the previous film, Nishikawa made them larger and more powerful looking.

For Godzilla vs. Kong, Mechagodzilla's design was inspired by the Generation 1 Transformers due to their "simplicity." Director Adam Wingard attempted to avoid the "complex" designs from the Michael Bay Transformers films. Writer Max Borenstein had originally written Mechagodzilla into Godzilla: King of the Monsters. However, director Michael Dougherty scrapped the character during development.

Arsenal
The Showa Mechagodzilla stands 50 m in height and weighs 40,000 metric tons. It is built from "space titanium", and is capable of launching missiles from its fingers, toes and knees, as well as firing Space Beams from its eyes and a Cross Attack Beam from its chest unit. It also possesses jets in its feet, allowing it to fly. Its head can spin 360°, and can form a force field capable of repelling and shocking opponents. The upgraded model featured in Terror of Mechagodzilla included revolving missiles, and was no longer vulnerable to decapitation, as its main computer was housed in an external power source. Once Mechagodzilla's head was removed, the machine was able to continue to fight, possessing a Head Controller capable of firing a concentrated laser with the same strength as its regular beams.

The Heisei Mechagodzilla stands at 120 m in height, weighs 150,000 metric tons, and is powered by a nuclear reactor which derives its energy from heavy hydrogen and helium-3 in pellet form. Its frame is coated in an armor made of synthetic diamond codenamed T-1, allowing the robot to resist and repel Godzilla's atomic breath, as well as absorb its power to energize its Plasma Grenade, an energy weapon housed in its abdomen. Additional armaments include Mega Buster ray fired from its mouth, Laser Cannons in its eyes, missiles fired from its shoulders and hips, jet propulsors on its back and behind its hips to fly and two harpoons known as the G-Crusher fired from its arms. The G-Crusher is capable of sending large amounts of electric current through the cables. The model is later combined with the flying battleship Garuda, thus allowing it to hover and adding two additional Maser Cannons to its arsenal.

Kiryu, the Millennium Mechagodzilla, stands at 60 m in height, weighs 40,000 metric tons, and is piloted remotely from a control craft. The mecha can be remotely recharged from the ground using microwaves that are relayed through a power system on one of the command aircraft, and then beamed back down to the robot. Its armaments include a Twin Maser Cannon in its mouth, railgun on its hands, a maser blade on its right hand, two reactors on its back to fly, a back unite with missiles and boosters and two rocket launchers on its shoulders. Its most powerful and most energetically costly weapon is the Absolute Zero Cannon housed in its chest, which fires a beam capable of flash freezing enemies. In Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S., the Absolute Zero Cannon is replaced with a Triple Hyper Maser Cannon and instead of the maser blade he can assemble his right hand into a drill.

The Anime Trilogy Mechagodzilla stands 50 meters in height, weighs 30,000 metric tons, and is powered by artificial intelligence and made from nanometal. In the novel: Project Mechagodzilla, its arsenal includes a Blade Launcher, Convergent Neutron Cannon, Flight, Hyper Lance, Thermal Energy Buffer Layer, and Tail Blow. When it forms Mechagodzilla city, the defenses include gun cannons, EMP Harpoons, and a force field to protect itself when fired upon.

In Godzilla vs. Kong, Mechagodzilla stands at 122 m in height, towering over Godzilla, weighs 100,000 metric tons, and is telepathically piloted through a cybernetic neural network developed from King Ghidorah's only surviving brain. Its weaponry includes a proton scream laser beam, missiles fired from its shoulders and chest, jet boosters on its back, plasmic hits, buzzsaws in its fingers and spinning spikes at the end of its tail.

Shōwa period (1974–1975)
In Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla, Mechagodzilla is created as a weapon of destruction by the Black Hole Planet 3 aliens, also known as the Simians, who intend to conquer Earth before their own homeworld gets destroyed by an expanding black hole. First appearing in a pseudo-flesh outer covering and masquerading as the real Godzilla, Mechagodzilla attacks Japan and overpowers Godzilla's ally Anguirus. Godzilla appears and destroys the pseudo-flesh disguise, forcing Mechagodzilla to reveal itself in full. Their initial battle results in a tie, as Godzilla is severely wounded and Mechagodzilla is forced back into the Simian's base for repair. Mechagodzilla is deployed again but is overpowered through the combined efforts of Godzilla and King Caesar. Godzilla ultimately defeats Mechagodzilla by decapitating it and blowing its body apart.

The Simians return and rebuild Mechagodzilla in Terror of Mechagodzilla. This time, it is further modified with living human brain cells and has its control circuitry integrated into the body of the human woman Katsura Mafune, who is a cyborg courtesy of the aliens, now being led by Mugal. Mechagodzilla is teamed up with the dinosaur Titanosaurus, who is controlled by Katsura's crazed father. Although Mechagodzilla survives another decapitation during a battle against Godzilla, it is once more defeated after Katsura commits suicide, destroying the robot's controls and freezing it long enough for Godzilla to use its atomic heat ray on Mechagodzilla's headless body, causing it to explode.

Heisei period (1993)
In Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II, Mechagodzilla is built as an anti-Godzilla weapon by the United Nations Godzilla Countermeasures Center using 23rd-century technology reverse engineered from the remains of Mecha-King Ghidorah. Mechagodzilla overpowers Godzilla in Kyoto, but is rendered harmless by a voltage backsurge caused by Godzilla. Mechagodzilla is recovered and merged with the smaller airship Garuda to form Super-Mechagodzilla (スーパーメカゴジラ). This combined mecha later fights both Fire Rodan and Godzilla. He proceeds to cripple Godzilla by destroying his secondary brain and mortally wounds Rodan. Rodan then sacrifices his energy to revive Godzilla, who then uses his new red spiral atomic breath to destroy the weakened Super-Mechagodzilla.

In Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla, it is revealed that Mechagodzilla's remains were salvaged and used to construct Moguera.

Millennium period (2002–2003)
The Millennium incarnation is featured in two films: Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla and Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S. and is referenced as Kiryu (機龍), derived from Kikai Ryu (Japanese for "machine dragon") or "Kōryū" (Japanese for steel dragon). When a second Godzilla appears in 1999, the Japanese military creates a Mechagodzilla built around the skeleton of the original Godzilla from 1954 and a DNA computing-based operating system. During its first battle with Godzilla four years later in 2003, Kiryu's genetic memories of its 1954 incarnation are awakened, and it proceeds to attack Tokyo, free from the controls of its pilot until its power drains. During its second battle with Godzilla, Kiryu forces Godzilla to retreat after using its Absolute Zero Cannon.

In Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S., taking place one year later in 2004, Mothra's fairies warn Japan that Kiryu's creation is a violation of the natural order and that Mothra would gladly take the cyborg's place in protecting Japan, should Kiryu be dismantled. The ultimatum is declined, as Kiryu was built partially to defend against a second attack from Mothra herself. Godzilla eventually appears, prompting Mothra and Kiryu to cooperate. Kiryu momentarily is forced to fight Godzilla alone after Mothra is killed, but is later assisted by Mothra's larvae, who encase Godzilla in a cocoon, and Kiryu is given orders to terminate him. However, Kiryu's soul has awakened once again, and it instead grabs hold of Godzilla, flies out to sea, and submerges both Godzilla and itself in the depths of the ocean (though not before ejecting its human occupant to safety).

Reiwa period (2017–2018)
Mechagodzilla appears briefly in Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters, the first film in the anime trilogy. The mecha is designed and constructed by humans and bilusaludo - the latter one of two alien races who made contact with humans in an attempt to rescue them - as a countermeasure against Godzilla. But the mech is never activated as Godzilla attacked the construction facility forcing them to abandon it. Though not seen again, the mech is referenced several other times throughout the film. In Godzilla: City on the Edge of Battle, the second film in the trilogy, the remnants of Mechagodzilla's AI rebuild the facility it was created in by utilizing nanometal to help defeat Godzilla, aptly named "Mechagodzilla City". It also creates three battlesuits with flight capabilities called "Vultures".

Haruo and his forces use the city as a base of operations to destroy Godzilla. When Mechagodzilla City begins assimilating its surroundings and living beings with its nanometal under the command of the Bilusaludo, and is predicted to assimilate the entire planet prompting Haruo to destroy its command center, giving Godzilla the opening to destroy it. In Godzilla: The Planet Eater, some nanometal survives within Yuko's body which Professor Martin extracts and applies to the last Vulture intending to rebuild civilization. Realizing this will only repeat the mistakes that prompted Godzilla's advent, endanger the Houtua and risk the return of Ghidorah, Harou takes Yuko and the last Vulture and flies all three towards Godzilla in a suicide charge to save the Houtua from mankind's mistakes.

MonsterVerse (2021)
Mechagodzilla was featured in the 2021 film Godzilla vs. Kong. Secretly built by Apex Cybernetics as an anti-Titan weapon, it is designed to wipe out the Titans and replace Godzilla, remotely piloted by Ren Serizawa via a telepathic link originating from a skull of Ghidorah's left head (acquired after it was torn off by Godzilla in Godzilla: King of the Monsters prior), though conventional energy sources prove insufficient to power it to full capacity.

As Mechagodzilla is being built at a facility in Pensacola, Florida, Godzilla senses Ghidorah's presence whenever the mecha activates, which causes him to search for and eventually attack the facility. Due to the secrecy of the project, the public misinterprets this as Godzilla having gone rogue, resulting in Monarch and Apex taking Kong to the Hollow Earth in search of an energy source to confront Godzilla with; simultaneously, Apex covertly plans to use it to power Mechagodzilla, now housed within Victoria Peak. Godzilla and Kong clash en route to the Hollow Earth in the Tasman Sea, but ultimately the team finds and retrieves the power source, in the form of "Hollow Earth Energy".

After Godzilla and Kong fight a second time in Hong Kong, Serizawa charges the mechanized titan with the untested Hollow Earth's energies, upon pressure from Apex Cybernetics' CEO Walter Simmons. However, the process unexpectedly allows Ghidorah's mind to possess Mechagodzilla, who then kills both Simmons and Serizawa, goes on a rampage in the city, and faces Godzilla. Godzilla is easily overwhelmed, and is nearly killed before Kong joins the battle. Kong's axe initially proves ineffective against Mechagodzilla, as its energy was depleted after battling Godzilla. As Mechagodzilla maintains the upper hand, Josh Valentine tampers with its control panel via alcohol spillage, stalling it long enough for Godzilla to supercharge Kong's axe with his atomic breath. Kong then uses his fully powered axe to dismember Mechagodzilla's limbs, and finishes it off by tearing off its head.

In other media
The various incarnations of Mechagodzilla have appeared in other media associated with the series, such as video games, television shows, and comics.

In video games
The Shōwa Mechagodzilla appears in the video games Godzilla: Monster of Monsters for the Nintendo Entertainment System, Godzilla for the Game Boy, Super Godzilla for the Super NES (American release; replaces the Heisei version from the Super Famicom release, since the Heisei incarnation's film had yet to be released in America when the game was released), Godzilla: Battle Legends for TurboGrafx-16, Godzilla Generations for the Dreamcast (erroneously using his Heisei counterpart's sound effects) and Godzilla Generations: Maximum Impact for the Dreamcast and the Wii version of Godzilla: Unleashed.

The Heisei Mechagodzilla appeared in the video games Super Godzilla (Japanese version, replaced by the Showa Mechagodzilla in the English release) and Godzilla: Monster War, both for the Super NES, Godzilla: Domination! for Game Boy Advance, Godzilla: Save the Earth for Xbox and PlayStation 2, Godzilla: Destroy All Monsters Melee for Xbox and GameCube, and Wii and PlayStation 2 versions of Godzilla: Unleashed.

Kiryu first appeared in the Japanese version of Godzilla: Destroy All Monsters Melee on the GameCube. Since the Millennium Mechagodzilla duology would take a few years to reach US stores, it was dropped from the American version of the game, but did appear as an exclusive in the Xbox version. Kiryu was next playable in Godzilla: Save the Earth for the Xbox and the PlayStation 2 under the title "Mechagodzilla 3"; this would be Kiryu's first PS2 appearance in the United States. Kiryu also appears in both versions of Godzilla: Unleashed, for the first time under the name "Kiryu" as opposed to its names in the two previous games; "Millennium Mechagodzilla" and "Mechagodzilla 3".

Like the other kaiju in the game, the backstories of all three Mechagodzilla incarnations are altered slightly, to fit the context of the game. The Heisei Mechagodzilla and Kiryu are man-made mecha created by the G.D.F. (Global Defense Force) faction to defend Earth from the Vortaak and their kaiju of the aliens' faction. The original Showa Mechagodzilla was salvaged and rebuilt by the Vortaak to be used in their kaiju force.

In the PlayStation 4 version of Godzilla, 4 incarnations of Mechagodzilla appear, the original Showa Mechagodzilla appears as both Mechagodzilla from Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla and as Mechagodzilla 2 the rebuilt Mechagodzilla from Terror of Mechagodzilla. The Heisei Mechagodzilla appears in its Super Mechagodzilla form, while Kiryu appears in its rebuilt design from Tokyo S.O.S. In the PS4 version, all 4 Mechagodzilla are playable, the 2 versions of the Showa Mechagodzilla can be played in God of Destruction Mode via the Invade option (which allows the mode to be played using Kaiju other than the Heisei era Godzilla), while Super Mechagodzilla and Kiryu can be played via selecting Defend option (where the player defends humanity as friendly kaiju such as Mothra and various G-Force Mecha). In the PS3 version, only Mechagodzilla 1975, Super Mechagodzilla, and Kiryu appear as bosses and are not playable.

The thirteenth level of City Shrouded in Shadow, a game where players, as civilians, must escape and survive kaiju attacks, mostly mirrors the first encounter between Godzilla and Kiryu in Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla. The protagonists, tied up in the building by Yakuza thugs, witness Godzilla rampage through the game's setting, the fictional Ichi City, and Kiryu is eventually deployed in response. After a short battle where both shoot at each other, Godzilla roars at Kiryu and reminds the spirit within of his past as a Godzilla, causing him to be possessed & go berserk. As Godzilla leaves, Kiryu approaches and fires missiles at the building in which the player is inside. Once the player has reached safety or once 30 seconds have transpired, Kiryu marches through the building, cleaving it in half, heading off into the distance. The newspaper that displays the results after the level reveals that, after 30 minutes of rampaging, Kiryu has run out of power, allowing the government to retrieve the inactive mecha.

Kiryu along with Godzilla, Gigan and Destoroyah become DLC guest stars in the indie game GigaBash.

Television
While Mechagodzilla did not appear in Godzilla: The Series, a sequel to  Godzilla (1998), the first Godzilla was reanimated as a cyborg called Cyber-Godzilla in the Monster Wars trilogy.

A Shōwa-inspired Mechagodzilla appears in the post-credits scene of the anime series Godzilla Singular Point, though the lab's computer screens identify him as Robogodzilla.

In film
Mechagodzilla appears in the 2018 science fiction action film Ready Player One where he is seen battling the Iron Giant and the RX-78-2 Gundam. This time, Mechagodzilla is remodeled and resembles the 1974 Shōwa version, the 2002 Kiryū, and the 2014 Legendary MonsterVerse Godzilla design.

Films

 * Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla (1974)
 * Terror of Mechagodzilla (1975)
 * Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II (1993) - as Super Mechagodzilla
 * Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla (2002) - as Kiryu
 * Godzilla: Tokyo S.O.S. (2003) - as Kiryu
 * Godzilla: Planet of the Monsters (2017)
 * Ready Player One (2018)
 * Godzilla: City on the Edge of Battle (2018) - as Mechagodzilla City
 * Godzilla vs. Kong (2021)

Television

 * Godzilla Island (1997 - 1998)
 * Godzilla: The Series (1998 - 2000) - as Cyber-Godzilla
 * Godzilla Singular Point (2021) - as Robogodzilla
 * Godzilland (1992 - 1993)

Video games

 * Godzilla: Monster of Monsters (NES - 1988) as Mechagodzilla (1974)
 * Godzilla / Godzilla-Kun: Kaijuu Daikessen (Game Boy - 1990) as Mechagodzilla (1974)
 * Battle Soccer: Field no Hasha (Super Famicom - 1992) as Mechagodzilla (1974)
 * Super Godzilla (Super NES - 1993) as Mechagodzilla (1974) and Mechagodzilla 2
 * Kaijū-ō Godzilla / King of the Monsters, Godzilla (Game Boy - 1993)
 * Godzilla: Battle Legends (Turbo Duo - 1993)
 * Godzilla: Monster War / Godzilla: Destroy All Monsters (Super NES - 1994)
 * Godzilla Giant Monster March (Game Gear - 1995)
 * Godzilla Trading Battle (PlayStation - 1998) as Mechagodzilla (1974) and Mechagodzilla 2
 * Godzilla Generations (Dreamcast – 1998) as Mechagodzilla (1974)
 * Godzilla: Destroy All Monsters Melee (GameCube, Xbox - 2002/2003) as Mechagodzilla 2 and Mechagodzilla 3 (Xbox exclusive)
 * Godzilla: Domination! (Game Boy Advance - 2002) as Mechagodzilla 2 and Mechagodzilla 3
 * Godzilla: Save the Earth (Xbox, PlayStation 2 - 2004) as Mechagodzilla 2 and Mechagodzilla 3
 * Godzilla: Unleashed (Wii, PlayStation 2 – 2007) as Mechagodzilla (1974, Wii exclusive), Mechagodzilla 2 and Kiryu
 * Godzilla Unleashed: Double Smash (Nintendo DS – 2007) as Kiryu
 * Godzilla on Monster Island (AVP Slot – 2011) as Kiryu
 * Godzilla (PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4 - 2014/2015) as Mechagodzilla (1974, PS4 exclusive), Mechagodzilla 2 (1975), Super Mechagodzilla, and Kiryu
 * City Shrouded in Shadow (PS4 – 2017) as Kiryu
 * Godzilla Defense Force (2019)
 * GigaBash (PS4, PS5, Steam, Epic Games - 2022, Nintendo Swtich, Xbox - 2023) as Kiryu

Literature

 * Godzilla vs. the Robot Monsters (1998)
 * Ready Player One (novel 2011) as Kiryu
 * Godzilla: Kingdom of Monsters (comic 2011 - 2012)
 * Godzilla: Gangsters and Goliaths (comic 2011)
 * Godzilla: Legends (comic 2011 - 2012)
 * Godzilla: Ongoing (comic 2012)
 * Godzilla: The Half-Century War (comic 2012 - 2013)
 * Godzilla: Rulers of Earth (comic 2013 - 2015) as Mechagodzilla (1974) and Kiryu
 * Godzilla: Oblivion (comic 2016)
 * Godzilla: Monster Apocalypse (novel 2017)
 * Godzilla: Project Mechagodzilla (novel 2018)
 * Justice League vs. Godzilla vs. Kong (2023-2024) as Monsterverse Mechagodzilla

Reception
The character has generally been positively received. It was rated No. 15 of the 50 Best Movie Robots by The Times, beating other such legends as C-3PO from Star Wars, the T-1000 from Terminator 2: Judgment Day, and Optimus Prime from Transformers. Complex listed the character as No. 6 on its "The 15 Most Badass Kaiju Monsters of All Time" list, while IGN listed it as No. 4 on their "Top 10 Japanese Movie Monsters" list.

In popular culture

 * In an episode of 30 Rock's fifth season, "Chain Reaction of Mental Anguish", Kiryu appears as one of the characters in a theme restaurant.
 * In Ernest Cline's novel Ready Player One and its film adaptation, the main antagonist Nolan Sorrento controls a full-size Mechagodzilla replica during the climactic battle in a virtual reality environment. In the book, it is the Kiryu model that fights against Ultraman.
 * The film version is an original design based on Legendary's Godzilla design that battles the Iron Giant and the RX-78-2 Gundam.
 * In the game Bulletstorm, there is a level where the player controls a mechanical version of a Hekaton (which is the game's equivalent to Godzilla) as well as the song being played during this part of the game being called "Mecha-dzilla."
 * Mechagodzilla makes a cameo appearance in the Ugly Americans episode "Kong of Queens", in which King Kong fights Godzilla (King Kong's children watching the movie King Kong vs. Godzilla), and another when Kong punches a wall (after an argument with Mark Lily on the phone), the Showa-era Mechagodzilla was seen having breakfast.
 * Mechagodzilla was parodied by the series South Park in their episode "Mecha-Streisand", which features singer Barbra Streisand becoming a gigantic mechanical monster.
 * The Nitrome flash game Rubble Trouble Tokyo has Mechagodzilla (here called "Mecha Saur") as a tool that can be used to demolish buildings.
 * A parody of Mechagodzilla appears in The Adventures of Mini-Goddess anime series' episode "Gabira - The Strike Back".
 * An episode of the pop culture video podcast Death Battle pitted the Kiryu MechaGodzilla against the DragonZord from Mighty Morphin Power Rangers where it was determined that MechaGodzilla would win.

title: Mechagodzilla


text:
Category:Baritones

Classification: Performing arts: Opera: Singers: By voice type: Baritones also: Music: Genres: Opera: Singers: By voice type: Baritones

title: Category:Baritones


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Beechcraft Duchess

The Beechcraft Model 76 Duchess is an American twin-engined monoplane built by Beechcraft intended partly as a low cost introduction to twin-engine aircraft.

Development
Developed as Model PD289 (Preliminary Design 289), the prototype was unveiled on November 4, 1974, although it had first flown in September 1974. The Model 76 was designed as an economical twin-engine trainer for the Beech Aero Centers and to compete with the similar Gulfstream Cougar as well as the Cessna 310.

The first production version flew on 24 May 1977, and the name "Duchess" was chosen through a company competition. Construction of the Duchess was set for a new factory built at the Liberal Division, with deliveries beginning early in 1978.

Production of the Duchess continued until 1983, with no significant changes. A single example was tested with turbocharged engines in 1979, but did not proceed to production.

Design
The Duchess is an all-metal low-wing monoplane with retractable tricycle landing gear and a T-tail. It seats four. The design used components and the bonded wing construction from Beechcraft's single-engined Musketeer line. The basic fuselage and wing structure was adapted from the Model 24 Sierra, a Musketeer variant with retractable landing gear, but the Sierra wing spar was redesigned to support the added weight of the engines. Nose landing gear from the A36 Bonanza was used.

The Model 76 incorporates right and left "handed" Lycoming O-360 engines that rotate in opposing directions to eliminate the critical engine during single engine operation.

In 1979, a single example was converted to test the turbocharged versions of the engine. The cowlings were reshaped and the exhaust moved to accommodate the aft-mounted turbochargers.

The Duchess wing is of aluminum honeycomb construction fastened by bonding, rather than rivets, to reduce cost and produce a smoother aerodynamic surface.

T-tail
The use of a T-tail on the Model 76 met with mixed critical reception when the aircraft was introduced. Plane & Pilot pronounced: "Outstanding design characteristics of the new Duchess include an aerodynamically advantageous T-tail, which places the horizontal surfaces above the propeller slipstream for better stability and handling.", while Gerald Foster said: "[Beechcraft's] interest in T-tails was perhaps an affectation triggered by their wide use on jet airliners". AVweb wrote that Beechcraft adopted the T-tail after flight tests revealed that the initially used conventional horizontal stabilizer was too small and suffered from buffeting problems, increasing noise and vibration during flight; moving the horizontal stabilizer out of the propeller slipstream eliminated the buffeting and the need for enlargement while adding only 15 lb of weight. Additionally, the T-tail design moved the stabilizer rearward, increasing its effectiveness and giving the aircraft a broader center of gravity range. The later Piper Seminole also adopted a T-tail.

Variants

 * Model 76 Duchess
 * Four-seat, twin-engine (Lycoming O-360), low-winged trainer with bonded aluminum construction.

 * Model 76TC Duchess
 * Unofficial designation for single test aircraft using turbocharged Lycoming O-360.

Operators
The aircraft remains popular with flight training schools.

 * Beechcraft - Tested one Duchess to investigate its spin recovery characteristics in conjunction with NASA.
 * National Test Pilot School - Operates one Duchess.
 * Purdue University - Uses a Duchess modified with air sampling equipment as Airborne Laboratory Atmospheric Research (ALAR).
 * Scaled Composites - Uses one Duchess as a test aircraft.

title: Beechcraft Duchess


text:
Category:Tenors

Classification: Performing arts: Opera: Singers: By voice type: Tenors also: Music: Genres: Opera: Singers: By voice type: Tenors In music, a tenor is a male singer with a high voice.

title: Category:Tenors


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John Baxter

John Baxter may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * John Baxter (architect) (died 1798), Scottish architect
 * John Baxter (publisher) (1781–1858), English printer and publisher
 * John Baxter (director) (1896–1975), British filmmaker, 1930s–1950s
 * John Baxter (author) (born 1939), Australian-born writer, journalist, and filmmaker
 * John Baxter, pen name of intelligence officer E. Howard Hunt

Politics and law

 * John Baxter (MP for Stafford), Member of Parliament (MP) for Stafford. c. 1393–1396
 * John Baxter (Northern Ireland politician) (1939–2020), Ulster Unionist politician and solicitor
 * John Baxter (MP) (died 1611), English lawyer and politician
 * John Baxter (political reformer) ( 1790–1817), English radical and political historian
 * John Baxter (judge) (1819–1886), North Carolina legislator and jurist
 * John G. Baxter (1826–1885), mayor of Louisville, Kentucky, 1870–1872
 * John Babington Macaulay Baxter (1868–1946), premier of New Brunswick, Canada, 1925–1931
 * John B. M. Baxter Jr. (1924–2000), politician in New Brunswick, Canada
 * John Donald Baxter, politician in Ontario, Canada

Science

 * John Philip Baxter (1905–1989), British chemical engineer and Vice-Chancellor of the University of New South Wales, 1953–1969
 * John Walter Baxter (1917–2003), British civil and structural engineer, designed the Westway
 * John Baxter (engineer) (born 1951), British mechanical engineer
 * John Baxter (marine biologist), British marine biologist

Sports

 * John Baxter (cricketer) (1800–?), English cricketer of the 1830s
 * John Baxter (footballer) (1936–2014), Scottish association football player
 * John Baxter (rugby league) (c. 1881–1927), rugby league footballer of the 1900s for Great Britain, England, and Rochdale Hornets
 * John Baxter (American football) (born 1963), American football coach

Others

 * John Baxter (explorer) (1799–1841), friend of Edward John Eyre during crossing of Nullarbor Plain, 1840–41
 * J. Clifford Baxter (1958–2002), Enron Corporation executive

title: John Baxter


text:
Pointed space

In mathematics, a pointed space or based space is a topological space with a distinguished point, the basepoint. The distinguished point is just simply one particular point, picked out from the space, and given a name, such as $$x_0,$$ that remains unchanged during subsequent discussion, and is kept track of during all operations.

Maps of pointed spaces (based maps) are continuous maps preserving basepoints, i.e., a map $$f$$ between a pointed space $$X$$ with basepoint $$x_0$$ and a pointed space $$Y$$ with basepoint $$y_0$$ is a based map if it is continuous with respect to the topologies of $$X$$ and $$Y$$ and if $$f\left(x_0\right) = y_0.$$ This is usually denoted
 * $$f : \left(X, x_0\right) \to \left(Y, y_0\right).$$

Pointed spaces are important in algebraic topology, particularly in homotopy theory, where many constructions, such as the fundamental group, depend on a choice of basepoint.

The pointed set concept is less important; it is anyway the case of a pointed discrete space.

Pointed spaces are often taken as a special case of the relative topology, where the subset is a single point. Thus, much of homotopy theory is usually developed on pointed spaces, and then moved to relative topologies in algebraic topology.

Category of pointed spaces
The class of all pointed spaces forms a category Top$\bull$ with basepoint preserving continuous maps as morphisms. Another way to think about this category is as the comma category, ($$\{ \bull \} \downarrow $$ Top) where $$\{ \bull \}$$ is any one point space and Top is the category of topological spaces. (This is also called a coslice category denoted $$\{ \bull \} /$$Top.) Objects in this category are continuous maps $$\{ \bull \} \to X.$$ Such maps can be thought of as picking out a basepoint in $$X.$$ Morphisms in ($$\{ \bull \} \downarrow $$ Top) are morphisms in Top for which the following diagram commutes:

It is easy to see that commutativity of the diagram is equivalent to the condition that $$f$$ preserves basepoints.

As a pointed space, $$\{ \bull \}$$ is a zero object in Top$\{ \bull \}$, while it is only a terminal object in Top.

There is a forgetful functor Top$\{ \bull \}$ $$\to$$ Top which "forgets" which point is the basepoint. This functor has a left adjoint which assigns to each topological space $$X$$ the disjoint union of $$X$$ and a one-point space $$\{ \bull \}$$ whose single element is taken to be the basepoint.

Operations on pointed spaces

 * A subspace of a pointed space $$X$$ is a topological subspace $$A \subseteq X$$ which shares its basepoint with $$X$$ so that the inclusion map is basepoint preserving.
 * One can form the quotient of a pointed space $$X$$ under any equivalence relation. The basepoint of the quotient is the image of the basepoint in $$X$$ under the quotient map.
 * One can form the product of two pointed spaces $$\left(X, x_0\right),$$ $$\left(Y, y_0\right)$$ as the topological product $$X \times Y$$ with $$\left(x_0, y_0\right)$$serving as the basepoint.
 * The coproduct in the category of pointed spaces is the, which can be thought of as the 'one-point union' of spaces.
 * The smash product of two pointed spaces is essentially the quotient of the direct product and the wedge sum. We would like to say that the smash product turns the category of pointed spaces into a symmetric monoidal category with the pointed 0-sphere as the unit object, but this is false for general spaces: the associativity condition might fail. But it is true for some more restricted categories of spaces, such as compactly generated weak Hausdorff ones.
 * The reduced suspension $$\Sigma X$$ of a pointed space $$X$$ is (up to a homeomorphism) the smash product of $$X$$ and the pointed circle $$S^1.$$
 * The reduced suspension is a functor from the category of pointed spaces to itself. This functor is left adjoint to the functor $$\Omega$$ taking a pointed space $$X$$ to its loop space $$\Omega X$$.

title: Pointed space


text: Category:Television personalities

title: Category:Television personalities


text:
Basepoint

Basepoint may refer to a point singled out in a:
 * Pointed set, or in a
 * Pointed space

title: Basepoint