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Akwesasne

The Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne (Nation Mohawk à Akwesasne; ) is a Mohawk Nation (Kanienʼkehá:ka) territory that straddles the intersection of international (United States and Canada) borders and provincial (Ontario and Quebec) boundaries on both banks of the St. Lawrence River. Although divided by an international border, the residents consider themselves to be one community. They maintain separate police forces due to jurisdictional issues and national laws.

The community was founded in the mid-18th century by Mohawk families from Kahnawake (also known as Caughnawaga), a Catholic Mohawk village that developed south of Montreal along the St. Lawrence River. Today Akwesasne has a total of 12,000 residents, with the largest population and land area of any Kanienʼkehá:ka community. From its development in the mid-eighteenth century, Akwesasne was considered one of the Seven Nations of Canada. It is one of several Kanienʼkehá꞉ka (Mohawk), meaning "people of the flint" in Mohawk, territories within present-day Canada; others are Kahnawake, Wahta, Tyendinaga, Kanesatake, and the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation (which includes several subdivisions of Mohawk, the other five nations of the Iroquois League, and some other Native American tribes), founded after the American Revolutionary War.

With settlement of the border between Canada and the United States in the early 19th century, a larger portion of the territory was defined as being within the United States. The portion in New York state is known as the federally recognized St. Regis Mohawk Reservation. The portion in Ontario is referred to as Akwesasne Reserve No. 59, and the portions in Quebec as Akwesasne Reserve No. 15.

The name Akwesasne in Mohawk means "Land Where the Partridge Drums", referring to the rich wildlife in the area.

Geography
Akwesasne territory incorporates part of the St. Lawrence River, the mouths of the Raquette and St. Regis rivers, and a number of islands in these three rivers. The eastern border of the southern portion is formed by the St. Regis River. The territory is divided between north–south by the Canada–United States border. The northern portion is further divided by the Canadian provincial boundary between Ontario to the west and Quebec to the east.

The Three Nations Crossing connects Kawehno:ke (Cornwall Island, Ontario) to the City of Cornwall in the north and Rooseveltown, New York in the south.

Because of the St. Lawrence River to the north, New York State, United States, to the south, and the absence of a road link to the rest of Quebec, to the east, the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne reserve is a practical exclave claimed by Canada. To travel by land from Tsi Snaihne (Snye or Chenail, Quebec) or Kana:takon (Saint Regis, Quebec) to elsewhere in Canada, one must drive through New York State. In Canada, the territory within Ontario is called the Akwesasne 59 Indian Reserve, and the territory within Quebec is called the Akwesasne Indian Reserve.

In the U.S. state of New York, the territory of Akwesasne coincides with what is called the federally recognized St. Regis Mohawk Reservation. This portion of Akwesasne is bisected by New York State Route 37. This major state highway in the North Country of New York, extends for 127.4 mi on an east–west axis.

History
Beginning about 1000 AD, nomadic indigenous people around the Great Lakes began adopting the cultivation of maize. By the 14th century, Iroquoian-speaking peoples, later called the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, had created fortified villages along the fertile valley of what is now called the St. Lawrence River. Among their villages were Stadacona and Hochelaga, visited in 1535-1536 by French explorer Jacques Cartier. While they shared certain culture with other Iroquoian groups, they were a distinctly separate people and spoke a branch of Iroquoian called Laurentian. But by the time Samuel de Champlain explored the same area 75 years later in the early 1600s, the villages had disappeared.

Historians theorize that the stronger Mohawk from the South waged war against the St. Lawrence Iroquoians to get control of the fur trade and hunting along the river valley. By 1600, the Mohawk used the valley for hunting grounds and as a path for war parties.

In the early 17th century, some Christian Iroquois (primarily Mohawk, but also some Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca) migrated from present-day New York to Kahnawake (formerly known as Caughnawaga, after their village along the Mohawk River), a Catholic mission village established by French Jesuits south of Montreal. Kahnawake is a Kanienʼkehá꞉ka (Mohawk) word meaning "at the rapids". Here, additional First Nations joined the community, converting to Roman Catholicism; the Mohawk dominated in number. During the colonial years, this community participated in the fur trade. Some men regularly traveled to Albany, New York for better prices from the English and Dutch than the French were willing to give.

In addition, warriors and families became involved in raiding and the traffic in captives during Queen Anne's War in the early 1700s between France and England. French and First Nations allies, including the Abenaki, would bring captives back to Kahnawake from New England settlements, often to be ransomed. Younger English children and women were sometimes adopted by Mohawk families and assimilated into the tribe.

Due to exhaustion of land at Kahnawake and problems with traders' rum at the village, in the mid-1750s about 30 families migrated upriver about 20 leagues to set up a new community. Among the leaders were brothers and chiefs John and Zachariah Tarbell. Father Pierre-Robert-Jean-Baptiste Billiard accompanied the migrants as their priest. French officials supported the move, paying for a sawmill at the new mission. With tensions rising prior to the Seven Years' War (also known in North America as the French and Indian War), the French wanted to keep the Mohawk as allies, and away from English influence.

The Tarbell brothers were born to English colonists in Groton, Massachusetts. They had been taken captive as children in 1707 along with their older sister Sarah, then 14, during Queen Anne's War. John and Zachariah were 12 and 8, respectively. The three children were taken by the French and Abenaki raiders some 300 miles to Montreal. They all became Catholic and were renamed. Sarah/Marguerite was redeemed by a French couple and entered the Congregation of Notre Dame, a teaching order founded in Montreal by French women in 1653. Adopted by Mohawk families in Kahnawake, the two boys became thoroughly assimilated: learning the language and ways, and being given Mohawk names. They later each married daughters of chiefs and reared their children as Mohawk. They each became chiefs, and some of their sons also became chiefs. They were examples of the multi-cultural community of the Mohawk, who absorbed numerous captives into their tribe.

Starting in 1755, French-Canadian Jesuit priests founded the St. Regis Mission at Akwesasne. The Tarbell brothers were listed among the founding chiefs, representing numerous clans as of 1759, in papers of Loran Kanonsase Pyke, the patriarch of Akwesasne's Pyke family.

The Jesuits first built a log and bark church at the mission, then a more formal log church. In 1795 the Mohawk completed construction of a stone church, which still stands. Named after the French priest St. Jean-François Regis, the mission was the source of the French name of the adjacent Saint Regis River, an island in the St. Lawrence River, and the nearby village. The church was long a landmark to ships on the river approaching the rapids. In New York, the name was later adopted to apply to the Saint Regis Mohawk Reservation. The villagers have since renamed their community Kana꞉takon ("the village", in Mohawk).

After victory in the Seven Years' War, the British took over Canada and New France east of the Mississippi River. They allowed the Kanienʼkehá꞉ka to continue to have Catholic priests at their mission. The Jesuits helped preserve Mohawk culture, translating the Bible and liturgy into Mohawk. They observed Mohawk customs, for instance, refusing to marry individuals who belonged to the same clan. Through the 18th and 19th centuries, they maintained parish registers that recorded the Mohawk names of individuals for life events, even when the people had taken European names as well.

At the time of the American Revolutionary War, the Mohawk, Onondaga, Seneca and Cayuga were allied with the British against the rebel American colonists. Forced to cede most of their remaining lands in New York to the new government after the colonists' victory, many of the Iroquois people migrated to Canada, where many settled at the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation. Some Mohawk joined the growing community at Akwesasne. Under the Jay Treaty, the Iroquois retained rights to cross the newly established borders between Canada and the United States in order to maintain their trade and tribal ties. In 1806, Catholic Cayuga, Oneida and Onondaga from Ogdensburg, New York joined the St. Regis band.

Battle of the Cedars
The Battle of the Cedars (Les Cèdres) was a series of military confrontations, early in the American Revolutionary War, which involved limited combat. The actions took place between May 19–27, 1776, at and around Les Cèdres, Quebec (located 28 mi west of Montreal), in the later stages of the American colonial invasion of Quebec that began in September 1775. No casualties occurred. Claude de Lorimier, a British Indian agent from Montreal, traveled west to Oswegatchie (Ogdensburg, New York), where there was a fort garrisoned by a company of the 8th Regiment of Foot under the command of British Captain George Forster. De Lorimier proposed recruiting some Indians to launch an attack on Montreal, then held by the American Continental Army, from the west. When Forster agreed, Lorimier went to Akwesasne, where he recruited 100 warriors for battle. The British-allied forces took some American prisoners during the encounters, but these were later freed.

Dundee land claim
In the early 1800s, non-indigenous settlers leased a part of the Akwesnasne reserve located in mainland Quebec, known as Dundee. In 1888, the superintendent of Indian Affairs requested that the band surrender this land. A surrender was given, but the first nation always contested its validity, as it was not their intention to surrender the land. In December 2018, the First Nation of Akwesnasne accepted a specific claim settlement of $240M for the Dundee parcel, 37 years after the claim was first filed with the government of Canada.

20th-century institutions
Kana:takon School, originally called the Saint Regis Village School, was run by the Catholic Sisters of Saint Anne until the 1970s. Today, the mission is still active and includes a rectory, the large stone church dating to 1795, and a cemetery. Parish records show that the Jesuits respected Mohawk traditions, recording their Mohawk names through the 18th and 19th centuries, even after they had also taken European names.

The Roman Catholic parish at Akwesasne falls under three dioceses because of international borders and provincial boundaries: the Diocese of Alexandria-Cornwall and the Diocese of Valleyfield in Canada, and the Diocese of Ogdensburg in New York.

Following passage of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, the United States federal government encouraged the tribe to adopt a constitution and elected government. The Mohawk chose to retain their traditional system of hereditary chiefs.

In the 1940s, Ernest Benedict founded Akwesasne's first newspaper, Kawehras! ("It Thunders!"). Benedict covered the resistance of many Mohawk to the system of elections imposed by the federal government on the "American" side of Akwesasne; it insisted on representative elections. On May 24, 1948, a vote was held in which "The Six Nations Chiefs", based on historic clans and hereditary office, received 83 votes. "The Elected Chiefs" received only one vote, and "The Seven Nations Chiefs" did not receive any votes. The elected chiefs resigned from office, but the federal government continued to require the tribe to hold elections.

Both the federal government and New York State encouraged the tribe to adopt representative elected government, but they resisted. They were put on the congressional list for termination in the 1950s, as part of a policy assuming that assimilation was best for Native Americans, but Congress did not approve the termination of the St. Regis Reservation.

In 1969, Benedict founded the North American Indian Travelling College (now known as the Native North American Travelling College), which serves as a cultural centre, publishing house, and resource for classes and lectures at Akwesasne and beyond. It operates an art gallery and theatre at Akwesasne.

In the late 1960s, a period of heightened Native American activism, Benedict also started Akwesasne Notes. The newspaper became highly influential and the largest native newspaper in the world. Among its noted features were a series of posters included as centrefolds. A supporter gave the newspaper Edward Curtis photographs, which editors combined with quotes from Native American authors for the popular poster series.

In 1987, the Akwesasne Task Force on the Environment was founded in response to environmental concerns, including PCB contamination from industries located along the St. Lawrence River.

In the 1990s, the people of Akwesasne raised money in a variety of ways to fund a renovation of their St. Regis Church. They wrote a history of the church and its priests.

Communities, hamlets and villages
The three main areas:
 * Kawehno:ke (Cornwall Island, Ontario)
 * Kana:takon (Saint Regis, Quebec)
 * Tsi Snaihne (Snye, Quebec or Chenail, Quebec)

Others:
 * Raquette Point, New York
 * Rooseveltown, New York (disputed)
 * Hogansburg, New York
 * Frogtown, New York
 * Pilon Island, Ontario
 * Yellow Island, Quebec
 * St. Regis Island, Quebec
 * Sugarbush Island, Quebec
 * Outlying islands

Surrounding communities
Akwesasne borders the towns of Brasher, New York, Fort Covington, New York and Bombay, New York. Sections of the southeastern portion of Akwesasne are considered by the Town of Bombay to be within the town's jurisdiction but the tribe disputes this. To the west is the Town of Massena, New York. Many islands in the St. Lawrence River are part of Akwesasne. Generally the Akwesasro꞉non are majority English-speaking in daily use.

Government
Akwesasne is governed by three bodies: the Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs (traditional government), the elected Mohawk Council of Akwesasne in the North, and Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe in the South. The latter are the two recognized by the governments of Canada and the United States, respectively, as well as by lower-level jurisdictions such as provinces and states.

Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs
The Mohawk Nation Council of Chiefs (MNCC, colloquially "the Longhouse") is the "traditional" governing and religious body of the Mohawk (Kahniakehaka) people. The MNCC operates as a member nation of the Iroquois Confederacy or Haudenosaunee.

Mohawk Council of Akwesasne
The Mohawk Council of Akwesasne (MCA) is a government whose representatives are elected within the northern districts of the territory on the Canadian side of the border. The MCA was developed from the Indian Bands system introduced by the Indian Act of Canada and the Act's historical and legal predecessors. They are known to Canada as Mohawks of Akwesasne Bands 59 and 15.

The MCA operates as a non-partisan, representative democracy, divided into three geographic and administrative districts. The districts are Kana:takon (Saint Regis, Quebec), Kawehno:ke (Cornwall Island, Ontario) and Tsi Snaihne (Snye, Quebec). The several islands of the St. Lawrence River within the jurisdiction of the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne are generally counted as being a part of the nearest mainland.

General elections are held triennially, with 12 representatives (Chiefs) chosen from the districts and one Grand Chief. Each district elects four Chiefs, and all districts vote at-large to elect a Grand Chief. Thus the council is 12 plus 1. A by-election may also be held if one or more of the seats become vacant.

Chiefs of the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne

 * Grand Chief:
 * Abram Benedict

 * Kana : takon District Chiefs:
 * Kana : takon District Chiefs:

 * Cindy Francis-Mitchell
 * Ryan Jacobs
 * Julie Phillips-Jacobs
 * Timothy "Dooley" Thompson

 * Tsi Snaihne District Chiefs:
 * Tsi Snaihne District Chiefs:

 * April Adams-Phillips
 * Sarah Lee Sunday-Diabo
 * JoAnn Swamp
 * Dwayne Thomas

 * Kawehno : ke District Chiefs:
 * Kawehno : ke District Chiefs:

 * Vanessa Adams
 * Jackie Benedict
 * Edward Roundpoint
 * Vince Thompson

Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe
The Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe (SRMT) is a government elected by Mohawk Tribal citizens of the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation, a southern district of the territory within the border of the United States. The SRMT operates as a Constitutional republic. The Tribal Council is composed of three Chiefs, three Sub-Chiefs, and a Tribal Clerk. Elections are held each year on the first Saturday of June to choose one Chief and one Sub-Chief for a three-year term. The Tribal Clerk is chosen every third year.

Council of the Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe

 * Chief Beverly Cook
 * Chief Ronald LaFrance, Jr.
 * Chief Michael L. Conners
 * Sub-Chief Benjamin J. Herne
 * Sub-Chief Agnes 'Sweets' Jacobs
 * Sub-Chief Kenneth Jock
 * Tribal Clerk Summer Bero
 * Chief Judge Carrie Garrow
 * Traffic Court Judge #1 Lois Terrance
 * Traffic Court Judge #2 Victor Martin
 * Chief Legal Counsel Dale White

Governance: Canada and the United States
In 1960, First Nations people were enfranchised in Canada. In 1985, Status Indians who voted in a Canadian election were allowed to retain their status. Previously they would have become non-Status, as per the Indian Act. It is uncertain how many Akwesasro꞉non participate in Canadian elections.

Akwesasne is currently represented in Canada's Parliament by:
 * Claude DeBellefeuille, Bloc Quebecois MP (Salaberry—Suroît, Quebec)
 * Eric Duncan, Conservative Party MP (Stormont-Dundas-South Glengarry, Ontario)

Akwesasne is represented in the:

 * Lesislative Assembly of Ontario by Nolan Quinn, Progressive Conservative MPP (Stormont-Dundas-South Glengarry, Ontario)
 * National Assembly of Quebec by Carole Mallette, Coalition Avenir Québec MNA (Huntingdon, Quebec)

In 1924, Native Americans were enfranchised in the United States if they had not been previously; by that time, two-thirds were already citizens. During the era of Indian Removal of the 1830s, Native Americans who chose to stay in historic territories became state and federal citizens; those who moved with their tribes to Indian Territory were not considered citizens. As Native American lands were purchased during the nineteenth century and Native land claims were extinguished, more were classified as US citizens as they moved to reservations.

Akwesasne is represented in the United States Senate by:
 * United States Senator Charles Schumer (D- NY)
 * United States Senator Kirsten Gillibrand (D- NY)

Akwesasne is represented in the:
 * United States House of Representatives by Representative Elise Stefanik (R-21st, NY)
 * New York State Assembly by Representative Billy Jones
 * New York Senate by Senator Dan Stec

Legal system
In 2016, Akwesasne established an independent indigenous legal system and court to deal with non-criminal offenses within the reserve. The 32 new laws cover civil matters handled by an indigenous legal team director of public prosecution, public prosecutor and two justices.

The system does not rely on jail terms but uses restorative justice to bring resolution between the accused and plaintiff. The members of the legal team are not required to have a law degree but are required to complete training and are approved by a review commission.

Education
Akwesasne has five elementary schools on the territory. Three schools are under the direction of the Ahkwesasne Mohawk Board of Education:
 * Ahkwesahsne Mohawk School - K-4, K-5, grades 1-8
 * Kana:takon School - K-4, K-5, grades 1-5
 * Tsi Snaihne School - K-4, K-5, grades 1-8

One school is under the direction of the Salmon River Central School District of New York:
 * St. Regis Mohawk School - Pre-K to grade 6

One school is run independently:
 * Akwesasne Freedom School - Pre-K to grade 8, featuring Kanienʼkehá immersion to strengthen language and culture on the reserve. With children learning Kanienʼkehá, many parents and other adults are now taking language classes, too. The Akwesasne model of language and cultural revival is being followed by other communities.

Generally, Akwesasnro:non travel off the reservation for secondary education.

Post-secondary education is offered on the reservation through Iohahi:io Akwesasne Education & Training Institute and State University of New York (SUNY) extension programs with the SRMT.

Radio
97.3 CKON-FM is the community radio station. It first went on air on September 29, 1984. CKON is owned and operated by the Akwesasne Communication Society, a community-based non-profit group. It has a country music format, and also has adult contemporary music during evenings, a free format on Fridays, and oldies on Sundays. CKON also broadcasts coverage of home and away games of the Cornwall Colts and Akwesasne Wolves hockey teams, and of the Akwesasne Lightning lacrosse team.

WICY, a radio station in Malone, New York, has an FM transmitter in Akwesasne, 103.5 W278CS.

87.9 FM Karennaon:we transmits at 87.9 MHz on the FM dial. Karennaon:we went on the air on December 21, 2017. It is owned and operated by Equal Skies Media and broadcasts the music and language of the Haudenosaunee confederacy and other first nations. Karennaon:we Radio is a positive resource for the children of the Mohawk community making available the language and culture 24 hours a day. Karennaon:we Radio is not for profit and receives no funding from federal, provincial or tribal governments.

Online and print media

 * Akwesasne Notes
 * Indian Time Newspaper
 * Akwesasne TV

Attractions

 * Akwesasne Annual International Pow-wow
 * Akwesasne Cultural Center
 * Akwesasne Mohawk Casino
 * Annual Akwesasne Winter Carnival
 * Iohahi:io Akwesasne Education & Training Institute
 * Mohawk International Raceway - formerly known as Frogtown International Speedway; a dirt track racing oval and host of outdoor concerts
 * Ronathahon:ni Cultural Centre - formerly known as the Native North American Traveling College
 * Strawberry Music Festival

1969 border crossing dispute
In the winter of 1969, Cornwall City Police were confronted by a demonstration by Akwesasro꞉non at the North Channel Bridge of what is now called the Three Nations Crossing. By blocking traffic on the bridge, Akwesasro꞉non sought to call attention to their grievance that they were prohibited by Canadian authorities from duty-free passage of personal purchases across the border. They claimed this right by the 1795 Jay Treaty, which allowed indigenous free passage across the border that separated their established territory.

2001 "anti-globalization" direct action
The NYC Ya Basta Collective was a group of anti-globalization activists, based primarily in New York City, active from roughly October 2000 through October 2001.

Initiated in October 2000 by L. Fantoni and T. F. G. Casper on the heels of the anti-International Monetary Fund/World Bank protests in Prague, a collective soon formed and developed its own variation of the Tute Bianche tactic of the padded bloc. The collective organized several actions and events highlighting the inadequacy of borders, in support of immigrant rights and against racism and racialist hate groups.

In April 2001, this collective, along with the Direct Action Network, was active in organizing a US / Canada border crossing over the Three Nations Crossing. This event preceded demonstrations surrounding the 3rd Summit of the Americas, a summit held in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. An estimated 500 anti-globalists, along with a few Akwesasro꞉non, challenged the legitimacy of the US/Canada border. Although the Collective peacefully crossed into Cornwall, Ontario, Canada, they never made it to Quebec City. Most of the activists who participated in the action at the border and attempted to enter Canadian territory were turned away by Canada Border Service agents and prevented from attending the protests in Quebec City.

2009 border crossing dispute
On 1 June 2009, Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) border services officers at the Cornwall Port of Entry walked off the job in response to encampments of Akwesasro꞉non across the road from the customs facility. The latter were protesting Canada's arming of CBSA border services officers. The encampment, styled as a "unity rally", was branded as a campaign to bring awareness to complaints of alleged human rights abuses committed against Akwesasro꞉non by the CBSA border services officers.

The protest continued for several days but reached its peak at midnight of 1 June, when the new policy of arming border services officers with Beretta Px4 Storm sidearms went into effect. The border services officers left at the end of their shift. A new shift did not arrive, leaving the port of entry vacant.

Cornwall City Police blockaded the north terminus of the Three Nations Bridge to deny travelers entry into Canada. At the request of Canada, the New York State Police likewise blocked access from the United States onto the bridge. Akwesasne was cut off from its major access point into Canada and from free travel within the territory until a temporary border post was erected on July 13, 2009.

Police, border patrol, state troopers, RCMP, and various government agents blocked the road leading to the homes on Cornwall Island, Ontario, from May 2009 until July 2009. Each time any Mohawk attempted to leave their homes or return to their homes in Akwesasne, they were interrogated by government agents. Some Mohawk moved out of their homes because of the stress of this situation. Other residents were ordered to pay costs of $1000 each time CBSA agents chose to impound their vehicles, sometimes more than once per day when residents needed to use their vehicles for several trips. Some residents traveled instead by boat to seek medical attention, or purchase water, and groceries.

History of disputes
The area has been the scene of several disputes on the rights of the residents to cross the border unimpeded. These issues have been a concern for Canadian authorities, as the area is alleged to be a large-scale, cigarette-smuggling route from the U.S. There have been arrests and seizure of goods in the past. There are also concerns about smuggling of drugs, liquor, and migrants.

Residents of Akwesasne differ over reserve governance and which political factions they support. Political rivalries were expressed after one group brought casino gambling onto the reserve. It brought huge economic returns to casino owners and some benefits to the First Nation, but members also worried about how the enterprise would affect their culture. In 1989 unidentified suspects threw firebombs at a chartered bus. In a separate incident, someone fired a shotgun at a bus in the customs area.

The political feuds have resulted in violence: two Mohawk men were killed at Akwesasne in 1990, and thousands of residents left their homes in that period because of attacks on houses and vehicles, and general unrest. The Warrior Society, a self-appointed security force, used assault rifles and bats to break up anti-gambling roadblocks at the reservation entrances. They threatened to shoot any outside law enforcement officials if they entered the reservation.

Arms trafficking and Human smuggling
According to police sources, the cross-border conduit in Akwesasne is being used by organized crime to smuggle marijuana back into the United States and harder drugs and firearms to Canada. According to a TVA News investigation, the weapons are purchased in the states of Texas, Alabama, Georgia and Florida to be transported north and stored in warehouses on the reserve. On winter nights, smugglers illegally cross the border on snowmobiles along the frozen St. Lawrence River. In the summer, they use motorboats.

In June 2022, the Quebec government announced it will provide $6.2 million over 5 years to the Akwesasne Mohawk Police Service (AMPS) to combat illegal firearm trafficking.

Due to its geography and lack of resources from the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA), human smuggling has been an ongoing issue for the community. A 1999 Maclean's magazine article outlined how many people of the Akwesasne community facilitated and profited from human smuggling. In 2023, eight people died attempting to cross into the US from Canada. Akwesasne Mohawk Police blamed migrants and other smugglers for exploiting disadvantaged members of their community.

In popular culture

 * You Are on Indian Land (2006) is a Canadian documentary written and directed by Mike Kanentakeron Mitchell (Mohawk). A member of the National Film Board of Canada's pioneering Indian Film Crew unit, he directed this documentary about the 1969 protest at Akwesasne. He later was elected as a Grand Chief of Akwesasne.
 * Frozen River (2008) is an American drama film written and directed by Courtney Hunt. Set in the North Country (north of Upstate) New York, near Akwesasne and the Canada–US border, it explored an alliance between a Mohawk woman and a white single mother, who both struggle to survive economically. Frozen River was nominated for two Academy Awards: Best Actress (Melissa Leo) and Best Original Screenplay (Courtney Hunt). Misty Upham was nominated for an Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female.
 * KANIENʼKEHÁ꞉KA: Living The Language (2008) is a two-part documentary about the work of the Akwesasne Freedom School and the community in teaching and preserving the Mohawk language. It was produced by Mushkeg Productions Inc. in association with APTN (Aboriginal Peoples Television Network).
 * Skydancer (2011), written and directed by Katja Esson, is a full-length documentary about life in Akwesasne and the careers of some of its men in ironworking. The Mohawk of Akwesasne have been among steel workers in New York City and other parts of the US, where they are renowned for their high work in building skyscrapers and bridges. The US/German production was aired on PBS in its America Reframed series, October 2012. The Canadian broadcast premiere was on APTN, part of its Reel Insights, October 2012.
 * Mohawk Ironworkers (2016) is a 13-part half-hour documentary series that celebrates the skills of Mohawk ironworkers of Kahnawake, Akwesasne and Six Nations, who are said to be "the best ironworkers on the planet". It is available on APTN.
 * Akwesasne was the location of season 2, episode 5, "The Line", for the television series FBI: Most Wanted on CBS. The episode aired on January 26, 2021.

Notable residents

 * Mary Kawennatakie Adams (1917–1999), textile artist and basket maker
 * Ernest Benedict (1918–2011), educator, activist, and chief of the Mohawk Council
 * Lou Bruce (1877–1968), baseball player
 * Katsi Cook, midwife, environmentalist, Native American rights activist, and women's health advocate
 * John Kahionhes Fadden (1938–2022), artist and educator
 * Alex Jacobs, artist, poet, and radio host
 * Margaret Jacobs, artist
 * Kiawentiio, actress and singer-songwriter
 * Mary Leaf (1925–2004), basket maker
 * Mike Kanentakeron Mitchell, politician
 * Brandon Oakes, actor, artist, and dancer
 * Levi Oakes (1925–2019), code talker
 * Richard Oakes (1942–1972), activist
 * Marlana Thompson, beadwork artist, regalia maker, and fashion designer
 * Shirley Hill Witt, anthropologist, educator, author, civil rights activist, and former foreign service officer

title: Akwesasne


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Giancarlo Baghetti

Giancarlo Baghetti (25 December 1934 – 27 November 1995) was a Formula One driver who raced for the Ferrari, Automobili Turismo e Sport, BRM, Brabham and Lotus teams.

Baghetti is one of only three drivers to win on their World Drivers' Championship début. The other two are Nino Farina, who won the inaugural World Championship race – the 1950 British Grand Prix – and Johnnie Parsons, who won the AAA-sanctioned 1950 Indianapolis 500 17 days later.

Formula One career
Baghetti was born in Milan. His father was a wealthy Milan industrialist. He began racing in 1955 in production cars, moving up to Formula Junior in 1958. In 1961 he was selected by the Federazione Italiana Scuderie Automobilistiche (FISA), a coalition of independent Italian team owners who had agreed a loan deal with Ferrari for a 156 Formula Two car to run in non-Championship Grand Prix, giving experience to promising Italian drivers. Despite not showing spectacular form in lower categories, Baghetti was chosen over Albino Buttichi and Lucien de Sanctis for the seat. The car was first entered for the Syracuse Grand Prix, the first major event run under the new 1.5-litre championship regulations, and against a strong field Baghetti qualified second and won in the only Ferrari, with the British teams and Porsche 718 flat 4 unable to compete with the Dino's V6. He then drove the same car to win at the Napoli Grand Prix a few weeks later.

Team FISA entered an original 60-degree V6 Ferrari 156, at least 10 hp down on power, for Baghetti in the 1961 French Grand Prix at Reims-Gueux, for this World Championship event. Once Wolfgang von Trips, Richie Ginther and Phil Hill had all retired their works 156s, Baghetti was left to uphold Ferrari honour. He overcame Dan Gurney's Porsche 718 to take victory, giving him a hat trick of wins from his first three Grands Prix. Gurney was leading with 100 yd to go as the cars raced to the finish line at 160 mi/h. The victory meant Baghetti became the first Italian since 1956 to win a Formula One World Championship event. It also ensured that he became the first, and only driver ever to win on their World Championship Grand Prix debut against a field that did not consist entirely of other debutant drivers.

He entered two more Championship races, retiring from the 1961 British Grand Prix and 1961 Italian Grand Prix, though he posted fastest lap in the latter. He also won the poorly attended Prima Coppa Italia race at Vallelunga in a Porsche 718.

He was promoted to the works Ferrari line-up for 1962, but took just two Championship placings – fourth at the Dutch Grand Prix, and fifth at the Italian Grand Prix, as Ferrari was outclassed by the British teams. Baghetti took second in the non-Championship Mediterranean Grand Prix. He was offered a full Ferrari F1 drive for 1963, but had already signed with a rival team. Enzo Ferrari rated Baghetti highly, calling him, 'a lesser Varzi'. Baghetti was involved in 1963 in the disastrous ATS effort in 1963, joining up with Phil Hill for Carlo Chiti's breakaway team, but failed to register a finish from five starts. For 1964 he switched to Scuderia Centro Sud's outdated BRM P57 cars, peaking with seventh at the Austrian Grand Prix. His Grand Prix career was then virtually over, though he had three more one-off drives, all at the Italian Grand Prix – a works Brabham in 1965, a Reg Parnell-semiworks Dino Ferrari 2.4 V6 in which he ran strongly ahead of  Arundell's Lotus V8 Climax and Anderson's 2.7 litre Brabham, running 5th in 1966 and a similarly competent drive in a works Lotus 49 in 1967, running in midfield and passing Amon and Ickx and would have scored a point but for a blown engine.

Post-Formula One racing
He achieved some success in the European Touring Car Championship with Alfa Romeo and FIAT Abarth, winning the 1966 1000cc Class Championship in an Abarth 1000. After dabbling in Formula Three, he retired after a huge accident at the 1967 "Monza Lottery". Boley Pittard of England was burned severely when his Lola burst into flames at the start of the final qualifying heat. Baghetti won the event in a Branca with an average speed over thirty-five laps of 114 mi/h. In June 1968, Baghetti was in a huge pile-up on the 23rd lap of a Formula Two race at Monza. He was driving a Dino.

He later became a journalist and photographer in motorsport and fashion, and promoted various industrial videos for Fiat.

Death and legacy
Baghetti's Championship debut win has secured him a footnote in Formula One history, as he became the only driver to have won his first three Formula One races, starting with two non-championship Grand Prix races in Italy. Baghetti died of cancer on 27 November 1995.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
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Non-championship
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Giancarlo Baghetti


text:
Gino Bianco

Luigi Emilio Rodolfo Bertetti Bianco, better known as Gino Bianco (July 22, 1916 – May 8, 1984) was a racing driver from Brazil. Born in Milan, Italy, he emigrated to Brazil as a child and started racing there. He raced a Maserati A6GCM for the Escuderia Bandeirantes team and took part in four Formula One World Championship Grands Prix, with a best result of 18th at the 1952 British Grand Prix. Bianco later raced in hillclimbs and died in Rio de Janeiro, aged 67, after suffering from breathing problems.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
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title: Gino Bianco


text:
Gino Munaron

Gino Munaron (born 2 April 1928 – died 22 November 2009) was a racing driver from Italy. He participated in 4 Formula One World Championship Grands Prix, debuting on 7 February 1960. He scored no championship points.

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title: Gino Munaron


text:
Giorgio Bassi

Giorgio Bassi (born 20 January 1934 in Milan) is a former Formula One driver from Italy who raced in the 1965 Italian Grand Prix for the Scuderia Centro Sud team. He was also a regular participant in Italian Formula 3 and took a class win in the 1965 Targa Florio in a 1-litre ASA Prototype.

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title: Giorgio Bassi


text:
Giovanni Lavaggi

Giovanni Lavaggi (born 18 February 1958) is an Italian racing driver.

Despite Lavaggi being a nobleman by background, he could not count on personal financial resources; therefore he started racing only at the age of 26. Nevertheless, he managed to reach the top class of motorsport, racing in Formula One in 1995 and 1996. His first involvement in F1 was in 1992 when, being a mechanical engineer, he was official test driver for the March F1 team. In 1995, he drove for Lotus-Pacific for four races in which he was forced to retire due to gearbox problems. In the second part of 1996 racing season, he joined the Minardi team for six races. His best result was a tenth place at the Hungaroring, which was the second best result of the year for Minardi team.

He lives in Monte Carlo.

Early life
Lavaggi was born in Augusta, Sicily on 18 February 1958, being of noble heritage. He studied mechanical engineering at Milan Polytechnic.

Racing career
Lavaggi's racing career started in 1984, inspired by Henry Morrogh who judged him the best student he ever had at his racing school. That year he was official driver of the constructor Ermolli in the Italian Formula Panda championship where he was classified second, winning more races than any other driver. Not having enough sponsorship to afford a whole season in Formula Three, he did a few races in the Italian Formula Three Championship before turning to Group C sports cars, in order to gain international experience. In this category, he soon became a driver for the Porsche Kremer Team, for whom he became the 1993 Interserie champion, winning six of the season's total of 12 races and taking four further podium finishes. He also won the 1995 Daytona 24 Hours, driving nine hours in a team of four drivers. He scored two more wins in the FIA Sportscar Championship, including the 1000 km of Monza, where he drove five of the race's six hours and took five more podium places and two pole positions. His first race in F1 was at the German Grand Prix for Pacific in 1995. Prior to this he was a test driver for March during the 1992 season. He tested the Pacific PR02 twice before his first race for the British team - once at Silverstone and once at Snetterton. He was a rookie, but, at the same time, being 35 years old, he was the oldest driver in the field; therefore, he had to fight against the scepticism of the F1 media. The Pacific PR02 was an unreliable machine and he retired from all 4 races in 1995. His last experience in F1 was the 1996 Bologna Motorshow. Racing in a Minardi against two Benettons (driven by Jarno Trulli and Giancarlo Fisichella), two Ligiers (Olivier Panis and Shinji Nakano) and the other Minardi (Tarso Marques), he finished second, losing the final against Fisichella by a nose.

After his F1 career, Lavaggi founded his own team “Scuderia Lavaggi” and in 2006 he became a constructor designing and building his own Le Mans Prototype, the Lavaggi LS1. He raced the car in the Le Mans Series until 2009 and he scored a pole position at 2008 Vallelunga 6h. Lavaggi is the only example of a driver-constructor in the modern era of motorsport at high-level.

He was nicknamed "Johnny Carwash" (an approximate translation of his name from Italian to English, John Washes) by people in the paddock; US talk show host David Letterman helped bring the nickname to popular attention.

Family
The Lavaggi noble family moved from Genoa to Sicily (Palermo) in 1420 and then from Palermo to Augusta in 1711. A cousin of Giovanni’s grandfather, also called Giovanni Lavaggi, was a war hero. He was a pilot of the Italian Air Force and he died because of the sabotage of his airplane, while bringing to Asmara the Italian minister of public works Luigi Razza, who also was killed in the crash. In the cities of Catania and Augusta, Via Giovanni Lavaggi (Giovanni Lavaggi Road) is named after him.

Complete International Formula 3000 results
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American Open-Wheel racing results
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PPG Indycar Series
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title: Giovanni Lavaggi


text:
Giulio Cabianca

Giulio Cabianca (19 February 1923 – 15 June 1961) was a Formula One driver from Italy.

Cabianca was born in Verona, northern Italy. He participated in 4 World Championship Grands Prix, debuting on 18 May 1958. He scored a total of 3 championship points. He also participated in one non-Championship Formula One race. He also won the Dolomites Gold Cup Race in 1955.

Cabianca's death resulted from a bizarre incident at the Modena Autodrome test track in Italy. The Modena Autodrome was situated near Via Emilia, which crosses the city of Modena. Cabianca was testing a Cooper-Ferrari F1 car, owned by Scuderia Castellotti, when he suffered a suspected gearbox failure. Unable to stop, his Cooper went off track, struck a spectator and then went through the gate of the Autodrome which was open because of men at work near the track. The car crossed the Via Emilia, collided with several vehicles, then crashed against the wall of a coachbuilder shop. Cabianca was killed, as were a minivan driver, a motorcycle rider, and a bicyclist.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
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Non-Championship results
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title: Giulio Cabianca


text: User talk:170.224.224.156

title: User talk:170.224.224.156


text:
Graham McRae

Graham Peter McRae (5 March 1940 – 4 August 2021) was a racing driver from New Zealand.

He achieved considerable success in Formula 5000 racing, winning the Tasman Series each year from 1971 to 1973, and also at the 1972 L&M Continental 5000 Championship in the United States.

McRae's single outing in the Formula One World Championship was at the 1973 British Grand Prix on 14 July 1973, where he retired in the first lap. McRae also competed in the 1973 Indianapolis 500, finishing in 16th position and earning Rookie of the Year.

Racing career
McRae was born in Wellington, New Zealand. As a qualified engineer, McRae competed in local sport car racing and hillclimbs in the early 1960s, notably at Levin and began to compete seriously in the 1.5 twin cam formula, which used an old F3 chassis.

After running a dated Brabham chassis, McRae built a slim, McRae, National Formula car which dominated the 1968–69 series, beating talented opponents in David Oxton, Ken Smith and Bert Hawthorne.

He also ran in the four NZ rounds of the Tasman Series, and McRae proved surprisingly competitive at the tight Levin circuit where McRae, 160 hp down on power qualified 1.8 seconds slower than Jochen Rindt and almost equalled the time of GLTL Team Leader Graham Hill in a mishandling Lotus 49. This performance secured McRae the NZ Driver to Europe scholarship for a few 1969 F2 races where he ran in the upper midfield in an ageing Brabham BT23.

Before entering Formula One, McRae placed third in both the 1970 Guards European Formula 5000 Championship and first in the 1971 Rothmans European Formula 5000 Championship. He won a number of rounds, but was hindered by some accidents, one serious, and impatience which earned him the nickname, 'Cassius' (after the boxing champion) reflecting his strut and belief in the greatness of his own talent.

Fields were strong in European F5000 at this time and McRae was competing against former F1 drivers Brian Redman, Trevor Taylor, Mike Hailwood and Frank Gardner, all world class drivers and Peter Gethin and Howden Ganley in works backed McLarens. McRae was Tasman Series Champion three years in a row, from 1971 to 1973, also taking the US F5000 Championship crown in 1972, with three race wins. The US 5000 championship win in 1972 was a noted achievement against competent F5000 and World Championship sports car drivers David Hobbs and Sam Posey and McRae won a lot of money and laurels, and drove with control despite also competing in the 1972 Rothmans European Formula 5000 Championship, in which he placed third.

In the combined F1/F5000 International Trophy, McRae finished seventh, the first F5000 car and for a while had run ahead of Graham Hill in a F1 Brabham BT34 and kept up with the F1 McLarens of Denny Hulme and Peter Revson, this reflected the very good race car set up skills of McRae on his Leda F5000. McRae would probably have got a regular F1 drive if he had not been a difficult customer and probably too old at 32 in most teams' eyes to be developed as a serious F1 driver. He was offered a drive in F1 at Nivelles when Jackie Stewart suffered an ulcer, but could not fit it into his demanding programme. He did race for Frank Williams in the British GP the following year but it was an uncompetitive chassis, and a good start was ruined by the multi-car crash which stopped the race after a lap.

In 1973, he faced much stronger competition in US F5000 with F1 drivers James Hunt and Jody Scheckter having far better financed efforts and more support. McRae also contested the 1973 Rothmans 5000 European Championship, but recorded only one round win, at Mallory Park. 1974 was McRae's last good year and despite lack of finance and contractual disputes over his new McRae GM2 and its Talon derivative, McRae finished eighth in the US F5000 series and would have been fifth if he had not lost third place with tyre failure at Las Vegas, where he was running ahead of Unser.

After writing off the GM2 in practice for the Oran Park, the Tasman round at the start of 1975, McRae contested the US F5000 National Travellers Cheque series, in a Lola T332 which showed promise in the heats, finishing fourth behind J.P Jarier at Watkins Glen and second in a heat at Laguna Seca to Al Unser, ahead of Warwick Brown and qualifying eighth at Long Beach, but never finished better than eighth in the main race during the series. McRae debuted his new GM3 at the last US F5000 race in Riverside in 1976, and retired from midfield.

The car featured Perspex windows in the cockpit (like the Tyrrell P34), so the spectators could watch Graham at the wheel. But with the US F5000 regulations being changed to require the cars to carry Can Am sports car bodies, McRae took a year to revise the GM3 and unsponsored he could not pay for competitive engines, and privateer competition against the Haas or Paul Newman teams was hopeless. In 1978, he won his fifth F5000 title, the Australian Drivers' Championship.

Death
McRae died on 4 August 2021 at the age of 81.

McRae Cars
In 1972 McRae, Malcolm Bridgland of Malaya Garage, and car designer Len Terry built a new F5000. The car was initially designated the Leda LT27 following Terry's designs. McRae used the name Leda GM1 for his personal car. In mid-1972 McRae and London insurance broker John Heynes bought out Bridgland and set up a United Kingdom company McRae Cars Ltd at Poole, Dorset. As from 1 July 1972 the Leda was renamed the McRae GM1. Fourteen of these cars were built between 1972 and 1973. It achieved considerable success in the British Hill Climb Championship, driven by Roy Lane.

A one-off McRae GM2 was built in 1973 and the design was subsequently sold to Jack McCormack who built five examples under the name Talon. A single GM3 followed in 1976 and this was later developed into the GM9 Can-Am car.

McRae followed this up in 1993 with a replica of the Porsche 356 Speedster. It was based around a 2.0-litre Porsche 914 with a five-speed gearbox. McRae had imported a Porsche 356 Speedster from Vintage Speedsters of California to make the moulds for his production kits. Being a technical perfectionist, McRae's Spyder is an accurate replica of original built by Porsche in 1954 and 1955. Some McRae Spyders are powered by a Subaru engine. In June 2000, McRae set up the New Zealand based McRae Cars Ltd. Since his illness in 2003, no more of these cars have been made and the existing 38 models are in high demand. The company was struck off the register in June 2003.

Former McRae GM1 owner and driver, Alister Hey of Queenstown registered McRae Cars Limited again in 2010.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
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General references

 * Profile at Grandprix.com

title: Graham McRae


text:
Gregor Foitek

Gregor Foitek (born 27 March 1965) is a Swiss former racing driver. He won the 1986 Swiss Formula 3 Championship. Moving up to Formula 3000 he was widely blamed for causing a race-stopping crash at Brands Hatch in 1988, the restart of which led to a second major crash on the first lap in which Johnny Herbert sustained major leg injuries. Foitek participated in 22 Formula One Grands Prix, debuting on 26 March 1989. He scored no championship points. He later made two CART starts for Foyt Enterprises in 1992 but was knocked out of both races by mechanical issues.

Today he helps run Foitek Automobile, a family-run Ferrari and Maserati dealership in Altendorf.

1989: EuroBrun and Rial
Foitek made his debut at the 1989 Brazilian Grand Prix, however with turbos now banned from F1, the number of entries had grown to 39. Thirteen cars had to enter pre-qualifying and with EuroBrun having performed poorly in, Foitek had to enter the session using the ER188B, which was an update of the 1988 car. Foitek only got to the main qualifying session once, at the first race in Brazil, where he then failed to qualify. After 11 rounds Foitek quit the EuroBrun team.

At the Spanish Grand Prix, Foitek was called up to replace Christian Danner at the Rial team. However, the Rial team were having a bad season and several crew members had left the team. Furthermore, although it was assured of a place in the main qualifying session, the Rial ARC2 was uncompetitive, some five seconds off the next slowest car. In his one race with the team, Foitek's rear wing broke at high speed and he crashed heavily. He immediately quit the team.

Complete International Formula 3000 results
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† Driver did not finish the race, but was still classified as they completed 90% of the race distance.

title: Gregor Foitek


text:
ICK

Ick or ICK may refer to:

 * Ick, a character in the children's television show It's a Big Big World
 * Islamic Community of Kosova, a religious organization in Kosovo
 * Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, a single-celled parasite. Also known as Ich
 * Inhibitor cystine knot
 * Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest
 * Intercity Kort, A Dutch train-coach
 * Intestinal cell (MAK-like) kinase, a human protein involved in organ development
 * The ick, Generation Z slang term
 * William Ick, (1800–1844), botanist

title: ICK


text:
Günther Bechem

Karl-Günther Bechem (alias: "Bernhard Nacke"; 21 December 1921 – 3 May 2011) was a racing driver from Germany.

Bechem started out in sports car racing before competing in Formula Two in the 1952 German Grand Prix, driving a BMW under the alias "Bernhard Nacke". He failed to finish the race, and so did not score any World Championship points. He continued driving an ex-Karl Gommann AFM-BMW (chassis 50–5) in Formula Two in 1953, at AVUS and then in the German Grand Prix at Nürburgring, again failing to finish. He was more successful in sports car racing with the Borgward team.

In 1954 Bechem crashed heavily while competing in the Carrera Panamericana, and although he recovered fully from his injuries, he never raced again at this high level.

Complete World Championship results
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title: Günther Bechem


text:
Talk:The Pyramid (Kadare novel)

"Albania's Shakespeare"
First, I can't find any evidence of this description for Ismail Kadare. However, I'm going to pretend to enough about this subject matter to remove it. I do know that, even if it were a true description of the man, any link to a page would probably end up as a redirect. I figured that it would make more sense to unwikify the link. --Ricky81682 23:47, Nov 30, 2004 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:IsmailKadare ThePyramid.jpg
Image:IsmailKadare ThePyramid.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 10:24, 5 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Pyramid (Kadare novel)


text:
Gus Hutchison

Augustus Hutchison (born April 26, 1937 in Atlanta, Georgia) is a former racecar driver from the United States.

He was the winner of the 1967 SCCA Grand Prix Championship driving a Lotus 41.

In 1970, he purchased a Formula One Brabham BT26, entering it in the 1970 United States Grand Prix. He retired after 21 laps with a loose fuel tank.

When Formula A became Formula 5000, Hutchison continued driving in the SCCA series, driving cars from Lola and March.

After retiring from racing, Hutchison focused on running his business, Solar Kinetics, based in Dallas.

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title: Gus Hutchison


text: Category:Missouri maps

title: Category:Missouri maps


text:
Nasser Moghaddam

Lieutenant General Nasser Moghaddam (24 June 1921 – 11 April 1979) was an Iranian military officer who served as the fourth and final chief of SAVAK from 6 June 1978 to 12 February 1979. He assumed the position after the arrest of General Nematollah Nassiri in 1978, following an order issued by the Shah. Moghaddam, along with Nassri and Nassiri's predecessor, Hassan Pakravan, was found guilty of corruption and subsequently sentenced to death on 11 March 1979, in accordance with the order of Ayatollah Khomeini.

Early life
Nasser Moghaddam was born in 1921 in Tehran, Qajar Iran. He attended a military high school and later pursued a law degree at the Faculty of Tehran University.

During his early years, Nasser lived with his father until the age of 10. From 1935 onwards, for reasons unknown, he resided with his uncle Hussein, who did not treat him kindly. Consequently, Nasser made the decision to return home.

In 1928, he enrolled in a primary school and in 1934, he joined the military school of Tehran, from which he graduated in 1940.

In 1941, during the final year of Reza Shah's reign, Nasser enlisted in the Officers' School, where he remained until 1943. He completed his studies at the officers' academy, attaining the rank of 2nd rank lieutenant, and decided to pursue further education at the Faculty of Law, University of Tehran.

During his time at the Officers' School and the University of Tehran, Nasser not only acquired a solid foundation in military and security studies but also developed a proficient command of the French and English languages.

Career in army and intelligence services
At the Officers' School, Nasser met Hossein Fardoust, an event he considered to be the most significant in his life. This was likely because the recent friendship between the Shah and Fardoust also contributed to his career growth. Thanks to his acquaintance with Fardoust, Nasser served in various divisions of the army until 1964, including the 10th Division of Khorasan, the 5th Division of Luristan, the Shah's Guard, the Ministry of Defense, the Military Prosecutor's Office, and the Academy.

In 1959, the "Special Intelligence Bureau" was established in Iran, and General Hossein Fardoust extended an offer to Moghaddam to collaborate with him. Nasser agreed to the proposal.

Uprising of 15 Khordad
After the suppression of the 15 Khordad uprising, General Fardoust capitalized on the situation and requested the Shah to replace Mustafa Amjadi, the director general of the Department of Internal Security, with Moghaddam. The Shah, aware of Amjadi's close association with Teymur Bakhtiar, agreed to Fardoust's suggestion. Moghaddam served as the director of the third Department for approximately 10 years. His responsibilities encompassed overseeing the actions of revolutionary groups and providing the Shah with weekly updates on the public sentiment, a task he purportedly executed competently.

Second Bureau of Intelligence and Counterintelligence
In 1971, Lieutenant General Nasser Moghaddam was promoted to the position of Director of the Army's Second Bureau of Intelligence and Counterintelligence.

On 19 April 1973, General Moghaddam assumed the role of Deputy Director General of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, serving under General Azizollah Palizban. The order stated that Nasser Moghaddam's tenure in SAVAK had come to an end, and he would be appointed as the head of the Information Bureau of the 2nd Bureau while retaining the position of Adjutant to the Shah.

Military ranks
Moghaddam's military ranks:
 * 25 October 1966 – Brigadier General
 * 23 October 1970 – Division General (Sarlashgar)
 * 25 October 1971 – Shah's personal adjutant.

General Moghaddam at the head of SAVAK (June 1978 – February 1979)
In April 1978, General Moghaddam sent a confidential letter to the Shah, urging the monarch to take decisive action in light of the country's circumstances. He emphasized the necessity of exemplary punishment for corrupt government officials associated with the royal family and stressed the importance of engaging in a constructive dialogue with the clergy. Additionally, it is evident from various sources that the CIA had been providing financial support to General Moghaddam for many years.

In an attempt to alleviate the tense situation, the Shah, under urgent request from Washington, made concessions to the Iranian public. In June 1978, he removed Nassiri, the powerful director of SAVAK. Lieutenant General Nasser Moghaddam was appointed as the new head of the secret police due to his connections within the opposition, including the Shiite clergy.

In contemporary times, many Iranians have criticized the Shah's decision, considering it a mistake that weakened the Security Service. The threat came from entirely different forces. Unlike General Nassiri, Moghaddam advocated for a constructive dialogue with the religious opposition. It is worth nothing that Moghaddam had ties to opposition groups, including Shiite clerics.

Before assuming his new role, General Moghaddam served as the head of military counterintelligence. He was known for opposing the use of torture and his appointment aimed to facilitate better integration between the army and the secret service.

Upon assuming his position, Moghaddam focused on dismantling the influence of Nematollah Nassiri, who was then serving as the Iranian ambassador to Pakistan. Reports suggest that the CIA exerted pressure on Nassiri and his supporters to remove them from the intelligence service, with Nasser Moghaddam being the only viable replacement. During an interview, a former SAVAK officer currently in exile highlighted the significance of Nassiri's dismissal, but also noted that the dismissal of General Ali Motazed, Nassiri's deputy, was equally erroneous. With Moghaddam's appointment, the era of SAVAK's "Iron rule" came to an end.

General Moghaddam had previously served as the army's chief of counterintelligence and was known for his opposition to torture during interrogations. His appointment to his new position was a result of the Shah's desire to integrate the army and SAVAK, aiming to implement democratic reforms within the armed forces. As an example, Moghaddam allowed lawyers to attend the interrogations of defendants.

Following the riots of 21–22 July 1978, the Shah convened a meeting with two generals, Fardoust and Moghaddam, to discuss an action plan against the protesters. However, the meeting was failed to produce any substantial results.

Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti secret mission to Tehran (September 1978)
Shortly after Moghaddam's appointment, a meeting took place between senior SAVAK officials and the leadership of the Iraqi intelligence service. During this meeting, the Iranian side raised concerns about neutralizing Ayatollah Khomeini's political activities. Iraqi officials expressed their full solidarity on this matter. Notably, in early September 1978, Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, the Director of Iraqi Intelligence, secretly traveled to Tehran. He conveyed Saddam Hussein's proposal to the Shah: "His Majesty must put down the revolt with an iron fist, and if you (the Shah) need help in this matter, Iraq is ready to stand by you." Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti suggested assassinating Khomeini, who was residing in Najaf at the time. Acting on the advice of Hossein Fardoust and Nasser Moghaddam, the Shah declined Saddam Hussein's offer. Shortly afterward, Khomeini was expelled from the country and sought refuge in France. Controlling his activities was much easier while he was in Iraq, but in France it became increasingly challenging. Western media portrayed Khomeini as a global figure. Reuven Merhav, an Israeli intelligence officer, later observed that the Shah failed to grasp the consequences of his decision.

Iranian Revolution
The outbreak of the revolutionary wave was followed by an exodus of security and military officials from the country. For instance, Parviz Sabeti, who was in charge of the 3rd Department, departed on 27 November. General Gholam Ali Oveissi and Tehran Police Chief General Moulavi left Iran in January 1979 and relocated to the United States.

On 16 January 1979, the Shah and his family departed Iran. On 1 February, Khomeini returned from exile and assumed personal leadership of the revolutionary process. After three days of battling against the Shah's Imperial Guard, Khomeini seized control.

Following the revolution's victory, representatives of Mehdi Bazargan approached Moghaddam and offered him a prominent role in the establishment of a new security service. Moghaddam accepted the offer and later recollected, "It seems that Bazargan will thank for the kindness I have done for him." Concurrently, Moghaddam attempted to destroy all documents in which he was implicated as a participant in repressive actions.

On 15 February, following the execution of former SAVAK director Nematohla Nassiri, Moghaddam realized that his situation was dire and decided to go into hiding temporarily, intending to leave the country at the earliest opportunity. However, he was swiftly apprehended and handed over to the Revolutionary Tribunal. Moghaddam was even impressed by the efficiency of the new security apparatus, stating, "What smart people. If they were my employees at SAVAK, I would be much more successful."

While in prison, Moghaddam held hope for a prompt release and securing a favorable position with the support of Mehdi Bazargan. However, on 11 April 1979, General Nasser Moghaddam was executed by order of the Islamic Revolutionary Tribunal.

title: Nasser Moghaddam


text:
Talk:Public–private partnership

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): R AlvarezUCSD.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 07:28, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Public–private partnership


text:
Issy-les-Moulineaux

Issy-les-Moulineaux is a commune in the southwestern suburban area of Paris, France, lying on the left bank of the river Seine. Its citizens are called Isséens in French. It is one of Paris's entrances and is located 6.6 km from Notre Dame Cathedral, which is considered Kilometre Zero in France. On 1 January 2010, Issy-les-Moulineaux became part of the Grand Paris Seine Ouest agglomeration community, which merged into the Métropole du Grand Paris in January 2016.

Issy-les-Moulineaux has successfully moved its economy from an old manufacturing base to high value-added service sectors and is at the heart of the Val de Seine business district, the largest cluster of telecommunication and media businesses in France, hosting the headquarters of most major French TV networks.

Geography
Issy-les-Moulineaux is a municipality located on the edge of the 15th arrondissement of Paris, along the main axis between Paris and Versailles, and on the left bank of the Seine. The town is situated 7.5 kilometers southwest of the Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, the central point of France's road network, and 3 kilometers from the town hall of the 15th arrondissement.

It is positioned 4 kilometers east of the sub-prefecture Boulogne-Billancourt and 11 kilometers southeast of the prefecture Nanterre. Within its territory, Issy-les-Moulineaux encompasses an island in the Seine: the Île Saint-Germain.

Name
Originally, Issy-les-Moulineaux was simply called Issy. The name Issy comes from Medieval Latin Issiacum or Isciacum, perhaps meaning "estate of Isicius (or Iccius)", a Gallo-Roman landowner, although some think the name comes from a Celtic radical meaning "under the wood". Local legend recounted on the city's official website mentions alternative origin of the name arising from a temple of the Egyptian goddess Isis said to be under the site of the Church of Saint Stephen.

In 1893 Issy officially became Issy-les-Moulineaux. Les Moulineaux was the name of a hamlet on the territory of the commune, apparently named Les Moulineaux due to the water mill or mills (moulins à eau) that stood there.

History
In July 1815 the Battle of Issy was fought in and around the village, between Prussian and French forces. This was one of the last actions of the 'Hundred Days' campaign and was the final attempt to defend Paris against the armies of the Seventh Coalition.

The town was once the location of the Château d'Issy, destroyed in 1871, former home of the Princes of Conti. On 1 January 1860, the city of Paris was enlarged by annexing neighboring communes. On that occasion, about a third of the commune of Issy-les-Moulineaux was annexed to Paris, and forms now the neighborhood of Javel, in the 15th arrondissement of Paris.

Issy-les-Moulineaux is home to a community of 5,000 Armenians that have established themselves in the area since the 1930s. The community has two Armenian churches, an athletic club, a school, a monument dedicated to the Armenian genocide, and a street named after Armenia called Rue d'Armenie, and Rue d'Erevan named after Armenia's capital Yerevan. Issy-les-Moulineaux became twin cities with Echmiadzin, Armenia in December 1989.

Airfield
In the late 19th century, an expansive field in Issy had been dedicated to military exercises. This land, owned by the French Army, was made into an airfield in the 1900s during the pioneering era of aviation. Issy-les-Moulineaux soon became a hot spot for aviation in France, the most active airfield in Paris, and the site of many flight experiments. Photographers, newspaper reporters and intelligence agents from other countries gathered there to report on developments.

The airfield of Issy-les-Moulineaux was the starting point of the 1911 Paris to Madrid air race. One of the competing planes crashed into the audience during take-off, killing the French Minister of War Henri Maurice Berteaux. It hosted the trap shooting events for the 1924 Summer Olympics.

The firm of Appareils d'Aviation Les Frères Voisin, the world's first commercial airplane factory (1908) which was initially located in Boulogne-Billancourt, transformed itself into a luxury automobile manufacturing company named Avions Voisin in 1920. Most of Voisin's manufacturing facilities were then relocated in neighboring Issy-les-Moulineaux. Avions Voisin closed its doors in 1940.

The last fixed wing flight occurred in 1953, after which the aerodrome handled only helicopters; it continues to do this, with the ICAO code LFPI. It is operated by Aéroports de Paris.

Politics and administration
Since the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015, Issy forms one canton: Canton of Issy-les-Moulineaux.

Economy
Eurosport, the Canal+ Group, Coca-Cola France, France 24, Jet Solidaire, Microsoft France and Europe, Sodexo, Icade, Technicolor SA and Withings are based in Issy-les-Moulineaux.

Transport
Issy-les-Moulineaux is served by two stations on Paris Métro Line 12: Corentin Celton and Mairie d'Issy, two stations on Paris RER line C: Issy–Val de Seine and Issy and three stations on Île-de-France tramway Line 2: Les Moulineaux, Jacques-Henri Lartigue and Issy–Val de Seine. Multiple RATP bus lines have stops or their arrival/departure station in the city.

Multiple Vélib' and Autolib' stations allow subscribers of those services to share bicycles or electric cars.

There was also a cable car project, abandoned in February 2008.

Education
The commune has 17 public preschools, 16 public elementary schools. four public junior high schools, one public senior high school, and three private schools.

Junior high schools:
 * Collège de la Paix
 * Collège Henri Matisse
 * Collège Georges Mandel
 * Collège Victor Hugo

Lycée Eugène-Ionesco is the community's public senior high school.

Private schools:
 * Groupe scolaire La Salle Saint Nicolas (junior and senior high school)
 * École Arménienne « TARKMANTCHATZ » (preschool and elementary school) - An Armenian school
 * École Sainte-Clotilde (preschool and elementary school)

Notable people

 * Ali, rapper
 * Leïla Bekhti, actress
 * Mickaël Brisset, footballer
 * Robert Charpentier, cyclist
 * Christelle Diallo, basketball player
 * Peter Leo Gerety, (19 July 1912 – 20 September 2016), Roman Catholic Archbishop
 * Jean Jansem, painter
 * Rahavi Kifouéti, footballer
 * Manu Larcenet, comics writer
 * Sandrine Piau, soprano
 * Melchisédech Thévenot (c. 1620–1692), inventor of the spirit level
 * Gilles Vincent, (born 1958), writer

Twin towns – sister cities

Issy-les-Moulineaux is twinned with:

 * 🇩🇪 Weiden in der Oberpfalz, Germany (1962)
 * 🇧🇪 Frameries, Belgium (1979)
 * 🇮🇹 Macerata, Italy (1982)
 * 🏴 Hounslow, England, United Kingdom (1982)
 * Dapaong, Togo (1989)
 * 🇦🇲 Vagharshapat, Armenia (1989)
 * 🇪🇸 Pozuelo de Alarcón, Spain (1990)
 * 🇮🇱 Nahariya, Israel (1994)
 * 🇨🇳 Dongcheng (Beijing), China (1997)
 * 🇨🇳 Leshan, China (2003)
 * 🇰🇷 Guro (Seoul), South Korea (2005)
 * 🇯🇵 Ichikawa, Japan (2012)
 * 🇺🇸 Huntsville, Alabama, United States (2023)

Since 2018, Issy-les-Moulineaux also has friendly relations with New Julfa (Isfahan), Iran.

Sites of interest

 * Île Saint-Germain, an island located in the Seine. The island is divided into two parts, the urban side includes the offices and a residential area. The other side includes a park with the Tour aux Figures (Tower of Figures) by Jean Dubuffet. The Île Seguin is downstream.
 * Musée Français de la Carte à Jouer, a museum of playing cards

External Sources

 * World War I Belgian Refugees: Comite Franco-American pour la Protection des Enfants de la Frontiere -- Izzy-le-Moulineux

title: Issy-les-Moulineaux


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title: User talk:Markwill


text:
Talk:Plaid (band)

Favorite
What is your favorite Plaid album, EP or collaboration?
 * Double Figure, hands down. Matthew McVickar 06:54, Dec 2, 2004 (UTC)
 * At the moment it has to be Not For Threes for me. A complete masterpiece. Craptree 15:45, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

Is Spokes worth getting? I like 'Even Spring' a lot but have heard the rest of the album is rather dull. What say you?
 * I say Spokes is tremendous. Perhaps not as immediately catchy or engaging as some of their other material, but definitely awesome. Matthew McVickar 00:48, Jan 28, 2005 (UTC)

Yes, Spokes album is quite strong. This year I was at Optronica festival, London. Plaid played some new material and it was very good!
 * I saw this live performance too, it was awesome! Too bad track with TV noise will never be released. :( -- Kowarisuki 10:20, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

Tracks to look out for on Spokes: Even Spring Zeal Marry

yeah, the rest aren't that good in my oppinion, but the above three more than make up for it. Classic. Oh, make sure you buy everything plaid have ever done, they're my fave band. Get Black dog stuff too.

the "zeal" video is pretty stellar if you can find it. -robey

anybody wanna add a mention of the tekkon kinkreet soundtrack they did? -john
 * I'm gonna do it. -- Kowarisuki 10:20, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

Article name
Would it at all make sense to change the word, "band" in the article to, "artist"? By definition, the word 'band' really does not apply to Plaid. Maybe this is just petty opinion, and thus I'm asking here before I just go move it. So what do you think? .:bleaked
 * I say keep it as it is. -- Kowarisuki 10:20, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

INFO REQUEST: I have inherited parts in the post, spokes, rest proof clockwork and double figure...can anyone recommend some top tracks from each? Thanks! R 19.03.2008

Pronunciation
In interviews, Handley and Turner have always pronounced Plaid as "plad", with a caveat that they don't care whether or not people pronounce it "played" or "plad". There is an online interview in which Handley mentions that the Welsh word "plaid" is pronounced "pla-eed", but he never suggested that's how the group's name should be pronounced.--Sonance (talk) 17:21, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

Female Collaborations
I think perhaps Allison Goldfrapp should be mentioned as a featured female vocalist for her work on "Face Me" (Restproof's hidden track). I guess it is only 1 song but notable.

Either way, Coppe' should be added as well since they have done a number of songs for her. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.220.13.184 (talk) 05:59, 20 October 2008 (UTC) 67.220.13.184 (talk) 06:01, 20 October 2008 (UTC)

Incomplete Discography
I noticed a number of missing albums. They are not all in need of mentioning but at the very least their significant P-Brane EP should garner a spot on the list (some of their best work).

march 6th
says who?? cite references! ps the date has passed..... —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lotsofmagnets (talk • contribs) 06:32, 29 March 2010 (UTC)

Scintilli
I´m intending to remove it from the discography as theyæve stopped talking about it and 2010 is nearly over and since the album has been slated for release as early as 2008 it´s becomming clear that it´s either not going to be released at all or it´s still in the future.--Lotsofmagnets (talk) 11:30, 1 November 2010 (UTC)

Reads like a list?
Does anybody know of a tag that says this article reads like a list? I think that a tag like that would be more appropriate than the one I found. It's, however, the only one I found in short notice. If anyone knows of one, either replace it with the one I put, or let me know where I can find it on my talk page. Thanks.  Lighthead  þ 21:24, 22 July 2012 (UTC)

Requested move 28 July 2018

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Not moved, per consensus here and also precedent set at Talk:The Ghost (Faroese band) — Amakuru (talk) 19:27, 7 August 2018 (UTC)

Plaid (band) → Plaid (duo) – Not a band per WP:BANDDAB. The editor  whose username is Z0 17:30, 28 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Support per nom. bd2412  T 01:24, 29 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose This is a duo of electronic musicians. They play electronic musical instruments. Chubbles (talk) 01:33, 29 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose as proposed. WP:BANDDAB says "Use either '(band)' or '(duo)' when the musical ensemble is a duet." It does not deprecate the use of "(band)" in these cases. Dekimasu よ! 02:30, 29 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose the guidance on WP:BANDDAB says "Use either '(band)' or '(duo)' when the musical ensemble is a duet." Maybe we should remove the (duo) option as it adds nothing In ictu oculi (talk) 07:55, 29 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Comment - a band makes it more imprecise because there could be 2 to an infinite number of members whereas duo shows there is only 2 members in the group. A band is defined as "a group of instrumentalists playing music of a specialized type". This music group is a duo of electronic musicians who are not instrumentalists (players of a musical instrument). In popular culture, a band is typically a group of 4-5 people who sing, play the guitar, drums, bass, etc. Calling a group of 2 musicians a band is simply inaccurate and improper although literally they could fit the scope.  please consider reconsidering. Not only (duo) makes it easier to categorize music groups consisting of 2 members, it also distinguishes electronic music groups from regular music groups. The editor  whose username is Z0  08:05, 29 July 2018 (UTC)
 * 1) To this point, I think everyone has been fairly accepting of the fact that you filed 30 individual move requests instead of a multimove. However, please understand that it's annoying to get over 30 page notifications for the same comment–and then getting 30 edit conflicts after you edit the comment with the ping in it. If the issues at hand are the same, please pick one talk page and have the rest of the discussion there.
 * 2) There is nothing inaccurate or improper about calling a band with two members a band. Musical ensemble: "Examples of two-member bands are Japandroids, Local H, Pet Shop Boys, Hella, Flight of the Conchords, Death from Above 1979, Francis Xavier, I Set My Friends On Fire, Middle Class Rut, The Pity Party, Little Fish, The White Stripes, Big Business, Two Gallants, Lightning Bolt, The Ting Tings, The Black Box Revelation, Satyricon, The Black Keys, Tenacious D, Simon and Garfunkel, Hall & Oates, Johnossi, The Pack A.D., Air Supply and Royal Blood. When electronic sequencers became widely available in the 1980s, this made it easier for two-member bands to add in musical elements that the two band members were not able to perform. Sequencers allowed bands to pre-program some elements of their performance, such as an electronic drum part and a synth-bass line. Two-member pop music bands such as Soft Cell, Blancmange, Yazoo and Erasure used pre-programmed sequencers." In fact, this shows why it is easier to have two-person bands when electronic music is involved. As Chubbles stated, electronic music is music made using electronic musical instruments. It isn't necessary to require a band to be analog.
 * 3) The proposal referenced a particular naming convention, but the moves do not follow from that naming convention. Dekimasu よ! 08:22, 29 July 2018 (UTC)

 * Comment. Reply to Dekimasu: I'm not saying a two-member band is incorrect but it's just less preferred compared to duo. Musical ensemble says two-member rock and pop bands are relatively rare and they are mostly rock and pop groups not electronic music duos that are the subjects of these move discussions. Wikipedia's preference is usually the one most commonly used. Bands play musical instruments unlike electronic musicians who use digital audio workstation (DAW) to produce their music. DAW is not a musical instrument but a computer software. As for the naming convention, it did say to use either "(band)" or "(duo)" when the musical ensemble is a duet, as in duo for the duet and band for others. That precisely supports my argument so I'm not sure why you said "the moves do not follow from that naming convention". The editor  whose username is Z0 08:48, 29 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Comment the discussion for the general issue of whether electronic duos are accurately described as bands seems to be coalescing at Talk:The Ghost (Faroese band). Chubbles (talk) 10:34, 29 July 2018 (UTC)

Discussion
See Wikipedia talk:Naming conventions (music)/Disambiguation. Andrewa (talk) 01:21, 6 August 2018 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Nationality
This is a band who apparently live in England but have a Welsh name. Fortunately, there's a simple category which covers both, and is their actual nationality too: British. Perhaps we should use it?HuginAndNotMunin (talk) 10:31, 3 December 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Plaid (band)