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Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine

Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine, then Princess Louis of Battenberg, later Victoria Mountbatten, Marchioness of Milford Haven (5 April 1863 – 24 September 1950), was the eldest daughter of Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine, and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

Born in Windsor Castle in the presence of her maternal grandmother, Princess Victoria was raised in Germany and England. Her mother died while Victoria's brother and sisters were still young, which placed her in an early position of responsibility over her siblings. Over her father's disapproval, she married his morganatic first cousin Prince Louis of Battenberg, an officer in the British Royal Navy. Victoria lived most of her married life in various parts of Europe at her husband's naval posts and visiting her many royal relations. She was perceived by her family as liberal in outlook, straightforward, practical and bright. The couple had four children: Alice, Louise, George, and Louis.

During World War I, Victoria and her husband abandoned their German titles and adopted the surname of Mountbatten, which was an anglicised version of the German "Battenberg". Two of her sisters—Elisabeth and Alix, who had married into the Russian imperial family—were murdered by communist revolutionaries. After World War II, her daughter Louise became queen consort of Sweden and her son Louis was appointed the last viceroy of India. She was the maternal grandmother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, consort of Queen Elizabeth II; and paternal great-grandmother of King Charles III.

Early life
Victoria was born on Easter Sunday at Windsor Castle in the presence of her maternal grandmother, Queen Victoria. She was christened in the Lutheran faith in the Green Drawing Room at Windsor Castle, in the arms of the Queen on 27 April. Her godparents were Queen Victoria, Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine (represented by Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine), the Prince of Wales and Prince Heinrich of Hesse and by Rhine.

Victoria's early life was spent at Bessungen, a suburb of Darmstadt, until the family moved to the New Palace in Darmstadt when she was three years old. There, she shared a room with her younger sister, Elisabeth, until adulthood. She was privately educated to a high standard and was, throughout her life, an avid reader.

During the Prussian invasion of Hesse in June 1866, Victoria and Elisabeth were sent to Britain to live with their grandmother until hostilities were ended by the absorption of Hesse-Kassel and parts of Hesse-Darmstadt into Prussia. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, military hospitals were set up in the palace grounds at Darmstadt, and she helped in the soup kitchens with her mother. She remembered the intense cold of the winter, and being burned on the arm by hot soup.

In 1872, Victoria's eighteen-month-old brother, Friedrich, was diagnosed with haemophilia. The diagnosis came as a shock to the royal families of Europe; it had been twenty years since Queen Victoria had given birth to her haemophiliac son, Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, and it was the first indication that the bleeding disorder in the royal family was hereditary. The following year, Friedrich fell from a window onto stone steps and died. It was the first of many tragedies to beset the Hesse family. In early November 1878, Victoria contracted diphtheria. Elisabeth was swiftly moved out of their room and was the only member of the family to escape the disease. For days, Victoria's mother nursed the sick, but she was unable to save her youngest daughter, Marie, who died in mid-November. Just as the rest of the family seemed to have recovered, Princess Alice fell ill. She died on 14 December, the anniversary of the death of her father, Prince Albert. As the eldest child, Victoria partly assumed the role of mother to the younger children and of companion to her father. She later wrote, "My mother's death was an irreparable loss ... My childhood ended with her death, for I became the eldest and most responsible".

Marriage and family
At family gatherings, Victoria had often met Prince Louis of Battenberg, who was her first cousin once removed and a member of a morganatic branch of the Hessian royal family. Prince Louis had adopted British nationality and was serving as an officer in the Royal Navy. In the winter of 1882, they met again at Darmstadt, and were engaged the following summer.

After a brief postponement because of the death of her maternal uncle Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, Victoria married Prince Louis on 30 April 1884 at Darmstadt. Her father did not approve of the match; in his view Prince Louis—his own first cousin—had little money and would deprive him of his daughter's company, as the couple would naturally live abroad in Britain. However, Victoria was of an independent mind and took little notice of her father's displeasure. Remarkably, that same evening, Victoria's father secretly married his mistress, Countess Alexandrine von Hutten-Czapska, the former wife of Alexander von Kolemine, the Russian chargé d'affaires in Darmstadt. His marriage to a divorcee who was not of equal rank shocked the assembled royalty of Europe and through diplomatic and family pressure Victoria's father was forced to seek an annulment of his own marriage.

Over the next sixteen years, Victoria and her husband had four children:

They lived in a succession of houses at Chichester, Sussex, Walton-on-Thames, and Schloss Heiligenberg, Jugenheim. When Prince Louis was serving with the Mediterranean Fleet, she spent some winters in Malta. In 1887, she contracted typhoid but, after being nursed through her illness by her husband, was sufficiently recovered by June to attend Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee celebrations in London. She was interested in science and drew a detailed geological map of Malta and also participated in archaeological digs both on the island and in Germany. In leather-bound volumes she kept meticulous records of books she had read, which reveal a wide range of interests, including socialist philosophy.

She personally taught her own children and exposed them to new ideas and inventions. She gave lessons to her younger son, Louis, until he was ten years of age. He said of her in 1968 that she was "a walking encyclopedia. All through her life she stored up knowledge on all sorts of subjects, and she had the great gift of being able to make it all interesting when she taught it to me. She was completely methodical; we had time-tables for each subject, and I had to do preparation, and so forth. She taught me to enjoy working hard, and to be thorough. She was outspoken and open-minded to a degree quite unusual in members of the Royal Family. And she was also entirely free from prejudice about politics or colour and things of that kind."

In 1906, she flew in a Zeppelin airship, and even more daringly later flew in a biplane even though it was "not made to carry passengers, and we perched securely attached on a little stool holding on to the flyer's back". Up until 1914, Victoria regularly visited her relatives abroad in both Germany and Russia, including her two sisters who had married into the Russian imperial family: Elisabeth, who had married Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich, and Alix, who had married Emperor Nicholas II. Victoria was one of the Empress's relatives who tried to persuade her away from the influence of Rasputin. On the outbreak of war between Germany and Britain in 1914, Victoria and her daughter, Louise, were in Russia at Yekaterinburg. By train and steamer, they travelled to St Petersburg and from there through Tornio to Stockholm. They sailed from Bergen, Norway, on "the last ship" back to Britain.

Later life
Prince Louis was forced to resign from the navy at the start of the war when his German origins became an embarrassment, and the couple retired for the war years to Kent House on the Isle of Wight, which Victoria had been given by her aunt Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll. Victoria blamed her husband's forced resignation on the Government "who few greatly respect or trust". She distrusted the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, because she thought him unreliable—he had once borrowed a book and failed to return it. Continued public hostility to Germany led King George V of the United Kingdom to renounce his German titles, and at the same time on 14 July 1917 Prince Louis and Victoria renounced theirs, assuming an anglicised version of Battenberg—Mountbatten—as their surname. Four months later Louis was re-ennobled by the King as Marquess of Milford Haven. During the war, Victoria's two sisters, Alix and Elisabeth, were murdered in the Russian revolution, and her brother, Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, was deposed. On her last visit to Russia in 1914, Victoria had driven past the very house in Yekaterinburg where Alix would be murdered. In January 1921, after a long and convoluted journey, Elisabeth's body was interred in Jerusalem in Victoria's presence. Alix's body was never recovered during Victoria's lifetime.

Victoria's husband died in London in September 1921. After meeting her at the Naval and Military Club in Piccadilly, he complained of feeling unwell and Victoria persuaded him to rest in a room they had booked in the club annexe. She called a doctor, who prescribed some medicine, and Victoria went out to fill the prescription at a nearby pharmacy. When she came back, Louis was dead. On her widowhood, Victoria moved into a grace-and-favour residence at Kensington Palace and, in the words of her biographer, "became a central matriarchal figure in the lives of Europe's surviving royalty". In 1930, her eldest daughter, Alice, suffered a nervous breakdown and was diagnosed as schizophrenic. In the following decade Victoria was largely responsible for her grandson Prince Philip's education and upbringing during his parents' separation and his mother's institutionalisation. Prince Philip recalled, "I liked my grandmother very much and she was always helpful. She was very good with children ... she took the practical approach to them. She treated them in the right way—the right combination of the rational and the emotional."

In 1937, Victoria's brother, Ernest Louis, died and soon afterwards her widowed sister-in-law, nephew, granddaughter and two of her great-grandchildren all died in an air crash at Ostend. Victoria's granddaughter, Princess Cecilie of Greece and Denmark, had married Victoria's nephew (Ernest Louis's son), George Donatus of Hesse. They and their two young sons, Louis and Alexander, were all killed. Cecilie's youngest child, Johanna, who was not on the plane, was adopted by her uncle Prince Louis of Hesse and by Rhine, whose wedding the crash victims were en route to, but the little girl only survived her parents and older brothers by eighteen months, dying in 1939 of meningitis.

Further tragedy soon followed when Victoria's son, George, died of bone cancer the following year. Her granddaughter, Lady Pamela Hicks, remembered her grandmother's tears. In World War II Victoria was bombed out of Kensington Palace, and spent some time at Windsor Castle with King George VI. Her surviving son (Louis) and her two grandsons (David Mountbatten and Prince Philip) served in the Royal Navy, while her German relations fought with the opposing forces. She spent most of her time reading and worrying about her children; her daughter, Alice, remained in occupied Greece and was unable to communicate with her mother for four years at the height of the war. After the Allied victory, her son, Louis, was made Viscount Mountbatten of Burma. He was offered the post of Viceroy of India, but she was deeply opposed to his accepting, knowing that the position would be dangerous and difficult; he accepted anyway.

On 15 December 1948, the Dowager Marchioness attended the christening of her great-grandson, Prince Charles. She was one of eight sponsors or godparents, along with King George VI, King Haakon VII of Norway, Queen Mary, Princess Margaret, Prince George of Greece and Denmark, Lady Brabourne, and David Bowes-Lyon.

She fell ill with bronchitis (she had smoked since the age of sixteen ) at Lord Mountbatten's home at Broadlands, Hampshire, in the summer of 1950. Saying "it is better to die at home", Victoria moved back to Kensington Palace, where she died on 24 September aged 87. She was buried four days later in the grounds of St. Mildred's Church, Whippingham on the Isle of Wight.

Legacy
With the help of her lady-in-waiting, Baroness Sophie Buxhoeveden, Victoria wrote a memoir, held in the Mountbatten archive at the University of Southampton, which remains an interesting source for royal historians. A selection of Queen Victoria's letters to Victoria have been published with a commentary by Richard Hough and an introduction by Victoria's granddaughter, Patricia Mountbatten.

Lord Mountbatten remembered her fondly: "My mother was very quick on the uptake, very talkative, very aggressive and argumentative. With her marvellous brain she sharpened people's wits." Her granddaughter thought her "formidable, but never intimidating ... a supremely honest woman, full of commonsense and modesty". Victoria wrote her own typically forthright epitaph at the end of her life in letters to and conversation with her son: "What will live in history is the good work done by the individual & that has nothing to do with rank or title ... I never thought I would be known only as your mother. You're so well known now and no one knows about me, and I don't want them to."

Honours

 * Grand Duchy of Hesse: Dame of the Order of the Golden Lion, 1 January 1883
 * Kingdom of Prussia: Red Cross Medal, 1st Class
 * Russian Empire: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of St. Catherine
 * undefined:
 * Queen Victoria Golden Jubilee Medal, 1887
 * Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 1st Class

title: Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Madness (flash cartoon)

Madness (flash cartoon) was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

Non-notable webcomic. Alexa rank hard to get, as the toon is hosted by shockwave.com and flashplayer.com, but only 900 hits for madness krinkels, many are the sites mentioned, forums, etc. Niteowlneils 04:01, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete no evidence of notability. Cdc 06:45, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Notable as it led to Madness Interactive, which is well-known. Just needs a clean-up. Dan100 08:06, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, flash cartoons are rarely notable; Only one I can think of is All your base, and that one should just be part of the article about the whole AYB thing.  --fvw *  08:23, 2004 Dec 20 (UTC)
 * IIRC, Homestar Runner falls under the category of a "flash cartoon". I can think of many more which are notable as well.  If Madness Interactive is well known, then merge this content into that article.  [[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 20:32, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * It would appear that this article now is the article for madness interactive. Therefor keep. --Aqua 08:11, Dec 26, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: DCEdwards1966 20:41, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: advert. Wile E. Heresiarch 00:18, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, ad, nn (please be wary of Alexa, which uses a user sampling base which isn't at all scientifically representative). Wyss 00:24, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable. utcursch 07:21, Dec 21, 2004 (UTC)
 * A flash-based webcomic which led to a game. Frankly, my dear, I don't give a damn. Delete. Alphax (talk) 04:34, Dec 22, 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User:Fudoreaper

''2021: The text below very old because I am far less active than in the past. Still a wikipedia, though. :-)''

 * WIKIPEDIANS! Please give articles a chance, and don't demolish the house while it's still being built. Help the Article Resue Squadron.

Welcome to the Wikipedia userpage of Fudoreaper, which is me. I am a 31 year old male living in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. I first edited Wikipedia in February 2004, almost 9 years ago. I enjoyed it, and have been contributing to varying degrees every since.

This page contains information about me, and about my editing philosophy. I have also used this page as a notebook of sorts for myself about Wikipedia topics. It is not always up-to-date, but here it is.

About Me

 * See also: Cities of Interest
 * See also: Cool train stations
 * See also: Fudo Suggest
 * See also: Wikimedia Links

Personal
When I have free time, I like to edit Wikipedia. I also like computers, and bicycles, and trains, and science, and many other topics, which is why I like Wikipedia, it covers so many topics. ;-)

Editing
I like editing Wikipedia to make things more correct and accurate. So I like copy-editing to fix formatting problems of any kind; punctuation, spacing, heading order. I also do some fact-checking from time to time, reading citations and also doing my own looking for information about a topic. I'll add information if I know more than the article does, and I'll correct things I know to be wrong.

I like to re-word sentences to make things more clear, or to explain better to a general audience. I like making things understandable to an international audience, for example making sure we say things like "US President" not just "President", using metric (International System of Units) units, even removing some slang or colloquialisms only makes sense if you have specific cultural knowledge.

I am a soft editor. I edit when I feel am correct, when policy backs me, or when I really want to. But if I am unsure of the text, or unsure of another editor's change, I prefer not to edit. Unless I can articulate to myself a reason for editing, I hold off. Sometimes this means I leave questionable or poor text in an article, but I prefer to let another, more knowledgeable editor make the change. I feel this helps me avoid petty edit wars, and also keeps the quality of the edits I do make higher. But I still make mistakes, and I'm grateful when other editors correct me.

I don't have a specific method of editing, or finding things to edit, except for my watchlist. I check it when I feel like doing some checking of edits, and inevitably some editing. But sometimes I go for days without checking it.

I don't feel like I own any article. There are some I am fond of, and have edited many times, but I never resent or oppose the contributions of another editor on any page, including the (very few) that I created.

Some of my favourite things are:
 * adding wiki links, or correcting them. Sometimes pages make reference to something that I want to know more about, but the word is not linked. So I find the page manually and then add the link on the original page.  Also, sometimes links point to a redirect page, a disambiguation page, or the wrong version of a multiple page topic.  Correcting this, cleaning it up, makes me happy.  I like to think that this kind of attention to detail is a valuable contribution, and pretty easy as well.
 * fixing up disambiguation pages. Check out WikiProject Disambiguation.
 * improving formatting
 * adding airport code redirect pages

I have begun to edit Wiktionary. The project is just as cool as Wikipedia, but massively multilingual. You can look up a word that comes from any language, and the definition returns in English, or whichever language you're using at the time. The number of translations is exploding, too.

Oh, I also am the original author of a page about my Hometown, Birtle, Manitoba. I should work on improving it.

Philosophy of article merit
As of October, 2008, there have been many rumblings about 'deletionism' at Wikipedia. The rumours appear to be true, as I discovered while editing 2008 Channel Tunnel fire with some updated information a couple of days after the fire started. Already on the talk page there was a heated discussion about whether the page ought to exist at all. One commenter, posting 23 hours after the fire started, had concluded that there was insufficient material to justify the page, and that deleting it immediately was the best course of action. I was flabbergasted. How is it possible to know within 24 hours of an accident of this nature what the significance (meaning 'notability' to Wikipedia) will be? I really think editors must spend more time considering, and less time rushing to conclusions where no one is asking for one. (I posted a comment opposing deletion)

Therefore, let it be known that I am an inclusionist. I think we ought to include every topic we can. There are two primary reasons I feel this way.

Firstly, Wikipedia is not paper, it does not have a physical size limit. Having 20 million articles will not make the most popular 1000 harder to use. The point is that there is no technical or logistic limit on the maximum number of articles or article sizes. It is true that each article causes higher requirements of the Wikimedia servers, but the marginal additional cost from a single additional article is so small that we cannot use this as a reason to delete.

Secondly, as long as the information is factual, (and can be verified if needed) and someone cares to maintain it, there is no reason why that article should be deleted. By definition, notability is decided by Wikipedia's editors. Also by definition, anyone editing Wikipedia is an editor. Put those two facts together, and you can conclude that any factual, edited article must be notable, as editors, by their edits, are endorsing it as notable.

In summary, Wikipedia still has a long way to go, and there's still 10 years work on improving the quality of the first million articles. (We're at 2.5 M as I write). However, in our efforts to improve Wikipedia, we should be careful not to artificially limit Wikipedia due to our own narrow notions of what is 'notable'. If the page is factual, but small, little linked to, and not popular, so what? Let it live, adding completeness to our encyclopedia which eventually may serve as a form of history for us.

Think big! Include as much as possible!

P.S. There are some articles that do not merit inclusion, despite my inclusionist philosophy above. For example, I'm still on the fence on deeply-detailed articles about fiction. Fictitious characters, weapons, worlds, etcetera—their merit is dubious. But too many people are being compelled to fight to keep good articles. This is opposite to the attitude that built Wikipedia. We should bias ourselves toward inclusion, and then cut only the truly inappropriate articles.

Edit summary
There is no excuse for any registered editor to omit an edit summary.

It is immensely useful to other editors, and omitting it is slightly insulting, as if the the editor considers their judgement above reproach, and therefore does not need to explain themselves. Editors who leave edit summaries are more likely to be making good edits, as articulating the reason for the edit clarifies the thoughts of the editor, and encourages considering edits more carefully. Those who leave edit summaries are less likely to have their edits reverted by other editors, due to confusion, or general mistrust of unexplained changes. Leaving an edit summary can be the difference between a revert and a keep, even though the edit may be fundamentally sound.

When editing, the reason for your edit may seem obvious to you, but it may not be obvious to another editor. Especially consider an editor who speaks English, but does not share your culture or country of residence. Examples for western people might be to imagine editors from India, Singapore, or Kenya, where the English language is common, but the culture is much different than that in Canada.

My advice is: Leave an edit summary for every edit, no matter how trivial. It will make your edits better by focussing your thoughts, and it will help your fellow editor understand your edits. Both these things make Wikipedia better for editors, resulting in improvements for all.

 * Inspired by this frustrating edit, devoid of edit summary. Deleting entries from a DAB page is not minor, and deserves some explanation.

Todo

 * completely out of date

 * 1) Talk:Major (disambiguation) - asked a question, waiting for answers...
 * 2) Xserve - fix opening sentence to be one
 * 3) FQDN - clarify
 * 4) Autonomous building - read
 * 5) Hawk's Nest incident - cleanup
 * 6) Internet protocol suite - fact-check
 * 7) Niagara Processor - should this be renamed
 * 8) SPECint - current work in progress
 * 9) St. Lazare, Manitoba - give it some life

Links

 * [Wikipedia:WikiProject Internet]

 * http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Conflicting_Wikipedia_philosophies

View my contributions; count them.

 * X-chat wikipedia scripts.
 * Manual_of_Style_%28disambiguation%29 - DAB page style
 * WikiProject Airports
 * Edit-in-place samples

 * Work

 * OpenStreetMap on Meta
 * Commons:Geocodng

Accounts

 * en.wiktionary || user page || watchlist || contributions
 * commons.wikimedia || user page || watchlist || contributions
 * meta.wikimedia || user page || watchlist || contributions
 * en.wikinews || user page || watchlist || contributions
 * ko.wikipedia.org || user page
 * battlestarwiki.org || user page || watchlist || contributions

Friends

 * White Cat
 * Anorthe - Hey Reaps, I miss you! See you in wpg over xmas?
 * Niten
 * Swaff
 * Arkayuu
 * Arthree

title: User:Fudoreaper


text:
Creamed honey

Creamed honey is honey that has been processed to control crystallization. Also known as honey fondant, or set honey it has a smooth, spreadable consistency and lighter color than liquid honey of the same floral type. A method for producing creamed honey was first patented in 1935, and other methods have since been devised.

Description
Creamed honey contains a large number of small crystals, which prevent the formation of larger crystals that can occur in unprocessed honey. The processing also produces a honey with a smooth spreadable consistency. Because it is the glucose that crystallizes in the honey, and because glucose crystals are naturally pure white, creamed honey is always lighter-colored than liquid honey of the same floral type.

Creamed honey stays in its creamy consistency indefinitely if stored at approximately 65 F.

Production methods
Creamed honey was developed by Elton J. Dyce in the early 1930s. In the key production step, microscopic seed crystals are added to liquid honey. Then paddles intermittently stir the honey mixture while it is kept between 55 - 70 F; creaming completes in 2–3 days. Dyce used the high heat of pasteurization to ensure that his honey source did not already contain crystals too large for the process, but modern techniques instead use fresh raw, liquid honey at a ratio of 1:10 or larger. The latter yields a batch of creamed honey in approximately 80 hours.

title: Creamed honey


text:
Talk:Hardtack

Regañas and picos in actual cuisine from Spain based on Roman bucellatum
http://www.cuchillitoitenedor.com/2013/05/picos-colines-y-reganas.html — Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.15.64.138 (talk) 22:09, 28 June 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120304092923/http://www.19thusregulars.com/html/hardtack.html to http://www.19thusregulars.com/html/hardtack.html

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Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 04:46, 30 October 2017 (UTC)

This line is both uncited and wrong: "In 1588, the daily allowance on board a Royal Navy ship was one pound of hardtack, plus one gallon of small beer. "Wulfy95113 (talk) 01:57, 10 February 2020 (UTC)

 * I've recently gone through Royal Navy archives and Samuel Pepys' work to give more concrete dates with citations, hope this helped JRHistorical (talk) 22:27, 4 May 2023 (UTC)

The Revolutionary War
It seems like there's undue emphasis on hardtack being eaten during The Civil War but not The Revolutionary War. I once saw on Chronicle that hardtack was a main part of colonist's and soldier's diets during that time period. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.211.247.174 (talk) 21:17, 15 December 2018 (UTC)

Canawa in Canada
The Canada section of the article includes: “Canada is one Canadian maker of traditional hardtack.” This does not make sense to me. It used to say “Canawa” rather than “Canada” until the edit. However, I’m not reverting that because I’m not sure that “Canawa” is right either. It is not cited and I find very little info about Canawa on the Web so it does not seem worth listing as the first thing in the Canada section. 2001:999:60:B2D7:3153:1CF9:2A4E:4AD7 (talk) 20:58, 12 July 2020 (UTC)

Proposed merge of Cocket bread.
Cocket bread is a one-line permastub about which all that seems to be known is that it seems to be a kind of hardtack. BD2412 T 02:35, 8 June 2022 (UTC)

 * Another possibility, if any action at all is to be deemed appropriate, could be to merge the contents of Cocket bread back into Cocket (the article from whence it came, according to the page history). Jim Grisham (talk) 17:18, 5 July 2022 (UTC)

 * Two thoughts on that. First, I have proposed for Cocket itself to be merged to Seal (emblem), as it is merely a type of seal. Second, the only relationship between Cocket and Cocket bread is that the bread is apparently stamped with a seal. The bread itself is bread, and specifically a kind of hardtack. BD2412  T 17:59, 5 July 2022 (UTC)

 * Support per norm. 2001:8003:9008:1301:4DDA:7F55:44D5:1957 (talk) 14:32, 11 July 2022 (UTC)

 * Support The article is really short and the two are quite similar BigSneeze444 (talk) 19:06, 13 October 2022 (UTC)
 * ✅ Klbrain (talk) 04:57, 7 November 2022 (UTC)

Alternative names
They should be divided into serious terms, and jokes. 99.229.116.186 (talk) 21:47, 16 August 2022 (UTC)

Cracker, cookie, bread?
I see 3 or more different things in the photos. A cracker (US Civil War photo), a cookie (circa 1852) and bread (Purity). Hard to tell exactly what the Japanese and Lithuanian things are. Are these different things that all just happen to be called "hardtack". Nurg (talk) 05:24, 4 January 2023 (UTC)

 * Hard tack generically refers to a hard bread made to be a dense, long lasting, form of calories for rough times with many variations of attributes, recipes, and looks so yes they can be considered hard tack. Woolmadj (talk) 16:54, 13 January 2023 (UTC)

Updates to sources on Hardtack and information on Samuel Pepys. Potential update on Bent Cookies.
Good morning Wikipedians,

I've gone through the page and updated a few things that I think are pretty important to the quality of this page. I'll probably run through the page thoroughly to update things once I find more primary and secondary sources. I updated Reference 1 to link to an article on hardtack from Encyclopedia Virginia, an affiliate of the University of Virginia. While it technically only references the civil war version of the biscuit, it does give a description of what hardtack is from a secondary source, rather than the perplexing website that it previously led to which I can only assume to be someone's ancient blog.

I've also updated the section talking about victualing hardtack in the British Navy to include the proper year Samuel Pepys was actually appointed to victual rations for the Royal Navy, with primary sources from the Oxford Dictionary National Biography on Pepys and secondary sources from the Royal Museums Greenwich.

I'm planning on updating the info on the G.H. Bent Company, as it does not currently operate anymore, the original building being converted into a mixed office space (sad, I know). The building still physically stands, but as of at least 2023 and at the earliest 2016 (the time the article sourced was written), Bent's no longer exists the building is owned by Falconi Companies. JRHistorical (talk) 00:51, 12 March 2023 (UTC)

Manufacture/Production section
A section on the methods and history of production might be good to add, even if it's only a paragraph or two. I know Wikipedia is not a cookbook but a non-recipe summary would be nice to have. rtrb (talk) 17:01, 7 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hardtack


text: User talk:64.91.160.8

title: User talk:64.91.160.8


text: User talk:68.21.7.105

title: User talk:68.21.7.105


text:
Haystack Rock

Haystack Rock is a 235 ft sea stack in Cannon Beach, Oregon. It is often stated locally to be the third-tallest such intertidal structure in the world, but there are no supporting credible references for this claim. A popular tourist destination on the Oregon Coast, the monolithic rock is adjacent to the beach and accessible by foot at low tide. The Haystack Rock tide pools are home to many intertidal animals, including starfish, sea anemone, crabs, chitons, limpets, and sea slugs. The rock is also a nesting site for many sea birds, including terns and puffins.

History
In 1990, Haystack Rock was granted Marine Garden status by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. The site is protected under the Oregon Islands National Wildlife Refuge as a designated wilderness area.

The sea stack formation was closed temporarily during July 2023 after a cougar was documented, for the first time, climbing on the rock in search of prey.

Location and management
Haystack Rock is located about 1.5 mi south of downtown Cannon Beach in Clatsop County and about 80. mi west of Portland. The nearest major road is U.S. Route 101. Haystack Rock is part of the Tolovana Beach State Recreation Site.

The area below the mean high water (MHW) level is managed by Oregon Parks and Recreation. The area above the MHW level is managed by the Oregon Islands National Wildlife Refuge of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.

Geology

Measuring 235 ft tall, Haystack Rock is composed of basalt and was formed by lava flows emanating from the Blue Mountains and Columbia basin about 15-17 million years ago. The lava flows came from massive eruptions from a source believed to be what is now the Yellowstone volcanic hotspot, and created many of the Oregon coast's natural features. Haystack Rock was once joined to the coastline but years of erosion have since separated the monolith from the coast. Three smaller, adjacent rock formations to the south of Haystack Rock are collectively called "The Needles".

Ecology
Collecting plants or animals is strictly prohibited and to protect nesting birds, climbing above the mean high tide level barnacle line is not allowed. The Haystack Rock Awareness Program is run by the City of Cannon Beach and conducts educational seminars at the rock during low tide between February and October.

A variety of bird species, such as pigeon guillemots, common murres, black oystercatchers, and tufted puffins, roost and nest on the rock, raising their young usually between March and September.

Recreation
Visitors to Haystack Rock can view many species of marine wildlife in their natural habitat during low tide. The thin strip of rock and sand that connects it to the beach at these times features many tide pools. The area surrounding the rock is popular for picnicking, kite-flying, and bird-watching. , the rock averages an annual count of 350,000 visitors.

Haystack Rock is one of the most identifiable geological formations of Oregon. Many people each year become temporarily trapped on Haystack Rock when high tide engulfs the rock in water, necessitating rescue by the United States Coast Guard or local authorities. Oregon's beaches are publicly owned, and there are several hotels along the beachfront within walking distance of Haystack Rock, making the area congested with tourists during the summer.

Popular culture

 * Haystack Rock can be seen prominently in the 1971 film of Oregonian Ken Kesey's novel Sometimes a Great Notion during the scene where the Stampers brawl with the union workers.
 * Haystack Rock can be seen in the background of the opening scene of The Goonies, when the Fratellis are fleeing from the police and then enter a race on the beach. Later in the film Haystack Rock is seen again when Mikey is pointing out some rocks in the distance.
 * Haystack Rock can be seen in the 1979 movie 1941 directed by Steven Spielberg. The rock is particularly out of place, as the setting is supposed to be the California coast.
 * Haystack Rock can be seen in the movie Kindergarten Cop, during the carnival scene late in the movie.
 * In the novel The Cabin at the End of the World by Paul G. Tremblay, Haystack Rock is submerged by a tsunami triggered by an earthquake off the coast of Oregon.
 * In Louis Theroux's documentary Altered States: Choosing Death, Haystack Rock can be seen during an interview with a woman whose home overlooks the sea stack.

title: Haystack Rock


text:
Solid-phase synthesis

In chemistry, solid-phase synthesis is a method in which molecules are covalently bound on a solid support material and synthesised step-by-step in a single reaction vessel utilising selective protecting group chemistry. Benefits compared with normal synthesis in a liquid state include:

 * High efficiency and throughput
 * Increased simplicity and speed

The reaction can be driven to completion and high yields through the use of excess reagent. In this method, building blocks are protected at all reactive functional groups. The order of functional group reactions can be controlled by the order of deprotection. This method is used for the synthesis of peptides, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), and other molecules that need to be synthesised in a certain alignment. More recently, this method has also been used in combinatorial chemistry and other synthetic applications. The process was originally developed in the 1950s and 1960s by Robert Bruce Merrifield in order to synthesise peptide chains, and which was the basis for his 1984 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

In the basic method of solid-phase synthesis, building blocks that have two functional groups are used. One of the functional groups of the building block is usually protected by a protective group. The starting material is a bead which binds to the building block. At first, this bead is added into the solution of the protected building block and stirred. After the reaction between the bead and the protected building block is completed, the solution is removed and the bead is washed. Then the protecting group is removed and the above steps are repeated. After all steps are finished, the synthesised compound is chemically cleaved from the bead.

If a compound containing more than two kinds of building blocks is synthesised, a step is added before the deprotection of the building block bound to the bead; a functional group which is on the bead and did not react with an added building block has to be protected by another protecting group which is not removed at the deprotective condition of the building block. Byproducts which lack the building block of this step only are prevented by this step. In addition, this step makes it easy to purify the synthesised compound after cleavage from the bead.

Solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS)
Solid-phase synthesis is a common technique for peptide synthesis. Usually, peptides are synthesised from the carbonyl group side (C-terminus) to amino group side (N-terminus) of the amino acid chain in the SPPS method, although peptides are biologically synthesised in the opposite direction in cells. In peptide synthesis, an amino-protected amino acid is bound to a solid phase material or resin (most commonly, low cross-linked polystyrene beads), forming a covalent bond between the carbonyl group and the resin, most often an amido or an ester bond. Then the amino group is deprotected and reacted with the carbonyl group of the next N-protected amino acid. The solid phase now bears a dipeptide. This cycle is repeated to form the desired peptide chain. After all reactions are complete, the synthesised peptide is cleaved from the bead.

The protecting groups for the amino groups mostly used in the peptide synthesis are 9-fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl group (Fmoc) and t-butyloxycarbonyl (Boc). A number of amino acids bear functional groups in the side chain which must be protected specifically from reacting with the incoming N-protected amino acids. In contrast to Boc and Fmoc groups, these have to be stable over the course of peptide synthesis although they are also removed during the final deprotection of peptides.

Solid-phase synthesis of DNA and RNA
Relatively short fragments of DNA, RNA, and modified oligonucleotides are also synthesised by the solid-phase method. Although oligonucleotides can be synthesised in a flask, they are almost always synthesised  on solid phase using a DNA/RNA synthesizer. For a more comprehensive review, see oligonucleotide synthesis. The method of choice is generally phosphoramidite chemistry, developed in the 1980s.

Solid-phase organic synthesis
Solid-phase synthesis techniques have historically been used primarily in biochemical settings with a strong focus on peptide couplings. However, developents in the late 1980s and early 1990s demonstrated the enhanced efficiency and selectivity of many reactions in the solid state. Perhaps most notably, Fumio Toda authored and co-authored numerous papers on the topic[1,2,3] and developed many attractive protocols for previously tedious reactions [4,5]. In fact, many air and moisture sensitive reactions and reagents can be used without the necessisty of typical air and moisture techniques[6-18] due to the greatly decreased diffusivity of vapors through nonporous solid mixtures as opposed to liquid mixtures. The lack of porosity in any given solid-phase organic reaction mixture is owed to the extremely low particle size obtained upon grinding with a mortar and pestle or ball mill, the former of which allows for much faster reaction times, while the latter facilitates the use of solid-state chemistry by untrained operators. In practice, the technique by which reactants are ground in a mortar and pestle is both simple and intuitive, and can be derived autonomously without instruction simply by finding the most ergonomically favorable grinding technique (which is individual to each operator) and observing the mixture's particle size to ensure that any macroscopic particles are ground until microscopic. Further grinding reduces particle sizes to clusters of a few hundred atoms each, and these clusters of particles react with clusters containing compatible molecules to form new product molecules, which themselves possess their own crystal structure and must displace the parent particles to conform to such a structure. This displacement then propels the parent particles towards other similarly low-volume/high-surface area particles, resulting in a cascading collisions that greatly enhance reaction times. Organic reactions in the solid phase often proceed 50-100 times more quickly than their counterparts, with some even progressing 1200 times more quickly[19]. Solid-phase organic synthesis, while still discouraged by some chemists, boasts many advantages over solution phase reactions, most notably in its speed, selectivity, air and moisture tolerance, simplicity, environmental friendliness, safety, and accessibility. The source of the aversion to solid phase chemistry comes most likely from Aristotle's famous quote "No Coopora nisi Fluida", meaning "No reaction occurs in the absence of solvent". This statement was a hypothesis on the basis that meat stew spoiled while salted meat did not, milk itself spoiled while powdered milk did not, and crushed grapes gave wine while dried grapes did not. This hypothesis, like many in the chemical community, was accepted as gospel until a pioneering chemist proved it wrong, and to this day is still accepted by the majority of chemists simply due to their lack of knowledge of this development. Even for decades following the discovery of solid phase peptide synthesis, it was not developed for organic synthesis until the late 1980s, and was developed out of a serendipitous discovery (i.e. not inspired by the success solid-phase peptide synthesis). Even now, it is frowned upon by numerous renowned synthetic chemists simply on the basis that they are unfamiliar with it.

title: Solid-phase synthesis


text:
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title: User:DanBot (usurped)


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E30

E30 may refer to:

Automobiles

 * Fengshen E30, a 2016–present Chinese electric city car
 * Venucia e30, two different Chinese electric cars
 * Zotye E30, a 2016–present Chinese electric city car
 * BMW 3 Series (E30), a 1982–1994 German compact executive car
 * Toyota Corolla (E30), a 1974–1981 Japanese compact car

Roads

 * E 30 road (United Arab Emirates)
 * European route E30
 * New North Klang Straits Bypass, route E30 in Malaysia
 * Seto-Chūō Expressway, route E30 in Japan

Other uses

 * Nimzo-Indian Defense, Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings code
 * HMS E30, a British submarine

title: E30


text:
Felipe

Felipe is the Spanish variant of the name Philip, which derives from the Greek adjective Philippos "friend of horses". Felipe is also widely used in Portuguese-speaking Brazil alongside Filipe, the form commonly used in Portugal.

Noteworthy people with this name include:

Royalty

 * Felipe I of Spain
 * Felipe II of Spain
 * Felipe III of Spain
 * Felipe IV of Spain
 * Felipe V of Spain
 * Felipe VI of Spain, King of Spain
 * Felipe de Marichalar y Borbón, nephew of the Spanish king

Others

 * Felipe Calderón, former President of Mexico
 * Felipe Herrera, Chilean economist
 * Felipe Zúniga del Cid (born 1948), Honduran politician
 * FELIPE may refer to the Popular Liberation Front in Spain

Football

 * Felipe (footballer, born 1977) (Felipe Jorge Loureiro), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe (footballer, born 1978) (Felipe Reinaldo da Silva), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe (footballer, born February 1984) (Luiz Felipe Ventura dos Santos), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe (footballer, born July 1984) (Felipe Dias da Silva dal Belo), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe (footballer, born 1988) (Felipe de Almeida Gomes), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe (footballer, born 1989) (Felipe Augusto de Almeida Monteiro), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe (footballer, born 1992) (Felipe de Sousa Silva), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe (footballer, born 1994) (Luiz Antonio Ferreira Rodrigues), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe (footballer, born 2000) (Felipe Ferreira da Cruz), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe Albuquerque, Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe Campos (Brazilian footballer), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe Caicedo, Ecuadorian footballer
 * Felipe Félix, Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe Fumaça (born 1993), known as Felipe, Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe Guréndez (born 1975), known as Felipe, Spanish footballer
 * Felipe Mattioni (born 1988), Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe Martins (footballer, born September 1990), commonly known as Felipe, Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe Melo, Brazilian footballer
 * Felipe Miñambres, Spanish footballer
 * Felipe Peralta (born 1962), Paraguayan footballer
 * Felipe Rodríguez-Gentile (born 2006), Argentine footballer
 * Luiz Felipe Scolari, Brazilian football manager

Other sports

 * Felipe Paulino (born 1983), Dominican-Venezuelan baseball pitcher
 * Felipe Alou (born 1935), Dominican baseball player and manager
 * Felipe Contepomi (born 1977), Argentine rugby union player
 * Felipe Drugovich (born 2000), Brazilian racing driver
 * Felipe Franco, Brazilian water polo player
 * Felipe Kitadai (born 1989), Brazilian Olympic medalist judoka
 * Felipe Massa (born 1981), Brazilian Formula E driver
 * Felipe Muñoz, Mexican breaststroke swimmer
 * Felipe Nasr, Brazilian former Formula One driver
 * Felipe Reyes, Spanish basketball player
 * Felipe Vázquez, Venezuelan baseball player
 * Felipe Santos (disambiguation), multiple sportsmen

Fictional

 * Felipe, a hostile scarlet macaw who is the leader of his own tribe in Rio 2
 * Felipe Gómez, a character on the American television sitcom Three's Company
 * Felipe, a screwdriver in Handy Manny

Miscellaneous

 * Convento de San Felipe el Real (Madrid)
 * Felipe Espinosa (1836–1863), Mexican-American murderer
 * Felipe López (disambiguation)
 * Felipe (or Felipillo), a native Peruvian who accompanied Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro on their various expeditions to Peru as an interpreter

title: Felipe


text:
Two-port network

In electronics, a two-port network (a kind of four-terminal network or quadripole) is an electrical network (i.e. a circuit) or device with two pairs of terminals to connect to external circuits. Two terminals constitute a port if the currents applied to them satisfy the essential requirement known as the port condition: the current entering one terminal must equal the current emerging from the other terminal on the same port. The ports constitute interfaces where the network connects to other networks, the points where signals are applied or outputs are taken. In a two-port network, often port 1 is considered the input port and port 2 is considered the output port.

It is commonly used in mathematical circuit analysis.

Application
The two-port network model is used in mathematical circuit analysis techniques to isolate portions of larger circuits. A two-port network is regarded as a "black box" with its properties specified by a matrix of numbers. This allows the response of the network to signals applied to the ports to be calculated easily, without solving for all the internal voltages and currents in the network. It also allows similar circuits or devices to be compared easily. For example, transistors are often regarded as two-ports, characterized by their $h$-parameters (see below) which are listed by the manufacturer. Any linear circuit with four terminals can be regarded as a two-port network provided that it does not contain an independent source and satisfies the port conditions.

Examples of circuits analyzed as two-ports are filters, matching networks, transmission lines, transformers, and small-signal models for transistors (such as the hybrid-pi model). The analysis of passive two-port networks is an outgrowth of reciprocity theorems first derived by Lorentz.

In two-port mathematical models, the network is described by a 2 by 2 square matrix of complex numbers. The common models that are used are referred to as $z$-parameters, $y$-parameters, $h$-parameters, $g$-parameters, and $ABCD$-parameters, each described individually below. These are all limited to linear networks since an underlying assumption of their derivation is that any given circuit condition is a linear superposition of various short-circuit and open circuit conditions. They are usually expressed in matrix notation, and they establish relations between the variables
 * $V1$, voltage across port 1
 * $I1$, current into port 1
 * $V2$, voltage across port 2
 * $I2$, current into port 2

which are shown in figure 1. The difference between the various models lies in which of these variables are regarded as the independent variables. These current and voltage variables are most useful at low-to-moderate frequencies. At high frequencies (e.g., microwave frequencies), the use of power and energy variables is more appropriate, and the two-port current–voltage approach is replaced by an approach based upon scattering parameters.

General properties
There are certain properties of two-ports that frequently occur in practical networks and can be used to greatly simplify the analysis. These include:

 * Reciprocal networks: A network is said to be reciprocal if the voltage appearing at port 2 due to a current applied at port 1 is the same as the voltage appearing at port 1 when the same current is applied to port 2.  Exchanging voltage and current results in an equivalent definition of reciprocity.  A network that consists entirely of linear passive components (that is, resistors, capacitors and inductors) is usually reciprocal, a notable exception being passive circulators and isolators that contain magnetized materials.  In general, it will not be reciprocal if it contains active components such as generators or transistors.
 * Symmetrical networks: A network is symmetrical if its input impedance is equal to its output impedance.  Most often, but not necessarily, symmetrical networks are also physically symmetrical.  Sometimes also antimetrical networks are of interest.  These are networks where the input and output impedances are the duals of each other.
 * Lossless network: A lossless network is one which contains no resistors or other dissipative elements.

Impedance parameters (z-parameters)

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} z_{11} & z_{12} \\ z_{21} & z_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} $$

where

 * $$\begin{align}

z_{11} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_1}{I_1} \right|_{I_2 = 0} & z_{12} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_1}{I_2} \right|_{I_1 = 0} \\ z_{21} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_2}{I_1} \right|_{I_2 = 0} & z_{22} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_2}{I_2} \right|_{I_1 = 0} \end{align}$$

All the $z$-parameters have dimensions of ohms.

For reciprocal networks $I_{1}$. For symmetrical networks $I_{2}$. For reciprocal lossless networks all the $z12 = z21$ are purely imaginary.

Example: bipolar current mirror with emitter degeneration
Figure 3 shows a bipolar current mirror with emitter resistors to increase its output resistance. Transistor $z11 = z22$ is diode connected, which is to say its collector-base voltage is zero. Figure 4 shows the small-signal circuit equivalent to Figure 3. Transistor $zmn$ is represented by its emitter resistance $i_{1}$:
 * $$r_\mathrm{E} \approx \frac{ \text{thermal voltage, } V_\mathrm{T} }{ \text{emitter current, } I_E},$$

a simplification made possible because the dependent current source in the hybrid-pi model for $i_{2}$ draws the same current as a resistor $I1$ connected across $I2$. The second transistor $V_{BE}$ is represented by its hybrid-pi model. Table 1 below shows the z-parameter expressions that make the z-equivalent circuit of Figure 2 electrically equivalent to the small-signal circuit of Figure 4.

The negative feedback introduced by resistors $R_{E}$ can be seen in these parameters. For example, when used as an active load in a differential amplifier, $Q1$, making the output impedance of the mirror approximately
 * $$R_{22} - R_{21} \approx \frac{ 2\beta r_\mathrm{O}R_\mathrm{E} }{ r_\pi + 2R_\mathrm{E}}$$

compared to only $Q1$ without feedback (that is with $rE$ = 0Ω). At the same time, the impedance on the reference side of the mirror is approximately
 * $$R_{11} - R_{12} \approx \frac{r_\pi}{r_\pi + 2R_\mathrm{E}} (r_\mathrm{E} + R_\mathrm{E}),$$

only a moderate value, but still larger than $Q1$ with no feedback. In the differential amplifier application, a large output resistance increases the difference-mode gain, a good thing, and a small mirror input resistance is desirable to avoid Miller effect.

Admittance parameters (y-parameters)

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} y_{11} & y_{12} \\ y_{21} & y_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix} $$

where

 * $$\begin{align}

y_{11} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{I_1}{V_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0} & y_{12} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{I_1}{V_2} \right|_{V_1 = 0} \\ y_{21} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{I_2}{V_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0} & y_{22} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{I_2}{V_2} \right|_{V_1 = 0} \end{align}$$

All the Y-parameters have dimensions of siemens.

For reciprocal networks $1 / g_{m}$. For symmetrical networks $r_{π}$. For reciprocal lossless networks all the $Q2$ are purely imaginary.

Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} h_{11} & h_{12} \\ h_{21} & h_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix} $$

where

 * $$\begin{align}

h_{11} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_1}{I_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0} & h_{12} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_1}{V_2} \right|_{I_1 = 0} \\ h_{21} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{I_2}{I_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0} & h_{22} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{I_2}{V_2} \right|_{I_1 = 0} \end{align}$$

This circuit is often selected when a current amplifier is desired at the output. The resistors shown in the diagram can be general impedances instead.

Off-diagonal $h$-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have dimensions the reciprocal of one another.

For reciprocal networks $R_{E}$. For symmetrical networks $I_{1} ≈ −I_{2}$. For reciprocal lossless networks $r_{O}$ and $R_{E}$ are real, while $r_{E}$ and $V1$ are purely imaginary.

Example: common-base amplifier
Note: Tabulated formulas in Table 2 make the $h$-equivalent circuit of the transistor from Figure 6 agree with its small-signal low-frequency hybrid-pi model in Figure 7. Notation: $V2$ is base resistance of transistor, $y12 = y21$ is output resistance, and $y11 = y22$ is mutual transconductance. The negative sign for $ymn$ reflects the convention that $I1$ are positive when directed into the two-port. A non-zero value for $V2$ means the output voltage affects the input voltage, that is, this amplifier is bilateral. If $h_{22}$, the amplifier is unilateral.

History
The $h$-parameters were initially called series-parallel parameters. The term hybrid to describe these parameters was coined by D. A. Alsberg in 1953 in "Transistor metrology". In 1954 a joint committee of the IRE and the AIEE adopted the term $h$-parameters and recommended that these become the standard method of testing and characterising transistors because they were "peculiarly adaptable to the physical characteristics of transistors". In 1956, the recommendation became an issued standard; 56 IRE 28.S2. Following the merge of these two organisations as the IEEE, the standard became Std 218-1956 and was reaffirmed in 1980, but has now been withdrawn.

Inverse hybrid parameters (g-parameters)

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} g_{11} & g_{12} \\ g_{21} & g_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} $$

where

 * $$\begin{align}

g_{11} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{I_1}{V_1} \right|_{I_2 = 0} & g_{12} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{I_1}{I_2} \right|_{V_1 = 0} \\ g_{21} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_2}{V_1} \right|_{I_2 = 0} & g_{22} &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_2}{I_2} \right|_{V_1 = 0} \end{align}$$

Often this circuit is selected when a voltage amplifier is wanted at the output. Off-diagonal g-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have dimensions the reciprocal of one another. The resistors shown in the diagram can be general impedances instead.

Example: common-base amplifier
Note: Tabulated formulas in Table 3 make the $g$-equivalent circuit of the transistor from Figure 8 agree with its small-signal low-frequency hybrid-pi model in Figure 9. Notation: $h12 = –h21$ is base resistance of transistor, $h11h22 – h12h21 = 1$ is output resistance, and $h12$ is mutual transconductance. The negative sign for $h21$ reflects the convention that $h11$ are positive when directed into the two-port. A non-zero value for $h22$ means the output current affects the input current, that is, this amplifier is bilateral. If $I1$, the amplifier is unilateral.

ABCD-parameters
The $ABCD$-parameters are known variously as chain, cascade, or transmission parameters. There are a number of definitions given for $ABCD$ parameters, the most common is,

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} A & B \\ C & D \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_2 \\ -I_2 \end{bmatrix} $$

Note: Some authors chose to reverse the indicated direction of I2 and suppress the negative sign on I2.

where

 * $$\begin{align}

A &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_1}{V_2} \right|_{I_2 = 0} & B &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. -\frac{V_1}{I_2} \right|_{V_2 = 0} \\ C &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{I_1}{V_2} \right|_{I_2 = 0} & D &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. -\frac{I_1}{I_2} \right|_{V_2 = 0} \end{align}$$

For reciprocal networks $V2$. For symmetrical networks $I2$. For networks which are reciprocal and lossless, $A$ and $D$ are purely real while $B$ and $C$ are purely imaginary.

This representation is preferred because when the parameters are used to represent a cascade of two-ports, the matrices are written in the same order that a network diagram would be drawn, that is, left to right. However, a variant definition is also in use,

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} V_2 \\ -I_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} A' & B' \\ C' & D' \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_1 \end{bmatrix} $$

where

 * $$\begin{align}

A' &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_2}{V_1} \right|_{I_1 = 0} & B' &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. \frac{V_2}{I_1} \right|_{V_1 = 0} \\ C' &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. -\frac{I_2}{V_1} \right|_{I_1 = 0} & D' &\mathrel{\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}} \left. -\frac{I_2}{I_1} \right|_{V_1 = 0} \end{align}$$

The negative sign of $r_{π}$ arises to make the output current of one cascaded stage (as it appears in the matrix) equal to the input current of the next. Without the minus sign the two currents would have opposite senses because the positive direction of current, by convention, is taken as the current entering the port. Consequently, the input voltage/current matrix vector can be directly replaced with the matrix equation of the preceding cascaded stage to form a combined $A'B'C'D'$ matrix.

The terminology of representing the $ABCD$ parameters as a matrix of elements designated $r_{O}$ etc. as adopted by some authors and the inverse $A'B'C'D'$ parameters as a matrix of elements designated $g_{m}$ etc. is used here for both brevity and to avoid confusion with circuit elements.

 * $$\begin{align}

\left[\mathbf{a}\right] &= \begin{bmatrix} a_{11} & a_{12} \\ a_{21} & a_{22} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} A & B  \\ C  & D  \end{bmatrix} \\ \left[\mathbf{b}\right] &= \begin{bmatrix} b_{11} & b_{12} \\ b_{21} & b_{22} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} A' & B' \\ C' & D' \end{bmatrix} \end{align}$$

Table of transmission parameters
The table below lists $ABCD$ and inverse $ABCD$ parameters for some simple network elements.

Scattering parameters (S-parameters)
The previous parameters are all defined in terms of voltages and currents at ports. $Z$-parameters are different, and are defined in terms of incident and reflected waves at ports. $Y$-parameters are used primarily at UHF and microwave frequencies where it becomes difficult to measure voltages and currents directly. On the other hand, incident and reflected power are easy to measure using directional couplers. The definition is,

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} b_1 \\ b_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} S_{11} & S_{12} \\ S_{21} & S_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} a_1 \\ a_2 \end{bmatrix} $$

where the $L$ are the incident waves and the $s$ are the reflected waves at port $L$. It is conventional to define the $s$ and $C$ in terms of the square root of power. Consequently, there is a relationship with the wave voltages (see main article for details).

For reciprocal networks $h_{21}$. For symmetrical networks $I1, I2$. For antimetrical networks $h_{12}$. For lossless reciprocal networks $$|S_{11}| = |S_{22}|$$ and $$ |S_{11}|^2 + |S_{12}|^2 = 1.$$

Scattering transfer parameters (T-parameters)
Scattering transfer parameters, like scattering parameters, are defined in terms of incident and reflected waves. The difference is that $s$-parameters relate the waves at port 1 to the waves at port 2 whereas $C$-parameters relate the reflected waves to the incident waves. In this respect $s$-parameters fill the same role as $γ$ parameters and allow the $l$-parameters of cascaded networks to be calculated by matrix multiplication of the component networks. $m$-parameters, like $S$ parameters, can also be called transmission parameters. The definition is,

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} a_1 \\ b_1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} T_{11} & T_{12} \\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} b_2 \\ a_2 \end{bmatrix} $$

$S$-parameters are not as easy to measure directly as $S$-parameters. However, $ak$-parameters are easily converted to $bk$-parameters, see main article for details.

Combinations of two-port networks
When two or more two-port networks are connected, the two-port parameters of the combined network can be found by performing matrix algebra on the matrices of parameters for the component two-ports. The matrix operation can be made particularly simple with an appropriate choice of two-port parameters to match the form of connection of the two-ports. For instance, the $k$-parameters are best for series connected ports.

The combination rules need to be applied with care. Some connections (when dissimilar potentials are joined) result in the port condition being invalidated and the combination rule will no longer apply. A Brune test can be used to check the permissibility of the combination. This difficulty can be overcome by placing 1:1 ideal transformers on the outputs of the problem two-ports. This does not change the parameters of the two-ports, but does ensure that they will continue to meet the port condition when interconnected. An example of this problem is shown for series-series connections in figures 11 and 12 below.

Series-series connection
When two-ports are connected in a series-series configuration as shown in figure 10, the best choice of two-port parameter is the $ak$-parameters. The $bk$-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix addition of the two individual $T$-parameter matrices.

 * $$[\mathbf z] = [\mathbf z]_1 + [\mathbf z]_2$$

As mentioned above, there are some networks which will not yield directly to this analysis. A simple example is a two-port consisting of a $S$-network of resistors $h_{12} = 0$ and $V1$. The $T$-parameters for this network are;

 * $$[\mathbf z]_1 = \begin{bmatrix} R_1 + R_2 & R_2 \\ R_2 & R_2 \end{bmatrix}$$

Figure 11 shows two identical such networks connected in series-series. The total $ABCD$-parameters predicted by matrix addition are;

 * $$[\mathbf z] = [\mathbf z]_1 + [\mathbf z]_2 = 2[\mathbf z]_1 = \begin{bmatrix} 2R_1 + 2R_2 & 2R_2 \\ 2R_2 & 2R_2 \end{bmatrix}$$

However, direct analysis of the combined circuit shows that,

 * $$[\mathbf z] = \begin{bmatrix} R_1 + 2R_2 & 2R_2 \\ 2R_2 & 2R_2 \end{bmatrix}$$

The discrepancy is explained by observing that $I2$ of the lower two-port has been by-passed by the short-circuit between two terminals of the output ports. This results in no current flowing through one terminal in each of the input ports of the two individual networks. Consequently, the port condition is broken for both the input ports of the original networks since current is still able to flow into the other terminal. This problem can be resolved by inserting an ideal transformer in the output port of at least one of the two-port networks. While this is a common text-book approach to presenting the theory of two-ports, the practicality of using transformers is a matter to be decided for each individual design.

Parallel-parallel connection
When two-ports are connected in a parallel-parallel configuration as shown in figure 13, the best choice of two-port parameter is the $T$-parameters. The $T$-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix addition of the two individual $ABCD$-parameter matrices.

 * $$[\mathbf y] = [\mathbf y]_1 + [\mathbf y]_2$$

Series-parallel connection
When two-ports are connected in a series-parallel configuration as shown in figure 14, the best choice of two-port parameter is the $T$-parameters. The $S$-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix addition of the two individual $S$-parameter matrices.

 * $$[\mathbf h] = [\mathbf h]_1 + [\mathbf h]_2$$

Parallel-series connection
When two-ports are connected in a parallel-series configuration as shown in figure 15, the best choice of two-port parameter is the $T$-parameters. The $z$-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix addition of the two individual $z$-parameter matrices.

 * $$[\mathbf g] = [\mathbf g]_1 + [\mathbf g]_2$$

Cascade connection
When two-ports are connected with the output port of the first connected to the input port of the second (a cascade connection) as shown in figure 16, the best choice of two-port parameter is the $z$-parameters. The $z$-parameters of the combined network are found by matrix multiplication of the two individual $L$-parameter matrices.

 * $$[\mathbf a] = [\mathbf a]_1 \cdot [\mathbf a]_2$$

A chain of $z$ two-ports may be combined by matrix multiplication of the $z$ matrices. To combine a cascade of $y$-parameter matrices, they are again multiplied, but the multiplication must be carried out in reverse order, so that;

 * $$[\mathbf b] = [\mathbf b]_2 \cdot [\mathbf b]_1$$

Example
Suppose we have a two-port network consisting of a series resistor $y$ followed by a shunt capacitor $y$. We can model the entire network as a cascade of two simpler networks:

 * $$\begin{align}[]

[\mathbf{b}]_1 &= \begin{bmatrix} 1 & -R \\  0 & 1 \end{bmatrix}\\ \lbrack\mathbf{b}\rbrack_2 &= \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ -sC & 1 \end{bmatrix} \end{align}$$

The transmission matrix for the entire network $g_{11}$ is simply the matrix multiplication of the transmission matrices for the two network elements:

 * $$\begin{align}[]

\lbrack\mathbf{b}\rbrack &= \lbrack\mathbf{b}\rbrack_2 \cdot \lbrack\mathbf{b}\rbrack_1 \\ &= \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ -sC & 1       \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} 1 & -R \\ 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \\ &= \begin{bmatrix} 1 & -R \\ -sC & 1 + sCR \end{bmatrix} \end{align}$$

Thus:

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} V_2 \\ -I_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & -R \\ -sC & 1 + sCR \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_1 \end{bmatrix}$$

Interrelation of parameters
Where $V1$ is the determinant of $I2$.

Certain pairs of matrices have a particularly simple relationship. The admittance parameters are the matrix inverse of the impedance parameters, the inverse hybrid parameters are the matrix inverse of the hybrid parameters, and the $V2$ form of the $h$-parameters is the matrix inverse of the $r_{π}$ form. That is,

 * $$\begin{align}

\left[\mathbf{y}\right] &= [\mathbf{z}]^{-1} \\ \left[\mathbf{g}\right] &= [\mathbf{h}]^{-1} \\ \left[\mathbf{b}\right] &= [\mathbf{a}]^{-1} \end{align}$$

Networks with more than two ports
While two port networks are very common (e.g., amplifiers and filters), other electrical networks such as directional couplers and circulators have more than 2 ports. The following representations are also applicable to networks with an arbitrary number of ports:

 * Admittance ($h$) parameters
 * Impedance ($h$) parameters
 * Scattering ($g$) parameters

For example, three-port impedance parameters result in the following relationship:

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ V_2 \\V_3 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} Z_{11} & Z_{12} & Z_{13} \\ Z_{21} & Z_{22} &Z_{23} \\ Z_{31} & Z_{32} & Z_{33} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ I_2 \\I_3 \end{bmatrix} $$

However the following representations are necessarily limited to two-port devices:

 * Hybrid ($g$) parameters
 * Inverse hybrid ($g$) parameters
 * Transmission ($ABCD$) parameters
 * Scattering transfer ($a$) parameters

Collapsing a two-port to a one port
A two-port network has four variables with two of them being independent. If one of the ports is terminated by a load with no independent sources, then the load enforces a relationship between the voltage and current of that port. A degree of freedom is lost. The circuit now has only one independent parameter. The two-port becomes a one-port impedance to the remaining independent variable.

For example, consider impedance parameters

 * $$ \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} z_{11} & z_{12} \\ z_{21} & z_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} $$

Connecting a load, $r_{O}$ onto port 2 effectively adds the constraint
 * $$ V_2 = -Z_\mathrm{L} I_2 \, $$

The negative sign is because the positive direction for $g_{m}$ is directed into the two-port instead of into the load. The augmented equations become

 * $$\begin{align}

V_1 &= Z_{11} I_1 +  Z_{12} I_2 \\ -Z_\mathrm{L} I_2 &= Z_{21} I_1 +  Z_{22} I_2 \end{align}$$

The second equation can be easily solved for $g_{12}$ as a function of $I1, I2$ and that expression can replace $g_{12}$ in the first equation  leaving $g_{12} = 0$ ( and $AD – BC = 1$ and $A = D$ ) as functions of $–I2$

 * $$\begin{align}

I_2 &= -\frac{Z_{21}}{Z_\mathrm{L} + Z_{22}} I_1 \\[3pt] V_1 &= Z_{11} I_1 - \frac{Z_{12} Z_{21}}{Z_\mathrm{L} + Z_{22}} I_1 \\[2pt] &= \left(Z_{11} - \frac{Z_{12} Z_{21}}{Z_\mathrm{L} + Z_{22}}\right) I_1 = Z_\text{in} I_1 \end{align}$$

So, in effect, $a_{11}$ sees an input impedance $b_{11}$ and the two-port's effect on the input circuit has been effectively collapsed down to a one-port; i.e., a simple two terminal impedance.

h-parameters history

 * D. A. Alsberg, "Transistor metrology", IRE Convention Record, part 9, pp. 39–44, 1953.
 * also published as "Transistor metrology", Transactions of the IRE Professional Group on Electron Devices, vol. ED-1, iss. 3, pp. 12–17, August 1954.
 * AIEE-IRE joint committee, "Proposed methods of testing transistors", Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers: Communications and Electronics, pp. 725–740, January 1955.
 * "IRE Standards on solid-state devices: methods of testing transistors, 1956", Proceedings of the IRE, vol. 44, iss. 11, pp. 1542–1561, November, 1956.
 * IEEE Standard Methods of Testing Transistors, IEEE Std 218-1956.

title: Two-port network


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/The Bargain Center

The Bargain Center was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

Non-notable store that was in Quincy, Massachusetts. 16 displayed hits for "The Bargain Center" quincy, several of which are a newer on-line store named after the old store, others an apparently widely (locally) distributed news article about the general revitalization of downtown Quincy. Niteowlneils 04:14, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, not notable.  --fvw *  08:23, 2004 Dec 20 (UTC)
 * Delete. Gtabary 17:48, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: DCEdwards1966 20:38, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, nn. Wyss 00:21, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not notable. utcursch 07:21, Dec 21, 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Side friction roller coaster

A side friction roller coaster is an early roller coaster design invented by Edward Joy Morris. The design introduced side-friction wheels to help prevent trains from derailing during curved portions of the track. In addition to weight-bearing wheels traditionally located on the underside of each train car, friction wheels were added to both sides, which roll perpendicular along the inner edge of the track.

The first side-friction coasters appeared in the late 19th century and were mild in comparison to modern-day roller coasters. They declined in popularity several decades later as newer coasters began incorporating a third set of underfriction wheels, which further improved safety and allowed for more thrilling track designs.

History
The earliest gravity railways in the United States were used primarily to transport coal down mountains, often to the nearest river or canal. The Mauch Chunk Railway (MCR) in eastern Pennsylvania was constructed in 1827 and was the second of its kind in the US. Before long, tourists attracted to the novelty of this technology were offered rides. Passengers enjoyed panoramic views along the descent, which started at a leisurely 5 mph and reached speeds up to 65 mph. The MCR and similar attractions became widely known as scenic railways. The commercial success of these amusement rides inspired future advancements in what would eventually evolve into the modern-day roller coaster.

One passenger inspired by the MCR was inventor and businessman LaMarcus Adna Thompson, founder of the Eagle Knitting Company, a hosiery manufacturer. Building upon earlier ride patents for concepts never constructed, he developed his own patent called the Switchback Railway. The first installation opened as the Gravity Pleasure Switchback Railway at Coney Island in 1884.

In 1894, Edward Joy Morris took the concept one step further with the invention of side-friction wheels that were installed vertically on the sides of each train car, which were then seated in a trough configuration. Patented as the Figure Eight Toboggan Slide, the side-friction wheels made contact with the side rails, making derailment less likely.

Side-friction roller coasters could achieve greater speeds than the switchback design, especially around curves, which led to thrill-inducing lateral g-forces. The security of the updated design enabled roller coasters to operate without a brakeman, which were previously required to ride along and slow the train at various points along the track layout. Instead, ride operators working in the loading station only needed to rely on a hand-operated friction brake to stop the train when it returned.

Morris formed the Morris Chute Company, which manufactured carousels and roller coasters. More than 250 Figure Eight coasters, also called toboggans, were installed around the world. One of the well-known installations, Leap-The-Dips, opened in 1902 at Lakemont Park in Altoona, Pennsylvania. It is one of the last remaining side-friction coasters still in operation. In 1903, Morris sold the company, which reemerged in 1904 as the Philadelphia Toboggan Company. The invention of underfriction wheels, also called up-stop wheels, resulted in the demise of the side-friction configuration. Introduced in 1912 by John A. Miller, the newer design added a third set of wheels running beneath the track, further enhancing security from derailment, which paved the way for faster speeds, steeper drops, and new elements in track design such as the airtime hill.

Notable installations

 * Leap the Dips at Lakemont Park in Altoona, Pennsylvania. Opened in 1902, Leap the Dips is the oldest roller coaster in the world and the last remaining side-friction roller coaster in North America. It was out of service from 1985 to 1999.
 * Slope Shooter at the Higashiyama Zoo and Botanical Gardens, built in 1961. It has a long, winding layout, and has troughs made of steel and concrete.

title: Side friction roller coaster


text: User talk:64.171.79.74

title: User talk:64.171.79.74


text:
User:Vijairaj

The GNUs Indexed FileSystem:
Design goals:
 * For desktop machines
 * For large storage - so a little overhead in terms of disk space is permitted.

Developers:
 * Vijairaj. R
 * Udhyakumar. N
 * Subramaniam. R

Status:

Planning

Before starting:
 * VFS - Filesystem interface for linux.
 * Algorithms for indexing a file during a disk write.
 * Filters for non text files like pdf.
 * Linux kernel module programming.
 * Possibility of using c++

Reference:
 * ReiserFS - http://www.namesys.com/
 * ExtFS - http://www.tldp.org/LDP/tlk/fs/filesystem.html

title: User:Vijairaj


text:
Catherine Breshkovsky

Yekaterina Konstantinovna Breshko-Breshkovskaya (Verigo; born 25 January 1844 – 12 September 1934), better known as Catherine Breshkovsky, was a major figure in the Russian socialist movement, a Narodnik, and later one of the founders of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. She has been described as Russia's first female political prisoner.

She spent over four decades in prison and Siberian exile for peaceful opposition to Tsarism, acquiring, in her latter years, international stature as a political prisoner. Also popularly known as 'babushka', Breshkovsky was the grandmother of the Russian Revolution.

Early life
Born as Yekaterina Konstantinovna Verigo into the Russian nobility in Ivanovo village, Nevelsky district, Vitebsk province, Breshkovsky grew up on the family estate in Chernigov province, and was educated at home. Her father, Konstantin Verigo, owned serfs, but—according to her account—treated them well. In 1861, during the Emancipation reform she helped her father free the serfs on the family estate then worked voluntarily to educate them. In 1868, she married N. P. Breshko-Breshkovsky, a landowner and country magistrate, but left him after two years and moved to Kiev where she formed a 'commune' with her sister Olga (who died young) and Maria Kolenkina. The trio followed the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin, when most of the revolutionaries in Kiev were in a group led by Pavel Axelrod, followers of the populist revolutionary Pyotr Lavrov. Axelrod introduced her to Andrei Zhelyabov, the peasant's son who organised the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881.

In February 1874, she gave birth to a son, Nikolay Breshko-Breshkovsky, and left him to be brought up by relatives. She did not see him again until he was aged 22, and learnt that they had nothing in common. He later became a thriller writer, and Nazi sympathiser. In July 1874, she, Kolenkina and Yakov Stefanovich decided to 'go to the people' and set out with false passports, disguised as itinerants labourers, to settle in a village, where they tried to instill revolutionary ideas in the peasants. Warned of imminent arrest, Kolenkina returned to Kiev, while Breshkovsky and Stefanovich moved to another village, in Kherson province, where they came into contact with evangelical Protestants, known as the Stundists. Rejected by the Stundists, they moved on to Tulchyn. After Stefanovich returned to Kiev, Breshkovsky was arrested when a police officer checking her false passport noticed that she did not act as submissively as a peasant normally would.

Imprisonment and exile
Breshkovsky was transported to St Petersburg, where, at 31, she was the oldest of 37 women held in the House of Preliminary Detention, all accused of political offences. Her defiant behaviour in the dock during the Trial of the 193, when she refused to recognise the court's authority and announced that she was proud to belong to 'the Russian socialistic and revolutionary party' led to her being convicted and sentenced to five years katorga (penal labour), whereas other female defendants, including the future regicide Sophia Perovskaya, were acquitted.

She was, reputedly, the first woman in Russia sentenced to katorga for a political offence, which earned her the respect of other revolutionaries. Her friend, Maria Kolenkina, was so incensed that she planned to kill the man who prosecuted Breshkovsky, but was foiled. Sergei Kravchinsky described her as "passionate and prophetic", but Perovskaya reportedly treated her "very coldly", finding her "extreme".

In 1879, Breshkovsky's sentence was commuted to exile in the Transbaikal region of Siberia. In 1881, she escaped, but was recaptured and sentenced to another four years katorga in the mines in Kara katorga, and to 40 lashes. but the local authorities did not dare carry out the flogging, for fear of reprisals. She was exiled again to Seleginsk village, in Transbaikal where the American journalist and explorer George Kennan interviewed her in 1885. He wrote:

"She was a lady perhaps 35 years of age (actually 41) with a strong, intelligent, but not handsome face, a frank unreserved manner and sympathies that seemed to be warm, impulsive, and generous. Her face bore traces of much suffering, and her thick, dark wavy hair, which had been cut in prison at the mines, was streaked here and there with grey...

Almost the last words that she said to me were: 'Mr Kennan, we may die in exile, and our children may die in exile, and our children's children may die in exile, but something will come of it at last.'"

Kennan was later quoted as saying: "All my standards of courage, of fortitude, and of heroic self-sacrifice have been raised for all time, and raised by the hand of a woman".

The Socialist Revolutionary Party
Breshkovsky was released in 1896, after 22 years in prison or exile, under an amnesty marking the coronation of the Nicholas II, the last Tsar of Russia. With some difficulty, she made contact with revolutionaries still at large, most of whom were many years younger than her. The most important was Grigory Gershuni, who was 26 years her junior. The two of them led a revival of the populist movement in Minsk, in 1897, where "Breshkovskaya had a large following among the youth of the Minsk gymnasia; Gershuni led another group which debated tactical questions."

This was one of several groups brought together in 1901 to form the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. She and Gershuni then spent two years travelling illegally around Russia, organising the new party. "There existed a kind of division of labour between them: Breshkovskaya, like a 'Holy Ghost of the Revolution' flitted about the country, proselytising and inciting everywhere the revolutionary temper of the youth; Gershuni usually followed in her tracks and turned to practical account the enthusiasm she aroused." When Gershuni was arrested, in May 1903, she escaped abroad via Romania, to Geneva.

U.S. tour
In 1904, Breshkovsky travelled to the U.S., where her name was well known because of George Kennan's book. The trip turned her into a celebrity. In December 1904, nearly 3,000 people came to a meeting in Boston, organised to welcome her. According to a contemporary report "When the 'Grand Old Lady' got up to speak, the great audience rose en masse. Handkerchiefs waved, hats were flung into the air, words of affection in five languages were rained upon her." She also visited New York and Chicago, and was befriended by feminists such as Alice Stone Blackwell, Isabel Barrows and Helena Dudley. It was during this trip that she was given the nickname 'Babushka', the grandmother of the Revolution. She raised about $10,000 for the Socialist Revolutionary Party.

Second arrest and exile
Breshkovsky returned to Russia in time for the outbreak of the 1905 Revolution. In August, the police spy Yevno Azef promised to lead the police to her, and travelled to Saratov with a senior officer, but failed to locate her,. She was at large until 1908, when Azef again betrayed her to the police and she was interned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. Hearing of her arrest, Isabel Barrows sailed to Russia to plead for her release, and succeeded in persuading Nikolay Breshko-Breshkovsky to visit his mother in prison, despite his hostility to her beliefs. In 1910, she was sentenced to exile for life in Siberia, and deported to a village by the Lena River where she was kept under constant supervision.

In November 1913 now almost 70 years old, she attempted an escape that involved a journey by horseback of more than 620 miles to Irkutsk, but was recaptured only seven miles outside the city. She was held in solitary confinement in Irkutsk prison for two years, then deported to Yakutsk, close to the Arctic Circle, but after protests from her American sympathisers, was returned to Irkutsk.

After the Revolution
One of the first acts of the Provisional Government that took office after the February Revolution of 1917 was to send Breshkovsky a special invitation to return to Petrograd, where she was personally welcomed by the Minister of Justice, and future Prime Minister, Alexander Kerensky, and by a huge crowd. Breshkovsky was elected in October 1917 to the Pre-Parliament, ahead of a nationwide election to a Constituent Assembly, and as its oldest member was appointed to chair its first meeting. By now, she was a legendary figure in Russia. The future Nobel prize winning writer Ivan Bunin overheard peasants talking about her in the summer of 1917. One said:

"She's a soothsayer, that's for sure. The word on her is that she's been predicting all these goings-on for the past fifty years. But God help us, she's really beastly looking: fat, angry, with very small penetrating eyes—I once saw her portrait in a feuilleton. She was chained in a stockade for 42 years, but they couldn't break her. She was never left alone day or night, but they couldn't break her back: even in the stockade she managed to get hold of a million rubles! Now she's buying people for support, promising to give them land and not to draft them for war..."

Actually, far from wanting to spare peasants from being called up for military service, she advocated continuing the war with Germany, and was one of the most committed and high-profile supporters of the Kerensky government. When it was overthrown in November by the Bolsheviks, she drafted an appeal to the Czechoslovak Legion to intervene to reinstate Kerensky by force. Late in 1918, she travelled via Vladivostok to the U.S., to appeal to the government to send 50,000 troops to support the anti-Bolshevik forces in the Russian Civil War. Later she moved to Paris, then in 1924 to Czechoslovakia, where she shared her final exile with Maria Kolenkina, a friendship that spanned more than 50 years.

title: Catherine Breshkovsky


text: Category:Political consultants

title: Category:Political consultants


text:
Lubitel

Lubitel (Любитель, Russian for amateur) refers to any of the several medium format twin-lens reflex cameras manufactured in Russia by LOMO. The design is based on the early 1930s Voigtländer Brillant camera with various improvements.

They are often considered toy cameras due to their cheap price, bakelite and later thermoplastic construction and low build quality. However, the Lubitels use 120 film, feature Cooke triplet, all-glass lenses and shutter speeds from bulb to 1/250 of a second. Aperture range is from f/4.5 to f/22. These characteristics are closer to those of an amateur TLR of the 1950s than a toy or disposable camera. They can achieve excellent results when the lens is stopped down but, as with any three-element lens, the results will be soft by today's standards at larger apertures.

Lubitel cameras are often used by art photographers or amateurs looking for a cheap introduction to medium format photography.

Models and years produced:
 * The Komsomolets camera was a forerunner of the Lubitel. Unlike the Lubitel, it has a non-focusing viewfinder. It is a close copy of the Voigtländer Brillant.
 * Lubitel TLR 1950-1956
 * Lubitel-2 1955-1977
 * Lubitel-166 1977-1980
 * Lubitel-166 B 1980-?
 * Lubitel-166 Universal 1984-August 1988 (production terminated)
 * Lubitel-166+ 2008- (manufactured by Lomographic Society)

title: Lubitel


text:
Solar Maximum Mission

The Solar Maximum Mission satellite (or SolarMax) was designed to investigate Solar phenomena, particularly solar flares. It was launched on February 14, 1980. The SMM was the first satellite based on the Multimission Modular Spacecraft bus manufactured by Fairchild Industries, a platform which was later used for Landsats 4 and 5 as well as the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite.

After an attitude control failure in November 1980 it was put in standby mode until April 1984 when it was repaired by a Shuttle mission.

The Solar Maximum Mission ended on December 2, 1989, when the spacecraft re-entered the atmosphere and burned up over the Indian Ocean.

Failure and repair
The white-light coronagraph/polarimeter (C/P) took coronal images for about six months from March 1980 before suffering an electronics failure in September that prevented operation.

In November 1980, the second of four fuses in SMM's attitude control system failed, causing it to rely on its magnetorquers in order to maintain attitude. In this mode, only three of the seven instruments on board were usable, as the others required the satellite to be accurately pointed at the Sun. The use of the satellite's magnetorquers prevented the satellite from being used in a stable position and caused it to "wobble" around its nominally sun-pointed attitude. SMM was left in standby mode for 3 years.

The first orbiting, uncrewed satellite to be repaired in space, SMM was notable in that its useful life compared with similar spacecraft was significantly increased by the direct intervention of a crewed space mission. During STS-41-C in April 1984, the Space Shuttle Challenger rendezvoused with the SMM, astronauts James van Hoften and George Nelson attempted to use the Manned Maneuvering Unit to capture the satellite and to bring it into the orbiter's payload bay for repairs and servicing. The plan was to use an astronaut-piloted Maneuvering Unit to grapple the satellite with the Trunnion Pin Attachment Device (TPAD) mounted between the hand controllers of the Maneuvering Unit, null its rotation rates, and allow the Shuttle to bring it into the Shuttle's payload bay for stowage. Three attempts to grapple the satellite using the TPAD failed. The TPAD jaws could not lock onto Solar Max because of an obstructing grommet on the satellite not included in its blueprints.

This led to an improvised plan which nearly ended the satellite's mission. The improvisation had the astronaut use his hands to grab hold of a solar array and null the rotation with a push from the Maneuvering Unit's thrusters. Instead, this attempt induced higher rates and in multiple axes; the satellite was tumbling out of control and quickly losing battery life. SMM Operations Control Center engineers shut down all non-essential satellite subsystems and with a bit of luck were able to recover the satellite minutes before total failure. The ground support engineers then stabilized the satellite and nulled its rotation rates for capture with the Shuttle's robotic arm. This proved to be a much better plan. The satellite had been fitted with one of the arm's grapple fixtures so that the robotic arm was able to capture and maneuver it into the shuttle's payload bay for repairs.

During the mission, the SMM's entire attitude control system module and the electronics module for the coronagraph/polarimeter instrument were replaced, and a gas cover was installed over the X-ray polychromator. Their successful work added five more years to the lifespan of the satellite. The mission was depicted in the 1985 IMAX movie The Dream Is Alive.

Discovery of comets
10 comets were discovered in images from the SMM.

Findings
Significantly, the SMM's ACRIM instrument package showed that contrary to expectations, the Sun is actually brighter during the sunspot cycle maximum (when the greatest number of dark 'sunspots' appear). This is because sunspots are surrounded by bright features called faculae, which more than cancel the darkening effect of the sunspot.

The major scientific findings from the SMM are presented in several review articles in a monograph.

End of mission
SMM's orbit slowly decayed due to atmospheric drag taking it down into denser regions.

The March 1989 geomagnetic storm was reported to have led to SMM dropping half a kilometre at the start of the storm and 5 kilometres over the whole period.

SMM lost attitude control on November 17, 1989, and re-entry and burn-up occurred on December 2, 1989, over the Indian Ocean.

title: Solar Maximum Mission


text:
User talk:DanBot (usurped)

Please leave messages at User talk:Rdsmith4.

title: User talk:DanBot (usurped)


text:
Sir Frank Bowden, 1st Baronet

Sir Frank Bowden, 1st Baronet, (30 January 1848 – 25 April 1921) was a British businessman and inventor. He was a founder of the Raleigh Bicycle Company.

Biography
Frank Bowden was born in Devon, England, and made a fortune in property development in Hong Kong in the 1870s. In 1879, he married Amelia Frances, an American heiress. When he returned from Hong Kong he was seriously ill and his doctor gave him six months to live. Bowden took up cycling on his doctor's advice and bought a bicycle from a small shop on Raleigh Street, Nottingham, run by Messrs Woodhead, Angois and Ellis. He was so impressed with his recovering health and the bicycle that in 1887–88 he acquired control of the company, which was then making three bicycles a week. Production rose, and three years later Bowden needed a bigger workshop, which he found in a four-storey building in Russell Street. He changed the company's name to Raleigh Cycles to commemorate the original address. By 1896 it was the largest bicycle manufacturer in the world and occupied seven and a half acres in Faraday Road, Nottingham. He lived at The Ropewalk, Nottingham.

He also helped build up Sturmey Archer Gears.

He wrote Cycling for Health and Points For Cyclists in 1913. In 1915 he was created a baronet of the City of Nottingham. He became a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and a Justice of the Peace.

Family
Bowden married Amelia Frances, daughter of Colonel Alexander Houston, of California, on 17 September 1879. The couple had six children: Helen, Winifred, Caroline, Sylvia, Harold and Claud.

Death
Sir Frank died in April 1921, aged 73, and was succeeded in the baronetcy by his eldest son Sir Harold Bowden, 2nd Baronet who ran Raleigh for the next 17 years and became President of the British Cycle and Motor-Cycle Manufacturers and Trader Union. Lady Bowden died in 1937.

title: Sir Frank Bowden, 1st Baronet