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Household debt

Household debt is the combined debt of all people in a household, including consumer debt and mortgage loans. A significant rise in the level of this debt coincides historically with many severe economic crises and was a cause of the U.S. and subsequent European economic crises of 2007–2012. Several economists have argued that lowering this debt is essential to economic recovery in the U.S. and selected Eurozone countries.

Overview
Household debt can be defined in several ways, based on what types of debt are included. Common debt types include home mortgages, home equity loans, auto loans, student loans, and credit cards. Household debt can also be measured across an economy, to measure how indebted households are relative to various measures of income (e.g., pre-tax and disposable income) or relative to the size of the economy (GDP).

The burden of debt can also be measured in terms of the amount of interest it generates relative to the income of the borrower. For example, the U.S. Federal Reserve measures the "household debt service ratio" (DSR), an estimate of the ratio of debt payments to disposable personal income. Debt payments consist of the estimated required payments on outstanding mortgage and consumer debt. The Fed also measures the "financial obligations ratio" (FOR), which adds automobile lease payments, rental payments on tenant-occupied property, homeowners' insurance, and property tax payments to the debt service ratio. Homeowner and renter FORs are calculated by applying homeowner and renter shares of payments and income derived from the Survey of Consumer Finances and Current Population Survey to the numerator and denominator of the FOR. The homeowner mortgage FOR includes payments on mortgage debt, homeowners' insurance, and property taxes, while the homeowner consumer FOR includes payments on consumer debt and automobile leases.

Historical perspective
In the 20th century, spending on consumer durables rose significantly. Household debt rose as living standards rose, and consumers demanded an array of durable goods. These included major durables like high-end electronics, vehicles, and appliances, that were purchased with credit. Easy credit encouraged a shift from saving to spending. This trend has continued into the 2020s where swiping a credit card has become a standard in day-to-day life

Households in developed countries significantly increased their household debt relative to their disposable income and GDP from 1980 to 2007 — one of the many factors behind the U.S. and European crises of 2007–2012. Research indicates that U.S. household debt increased from 43% to 62% of GDP from 1982 to 2000. Looking at the early years of the 21st century, many industrialized countries, with a notable exception of Germany, experienced a major spike of household debt versus GDP around 2007–8, with the United States leading up to 2007; by 2017, the American ratio was second only to that of the United Kingdom.

U.S. households made significant progress in deleveraging (reducing debt) post-crisis, much of it due to foreclosures and financial institution debt write-downs. By some measures, consumers began to add certain types of debt again in 2012, a sign that the economy may be improving as this borrowing supports consumption. However according to a business insider report Where the average American is almost 105,000 dollars in debt and in total Americans have towered over 17.6 trillion dollars of debt which is over double what the U.S government spent in 2022.

Global economic impact
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported in April 2012:

"Household debt soared in the years leading up to the Great Recession. In advanced economies, during the five years preceding 2007, the ratio of household debt to income rose by an average of 39 percentage points, to 138 percent. In Denmark, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Norway, debt peaked at more than 200 percent of household income. A surge in household debt to historic highs also occurred in emerging economies such as Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, and Lithuania. This occurred largely because the central banks implemented a prolonged period of artificially low policy interest rates, temporarily increasing the amount of debt that could be serviced with a given income. The leveraging up fueled a consumption boom that, ironically, boosted GDP in the countries in question, but represented not a sustainable 'boost to aggregate demand' but instead a mere pulling forward of consumption, as people took on new 30-40 year debt to pay for current year expenditures.

The predictable fallout of this policy is the slow growth that these countries are experiencing today. At the time, the concurrent boom in both house prices and the stock market - as the prices of financed and financial assets were bid up by virtue of the same low rates - meant that household debt relative to assets held broadly stable, which masked households' growing exposure to the eventual sharp fall in asset prices. House prices in particular were vulnerable to sharp movements in policy rates in countries in which most mortgages are adjustable-rate, as 30-40 year loans are highly rate sensitive, house purchases are financed at 80-95% of the price, and only 4-5% of homes change owners in a year.

Despite this low volume, the appraisal rules in most countries limit the number of times that a sale can serve as a comp only in terms of time (12 months), not the number of times that a given sale can be used as a comp - because of this, a "cash out refi boom" followed the low-rate-driven-price-increase - this was the primary vehicle through which developed countries' households leveraged up. On the supply side, home builders are also financed at short rates (in the US, Prime). Their cost of capital was effectively cut in half by virtue of the central bank rate cuts, enabling them to overbuild in response to the rise in prices - with all the new supply making the eventual price collapse worse than it would otherwise have been.

In short, the entire episode was straight out of Ludwig von Mises' 'Human Action', Chapter 20, with the new twist that most of the debt was incurred on the consumer side. When rising consumer prices forced the central banks to allow policy rates to rise back up toward market rates, the wind propping up house prices was taken away. House prices immediately declined, ushering in the global financial crisis. Many households, who had reduced their savings out of a belief in the "wealth effect," saw their wealth shrink relative to their debt, and, with less income and more unemployment, especially in the previously booming real estate sector, found it harder to meet mortgage payments. "Strategic defaults" became common, as homeowners with significant negative equity simply abandoned the home and the debt.

By the end of 2011, real house prices had fallen from their peak by about 41% in Ireland, 29% in Iceland, 23% in Spain and the United States, and 21% in Denmark. Household defaults, underwater mortgages (where the loan balance exceeds the house value), foreclosures, and fire sales became endemic to a number of economies. Household deleveraging by paying off debts or defaulting on them has begun in some countries. It has been most pronounced in the United States, where about two-thirds of the debt reduction reflects defaults.

Of note, Germany, in which almost all mortgages carry 10 year pricing, and in which the 10 year interest rate did not decline during the 2000s, no housing bubble occurred at all. Also, in Canada, in which most mortgages are ARMs but 3-5 year, and which experienced a muted drop in intermediate-term rates, the housing bubble was more muted than in neighboring US.

World
Among OECD countries, the larger share of all household debt is represented by mortgages, the incidence of which varies across countries, between 60% and 90% of total household debt. Scandinavian countries show the highest aggregate level household debt in OECD countries, their household debt is mostly composed of mortgages, and the use of consumer credit is almost absent.

United States
U.S. household (HH) debt (measured by the FRED variable "CMDEBT") rose relative to both GDP and disposable income over the 1980 to 2011 period.
 * Household debt as a % disposable income rose from 68% in 1980 to a peak of 128% in 2007, prior to dropping to 112% by 2011.
 * Household debt as a % nominal GDP rose from 47% in 1980 to a peak of 94% in 2009, prior to dropping to 77% in 2012.
 * U.S. household debt rose from nearly zero in the 1950s to $13.8 trillion in 2008, before declining to $12.9 trillion by Q2 2012.

Consumer credit outstanding includes credit cards, auto loans, student loans, and other types of household debt, but excludes mortgages. It rose from 14.0% GDP in January 1990 to 18.0% GDP by January 2009. It fell to a trough of 16.4% GDP in July 2010 and was back up to 17.5% GDP by January 2013.

Contribution to the 2008 financial crisis
This increase in debt from 1980 to 2007 enabled spending that stimulated the economy, arguably "papering over" or hiding the sustainable economic growth rate excluding this increase in leverage. This debt overhang then began holding back the economy as consumers paid down debt (which reduces economic activity) rather than spending.

Paul Krugman wrote in December 2010: "The root of our current troubles lies in the debt American families ran up during the Bush-era housing bubble. Twenty years ago, the average American household’s debt was 83 percent of its income; by a decade ago, that had crept up to 92 percent; but by late 2007, debts were 130 percent of income. All this borrowing took place both because banks had abandoned any notion of sound lending and because everyone assumed that house prices would never fall. And then the bubble burst. What we’ve been dealing with ever since is a painful process of 'deleveraging': highly indebted Americans not only can't spend the way they used to, they're having to pay down the debts they ran up in the bubble years. This would be fine if someone else were taking up the slack. But what's actually happening is that some people are spending much less while nobody is spending more—and this translates into a depressed economy and high unemployment. What the government should be doing in this situation is spending more while the private sector is spending less, supporting employment while those debts are paid down. And this government spending needs to be sustained: we're not talking about a brief burst of aid; we’re talking about spending that lasts long enough for households to get their debts back under control. The original Obama stimulus wasn’t just too small; it was also much too short-lived, with much of the positive effect already gone."

In April 2009, U.S. Federal Reserve Vice Chair Janet Yellen discussed the situation: "Once this massive credit crunch hit, it didn’t take long before we were in a recession. The recession, in turn, deepened the credit crunch as demand and employment fell, and credit losses of financial institutions surged. Indeed, we have been in the grips of precisely this adverse feedback loop for more than a year. A process of balance sheet deleveraging [paying down debt] has spread to nearly every corner of the economy. Consumers are pulling back on purchases, especially on durable goods, to build their savings. Businesses are cancelling planned investments and laying off workers to preserve cash. And, financial institutions are shrinking assets to bolster capital and improve their chances of weathering the current storm. Once again, Minsky understood this dynamic. He spoke of the paradox of deleveraging, in which precautions that may be smart for individuals and firms—and indeed essential to return the economy to a normal state—nevertheless magnify the distress of the economy as a whole."

The policy prescription of Ms Yellen's predecessor Mr Bernanke was to increase the money supply and artificially reduce interest rates. This stoked another debt and asset bubble. Mr Krugman's policy was to ensure that such borrowing took place at the federal government level, to be repaid via taxes on the individuals who he admitted were already overburdened with their own debts. These policies were arguably a mere return to the policies that inflated the debt bubble in the first place.

Economists Atif Mian and Amir Sufi wrote in 2014 that:
 * Historically, severe economic downturns are almost always preceded by a sharp increase in household debt.
 * U.S. household spending declines were largest in geographic areas with a combination of higher household debt and larger price declines.
 * When housing prices fall, poorer homeowners (with a larger proportion of their net worth in their home) are hit the hardest financially and reduce their consumption relatively more than wealthier households.
 * Declines in residential investment preceded the recession and were followed by reductions in household spending and then non-residential business investment as the recession worsened.

Effects on economic growth
Ezra Klein wrote in August 2011: "[W]hat distinguishes crises like this one from typical recessions is household debt. When the financial markets collapsed, household debt was nearly 100 percent of GDP. It’s now down to 90 percent. In 1982, which was the last time we had a big recession, the household-debt-to-GDP ratio was about 45 percent. That means that in this crisis, indebted households can’t spend, which means businesses can’t spend, which means that unless government steps into the breach in a massive way or until households work through their debt burden, we can’t recover. In the 1982 recession, households could spend, and so when the Federal Reserve lowered interest rates and made spending attractive, we accelerated out of the recession. The utility of calling this downturn a “household-debt crisis” is it tells you where to put your focus: you either need to make consumers better able to pay their debts, which you can do through conventional stimulus policy like tax cuts and jobs programs, or you need to make their debts smaller so they're better able to pay them, which you can do by forgiving some of their debt through policies like [mortgage principal reduction] or eroding the value of their debt by increasing inflation. I’ve heard various economist make various smart points about why we should prefer one approach or the other, and it also happens to be the case that the two policies support each other and so we don't actually need to choose between them. All of these solutions, of course, have drawbacks: if you put the government deeper into debt in order to help households now, you increase the risk of a public-debt crisis later. That's why it's wise to pair further short-term stimulus with a large amount of long-term deficit reduction. If you force banks to swallow losses or face inflation now, you need to worry about whether they'll be able to keep lending at a pace that will support recovery over the next few years. But as we’re seeing, not doing enough isn't a safe strategy, either."

Economist Amir Sufi at the University of Chicago argued in July 2011 that a high level of household debt was holding back the U.S. economy. Households focused on paying down private debt are not able to consume at historical levels. He advocates mortgage write-downs and other debt-related solutions to re-invigorate the economy when household debt levels are exceptionally high. Several European countries also had high household debt levels relative to historical averages leading up to the European sovereign-debt crisis. Recent research also supports the view that excessive household leverage has contributed to the weakness in consumption.

Effects on employment
Rana Foroohar wrote in July 2012: "[R]esearch shows that the majority of job losses in the U.S. since the Great Recession were due to lower consumer spending because of household debt, a decline that resulted in layoffs at U.S. firms. Parting back debt is the precursor to greater spending and greater growth."

Effects on economic recovery
Neil Irwin explained the economic effects of rising consumer credit outstanding (i.e., all types of household debt other than mortgages) in July 2013: "Americans are finally feeling more confident about the economy and thus willing to take on debt. Lenders, meanwhile, are growing more comfortable extending loans. The spending enabled by this rising consumer debt can help create a virtuous cycle in which more demand for goods and services creates more jobs, which creates rising income. Indeed, more borrowing by households (and the spending that results) is likely offsetting some of the pain caused by federal spending cuts and deficit reduction."

Reducing household debt
Household debt can be challenging to reduce. Major approaches include:

 * Paying down debt over time from income or accumulated savings, if available
 * Debt write-down or refinancing via negotiation, bankruptcy or government bailout
 * Inflation, although if wage increases do not exceed inflation, this approach is mostly academic

Paying off debt from income or savings
Since most middle income households have the majority of their wealth invested in their home, paying down debt from income can take a decade or longer when a housing bubble bursts, as it did for much of the developed world in 2007–2012. For example, this debt accumulated over a 30-year period (1980–2007 peak) in the U.S. and much of the increase was mortgage-related.

Debt restructuring or write-down
Debt can sometimes be reduced by negotiation with creditors or by a legal bankruptcy process, which can result in dismissal of certain types of debt such as credit cards. Some lenders may agree to write down mortgage values (reducing the homeowner's obligation) rather than taking even larger losses in foreclosure. Economist Joseph Stiglitz argued for a rapid bankruptcy process for homeowners, to allow debts to be written down.

Economists Joseph Stiglitz and Mark Zandi both advocated significant mortgage refinancing or write-downs in August 2012. They explained that more than four million Americans lost their homes since the housing bubble began bursting in 2006. An additional 3.5 million homeowners are in the foreclosure process or are so delinquent on payments that they will be soon. Roughly 13.5 million homeowners are underwater (in negative equity), meaning they owe more than their home is now worth, increasing the odds that millions more will lose their homes. The household debt and foreclosures are significantly holding back the economy.

Economists Kenneth S. Rogoff and Carmen M. Reinhart wrote in April 2013: "In the United States, we support reducing mortgage principal on homes that are underwater (where the mortgage is higher than the value of the home). We have also written about plausible solutions that involve moderately higher inflation and “financial repression” — pushing down inflation-adjusted interest rates, which effectively amounts to a tax on bondholders. This strategy contributed to the significant debt reductions that followed World War II.

Professor Luigi Zingales (University of Chicago) advocated a mortgage debt for equity swap in July 2009, where the mortgage debt would be written down in exchange for the bank taking an interest in future appreciation of the home upon sale (a debt-for-equity swap). Fund Manager John Hussman also advocated debt-for-equity swaps for households and banks during April 2009.

Journalist Steven Clemons wrote in July 2012: "The Great Recession of 2008–2009, from which there are still repercussions in the US and global economies, resulted from a massive surge in consumer loans—98% in just five years—and ... the combined total of US business and consumer loans is basically at the same level as at the moment this crisis hit." He argued for debt forgiveness or restructuring to help stimulate the economy.

During the Great Depression, the U.S. created the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC), which acquired and refinanced one million delinquent mortgages between 1933 and 1936.

Inflation
If wages increase due to inflation, but debts remain fixed, the debts can be more easily repaid. Economists may advocate increasing inflation to help reduce the debt burden in highly leveraged economies. For example, economist Kenneth Rogoff has advocated both mortgage write-downs and inflation during August 2011: "I argued that the only practical way to shorten the coming period of painful deleveraging and slow growth would be a sustained burst of moderate inflation, say, 4–6% for several years. Of course, inflation is an unfair and arbitrary transfer of income from savers to debtors. But, at the end of the day, such a transfer is the most direct approach to faster recovery. Eventually, it will take place one way or another, anyway, as Europe is painfully learning." He also suggested that the government could take an equity interest in the homes in exchange for paying down the mortgages.

Charts of U.S. household debt variables

 * FRED – Household Debt to GDP Ratio
 * FRED - Mortgage and Consumer Credit Debt Relative to GDP
 * FRED - Household Debt Dollars (CMDEBT)
 * FRED - Change in Household Debt Dollars by Quarter (CMDEBT)
 * FRED – Household Debt Service Payments as a Percent of Disposable Personal Income (TDSP)
 * FRED – Household Financial Obligations as a Percent of Disposable Personal Income (FODSP)

Household over-indebtedness
While it is challenging to define over-indebtedness, definitions of over-indebtedness tend to have a few core elements in common. The first one refers to the capacity to meet the expenses associated with the contracted financial commitments. Over-indebtedness implies an inability to meet such recurring expenses. Second, this inability is structural. This is the time dimension, which holds that the definition must capture persistent and ongoing financial problems and exclude one-off occurrences that arise due to forgetfulness, for instance. The third core element refers to standard of living. The household must be unable to meet contracted commitments without reducing its minimum standard of living expenses. Fourth, comes illiquidity. The household is unable to remedy the situation by recourse to (financial and non-financial) assets and other financial sources such as credit. Lastly, all contracted financial commitments are included, among them mortgage and consumer credit commitments, utility and telephone bills as well as rent payments (recurring expenses).

Causes of over-indebtedness can be diverse. A 'risky life event' (for example, unemployment, relationship break-up, leaving the parental home, business failure, illness or unexpected home repairs. Such events can trigger income and expenditure shocks) can lie at the root, sometimes instantly turning indebtedness into over-indebtedness. Other households have unconsciously, or consciously, gradually become over-committed. They make use of available forms of credit, sometimes without realizing that they might not be able to repay in the future. Lack of financial management skills and aggressive marketing by lenders may both lie at the origin of this. Another potential cause includes escalating consumption habits. The third group of people are the least well-off. They need to obtain credit in order to attain a reasonable standard of living. They are frequently subject to relatively high interest rates. Potential consequences for the over-indebted household include financial hardship, depression, poor health, relationship breakdown, exclusion from basic financial services, a strain on social relations, absenteeism at work and lack of organizational commitment, a feeling of insecurity.

Responses to household over-indebtedness can be preventive, alleviative and rehabilitative. Preventive measures include financial education and regulation. An example of the last is the European Union's "Directive on Credit Agreements for Consumers Household debt advisory services". It stipulates, for example, that lenders should list the interest rates they change in a homogenized way (yearly rates) and that paper contracts should be signed for debts above a certain amounts, thus inhibiting for example impulsive borrowing through SMS-loans. Alleviative measures include debt advisory services, which aim to help households getting their finances back on track, mainly by means of information provision, budget planning and balancing, help with legal arrangements, negotiation with creditors, providing psychological support by having someone to talk to, and even by effectively, voluntarily taking over the managing of a household's finances. Rehabilitative measures include consumer bankruptcy and legal debt settlement procedures. While precise arrangements vary largely between countries, in general such procedures work as follows. During such procedures, the over-indebted household hands over all income above a minimum threshold to the creditors/state and is cleared of its debts after the period, varying in length from for example 1 year in the UK to 5 in Portugal and 12 in Ireland.

External References

 * Federal Reserve Bank of New York - Quarterly Report on Household Credit and Debt
 * McKinsey & Company – Debt and Deleveraging – 2012 Update
 * How to Predict the Next Financial Crisis-Clemons and Vague-July 2012
 * Mian and Sufi – What Explains High Unemployment? The Deleveraging – Aggregate Demand Hypothesis-October 2011
 * Krugman and Eggertsson – Debt, Deleveraging, and the Liquidity Trap: A Fisher‐Minsky‐Koo approach – Revised February 2011
 * Haliassos, Michael. Household Portfolios. Second Edition Ed. Steven Durlauf and Lawrence Blume. Palgrave Macmillan,2008 The New Palgrave Dictionary of *EconomicsOnline..Palgrave Macmillan. 9 Sept. 2011. .
 * Bertola, Giuseppe, Richard Disney, and Charles Grant. The Economics of Consumer Credit. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2006. N. pag. Print.
 * Agarwal, Sumit, and Brent W. Ambrose. Household Credit Usage. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. N. pag. Print.
 * Olney, Martha L. Buy Now Pay Later. Chapel Hill Ans London: The North Carolina Press, 1991. Print.
 * Schutz, Howard G., Pamela C. Baird, and Glenn R. Hawkes. Lifestyles and Consumer Behavior of Older Americans. New York: Praeger Publishing, 1979. Print.
 * Kasser, Tim, and Allen D. Kanner. Psychology and Consumer Culture. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2004. Print.

title: Household debt


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Timeline of 14th-century Muslim history

The names of people, battles, and places need to be spelled as they are on other articles title and then wikified.

14th century (1301–1400) (700 AH – 803 AH)

 * 1301: In Bengal, Rukunuddin Kaikaus, the king of Bengal dies and is succeeded by his brother Shamsuddin Firoz Shah.
 * 1302: In Granada, Muhammad II dies and is succeeded by Muhammad III.
 * 1304: In the Mongol Ilkhanate, Ghazan dies and is succeeded by his brother Khudabanda Oljeitu.
 * 1304: In Algeria, Uthman dies and is succeeded by his son Abu Zayyan Muhammad.
 * 1305: In the Khalji Empire, Alauddin Khalji conquers Rajputana.
 * 1306: In the Chagatai Khanate, Duwa dies and is succeeded by his son Konchek.
 * 1307: In Morocco, the Marinid Sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf is assassinated; Abu Thabit accedes to the throne.
 * 1308: In the Chagatai Khanate, Konchek is deposed and Taliqu takes power.
 * 1308: In Algeria, Abu Zayyan Muhammad and is succeeded by his brother Abu Hammu Musa. In Morocco, Abu Thabit is overthrown by Abu'l-Rabi Sulayman.
 * 1309: In the Chagatai Khanate, Taliku is assassinated and Kebek accedes.
 * 1309: In Granada, Muhammad III is overthrown by his uncle Abul Juyush Nasr.
 * 1310: In the Chagatai Khanate, Kebek is overthrown by his brother Isan Buga.
 * 1310: In Morocco, Abu'l Rabi Sulayman is overthrown by Abu Said Uthman.
 * 1310: In the Khaljis empire, Alauddin conquers the Deccan.
 * 1312: In Tunisia, Abul Baqa is overthrown by Al Lihiani.
 * 1313: The Ilkhanate invades Syria, but the Mongols are repulsed.
 * 1313: In the Golden Horde Empire, Toktu dies and is succeeded by his nephew Uzbeg.
 * 1314: In Kashmir, Rinchan, an adventurer from Baltistan, overthrows Sinha Deva the Raja of Kashmir. Rinchan is converted to Islam and adopts the name of Sultan Sadruddin.
 * 1314: In Granada, Abul Juyush is overthrown by his nephew Abul Wahid Ismail.
 * 1315: In Tunisia, War breaks out between Bougie and Tunis; Lihani is defeated and killed. Abu Bakr becomes the ruler of Bougie and Tunis.
 * 1316: In the Ilkhanate, Oljeitu dies and is succeeded by Abu Said.
 * 1316: In the Khaljis Empire, Alauddin dies and Shahabuddin Umar accedes; Malik Kafur, a Hindu convert, usurps power.
 * 1318: In the Khalji Empire, Malik Kafur is assassinated, Shahabuddin Umar is deposed, and Qutbuddin Mubarak accedes. In the Chagatai Khanate, Isan Buga is overthrown by Kebek.
 * 1320: In the Khalji Empire, Qutbuddin Mubarak is assassinated; Khusro Khan, a Hindu convert, usurps power. Khusro Khan is overthrown by Ghazi Malik. End of the Khalji Dynasty.
 * 1320: In Tunisia, Abu Bakr is expelled from Tunis by Abu Imran.
 * 1320: In the Tughluq empire, Ghazi Malik founds the Tughluq dynasty.
 * 1321: In the Chagatai Khanate, Kebek is succeeded by Hebbishsi, who is later overthrown by Duwa Timur.
 * 1322: In the Chagatai Khanate, Duwa Timur is overthrown by Tarmashirin, who converts to Islam.
 * 1320: In Bengal, Shamsuddin Firuz dies. The kingdom is divided into two parts. Ghiasuddin Bahadur becomes the ruler of East Bengal with the capital at Sonargaon, Shahabuddin becomes the ruler of West Bengal with the capital at Lakhnauti.
 * 1324: In Bengal, Shahabuddin dies and is succeeded by his brother Nasiruddin.
 * 1325: In the Tughluq Empire, Ghazi Malik (Ghiasuddin Tughluq) dies and is succeeded by his son Muhammad Tughluq.
 * 1325: In Granada, Abul Wahid Ismail is assassinated; he is succeeded by his son Muhammad IV, who is himself assassinated. His brother Abul Hallaj Yusuf accedes to the throne. In the Samudra Pasai empire, Malik al Tahir I dies and is succeeded by Malik al Tahir II.
 * 1325: In Bengal, with the help of Ghiasuddin Tughluq, Nasiruddin over-throws Ghiasuddin Bahadur and unites Bengal.
 * 1326: In the Ottoman Empire, Osman I dies and is succeeded by Orhan. Orhan conquers Bursa and makes it his capital.
 * 1327: The Ottoman Turks capture the city of (Iznik).
 * 1329: In the Tughluq empire, Muhammad Tughluq shifts the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in the Deccan.
 * 1330: In the Chagatai Khanate, Tarmashirin dies and is succeeded by Changshahi. Amir Hussan establishes the Jalairid Sultanate at Baghdad. In Tunisia, Abu Bakr overthrows Abu Imran, and the state is again united under him. In Bengal, Muhammad bin Tughluq reverses the policy of his father and restores Ghiasuddin Bahadur to the throne of Sonargaon.
 * 1331: In the Marinid Empire, Abu Said Othman dies and is succeeded by Abul Hasan. The Tughluqs annex Bengal.
 * 1335: In the Ilkhanate, Abu Said dies, and Arpa Koun assumes power. In the Chagatai Khanate, Changshahi is assassinated; Burun accedes to the throne.
 * 1336: In the Ilkhanate, Arpa is defeated and killed, and Musa succeeds him. Amir Timur is born. In the Jalayar empire, Amir Hussain dies and is succeeded by Hasan Buzurg. The Ottoman Empire annexes the state of Karesi. In Bengal, the Tughluq governor at Sonargaon is assassinated by an armour bearer, who takes power and declares his independence; he assumes the name Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah.
 * 1337: In the Ilkhanate, Musa is overthrown, and Muhammad becomes the Sultan. In the Sarbadaran Empire, on the disintegration of the II-Khan rule, Abdur Razaq a military adventurer establishes an independent principality in Khurasan with the capital at Sabzwar. In Persia, upon the disintegration of the Ilkhanate, Mubarazud Din Muhammad establishes the Muzaffarid Empire. In the Ottoman Empire, The Ottomans capture the city of Nicomedia (İzmit). In Algeria, Algeria is occupied by Marinids.
 * 1338: In the Ilkhanate, Muhammad is overthrown and succeeded by Sati Beg. Sati Beg marries Sulaiman who becomes the co-ruler.
 * 1339: In Kashmir, Sadrud Din dies, and his throne is captured by a Hindu, Udyana Deva. In the Chagatai Khanate, Burun is deposed by Isun Timur. In Bengal, the Tughluq governor at Lakhnauti, Qadr Khan, is assassinated, and power is assumed by the army commander-in-chief, who declares his independence and assumes the title of Alauddin Ali Shah.
 * 1340: The Muzaffarid Empire conquers Kirman. In the Chagatai Khanate, Isun Timur is deposed by Muhammad.
 * 1341: In the Golden Horde empire, Uzbeg dies and is succeeded by his son Tini Beg.
 * 1342: In the Golden Horde empire, Tini Beg is overthrown by his brother Jani Beg.
 * 1343: In the Chagatai Khanate, Muhammad is overthrown, and power is captured by Kazan. In Bengal, Ilyas, an officer of Alauddin, murders his patron and captures the throne of West Bengal.
 * 1344: In the Ilkhanate, Sulaiman is deposed by Anusherwan.
 * 1345: In the Samudra Pasai Empire, Malik al Tahir II dies and is succeeded by Tahir III. His rule lasts throughout the 14th century.  In Bengal, llyas captures East Bengal, and under him Bengal is again united.  He establishes his capital at Gaur.
 * 1346: In the Chagatai Khanate, Kazan is deposed by Hayan Kuli. In Tunisia, Abu Bakr dies and is succeeded by his son Fadal. In Kashmir, Udyana Deva dies and the throne is taken by Shah Mirza, who assumes the name of Shah Mir and founds the Shah Mir Dynasty.
 * 1347: The Marinids capture Tunisia. In the Bahmanid Empire, Hasan Gangu declares his independence and establishes a state in the Deccan with the capital at Gulbarga.
 * 1349: In Kashmir, Shah Mir dies and is succeeded by his son Jamsbed. In Algeria, The Zayanids under Abu Said Othman recapture Algeria.
 * 1350: In the Sarbadaran Empire, a revolt erupts against Abdur Razaq. Power is captured by Amir Masud. In Tunisia, Fadal is deposed and succeeded by his brother Abu Ishaq. In Kashmir, Jamshed is overthrown by his step brother Alauddin Ali Sher.
 * 1351: In the Marinid Empire, Abul Hasan dies, and is succeeded by Abu Inan. In the Tughluq Empire, Muhammad Tughluq dies and Firuz Shah Tughluq assumes power.
 * 1352: The Marinids again capture Algeria. Abu Said Othman is taken captive and killed.
 * 1353: The Ilkhanate ends. The Ottoman Empire acquires the fortress of Tympa on the European side of the Hollespoint. The Muzaffarids conquer Shiraz and establish their capital there.
 * 1354: The Muzaffarids annex Isfahan. In Granada, Abu Hallaj Yusuf is assassinated; his son Muhammad V succeeds him.
 * 1356: In the Jalayar Empire, Death of Hasan Buzurg, succession of his son Owaia.
 * 1357: In the Golden Horde Empire, Death of Jani Beg, succession of Berdi Beg.
 * 1358: In the Bahmanid Empire, Death of Hasan Gangu, accession of his son Muhammad Shah. In the Muzaffarid Empire, Death of Mubarazuddin Muhammad; accession of Shah Shuja. In the Marinid Empire, Assassination of Abu Inan, succession of Abu Bakr Said. In Bengal, Death of Ilyas, succession of his son Sikandar Shah.
 * 1359: In the Ottoman Empire, Death of Orhan, succession of Murad I. In the Muzaffarid Empire, Shah Shuja deposed by his brother Shah Mahmud. In Tunisia, Abul Abbas a nephew of Abu Ishaq revolts and establishes his rule in Bougie. In Algeria, The Zayanids under Abu Hamuw II recapture Algeria. In the Marinid Empire, Abu Bakr Said overthrown by Abu Salim Ibrahim. In Granada, Muhammad V loses the throne in palace revolution, succeeded by Ismail. In the Golden Horde, Death of Berdi Beg, succession of Qulpa.
 * 1360: In the Muzaffarid Empire, Death of Shah Mahmud. Shah Shuja recaptures power. In the Chagatai Khanate, Power captured by Tughluq Timur. In Granada, Ismail overthrown by his brother-in-law Abu Said.
 * 1361: In the Ottoman Empire, Murad I conquers a part of Thrace and establishes his capital at Edirne(Hadriaunus) in Thrace. In the Golden Horde empire, Kulpa overthrown by his brother Nauroz. In the Marinid Empire, Abu Salim Ibrahim overthrown by Abu Umar. Abu Umar overthrown by Abu Zayyan.
 * 1362: In the Golden Horde empire, State of anarchy. During 20 years as many as 14 rulers came to the throne and made their exit. In Granada, Abu Said overthrown by Muhammad V who comes to rule for the second time. In Kashmir, Death of Alauddin Ali Sher, succeeded by his brother Shahabuddin.
 * 1365: In the Ottoman Empire, The Turks defeat a Christian army at the battle of Maritza (Sirp Sindigi). The Byzantine ruler becomes a vassal of the Turks.
 * 1366: In the Marinids empire, Assassination of Abu Zayyan, succession of Abu Faris Abdul Aziz.
 * 1369: Power captured by Amir Timur. End of the rule of the Chughills. Amir Timur captures power in Transoxiana. In Tunisia, Death of Abu Ishaq. Succession of his son Abu Baqa Khalid.
 * 1370: In Tunisia, Abu Baqa overthrown by Abul Abbas under whom the state is reunited. In the Sarbadaran empire, Death of Amir Masud, succession of Muhammad Timur.
 * 1371: In the Ottoman Empire, Invasion of Bulgaria, Bulgarian territory up to the Balkans annexed by the Turks.
 * 1372: In the Marinid Empire, Death of Abu Faris, succession of Abu Muhammad.
 * 1374: In the Marinid Empire, Abu Muhammad overthrown by Abul Abbas.
 * 1375: In the Sarbadaran Empire, Deposition of Muhammad Aytimur, power captured by Shamsuddin. In the Jalayar empire, Death of Owais, succession by his son Hussain.
 * 1376: In Kashmir, Death of Shahabuddin, succeeded by his brother Qutbuddin.
 * 1377: In the Bahmanids empire, death of Muhammad Shah, succeeded by his son Mujahid.
 * 1378: In the Bahmanids empire, assassination of Mujahid, the throne being seized by his uncle Dawud.
 * 1379: Turkomans of the Black Sheep empire, Bairam Khawaja found the independent principality of the Turkomans of the Black Sheep and established his capital at Van in Armenia. In the Bahmanids empire, Assassination of Daud; accession of Muhammad Khan.
 * 1380: In the Golden Horde empire, Power is captured by Tokhtamysh, a prince of the White Horde of Siberia. In Amir Timur's empire, Amir Timur crosses the Oxus and conquers Khurasan and Herat. Amir Timur invades Persia and subjugates the Muzaffarids and Mazandaran.
 * 1381: In Amir Timur's empire, annexation of Sistan, capture of Qandhar.
 * 1384: In Amir Timur's empire, conquest of Astrabad, Mazandaran, Rey and Sultaniyah. In the Muzaffarids empire, Death of Shah Shuja, accession of his son Zainul Abdin. In the Marinid Empire, Abul Abbas overthrown by Mustansir. Turkomans of the Black Sheep empire, Death of Bairam Khawaja, succession of Qara Muhammad.
 * 1386: In Amir Timur's empire, Annexation of Azarbaijan, Georgia overrun. Subjugation of Gilan and Shirvan. Turkomans of the Black Sheep defeated. In the Marinid Empire, Death of Mustansir, succession of Muhammad.
 * 1387: In the Marinid Empire, Muhammad overthrown by Abul Abbas who comes to power for the second time.
 * 1388: In Algeria, death of Abu Hamuw II, succession of Abu Tashfin. In the Tughluqs empire, Death of Firuz Shah Tughluq, succeeded by his grandson Ghiasuddin Tughluq II.
 * 1389: In the Muzaffarid Empire, death of the poet Hafiz Shirazi. In the Tughluqs empire, Death of Ghiasuddin Tughluq II, accession: of Abu Bakr Tughluq Shah. Turkomans of the Black Sheep empire, death of Qara Muhammad. succession of Qara Yusuf. In Ottoman Empire Murad I fought the Battle of Kosovo against Christian army from Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia, Hungary and Wallachia. Murad I was assassinated at the end of this battle and Yildirim Beyazid I became the new Sultan.
 * 1390: In the Tughluqs empire, Abu Bakr overthrow by Nasiruddin Tughluq. In Bengal, Death of Sikandar Shah, accession of his son Ghiasud. In the Burji Mamluks empire, The rule of the Burji Mamluks rounded by Saifuddin Barquq. In Tunisia, the city of Mahdia is besieged by a French crusader army.
 * 1391: In Amir Timur's empire, Annexation of Fars. In the Muzaffarid Empire, Annexation of the Muzaffarids by Amir Timur. In Granada, Death of Muhammad V, succession of his son Abu Hallaj Yusuf II.
 * 1392: In the Jalayar empire, Death of Hussain, succession of his son Ahmad. In Granada, Death of Abu Hallaj; succession of Muhammad VI.
 * 1393: Amir Timur defeats Tiktomish, the ruler of the Golden Horde. Capture of the Jalayar dominions by Amir Timur. In the Marinid Empire, Death of Abul Abbas; succession of Abu Faris II.
 * 1394: Amir Timur defeats the Duke of Moscow. In the Tughluqs empire, Death of Nasiruddin Tugluq, accession of Alauddin Sikandar Shah. In Kashmir, Death of Qutbuddin. Turkomans of the White Sheep empire, Qara Othman established the rule of the White Sheep Turkomans in Diyarbekr.
 * 1395: In the Golden Horde empire, Amir Timur defeated Toktamish and razes Serai to the ground. End of the rule of the Golden Horde. Annexation of Iraq by Amir Timur. In the Tughluqs empire, Death of Sikandar Shah. Accession of Muhammad Shah.
 * 1396: In the Amir Timur's empire, Destruction of Sarai, and of the rule of the Golden Horde. In the Sarbadaran empire, Principality annexed by Amir Timur. In Ottoman Empire Sultan Yildirim Beyazid I at the Battle of Nicopoli defeated an army of Christian Crusaders.
 * 1397: In the Bahmanids empire, Death of Muhammad Khan.
 * 1398: In the Amir Timur's empire, Campaign in India. In the Marinid Empire, Death of Abu Faris II. In the Tughluqs empire, Invasion of Amir Timur, Mahmud Shah escapes from the capital. In Morocco, Death of the Marinid Sultan Abu Faris II; succession of his son Abu Said Othman.
 * 1399: In the Amir Timur's empire, Campaign in Iraq and Syria. In the Burji Mamluks empire, Death of Saifuddin Barquq, succession of his son Nasiruddin in Faraj. By the end of this century, global Muslim population had grown to 8 per cent of the total.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Timeline of 14th-century Muslim history


text:
Timeline of 15th-century Muslim history

This is a timeline of major events in the Muslim world from 1400 AD to 1499 AD (803 AH – 905 AH).

Golden Horde

 * ca. 1400: Temur Qutlugh dies and is succeeded by Shadi Beg.
 * 1407: Shadi Beg is deposed and Edigu installs Pulad Khan as his successor.

Mamluk Empire

 * 1400: The Burji Mamluks lose Syria to Tamerlane.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1402–1403: Beyazid I is defeated at the Battle of Ankara and taken captive by Tamerlane. An interregnum period begins when the sons of Beyazid I compete for the Ottoman throne.

Timurid Empire

 * 1405: Tamerlane dies and is succeeded by his son, Shah Rukh.

Golden Horde

 * 1410: Pulad Khan is deposed in favor of Timur.
 * 1412: Timur is deposed in favor of Jalal ad-Din khan, the first of Tokhtamysh's sons to take power since his death.
 * 1413: Jalal ad-Din khan is deposed in favor of his brother, Karim Berdi.
 * 1414: Karim Berdi is deposed in favor of Kebek.
 * 1416: Kebek Khan is deposed in favor of Yeremferden, the brother of Karim Berdi and Jalal ad-Din khan.
 * 1419: Yeremferden is assassinated; control of the Horde is split between Dawlat Berdi and Olugh Mokhammad.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1413: Interregnum period ends and Mehmed I becomes Sultan.

Nogai Horde

 * 1419: Edigu is assassinated by Olugh Mokhammad, who assumes his place as Khan, re-uniting it with the Golden Horde.

Golden Horde

 * 1420: Dawlat Berdi captures Sarai and expands his sphere of influence beyond the Crimean Peninsula.
 * 1423: Baraq defeats Dawlat Berdi and Olugh Mokhammad and takes control of the Horde. Olugh Mokhammad flees to Lithuania.
 * 1427: With the assistance of Vytautas the Great, Olugh Mokhammad and Dawlat Berdi defeat and kill Baraq.

Kara Koyunlu

 * 1420: Qara Yusuf dies and is succeeded by his son, Qara Iskander.

Morocco

 * 1420: Abu Said Othman is assassinated and succeeded by Abdul Haq, his infant son.

Tunisia

 * 1424: The Hafsids come to power.
 * 1429: The Hafsids attack the island of Malta and take 3000 slaves although they do not conquer the island. Piracy against Christian shipping particularly grows during the rule of Abd al-Aziz II (1394–1434).

Uzbeks

 * 1425: Abul Khayr takes control of the Little jüz.

Ak Koyunlu

 * 1434: Qara Osman dies and is succeeded by Ali Beg.
 * 1438: Ali Beg is overthrown by his brother, Hamza.

Golden Horde

 * 1432: Dawlat Berdi is assassinated and Hacı I Giray conquers the Crimea, founding the Crimean Khanate.
 * 1437: Olugh Mokhammad is defeated by Sayid Ahmad I, who takes control of the Horde.

Kara Koyunlu

 * 1434: Qara Iskandar is deposed in favor of his brother, Jahan Shah.

Khanate of Kazan

 * 1438: Olugh Mokhammad founds the Khanate of Kazan.

Mamluk Empire

 * 1438: Barsbay dies and his son, Jamaluddin Yusuf, is prevented from taking power in a coup orchestrated by Saifuddin Gakmuk.

Tunisia

 * 1434: Abdul Faris dies after forty years of rule and is succeeded by Abu Abdullah Muhammad.
 * 1435: Abu Abdullah Muhammad is deposed in favor of Abu Umar Othman.

Uzbeks

 * 1430: Abul Khayr occupies Khwarezmia.

Ak Koyunlu

 * 1440: Hamza is overthrown by Jahangir, a son of Ali Beg.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1444: The Anti-Ottoman League of Lezhe in Albania is formed by Scanderbeg. Murad II voluntarily abdicates from his throne in favor of his son Mehmed II after the former's defeat at the hands of crusaders at the Battle of Varna.
 * 1446: Murad II reclaims the throne.
 * 1448: The Ottomans are victorious at the Second Battle of Kosovo. Serbia is annexed and Bosnia is made a vassal.

Timurid Empire

 * 1446: Shah Rukh dies and is succeeded by Ulugh Beg.
 * 1449: Ulugh Beg dies and is succeeded by 'Abd al-Latif.

Uzbeks

 * 1449: Abul Khayr captures Farghana.

Ak Koyunlu

 * 1453: Jahangir dies and is succeeded by his son, Uzun Hassan.

Great Horde

 * 1459: Küchük Muhammad dies and is succeeded by his son, Maxmud.

Mamluk Empire

 * 1453: Gakmuk dies and is succeeded by his son, Fakhruddin Othman, who is then overthrown by Saifuddin Inal.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1451: Murad II dies and is succeeded by his son, Mehmed II.
 * 1453: Constantinople is captured.
 * 1456: Wallachia is made a vassal.

Timurid Empire

 * 1450: 'Abd al-Latif is assassinated and succeeded by Abu Sa'id.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1462: Albania is annexed.

Mamluk Empire

 * 1461: Saifuddin Inal died and is succeeded by his son, Shahabuddin Ahmad, who is then overthrown by Saifuddin Khushqadam.

Great Horde

 * 1465: Maxmud founds the Astrakhan Khanate after he is deposed by his brother, Akhmat Khan.

Kara Koyunlu

 * 1467: Jahan Shah is killed in a surprise attack arranged by his rival, Uzun Hasan, leader of Ak Koyunlu. Ak Koyunlu then annexes Kara Koyunlu.

Morocco

 * 1465: Abdul Haq is assassinated, ending the Marinid dynasty. Sharif Muhammad al Jati assumes power.

Mamluk Empire

 * 1465: Khushqadam dies and is succeeded by his son, Saifuddin Yel Bey, who is then deposed by Temur Bugha.
 * 1468: Temur Bugha is deposed by Qaitbay.

Kazakh Khanate

 * 1465: Kazakh nobles Abu Sa'id Janibek Khan and Kerei Khan rebel against Uzbek ruler Abu'l-Khayr Khan and form their own independent state, the Kazakh Khanate.

Uzbeks

 * 1468: Abu'l-Khayr Khan dies and is succeeded by his son Haidar Sultan.

Ak Koyunlu

 * 1467: Kara Koyunlu is annexed.
 * 1468: The Timurids are defeated at the Battle of Qarabagh. Ak Koyunlu then becomes the masters of Persia and Khorasan.

Timurid Empire

 * 1469: Abu Sa'id dies; the Timurid state. In Husayn Bayqarah maintains control of Greater Khorasan.

Morocco

 * 1472: Sharif Muhammad al Jati is overthrown by Muhammad al Shaikh, establishing the Wattasid dynasty.

Kazakh Khanate

 * 1473: Kerei Khan, the first ruler of the Kazakh Khanate, dies and Abu Sa'id Janibek Khan succeeds him as the empire's second ruler.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1473: Mehmed II defeats sultan Uzun Hasan of Ak Koyunlu at the Battle of Otluk Beli.
 * 1475: The Khanate of Crimea is conquered and made a vassal state. Venice is defeated and the Ottoman Empire becomes master of the Aegean Sea.

Ak Koyunlu

 * 1478: Uzun Hasan dies and is succeeded by his son, Khalil ibn Uzun Hasan.
 * 1479: Khalil Hasan is overthrown by his uncle, Y‘aqub ibn Uzun Hasan.

Great Horde

 * 1480: Akhmat Khan is assassinated and succeeded by his son, Said Ahmad II.
 * 1481: Said Ahmad II is overthrown by his brother Murtada.

Kazakh Khanate

 * 1480: Abu Sa'id Janibek Khan dies and is succeeded by his nephew Burunduk, who is the son of Kerei Khan.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1481: Mehmed II dies and is succeeded by Beyazid II. Cen Sultan rebels.

Uzbeks

 * 1488: Haider Sultan dies and is succeeded by his nephew, Shaybani Khan.

Tunisia

 * 1488: Abu Umar Othman dies and is succeeded by Abu Zikriya Yahya.
 * 1489: Abu Zikriya Yahya is overthrown by Abul Mumin.

Tunisia

 * 1490: Abul Mumin is overthrown and Abu Zikriya Yahya retakes the throne.

Iberia

 * 1492: Granada is captured by Spain, ending 800 years of Muslim rule in Spain.

Ak Koyunlu

 * 1493: Y‘aqub ibn Uzun Hasan dies and is succeeded by his son, Baisonqur ibn Y‘aqub.
 * 1495: Baisonqur is overthrown by his cousin, Rustam ibn Maqsud.
 * 1497: Maqsud is overthrown by his cousin, Ahmad Gövde ibn Muhammad.

Mamluk Empire

 * 1496: Qaitbay abdicates and is succeeded by his son, Nasir Muhammad.
 * 1498: Nasir Muhammad is deposed and replaced by Zahir Kanauh.

Uzbeks

 * 1499: Shaybani Khan conquers Transoxiana.

Great Horde

 * 1499: Murtada dies and is succeeded by Said Ahmad III.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1499: the Ottoman fleet defeats the Venetians in the Battle of Zonchio.

title: Timeline of 15th-century Muslim history


text:
Benjamin Agosto

Benjamin Alexandro "Ben" Agosto (born January 15, 1982) is an American ice dancer. With partner Tanith Belbin, Agosto is the 2006 Olympic silver medalist, a four-time World medalist, the 2004–2006 Four Continents champion, and 2004–2008 U.S. champion.

Personal life
Benjamin Agosto was born January 15, 1982, in Chicago, Illinois, and raised in Northbrook, Illinois. He is the son of a Puerto Rican father and a Jewish mother whose family have roots in Romania and Russia. Agosto attended grade school at the Chicago Waldorf School, then spent two years at Glenbrook North High School, and graduated with honors from Michigan's Groves High School in June 2000. He played in a high school jazz band.

Agosto lived in Detroit, Michigan, from June 1998 and then Canton, Michigan, before moving to Aston, Pennsylvania, in the summer of 2008. He relocated to Lacey, Washington, in September 2010 and then to Scottsdale, Arizona, in 2014.

Early years
Agosto started skating at age six, after receiving a pair of ice skates for his birthday, and started ice dancing at about age 12. Early in his career, he was coached by Susie Wynne. He skated with Katie Hill from 1995 to 1998, competing with her on the novice and junior levels, including internationally. They skated out of Midwestern Section. When that partnership ended, Agosto moved from Chicago to Michigan in 1998 in order to train under Igor Shpilband.

Partnership with Belbin
In 1998, Agosto's coach partnered him with Canadian Tanith Belbin. In the 1999–2000 season, they won a pair of medals on the ISU Junior Grand Prix series and finished 4th at the JGP Final. They went on to win the U.S. junior national title and then took the bronze medal at the 2000 World Junior Championships. In 2000–2001, Belbin/Agosto competed again on the JGP series, taking gold in all three of their events including the Final. They appeared on the senior level at the 2001 U.S. Championships and won the silver medal, qualifying them for their first senior World Championships, where they finished 17th.

In 2001–2002, Belbin/Agosto made their senior Grand Prix debut and won another silver medal at the U.S. Championships, which would have qualified them for the 2002 Winter Olympics if Belbin had been an American citizen. Instead, Belbin/Agosto were sent to all the other ISU Championships for which they were eligible: Four Continents, Junior Worlds, and Worlds. They won the 2002 World Junior Championships, completing their set of medals from that event. Following that season, Agosto aged out of juniors.

Belbin/Agosto won the 2004 U.S. national title and would go on to repeat four times. At Nationals in 2005, the last year of the 6.0 system, they received straight perfect sixes for presentation in their free dance. Of the 30 6.0s given out in ice dance at U.S. Nationals, Belbin/Agosto have 14 of them. Their total 6.0 count at the U.S. Championships is second only to Michelle Kwan (38).

In February 2005, Belbin/Agosto organized and performed in their own figure skating benefit show, Skate Aid for Tsunami Relief, which raised more than $37,000 for Red Cross relief efforts.

Belbin/Agosto won the silver medal at the 2005 World Championships. Their silver medal combined with the placement of the other American team earned the United States three spots to the Olympics in ice dance, the first time this had happened since 1984. By a special act of Congress that passed on December 28, 2005, which President Bush signed on New Year's Eve, 2005, Belbin became a naturalized citizen of the US, making her able to compete for the United States at the 2006 Winter Olympics. Belbin/Agosto went on to win the Olympic silver medal in ice dance on February 20, 2006. They were the first American ice dance team since 1976, the first year ice dancing was contested at the Olympics, to win an Olympic medal.

Belbin/Agosto began the 2006–2007 season with a free dance called That's Entertainment but arrived at Nationals with a new program to the music of Amelie. They won gold at Nationals, the silver medal at Four Continents, and the bronze at Worlds.

In 2007–2008, they won gold medals at both Skate America and Cup of China which qualified them for the Grand Prix Final, where they took the silver medal. They won their 5th national title and then placed 4th at the 2008 Worlds after a fall by Belbin in the compulsory dance. Belbin/Agosto were regular cast members of the Champions on Ice tour from 2004 until COI went out of business following the 2007 season. They were guest stars on part of the 2008 Stars on Ice tour.

In April 2008, Belbin/Agosto left Igor Shpilband and began working with the married coaching team of Natalia Linichuk and Gennadi Karponosov at the Ice Works Skating Complex in Aston, Pennsylvania. In addition to teaching different technique, Linichuk advised Belbin to gain 10 pounds and develop some muscles in order to skate faster and more fluidly. This also gave Belbin more core strength to hold her positions better, thus making lifts easier for Agosto.

Belbin/Agosto began the 2008–2009 season at the 2008 Skate America and 2008 Cup of China, winning silver at both competitions. They withdrew from the 2008–2009 ISU Grand Prix Final after the original dance due to a back injury to Agosto. They withdrew from the 2009 U.S. Championships before the event began to due Agosto's injury. They were named to the team to the 2009 World Championships. At Worlds, they won the original dance and placed second in the compulsory and free dances to win the silver medal overall.

Belbin/Agosto won both their Grand Prix events in the 2009-10 season: the 2009 Cup of China and the 2009 Skate America. They withdrew from the Grand Prix Final for medical reasons. At the 2010 U.S. Championships, they were unable to reclaim their national title, finishing second behind Meryl Davis and Charlie White. Belbin/Agosto were nominated to represent the United States at the 2010 Winter Olympics. They finished 4th in the Olympic ice dancing event. They did not compete at the 2010 World Championships.

On June 10, 2010, Belbin and Agosto announced their retirement from eligible skating. Since then they have toured professionally in ice shows.

On December 15, 2015, U.S. Figure Skating announced Belbin and Agosto would be members of the U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame Class of 2016. The induction ceremony was held on January 22, 2016, at the 2016 U.S. Figure Skating Championships.

Later career
Agosto works as a coach and choreographer. He has choreographed for three Disney on Ice shows and in 2014, he became the director of ice dance at the Ice Den in Scottsdale, Arizona.

Also Agosto worked as a voice actor for a video game in 2006, and expressed an interest in continuing in the field. He has performed on television as a spokesperson for the United States Census.

Programs
(with Belbin)

title: Benjamin Agosto


text:
Timeline of 16th-century Muslim history

Persia

 * 1501: Ismail I establishes the Safavid dynasty, and the Twelve-Imam Shi'ism becomes the state religion.
 * 1507: The Kingdom of Portugal under Alfonso d'Albuquerque establishes trading outposts in the Persian Gulf..

Golden Horde

 * 1502: The Golden Horde collapses into a number of smaller khanates.

Ak Koyunlu

 * 1508: Ak Koyunlu is absorbed by the Safavids.

Malaysia

 * 1511: D'Albuquerque conquers Malacca.

Kazakh Khanate

 * 1511: Burunduk Khan is deposed by the people and exiled to Samarkand, where he dies. His cousin Qasim bin Janibek Khan succeeds him as the fourth ruler of the Kazakh Khanate.

 * 1515: The Kazakhs under Qasim bin Janibek Khan conquer all of modern-day Kazakhstan after a decisive victory in battle over Qasim's cousin Muhammad Shaybani, ruler of the Uzbek Khanate. The Kazakhs rule all of modern-day Kazakhstan from this point on.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1514: Sultan Selim I defeats Safavids at the Battle of Chaldiran.
 * 1516: Selim I defeats the Mamluks at the Battle of Merc-i Dabik and kills Sultan Kansu Gavri; Syria is conquered.
 * 1517: The Ottoman army crosses the Sinai desert, defeats the new Mamluk Sultan Tomanbai at the Battle of Ridaniye and Battle of Cairo and conquers Egypt. The Sharif of Mecca presented keys to the holy cities^bon the badfksh guy of Mecca and Medina to Selim I and is declared their hereditary ruler. Al-Mutawakkil, the last Abbasid caliph, formally surrenders the title of caliph to Selim I.

Kazakh Khanate

 * 1520: Qasim bin Janibek Khan creates the "Bright Road of Qasim Khan", which served as the first code of laws for the Kazakhs.

 * 1521: Qasim bin Janibek Khan dies and is succeeded by his son Khanzada Muhammed, who assumes the title Muhammed Khan as the fifth ruler of the Kazakh Khanate.

 * 1523: Kazakh ruler Muhammed Khan dies and is succeeded by his cousin Tahir Khan, the sixth ruler of the Kazakh Khanate.

South East Asia (Indonesia)

 * 1527: Fall of Majapahit empire, the last Hindu stronghold in South East Asia. Demak established as first Islamic sultanate of Java.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1520: Selim I dies and the reign of Suleiman I, the Magnificent begins.
 * 1521: Suleiman I conquers Belgrade.
 * 1522: Suleiman I defeats the Knights Hospitaller and drives them from the island of Rhodes.
 * 1526: Suleiman I defeats the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács, where Louis II of Hungary dies. Buda and Pest are taken by the Ottomans and Hungary is declared a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1529: Unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Vienna.

Mughal Empire

 * 1526: Babur destroys the Delhi Sultanate at the Battle of Panipat, laying the foundation of the Mughal Empire.
 * 1527: Babur annihilates the Rajput Confederacy of Rana Sanga at the Battle of Khanwa, ending the most dangerous threat to Muslim rule in India at the time.
 * 1528: Babur defeats an Afghan army at the Battle of Kannauj.
 * 1529: Babur crushes an Afghan army at the Battle of Ghaghra, ending hopes of a Lodhi restoration.

Kazakh Khanate

 * 1530: the First Kazakh Civil War is underway due to the inefficiency of Tahir Khan.
 * 1533: Tahir Khan dies and is quickly succeeded by Ahmed Khan, the 7th ruler of the Kazakh Khanate.
 * 1534: Some nobles dissent in rebellion from Ahmed Khan, refusing to recognize his legitimacy and further prolonging the civil war.
 * 1536: Ahmed Khan dies and is succeeded by Haqnazar Khan.
 * 1538: Haqnazar Khan ends the First Kazakh Civil War and re-consolidates all major Kazakh towns under his rule.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1534: Suleiman I conducts a military campaign against Safavid Shah Tahmasp and conquers Van, Baghdad, and Tabriz.
 * 1538: The Ottoman navy under the command of Barbarossa Khayreddin wins a naval victory against a combined Christian fleet at the Battle of Preveza.

Algeria

 * 1533: Barbarossa Khayreddin is appointed the Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and governor of Algeria.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1550: The architect Mimar Sinan builds the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul. The rise of the Muslim kingdom of Aceh in Sumatra.

Khanate of Kazan

 * 1552: The Khanate is conquered by the Tsardom of Russia.

Indonesia

 * 1550: Islam spreads to Java, the Maluku Islands, and Borneo.

Mughals

 * 1556: Akbar begins his reign of the Mughal empire in India at age 13 with his regent Bairam Khan after winning the Second Battle of Panipat against Hemu.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1565: The Ottomans are defeated by the Knights Hospitaller during the Siege of Malta.
 * 1566: The Ottomans gain control of the Aegean islands.
 * 1566: Suleiman I dies and is succeeded by Selim II.

Spain

 * 1568: Moriscos revolt during the Alpujarra uprising.

Ottoman Empire

 * 1571: The Ottomans are defeated at the naval Battle of Lepanto.

Morocco

 * 1578: The Battle of Alcazarquivir at Alcazarquivir in Morocco. King Sebastian of Portugal is killed.

Safavid Dynasty

 * 1588: The reign of Abbas I of Safavid begins.

Religious

 * 1591: Mustaali Ismailis split into Sulaymanis and Daudis.

title: Timeline of 16th-century Muslim history


text:
Two-handed manual alphabets

Several manual alphabets in use around the world employ two hands to represent some or all of the letters of an alphabet, usually as a part of a deaf sign language. Two-handed alphabets are less widespread than one-handed manual alphabets. They may be used to represent the Latin alphabet (for example in the manual alphabet used in Turkish Sign Language) or the Cyrillic alphabet (as is sometimes used in Yugoslav Sign Language).

BANZSL alphabet
This alphabet is used in the BANZSL group of sign languages. It has been used in British Sign Language and Auslan since at least the 19th century, and in New Zealand Sign Language since the 1970s. Variations of this alphabet are also used in dialects of Indo-Pakistani Sign Language.

BANZSL deafblind alphabet
This is a variation on the above alphabet, modified for tactile use by those communicating with people who are deafblind.

The sender holds the wrist of the receiver. The receiver's hand is relaxed, with the palm open and fingers slightly apart. The signer uses their dominant hand like a pen to sign on the non-dominant hand of the receiver. As a beginner, you may squeeze the wrist of the receiver between words since you will spell haltingly. Once you can spell fluently, simply put a short pause between words. AEIOU are the pads of each finger, beginning with the thumb.

 * A: BANZSL "A" is signed on the tip of the thumb
 * B: The fingers and thumb are held together to form half of the BANZSL "B" and placed on the palm
 * C: Draw your finger along the edge of the thumb and up the index finger, alternatively the direction of the sweep can be reversed
 * D: The signer forms half of the BANZSL "D" with their dominant hand and places it against the recessive hand of the receiver; an alternative is to use the index and middle finger placed against the recessive hand
 * E: BANZSL "E" is signed on the tip of the index finger
 * F: Half of the BANZSL "F" is signed either on the palm or on the top of the receiver's index finger
 * G: Half of the BANZSL "G" is signed on the palm
 * H: BANZSL "H" is signed across the palm
 * I: BANZSL "I" is signed on the tip of the middle finger
 * J: BANZSL "J" is signed on the hand of the receiver
 * K: Half of the BANZSL "K" is signed on the first knuckle of the index finger
 * L: BANZSL "L" is signed on the palm
 * M: BANZSL "M" is signed on the palm
 * N: BANZSL "N" is signed on the palm
 * O: BANZSL "O" is signed on the tip of the ring finger
 * P: Pinch the pad and nail of the index finger (P for pinch)
 * Q: Hook your curled index finger around the thumb
 * R: BANZSL "R" is signed on the palm
 * S: Hook your curled index finger around the little finger
 * T: BANZSL "T" is signed on the receiver's hand
 * U: BANZSL "U" is signed on the tip of the little finger
 * V: BANZSL "V" is signed on the palm
 * W: There are three ways to do this; all are acceptable, but your receiver might not know them all:Interlace your fingers with theirsGrab all their fingers from the side (if your hand is folded over, their index finger lies across the first knuckles of your hand)Grab their fingers from the top (if your hand is folded over, their fingertips lie across the first knuckles of your hand)
 * X: Half of the BANZSL "X" is signed on the index finger
 * Y: The index finger is used to sign a BANZSL "Y" on the hand of the receiver
 * Z: The side of the palm is placed on the palm of the receiver

Other deafblind alphabets
From "Deafblind Manual Alphabet", on Deafblind Information, Senses Australia (links added):

 * "Variations of this alphabet is [sic] used in some dialects of Indo-Pakistani Sign Language.
 * "Other forms of manual deafblind alphabet are used around the world - eg. The Lorm Deafblind Manual Alphabet (Belgium). In some countries, eg. Sweden, the one-handed alphabet used is modified by applying the shape of the letter into the hand of the person who is deafblind at a different angle, making the shape easier to feel."
 * "Other forms of manual deafblind alphabet are used around the world - eg. The Lorm Deafblind Manual Alphabet (Belgium). In some countries, eg. Sweden, the one-handed alphabet used is modified by applying the shape of the letter into the hand of the person who is deafblind at a different angle, making the shape easier to feel."

Yugoslav manual alphabet
Some signs are modeled after letters of the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet, others after Gaj's Latin alphabet, or stem from other sources.

title: Two-handed manual alphabets


text:
Timeline of 17th-century Muslim history

17th century (1601–1700) (1009 AH – 1112 AH)

 * 1601: Khandesh annexed by the Mughals.
 * 1603: Battle of Urmiyah. The Ottoman Empire suffers defeat. Persia occupies Tabriz, Mesopotamia. Mosul and Diyarbekr. Death of Mehmed III, accession of Ahmed I; see Sultans of the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1604: In Dutch Indonesia, death of Alauddin Rayat Shah, Sultan of Acheh, accession of Ali Rayat Shah III.
 * 1605: Death of the Mughal emperor Jalal-ud-Din Akbar; accession of Jahangir.
 * 1607: Annexation of Ahmadnagar by the Mughals.
 * 1609: Annexation of Bidar by the Mughals.
 * 1611: Kuch Behar subjugated by the Mughals.
 * 1612: Kamrup annexed by the Mughals.
 * 1617: Death of Ahmed I; accession of Mustafa I; see Sultans of the Ottoman Empire. British East India Company begins trading with Mughal India.
 * 1618: Tipperah annexed by the Mughals.
 * 1620: In Ottoman Empire, deposition of Mustafa; accession of Osman II, see Sultans of the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1623: In Ottoman Empire, Mustafa recaptured power.
 * 1625: In Ottoman Empire, deposition of Mustafa, accession of Murad IV, see Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1627: Death of the Mughal emperor Jahangir, accession of Shah Jahan.
 * 1628: Reign of Safavid Sultan Shah Abbas I comes to an end.
 * 1629: In Persia, death of Shah Abbas; accession of grandson Safi.
 * 1631: Death of Mumtaz Mahal, wife of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and the lady of Taj Mahal, Agra.
 * 1635: Military campaign of Ottoman Sultan Murad IV against Iran and conquest of Erivan castle. Conquest of the castles of Maku, Hoy and Tabriz and destruction of their walls..
 * 1637: Death of Iskandar Muda in Indonesia; accession of Iskandar II.
 * 1638: In Ottoman, military campaign of Sultan Murad IV against Iran and conquest of Baghdad after a siege.
 * 1640: Death of Ottoman Sultan Murad IV, accession of his brother Ibrahim I, see Sultans of the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1641: Ottoman vassal state of Khanate of Crimea capture Azov. In Indonesia, death of Iskandar II; accession of the Queen Tajul Alam.
 * 1642: In Persia, death of Shah Safi, accession of Shah Abbas II.
 * 1645: Start of the long-lasting Ottoman-Venetian War for the island of Crete by the landing of the Ottoman forces there and the conquest of the castle of Khania.
 * 1648: In Ottoman Empire, Ibrahim I deposed; accession of Mehmed IV; see Sultans of the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1656: In Ottoman Empire Mehmed Kuiprilli appointed the Grand Vizier with special powers.
 * 1658: Deposition of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, accession of Aurangzeb.
 * 1661: Death of Grand Vizier of Ottomans Mehmed Kuiprilli and appointment as the Grand Vizier of his son Ahmed Kuiprilli.
 * 1667: Death of Shah Abbas II; accession of Shah Suleiman.
 * 1668: Conquest of the castle of Candia by the Ottomans concludes the long-lasting Ottoman-Venetian War on the island of Crete.
 * 1673: The Badshahi Masjid was constructed by Aurangzeb in Lahore, Pakistan.
 * 1675: Execution of the Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur. In Indonesia death of the queen Tajul Alam, accession of the queen Nur ul Alam.
 * 1676: Death of the Grand Vizier of Ottomans Ahmad Kuiprilli, appointment of Kara Mustafa.
 * 1678: In Indonesia, death of the queen Nur ul Alam, accession of the queen Inayat Zakia.
 * 1680: Death of Marhatta chieftain Shivaji.
 * 1682: Assam annexed by the Mughals. Aurangzeb shifts the capital to Aurangabad in the Deccan.
 * 1683: The Ottomans put Vienna under siege and are defeated in the Battle of Vienna, marking the end of the Turkish advance into Europe. Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa is executed for the failure of the expedition.
 * 1686: Annexation of Bijapur by the Mughals.
 * 1687: Kingdom of Golkonda annexed by the Mughals. Defeat of the Ottomans by Austria at Second Battle of Mohács. Deposition of Mehmed IV; accession of Suleiman II; see Sultans of the Ottoman Empire
 * 1688: In Indonesia, death of Queen Inayat Zakia, accession of the queen Kamalah.
 * 1691: Death of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman II; accession of Ahmed II, see Sultans of the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1692: Death of the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed II; accession of Mustafa II; see Sultans of the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1694: In Persia, death of Shah Safi, accession of Sultan Husayn.
 * 1699: In Indonesia death of Queen Kamalah.
 * 1700: Murshid Quli Khan declares the independence of Bengal and establishes his capital at Murshidabad. By the end of this century, global Muslim population had grown to 11 per cent of the total.

title: Timeline of 17th-century Muslim history


text:
Broglie

Broglie is a commune of the Eure département, in France

Broglie may further refer to:
 * The House of Broglie, a noble French family with many notable members, including:
 * Maurice-Jean de Broglie (1766–1821), French aristocrat and bishop
 * Albert, 4th duc de Broglie (1821–1901), Prime Minister of France
 * Louis de Broglie (1892–1987), physicist and Nobel laureate
 * de Broglie wave, the wave-form manifestation of particles of matter
 * Place Broglie, central town square in Strasbourg, France

title: Broglie


text:
Timeline of 18th-century Muslim history

18th century (1701–1800) (1112 AH – 1215 AH)

 * 1703: In Ottoman Empire Ahmed III becomes the Sultan. Birth of Shah Wali Ullah. Birth of the religious reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab.
 * 1707: Death of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, accession of his son Bahadur Shah.
 * 1711: War between Ottoman Empire and Russia (Russo-Turkish War (1710–11)). Russia defeated at the Battle of Pruth and Treaty of the Pruth signed.
 * 1712: Death of the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah I, accession of Jahandar Shah.
 * 1713: Jahandar Shah overthrown by his nephew Farrukhsiyar.
 * 1715: In Ottoman Empire the peninsula of Morea and other Adriatic fortresses that had been ceded to Venetian Republic are reconquered.
 * 1716: Defeat of Ottoman Empire armies by the Austrians under Prince Eugene of Savoy at Battle of Peterwardein and loss of strategic fortress of Temesvar.
 * 1718: In the war against Austria, Ottoman Empire suffers continuing defeat and loss of fortress of Belgrade. By the Treaty of Passarowitz, Ottomans lost Hungary.
 * 1719: Deposition of the Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar. Muhammad Shah ascends the throne. In Sind, the Kalhoras came to power under Nur Muhammad Kalhora. In Ottoman Empire start of a long-period of peace, enlightenment and prosperity that was later named the Tulip period.
 * 1722: Saadat Khan found the independent state of Oudh. Battle of Gulnabad between the Afghans and the Persians. The Persians were defeated and the Afghans under Shah Mahmud became the masters of a greater part of Persia. Shah Hussain taken captive, accession of Shah Tahmasp II.
 * 1730: Zanzibar freed from Portuguese rule and occupied by Oreart. In Ottoman Empire Sultan Ahmed III is deposed by Patrona Insurrection which ends the Tulip period. Mahmud I ascends the throne.
 * 1735: Start of war between Ottoman Empire and Russia (Russo-Turkish War (1735–39)).
 * 1737: Entry of Austria into (Russo-Turkish War (1735–39)) against Ottoman Empire.
 * 1739: Persian ruler Nadir Shah sacks the Mughal capital of Delhi in India. In Ottoman Empire Austria signs the separate Belgrade Treaty and Russia signs the Treaty of Nissa to end Russo-Turkish War (1735–39)
 * 1744: Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the al-Saud dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, founder of the Wahhabi movement in Nejd.
 * 1747: Ahmed Shah Abdali established Afghan rule in Afghanistan.
 * 1752: Death of Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai, writer of Sassi Pannu, Sohni Mahinwal and Umer Marvo. Ahmed Shah Durrani captured Punjab, Kashmir and Sind.
 * 1754: In Ottoman Empire death of Mahmud I and accession of Osman III.
 * 1755: Division of the Mataram Sultanate, Indonesia, the last major independent Muslim state in Java before Dutch colonisation.
 * 1757: In Ottoman Empire death of Osman III and accession of Mustafa III.
 * 1761: Death of Shah Waliullah Dehlavi. Battle of Panipat. Ahmed Shah Abdali came to India at the invitation of Shah Waliullah Dehlavi and smashed rising Maratha Empire power in the Third Battle of Panipat.
 * 1764: Conversion to Islam of Areadi Gaya, ruler of Futa Bandu State in West Sudan.
 * 1768: Start of the war between Ottoman Empire-Russia (Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) ) and defeats of Ottoman land armies at various battles.
 * 1770: Burning of the Ottoman fleet at Naval Battle of Chesma by a Russian fleet that has come from Baltic Sea.
 * 1771: Conquest of the Crimean Peninsula by Russian forces and the end of Ottoman dominance over Khanate of Crimea.
 * 1773: Death of Ahmed Shah Abdali.
 * 1774: In Ottoman Empire death of Mustafa III and accession of Abdul Hamid I. Defeat of the Ottoman armies by Russians. Signing of the Treaty of Kuçuk Kainarji to end the Ottoman-Russian war (Russo-Turkish War (1768–74)). Khanate of Crimea nominally gained independence but in fact became a dependency of Russia.
 * 1779: Signing of Aynalikavak Accord between Ottoman Empire and Russia.
 * 1783: End of Kalhora rule in Sind. Russia occupies and annexes the Crimean Peninsula and ends the rule of Khanate of Crimea.
 * 1787: In Ottoman Empire start of war against Austria and Russia (Russo-Turkish War (1787–92)). Death of Sultan Abdulhamid I and accession of Selim III.
 * 1791: Signing of the Treaty of Sistova that ends the war between Austria and Ottoman Empire.
 * 1792: War between Ottoman Empire and Russia (Russo-Turkish War (1787–92)) ends with signing of the Treaty of Jassy.
 * 1793: Selim III issues a set of new regulations for the Ottoman Empire, providing for establishment of a military corps based on European models, reforming economic regulations by curbing the abuses of foreign, and revising the tax system.
 * 1797: Death of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, the Shah of Persia. Russia occupied Dagestan.
 * 1798: Landing of the armies of French Republic under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte in Ottoman Province of Egypt. Defeat of the Ottoman provincial army of Mamluks at Battle of the Pyramids. Defeat and burning of French Fleet at naval Battle of Aboukir by the British fleet under Admiral Lord Nelson. Alliance of Ottoman Empire – Great Britain – Russia against France.
 * 1799: Defeat of the French expeditionary force from Egypt under Napoleon Bonaparte at Siege of Acre by the Ottoman defenders and retreat of the French back to Egypt. Ranjit Singh declared himself Maharajah of Punjab defeating Afghans. Khoqand declared independent Islamic State. Death of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Kingdom of Mysore in India. By the end of this century, global Muslim population was estimated at 115 million.

title: Timeline of 18th-century Muslim history


text:
Calhoun

John C. Calhoun (1782–1850) was the 7th vice president of the United States.

Calhoun can also refer to:

Surname

 * Calhoun (surname)

Inhabited places in the United States

 * Calhoun, Georgia
 * Calhoun, Illinois
 * Calhoun, Kentucky
 * Calhoun, Louisiana
 * Calhoun, Missouri
 * Calhoun, South Carolina
 * Calhoun, Tennessee
 * Calhoun, West Virginia
 * Calhoun, Wisconsin
 * Calhoun County, Alabama
 * Calhoun County, Arkansas
 * Calhoun County, Florida
 * Calhoun County, Georgia
 * Calhoun County, Illinois
 * Calhoun County, Iowa
 * Calhoun County, Michigan
 * Calhoun County, Mississippi
 * Calhoun County, South Carolina
 * Calhoun County, Texas
 * Calhoun County, West Virginia
 * Fort Calhoun, Nebraska

Lakes in Minnesota, United States

 * Lake Calhoun (Kandiyohi County, Minnesota)
 * Lake Calhoun, Minnesota, now called Bde Maka Ska

Schools and universities in the United States

 * Grace Hopper College of Yale University, known as Calhoun College until 2017
 * Calhoun Middle School (disambiguation)
 * Calhoun School, New York, New York

title: Calhoun


text:
Iron Man (song)

"Iron Man" is a song by English rock band Black Sabbath, released in 1970 from the band's second studio album, Paranoid, and as a single in the US in October 1971.

Background and composition
Upon hearing Tony Iommi's main guitar riff at rehearsal for the first time, vocalist Ozzy Osbourne remarked that it sounded "like a big iron bloke walking about", with "Iron Bloke" quickly becoming a placeholder title as the band developed the song. Iommi had created the riff "on the spot" in response to a bass drum beat drummer Bill Ward started playing, creating a mood of "someone creeping up on you". While recording the song, producer Rodger Bain and studio engineer Tom Allom had tremendous difficulty capturing the "power and depth of the sound" of his bass drum in the studio due to the limitations of the microphones available at that time.

The lyrics, composed by bassist and lyricist Geezer Butler, tell the story of a self-fulfilling prophecy in which a man travels into the future and witnesses the apocalypse. In the process of returning to the present day to warn the human race, he is turned into steel by a magnetic field and is subsequently ridiculed and ignored by the people he intended to save. Feeling resentful, Iron Man retaliates by actually causing the apocalypse seen in his vision.

Butler has been clear that there is no link between the song and the Marvel Comics superhero of the same name, explaining that he had not read American comics as a child. Rather, he took his lyrical inspiration from Osbourne's "iron bloke" remark and he decided to compose the lyrics as a science fiction story. Raised in a devout Catholic family, Butler also intended the song's subject as an allegory for Jesus Christ, but rather than forgiving his doubters and tormentors, Iron Man instead seeks vengeance. Butler recalled, "I liked the Hammer horror films in the 1960s and magazines such as Man, Myth and Magic, but I had a few supernatural experiences as a child and dreams that came true and that, more than anything, shaped my interest in the occult", additionally citing H.G. Wells's novels as inspiration.

The effect used to create Osbourne's distorted vocal in the song's intro has been a topic of conjecture. Some have speculated over the years that Osbourne's voice had been processed by a ring modulator, which had most famously been used to create the voices of the Dalek on the Doctor Who television program. Iommi used this effect on his guitar solo in the song "Paranoid" from the same album. According to Butler, a much more low-tech method was used, with Osbourne singing through an oscillating metal fan.

Reception and legacy
The song peaked at number 52 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1972, becoming their highest-charting single on the chart. It also reached number 68 on the Canadian RPM Magazine Top 100. The live rendition of the song from their Reunion (2001) album won them the 2000 Grammy Awards for Best Metal Performance.

"Iron Man" was used in the end credits of Iron Man (2008), as well in its video game adaptation and the trailer for the 2010 sequel, Iron Man 2. The character Tony Stark, alter-ego of Iron Man, also wears a Black Sabbath t-shirt in the 2012 film The Avengers. The song won spot number 317 in Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time as of 2004, and number 7 on their "100 Greatest Heavy Metal Songs of All Time" list in March of 2023. "Iron Man" was ranked the sixth best Black Sabbath song by Rock – Das Gesamtwerk der größten Rock-Acts im Check. VH1 ranked the song as the greatest heavy metal song of all time.

The professional wrestling tag team The Road Warriors used "Iron Man" as their entrance theme in the mid-1980s in the American Wrestling Association and other promotions.

Personnel

 * Ozzy Osbourne – vocals
 * Tony Iommi – guitars
 * Geezer Butler – bass
 * Bill Ward – drums

title: Iron Man (song)


text:
Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history

19th century (1801–1900) (1215 AH – 1318 AH)

 * 1803: Sheikh Abdul Aziz bin Muhammad bin Saud assassinated. Shah Shuja proclaimed King of Afghanistan.
 * 1804: Uprising under George Petrovich against Janissary garrison at Belgrade marked beginning of Serbian Revolution.
 * 1804: Othman dan Fodio established Islamic State of Sokoto in Northern Nigeria.
 * 1805: Saud bin Abdul Aziz captured Medina defeating the Ottoman Empire garrison.
 * 1805: Faraizi movement launched in Bengal.
 * 1805: Sultan Selim III yields to the demand that Muhammad Ali be appointed wāli of Egypt.
 * 1806: Khanate of Khiva came into limelight under the rule of Mohammed Rahim Khan.
 * 1807: Selim III deposed by Janissaries.
 * 1807: Darqawi sect revolted against Turkish domination.
 * 1807: Tunisia repudiated suzerainty of Algeria.
 * 1808: Bairakdar, the ayan of Rusçuk, having arrived in Constantinople too late to restore Selim III (who had been strangled), installed Mahmud II, the sole surviving member of the Ottoman line.
 * 1811: Birth of Siyyid Mírzá 'Alí-Muhammad known as the Báb, founder of Bábí movement. British occupied Indonesia.
 * 1811: Muhammad Ali has Mamluks massacred in the Citadel of Cairo, thereby consolidating his absolute power.
 * 1812: Medina fell to Egyptians.
 * 1812: Treaty of Bucharest between Ottoman Empire and Russia end a war of 6 years
 * 1813: Mecca and Taif captured by Egyptian forces and Saudis expelled from Hejaz.
 * 1814: Iran executed treaty of alliance with the British known as the Definitive Treaty.

 * 1814: Death of Saud bin Abdul Aziz.
 * 1814 Bey Othman of Tunisia assassinated by his cousin Mahmud ibn Muhammad.
 * 1816: British withdrew from Indonesia restoring it to the Dutch.
 * 1817: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan born.
 * 1818: Conclusion of Egypt's seven-year campaign against the Wahabis in Arabia, who had occupied Mecca and Medina and threatened Syria. As a result, the eastern coast of the Mediterranean fell under Egyptian control.
 * 1821: Alexander Ypsilantis led Greek insurgents across the river Prut into Danubian Principalities on March 6 (n.s.) to begin the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1822: Death of Maulay Ismail in Morocco.
 * 1822: Greek assembly at Epidauros declared Greek independence and drew up an organic statute establishing a parliament and executive directory.
 * 1826: Janissaries massacred by forces loyal to Mahmud II after they revolted following formation of new army corps.
 * 1827: Malaya became a preserve of the British according to Anglo-Netherland treaty in 1824.
 * 1828: Russia declared war against Ottoman Empire.
 * 1829: Treaty of Adrianople ends the Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)
 * 1830: French forces landed near Algiers and occupied Algeria ending 313 years rule of Turks.
 * 1831: Syed Ahmad Barelvi and Shah Ismail leaders of Jihad movement in India fell fighting the Sikhs in Balakot.
 * 1831: Sayyid Said, King of Oman, shifted his capital to Zanzibar.
 * 1832: Turks defeated in the battle of Konya by Egyptian forces.
 * 1833: At the urging of France, the Convention of Kütahya ended the war between Egypt and the Ottoman Empire and provided that the empire grant the sultan of Egypt all of Syria and Adana.
 * 1833: The Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi established alliance between the Ottoman Empire and Russia and provided that the Ottomans would close the Dardanelles to any foreign warships at the Russians' request.
 * 1834: Abdul Qadir of Algeria recognized as ruler of the area under his control by the French.
 * 1839: In response to threats by Egyptian wāli Muhammad Ali to declare himself independent, an Ottoman army began (March) the invasion of Syria from the Euphrates. It was defeated (June 24) by the Egyptians in the battle of Nezib. On July 1 the Turkish fleet surrendered itself (possibly by an act of treachery) to Muhammad Ali in Alexandria.
 * 1839: The Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane (Supreme Edict of the Rose House) issued by sultan Abdülmecid I, which began the Tanzimât reforms of the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1840: Quadruple Alliance by the European powers to force Egypt to relinquish Syria. British free occupied Aden.
 * 1841: State of Adamawa established by Adams adjacent to Nigeria.
 * 1842: Amir Abdul Qadir, ousted from Algeria by the French. He crossed over to Morocco. Shah Shuja assassinated ending the Durrani rule in Afghanistan.
 * 1847: Amir Abdul Qadir surrendred to France under the condition of safe conduct to a Muslim country of his choice, but France violated its pledge and sent him as a captive to France.
 * 1849: Death of Muhammad Ali of Egypt.
 * 1850: The Báb is executed by the Persian government. Táhirih, a renowned poet and staunch advocate of Bábism also executed.
 * 1852: Release of Amir Abdul Qadir by Napoleon III. He settled in Ottoman Empire.
 * 1853: After a series of intrigues ostensibly designed to enable it to act as protector of Orthodox Christians in Ottoman territories failed, Russia occupied the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in March. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in October beginning the Crimean War. Great Britain and France would declare war on Russia the following March.
 * 1856: Hatt-ı Hümâyûnu (the Reform Edict of 1856) is issued on February 18 and constitutes the most important Ottoman reform measure of the nineteenth century. It guaranteed the lives and property of Christians, replaced the heads of churches with a national synod, provided full freedom of conscience and civil participation for adherents to all religions. The edict was forced on the sultan by the British, French and Austrians to forestall a Russian intervention.
 * 1856: Treaty of Paris (March 30) ends Crimean War, and admits Turkey into the European concert, whereby its independence and imperial integrity was guaranteed. Russia ceded the mouths of the Danube and Bessarabia, returned Kurs, relinquished its claim as protector of Christians in the Ottoman Empire and agreed to the neutralization of the Black Sea.
 * 1857: British captured Delhi and eliminated Mughal rule in India after 332 years. Last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled to Rangoon in Burma. This was also the end of 1000 years of Muslim rule over India.
 * 1858: Feudal holdings abolished in the Ottoman Empire.
 * 1859: Imam Shamil laid down arms before Russian forces and the Islamic State of Dagestan became a Russian province.
 * 1860: Maulay Muhammad defeated by Spain.
 * 1860: Masjid-e-Abu Hurairah, established in Cardiff, is the first mosque in Britain.
 * 1860: Civil War between Syrian Druzes and Marionite Christians erupted. Authorized by the European Powers, France sent expeditionary force which restored order by June 1861.
 * 1861: Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I died and is succeeded by Abdülaziz whose reign (1861-1876) is notable for the rapid spread of western influence (particularly Great Britain and France, allies of the Ottoman Empire during the Crimean War), as evidenced by the first foreign loans, railroad construction, and public debt administration, and the rise of secular liberalism, shown by literary revival, translation of Western literature, rise of Turkish journalism and establishment of universities.
 * 1861: Overthrow of the Bambara Empire by the Toucouleur Empire.
 * 1862: Faraizi movement fizzled out after the death of Dudu Miyan. Overthrow of the Massina Empire by the Toucouleur Empire.
 * 1863: Banque Impériale Ottoamane established to function as Turkey's central bank.
 * 1864: Circassian genocide
 * 1865: Khanate of Kokand liquidated by Russia.
 * 1869: Jamal al-Din al-Afghani exiled from Afghanistan. He proceeded to Egypt.
 * 1871: Tunisia recognised suzerainty of Ottoman Empire through a firman.
 * 1873: Emirate of Bukhara and Khanate of Khiva made protectorates by Russia.
 * 1876: Britain purchased shares of Khediv Ismail in the Suez canal and got involved in Egyptian affairs.
 * 1876: Constitutional monarchy in Ottoman Empire (Turkey)(first phase)
 * 1878: Conference of Berlin. Ottoman Empire loses territories to Russia or Balkan countries
 * 1878: Ottoman Empire handed over Cyprus to Britain.
 * 1879: Jamal al-Din al-Afghani exiled from Egypt. Treaty of Berlin. Ottoman lost 4/5 th of its territory in Europe.
 * 1881: France invaded Tunisia and the Bey acknowledged supremacy of France as a result of the treaty of Bardo. Muhammad Ahmad declared himself Mahdi in northern Sudan.
 * 1882: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian first claimed to be divinely appointed by God but did not take pledge until 1889.
 * 1882: Egypt came under British military occupation.
 * 1883: Death of Amir Abdul Qadir in Damascus.
 * 1885: Muhammad Ahmad declared free Government of Sudan under his rule. Death of Mahdi Sudani five months after the occupation of Khartoum.
 * 1889: Shah Jahan Mosque opened in Woking (England).
 * 1889: Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian claimed to be the Promised Messiah and Imam Mahdi, laid the foundation of the Ahmadiyya Movement. But majority of Muslims denounced Mirza Ghulam Ahmad as a Heretic and later Parliament of Pakistan declared followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam as Non-Muslims.
 * 1890: End of the Toucouleur Empire.
 * 1895: Afghanistan got Wakhan Corridor by an understanding with Russia and British India making Afghan border touch China.
 * 1897: Sultanate of Bagirmi occupied by the French.
 * 1899: Fall of Muhammad Ahmad's Mahdi State occupied by the British and the Egyptians jointly. By the end of this century, global Muslim population had grown to 13 percent of the total.

title: Timeline of 19th-century Muslim history


text:
Castle class

Castle class may refer to:
 * Castle-class trawler, a class of ships constructed by the Royal Navy from 1916 to 1919
 * Castle-class corvette, a class of ships constructed by the Royal Navy beginning in 1943
 * Castle-class patrol vessel, a class of ships constructed by the Royal Navy beginning in 1980
 * GWR Castle class locomotive, a class of steam locomotives of the British Great Western Railway
 * InterCity 125 train sets operated in the United Kingdom by Great Western Railway (train operating company)

title: Castle class


text:
Pierre Lueders

Pierre Fritz Lueders (born 26 September 1970) is a Canadian Olympic, world and World Cup champion bobsledder who competed from 1990 to 2010. He piloted both two-man and four-man bobsleigh, retiring after the 2010 Winter Olympics. He was named to Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 2012.

Biography
Lueders grew up in Edmonton and went to Winterburn School for elementary and junior high. He attended Jasper Place High School for grades 10 through 12.

Competitive career
Originally a decathlete, in 1989 he switched to bobsleigh on the advice of a cousin who was a sportswriter in what was then East Germany, who suggested his build was better suited to the latter sport. Beginning as a brakeman and progressing rapidly, he became a pilot by 1991 and in 1992 won the first World Cup race he entered.

A five-time Olympian, Lueders is the most decorated slider in Canadian history. He was the pilot of the Canadian two-man bobsleigh (teamed with Dave MacEachern) that won the gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics (shared with the Italian duo of Günther Huber and Antonio Tartaglia). This was only Canada's second-ever medal in bobsleigh, and the first since Vic Emery led his four-man crew to victory in 1964. Lueders and MacEachern ended their partnership shortly after the 1998 Games, with MacEachern attempting to make the transition to competing as a pilot in his own right: Lueders subsequently teamed up with Ken Leblanc and Giulio Zardo. At the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Lueders placed a disappointing fifth-place finish in two-man, and ninth in four-man, causing him to take the 2002–03 season off in four-man. At the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, in the two-man event, he and his brakeman Lascelles Brown won silver despite having to contend with heavy snowfall.

Lueders also won eight medals at the FIBT World Championships with two golds (Two-man: 2004, 2005), four silvers (Two-man: 1995, 1996, 2003; Four-man: 2007), and two bronzes (Four-man: 1999, 2005).

In the Bobsleigh World Cup, Lueders won the combined men's event four times (1993-4, 1994–5, 1997–8, 2005-6), the two-man event a record six times (1993-4, 1994–5, 1996–7, 1997–8, 2002–3, 2005-6), and the four-man event once (1994-5). Pierre Lueders has won 88 career medals in the Bobsleigh World Cup.

Lueders and his brakeman Justin Kripps made the first run down the Whistler Sliding Centre, a facility built for the 2010 Winter Olympics, on 19 December 2007. Turn 7 at the Sliding Centre, "Lueders Loop", is named in his honor after he crashed out his sled during the track's homologation in March 2008, his first crash since the 2001 Goodwill Games.

In 2010, he finished 5th in the two-man bobsleigh race. He finish 5th in the four-man bobsleigh.

Coaching career
Lueders retired after the Vancouver Games and was named as a national bobsleigh team development coach. He left the job in May 2012, saying he wanted a break from the sport after 22 years as an athlete and coach.

However just over a week later Lueders was appointed head coach of the Russian national bobsleigh team that would go on to win two gold medals at the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics. He left his position as Russia coach in June 2016.

In October 2017 he became caretaker head coach for the Republic of Korea's bobsleigh team ahead of their campaign on home ice at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang. In the four-man bodsleigh event, the Koreans consisting of Won Yun-jong (pilot), Seo Young-woo, Jun Jung-lin and Kim Dong-hyun tied with one of the German teams for the silver medal, the first Olympic medal won by an Asian bobsleigh team.

Personal life
As of 1997, Lueders resides in Calgary, Alberta. Outside of bobsledding, Lueders joined Sotheby's International Realty as an associate in Calgary in January 2017.

title: Pierre Lueders


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Talk:Anal spurs

The link to vent is to a disambiguation page, but it doesn't have the correct vent listed becasue there doesn't seem to be an article. Might be correctly anal vent but there may be more than one kind of biological vent.

I've corrected it so that, while "vent" is still displayed, it links to "cloaca", which is the proper term for it. _ Mokele

Should be merged with "anal spur" article, or deleted.
This article is on the exact same topic as the article anal spur. It should either be merged or deleted. -Orpheus_Machina
 * Redirected. Be bold! ;) -Dawson 15:01, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Anal spurs