text:
1875 in rail transport

January events

 * January 1 – The Midland Railway of England abolishes the Second Class passenger category leaving First Class and Third Class. Other British railway companies follow Midland's lead during the rest of the year (Third Class is renamed Second Class in 1956).
 * January 7 – The North Pacific Coast Railroad begins narrow gauge railway service north from San Francisco Bay.

February events

 * February 9 – The first train passes through the Hoosac Tunnel in Massachusetts.

March events

 * March 24 – The Mayor of Los Angeles, California, approves a measure to allow the Spring and Sixth Street Railroad, a predecessor of the Pacific Electric Railway, to extend its line to connect to the Southern Pacific Railroad train station.

April events

 * April 26 – Prince Edward Island Railway operates its first regularly scheduled train between Charlottetown and Georgetown.

June events

 * June 1 – Bristol and Exeter Railway in England completes installation of a third rail on its line between Bristol and Taunton, allowing it to operate gauge trains over the line.
 * June – The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad purchases the line between Topeka and Kansas City, Kansas.

July events

 * July 29 – Boston, Revere Beach and Lynn Railroad opens in the United States.

August events

 * August 7 – Portland and Ogdensburg Railroad completes construction through the White Mountains (New Hampshire) for what will become the Maine Central Railroad Mountain Division.
 * August 30 – Groundbreaking ceremonies are held in Pembroke, Ontario, for the Canada Central Railway line between Pembroke and Renfrew.

September events

 * September 13 – The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad, building westward from Kansas, reaches Las Animas, Colorado.
 * September 27 – Railway Jubilee at Darlington in England (in honour of the Stockton and Darlington Railway).

November events

 * November 18 – Bristol and Exeter Railway in England completes the gauge conversion from to  of its Cheddar Valley line from Yatton to Wells.

December events

 * December 1 – The American labor organization Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen is founded.
 * December – The initial parts of construction begin on the Bergen Line in Norway.

Unknown date events

 * Engineer and inventor Fyodor Pirotsky experimentally introduces electric trams near Miller's pier station on Miller's line of railway at Sestroretsk near Saint Petersburg in the Russian Empire, using the running rails to provide current, the world's first railway electrification.
 * Cize–Bolozon viaduct opens across the Ain in France.
 * First Caspar Lumber Company steam locomotive begins operation on what will become the Caspar, South Fork and Eastern Railroad.

May births

 * May 9 – H. P. M. Beames, Chief Mechanical Engineer of the London and North Western Railway 1920–1922 (d. 1948).

September births

 * September 26 – Eric Geddes, first Minister of Transport (U.K.) 1919–1921 (d. 1937).

January deaths

 * January 18 – William H. Aspinwall, American financier who helped build the Panama Railway (b. 1807).

title: 1875 in rail transport


text:
Swedish Football Association

The Swedish Football Association (Svenska Fotbollförbundet, SvFF) is the governing and body of football in Sweden. It organises the football leagues – Allsvenskan for men and Damallsvenskan for women – and the men's and women's national teams. It is based in Solna and is a founding member of both FIFA and UEFA. SvFF is supported by 24 district organisations.

Background
Svenska Fotbollförbundet (SvFF) (English: Swedish Football Association ) was founded in Stockholm on 18 December 1904 and is the sports federation responsible for the promotion and administration of organised football in Sweden and also represents the country outside Sweden. SvFF is affiliated to the Swedish Sports Confederation (RF) and the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) and Union of European Football Associations (UEFA).

In 2009 there were 3,359 clubs affiliated to the Swedish Football Association with a total of more than a million members, of whom about 500,000 were active players. Together, they accounted for almost one third of the total Swedish sports movement activities.

SvFF administers the Swedish men's respectively women's national football teams, other football teams and leagues including the Allsvenskan and Superettan. The motto of Swedish football – "one club in every village, football for all" – is reflected in the democratic constitution of Swedish football. All football competition in the nation is arranged by the SvFF and its 24 district organisations. The clubs are voting members at the annual meetings of the district organisations. The district organisations and the elite clubs are entitled to vote at the F.A.'s general meeting.

SvFF was the sole owner of Sweden's national stadium, the Råsunda Stadium in Solna, from 1999 until it was replaced in 2012 by Friends Arena, located about 1 kilometer away and also in Solna. SvFF is the lead partner in the consortium that owns the current stadium, and maintains its offices there (as it did at the prior stadium).

The Swedish Football Association Football Gala is held annually in November since 2005. It includes the award for the best male player (Guldbollen) and female players (Diamantbollen).

SvFF had a turnover 2008 of 554 MSEK.

Karl-Erik Nilsson was the President between March 2012 and March 2023. He was replaced by Fredrik Reinfeldt, former Prime Minister of Sweden.

Early history
The first Swedish national football championship was played in 1896 but it was 7 years later in 1903 that the Riksidrottsförbundet was formed which was to be the precursor to the Svenska Fotbollförbundet. The new organisation had a football and hockey section (hockey being the term for bandy at that time and not ice hockey or field hockey). In 1904 Sweden was one of 7 nations that founded FIFA. It also introduced ice hockey to Sweden in 1920, before the 1922 establishment of the Swedish Ice Hockey Association. Before the 1925 establishment of the Swedish Bandy Association, the Swedish Football Association also administered organized bandy in Sweden.

In 1906, the name Svenska Fotbollförbundet (Swedish Football Association) was officially accepted and the following year SvFF was officially voted into FIFA. On 12 July 1908, Sweden's first international match was played in which Norway were defeated 11–3 in Gothenburg. However the Olympics were a disappointment for Sweden, losing 1–12 to England and 0–2 to the Netherlands.

Competitions
Svenska Fotbollförbundet is responsible for organising the following competitions:

Men's football

 * Allsvenskan (Tier 1)
 * Superettan (Tier 2)
 * Division 1 (Tier 3) – two sections
 * Division 2 (Tier 4) – six sections
 * Division 3 (Tier 5) – twelve sections
 * Folksam utvecklingsserie – two sections

Women's football

 * Damallsvenskan (Tier 1)
 * Elitettan (Tier 2)
 * Division 1 Norrettan (Tier 3)
 * Division 1 Söderettan (Tier 3)
 * Division 2 (Tier 4) – nine sections

Junior

 * Juniorallsvenskan
 * Pojkallsvenskan

Cups

 * Svenska Cupen – Men
 * Svenska Cupen – Women
 * CANAL+-cupen – Junior Boys
 * Cup Kommunal – Junior Girls

Men's

 * FIFA World Cup
 * Runners-up (1958)
 * Third place (1950, 1994)

 * Olympic Games
 * Winners (1948)
 * Third place (1924, 1952)

 * FIFA U-17 World Cup
 * Third place (2013)

 * UEFA European Under-21 Championship
 * Winners (2015)
 * Runners-up (1992)

Women's

 * FIFA Women's World Cup
 * Runners-up (2003)
 * Third place (1991, 2011, 2019)

 * Olympic Games
 * Runners-up (2016)

 * UEFA Women's Championship
 * Winners (1984)
 * Runners-up (1987, 1995, 2001)

 * UEFA Women's Under-19 Championship
 * Winners (1999, 2012, 2015)
 * Runners-up (2009)

 * UEFA Women's Under-17 Championship
 * Runners-up (2013)

District Football Associations
Swedish football is built on a single pyramid league system. While the SvFF administers the top leagues, the 24 district or regional associations administers youth football and the lower-tier leagues from Division 4 (men) and Division 3 (women), respectively, and further below.

The 24 district organisations are as follows:

 * Blekinge Fotbollförbund
 * Bohusläns Fotbollförbund
 * Dalarnas Fotbollförbund
 * Dalslands Fotbollförbund
 * Gestriklands Fotbollförbund
 * Göteborgs Fotbollförbund
 * Gotlands Fotbollförbund
 * Hallands Fotbollförbund
 * Hälsinglands Fotbollförbund
 * Jämtland-Härjedalens Fotbollförbund
 * Medelpads Fotbollförbund
 * Norrbottens Fotbollförbund
 * Skånes Fotbollförbund
 * Smålands Fotbollförbund
 * Södermanlands Fotbollförbund
 * Stockholms Fotbollförbund
 * Upplands Fotbollförbund
 * Värmlands Fotbollförbund
 * Västerbottens Fotbollförbund
 * Västergötlands Fotbollförbund
 * Västmanlands Fotbollförbund
 * Ångermanlands Fotbollförbund
 * Örebro Läns Fotbollförbund
 * Östergötlands Fotbollförbund

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Swedish Football Association


text:
List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes

This is a list of tornadoes which have been officially or unofficially labeled as F5, EF5, T10-T11, IF5, or an equivalent rating, the highest possible ratings on the various tornado intensity scales. These scales – the Fujita scale, the Enhanced Fujita scale, the International Fujita scale, and the TORRO tornado intensity scale – attempt to estimate the intensity of a tornado by classifying the damage caused to natural features and man-made structures in the tornado's path.

Each year, more than 2,000 tornadoes are recorded worldwide, with the vast majority occurring in North America and Europe. In order to assess the intensity of these events, meteorologist Ted Fujita devised a method to estimate maximum wind speeds within tornadic storms based on the damage caused; this became known as the Fujita scale. The scale ranks tornadoes from F0 to F5, with F0 being the least intense and F5 being the most intense. F5 tornadoes were estimated to have had maximum winds between 261 mph and 318 mph.

Following two particularly devastating tornadoes in 1997 and 1999, engineers questioned the reliability of the Fujita scale. Ultimately, a new scale was devised that took into account 28 different damage indicators; this became known as the Enhanced Fujita scale. The Enhanced Fujita scale is used predominantly in North America. Most of Europe, on the other hand, uses the TORRO tornado intensity scale (or T-Scale), which ranks tornado intensity between T0 and T11; F5/EF5 tornadoes are approximately equivalent to T10 to T11 on the T-Scale.

In the United States, between 1950 and January 31, 2007, a total of 50 tornadoes were officially rated F5, and since February 1, 2007, a total of nine tornadoes have been officially rated EF5. Since 1950, Canada has had one tornado officially rated an F5. Outside the United States and Canada, seven tornadoes have been officially rated F5/EF5/T10+ or equivalent: two each in France and Germany, and one each in Italy, Argentina and Australia.

Several other tornadoes have also been documented as possibly attaining this status, though they are not officially rated as such. The work of tornado expert Thomas P. Grazulis revealed the existence of several dozen likely F5 tornadoes between 1880 and 1995. Grazulis also called into question the ratings of several tornadoes currently rated F5 by official sources. Many tornadoes officially rated F4/EF4 or equivalent have been disputed and described as actual F5/EF5/T10+ or equivalent tornadoes, and vice versa; since structures are completely destroyed in both cases, distinguishing between an EF4 tornado and an EF5 tornado is often very difficult. Additionally, because tornado ratings are damage-based, many tornadoes capable of causing F5/EF5/T10+ damage, such as those that move through rural areas, may receive lower ratings because their strongest winds do not strike any suitable damage indicators.

In 2024, Anthony W. Lyza, Matthew D. Flournoy, and A. Addison Alford, researchers with the National Severe Storms Laboratory, Storm Prediction Center, CIWRO, and the University of Oklahoma's School of Meteorology, published a paper stating, ">20% of supercell tornadoes may be capable of producing EF4–EF5 damage".

List of events
The tornadoes on this list have been formally rated F5 by an official government source. Unless otherwise noted, the source of the F5 rating is the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS), as shown in the archives of the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) and National Climatic Data Center (NCDC).

Prior to 1950, assessments of F5 tornadoes are based primarily on the work of Thomas P. Grazulis. The NCDC has accepted 38 of his F5 classifications of tornadoes occurring between 1880 and 1950. In addition to the accepted ones, Grazulis rated a further 25 during the same period which were not accepted. Grazulis' work has identified 16 additional F5 tornadoes between 1950 and 1995, with four later being accepted by the NCDC. From 1950 to 1970, tornadoes were assessed retrospectively, primarily using information recorded in government databases, as well as newspaper photographs and eyewitness accounts. Beginning in 1971, tornadoes were rated by the NWS using on-site damage surveys.

As of February 1, 2007, tornadoes in the United States are rated using the Enhanced Fujita scale, which replaced the Fujita scale in order to more accurately correlate tornadic intensity with damage indicators and to augment and refine damage descriptors. No earlier tornadoes will be reclassified on the Enhanced Fujita scale, and no new tornadoes in the United States will be rated on the original Fujita scale. France and Canada also adopted the EF-Scale in subsequent years. Since the creation of the International Fujita scale in 2018, no tornadoes have been rated IF5.

Official F5/EF5/IF5 tornadoes
Worldwide, a total of 67 tornadoes have been officially rated F5/EF5: 59 in the United States, two each in France and Germany, and one each in Argentina, Australia, Canada, and Italy. Of the 59 tornadoes in the United States, 50 are officially rated F5 on the original Fujita scale (with dates of occurrence between May 11, 1953, and May 3, 1999), and nine are officially rated EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita scale (with dates of occurrence between May 4, 2007, and May 20, 2013). In total, 57 of these tornadoes have been rated F5 and ten have been rated EF5.

Possible F5/EF5/IF5 tornadoes
Because the distinctions between F4/EF4/T9 and F5/EF5/T10 tornadoes are often ambiguous, the official ratings of numerous other tornadoes formally rated below F5/EF5/T10 or equivalent have been disputed, with certain government sources or independent studies contradicting the official record.

Previously rated F5/EF5/IF5 or rated F5/EF5/IF5 by others
This list includes tornadoes previously rated F5 or EF5 by the National Weather Service as well as tornadoes rated F5/EF5 by other branches of the United States government, tornado experts (i.e. Thomas P. Grazulis, Ted Fujita), or meteorological research institutions (i.e. European Severe Storms Laboratory).

Possible F5/EF5/IF5 damage
This list includes tornadoes with possible F5 or EF5 damage indicated by the National Weather Service as well as tornadoes with possible F5/EF5 damage by other branches of the United States government, tornado experts (i.e. Thomas P. Grazulis, Ted Fujita), or meteorological research institutions (i.e. European Severe Storms Laboratory).

Possible F5/EF5/IF5 intensity
This list includes tornadoes believed or confirmed to have been at F5 or EF5 intensity. These indications can come from the United States government, Doppler on Wheels, tornado experts (i.e. Thomas P. Grazulis, Ted Fujita), or meteorological research institutions (i.e. European Severe Storms Laboratory).

Possible F5/EF5/IF5 tornadoes with no official rating
Many other tornadoes have never been formally rated by an official government source but have nonetheless been described as F5/EF5/T10+ or equivalent, often by independent studies. Most of these tornadoes occurred prior to 1950, before tornadoes were rated according to standardized damage assessments, and their unofficial classifications as F5/EF5/T10+ or equivalent have been made in retrospect, largely on the basis of photographic analysis and eyewitness accounts. A few, such as the Tri-State Tornado of 1925, are widely accepted as F5/EF5/T10+ tornadoes, despite not being rated as such in official records.

''This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by participating in discussions about tornadoes for this list.''

title: List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes


text: Category:History of Greece

title: Category:History of Greece


text:
Cabell

Cabell is both a surname and a given name. The Cabell family has "been prominent in Virginia since the American Revolution." Notable people with the name include:

Surname:
 * Charles P. Cabell (1903–1971), United States Air Force, CIA
 * Earle Cabell (1906–1975), politician from Texas
 * Edward Carrington Cabell (1816–1896), politician from Florida
 * Elizabeth Cabell (granddaughter of William Cabell (American Revolution) and mother of Albert Cabell Ritchie)
 * Enos Cabell (born 1949), Major League Baseball player
 * George Cabell (1766–1823), physician from Virginia
 * George Craighead Cabell (1836–1906), United States Congressman from Virginia
 * James Branch Cabell (1879–1958), American author of fantasy fiction
 * James Laurence Cabell (1813–1889), sanitarian
 * Mary Barnes Cabell (1815–1900), freedwoman who owned the land which became Institute, West Virginia
 * Nicole Cabell (born 1977), opera singer
 * Samuel Jordan Cabell (1756–1818), United States Congressman from Virginia
 * William Cabell (disambiguation), one of several people with this name, including:
 * William Cabell Bruce (1860–1946), United States Senator from Maryland and author
 * William Cabell (American Revolution) (1730–1798), a figure in the American Revolution
 * William H. Cabell (1772–1853), Governor of Virginia
 * William Lewis Cabell (1827–1911), Confederate General and Mayor of Dallas
 * William Cabell Rives (1793–1868), American statesman from Virginia

Given name:
 * Cabell R. Berry (1848–1910), Speaker of the Tennessee State Senate from 1885 to 1887
 * John Cabell Breckinridge (1821–1875), 14th Vice President of the United States
 * John Cabell "Bunny" Breckinridge (1903–1996), American actor
 * Cab Calloway (1907–1994), American jazz singer and bandleader
 * Clement Cabell Dickinson (1849–1938), United States Congressman from Missouri
 * Albert Cabell Ritchie (1876–1936), 49th Governor of Maryland
 * Marion Cabell Tyree, author of the community cookbook called Housekeeping in Old Virginia, which contains the oldest known recipe for sweet ice tea, published in 1879

title: Cabell


text:
Peter Rodman

Peter Warren Rodman (November 24, 1943 – August 2, 2008) was an American attorney, government official, author, and national security adviser.

Early life and education
Born in Boston, he was educated at The Roxbury Latin School. He earned an A.B from Harvard College, a B.A. and M.A. from Worcester College, Oxford, and a Juris Doctor from Harvard Law School.

Career
Rodman began his career in government as a staff member on the National Security Council, working from 1969 to 1977 and serving as an assistant to Henry Kissinger. From 1977 to 1983, he was a Fellow at the Center for Strategic and International Studies. From 1984 to 1986, Rodman served as Director of Policy Planning under Ronald Reagan. He served as Reagan's Deputy National Security Advisor from 1986 to 1987. From 1987 to 1990, he served as Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs and National Security Council Counselor.

He was one of the signers of the January 26, 1998 Project for the New American Century sent to the U.S. President Bill Clinton. He worked extensively with Henry Kissinger, helping him write his memoirs. He was a member of the board of trustees of Freedom House, Vice President and member of the board of directors of the World Affairs Council and a Fellow of the Foreign Policy Institute of SAIS.

From 1991 to 1999, Rodman was a senior editor at National Review, a conservative magazine. He also served as the Director of National Security Programs at the Center for the National Interest, a conservative think-tank founded by Richard Nixon.

Rodman returned to government service as Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs in the George W. Bush Administration.

In March 2007, he left his position as United States Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs to become a Senior Fellow at Brookings Institution. He was the author of More Precious Than Peace, a book on the Cold War in the Third World in which he praises the Reagan administration for warding off communism in Afghanistan, Angola, and Cambodia.

Personal life
Rodman and his wife, Veronique, had two children. Veronique was named a member of the Broadcasting Board of Governors by George W. Bush, serving from 2003 to 2004. Rodman died in Baltimore, Maryland, on August 2, 2008, from leukemia. He was 64.

title: Peter Rodman


text:
Beneventan script

The Beneventan script was a medieval script that originated in the Duchy of Benevento in southern Italy. In the past it has also been called Langobarda, Longobarda, Longobardisca (signifying its origins in the territories ruled by the Lombards), or sometimes Gothica; it was first called Beneventan by palaeographer E. A. Lowe.

It is mostly associated with Italy south of Rome, but it was also used in Beneventan-influenced centres across the Adriatic Sea in Dalmatia. The script was used from approximately the mid-8th century until the 13th century, although there are examples from as late as the 16th century. There were two major centres of Beneventan usage: the monastery on Monte Cassino, and Bari. The Bari type developed in the 10th century from the Monte Cassino type; both were based on Roman cursive as written by the Langobards. In general the script is very angular. According to Lowe, the perfected form of the script was used in the 11th century, while Desiderius was abbot of Monte Cassino, declining thereafter.

Features
Beneventan features many ligatures and "connecting strokes" – the letters of a word could be joined together by a single line, with forms almost unrecognizable to a modern eye. Ligatures may be obligatory as: $⟨ei⟩$, $⟨gi⟩$, $⟨li⟩$, $⟨ri⟩$ and $⟨ti⟩$ (two different forms: ti-dura where t had kept the t sound and ti-assibilata where t had taken the vulgar ts sound). They may be optional: frequent as $⟨et⟩$, $⟨ae⟩$ and $⟨st⟩$; or rare as $⟨ta⟩$, $⟨to⟩$ and $⟨xp⟩$. Ligatures involving the letter $⟨t⟩$ resemble late New Latin Cursive as in the Merovingian and Visigothic, exception made for peculiar $⟨st⟩$ ligature where  $⟨s⟩$ is connected to  $⟨t⟩$ on top influencing later on the German pre-caroline script and all the script from this derived until nowadays. In ligatures $⟨t⟩$ can take many forms depending on the letter joined to it. Ligatures with the letters $⟨e⟩$ and $⟨r⟩$ are also common. In early forms of Beneventan, the letter $⟨a⟩$ has an open top, similar to the letter $⟨u⟩$; later, it resembled "cc" or "oc", with long tails hanging to the right. In the Bari type, the letter $⟨c⟩$ often has a "broken" form, resembling the Beneventan form of the letter $⟨e⟩$. However, $⟨e⟩$ itself has a very long middle arm, distinguishing it from $⟨c⟩$. The letter $⟨d⟩$ can have a vertical or left-slanting ascender, the letter $⟨g⟩$ resembles the uncial form, and the letter $⟨i⟩$ is very tall and resembles $⟨l⟩$.

The script has a unique way to signify abbreviations both by omission and contraction – like most other Latin scripts, missing letters can be signified by a macron over the previous letter, although Beneventan often adds a dot to the macron. There is also a symbol resembling the digit $⟨3⟩$, or a sideways $⟨m⟩$, when the letter $⟨m⟩$ has been omitted. In other scripts there is often little or no punctuation, but standard punctuation forms were developed for the Beneventan script, including the basis for the modern question mark.

Beneventan shares some features with Visigothic and Merovingian script, probably due to the common late Roman matrix.

title: Beneventan script


text:
A Guide for the Perplexed

A Guide for the Perplexed is a short book by E. F. Schumacher, published in 1977. The title is a reference to Maimonides's The Guide for the Perplexed. Schumacher himself considered A Guide for the Perplexed to be his most important achievement, although he was better known for his 1973 environmental economics bestseller Small Is Beautiful, which made him a leading figure within the ecology movement. His daughter wrote that her father handed her the book on his deathbed, five days before he died and he told her "this is what my life has been leading to". As the Chicago Tribune wrote, "A Guide for the Perplexed is really a statement of the philosophical underpinnings that inform Small Is Beautiful".

Schumacher describes his book as being concerned with how humans live in the world. It is also a treatise on the nature and organisation of knowledge and is something of an attack on what Schumacher calls "materialistic scientism". Schumacher argues that the current philosophical "maps" that dominate western thought and science are both overly narrow and based on some false premises. However, this book is only in small part a critique.

Four Great Truths
Schumacher put forward what he considers to be the four great truths of philosophy:
 * The world is a hierarchical structure with at least four "levels of being".
 * The "Principle of Adequateness" determines human ability to accurately perceive the world.
 * Human learning relates to four "fields of knowledge".
 * The art of living requires an understanding of two types of problem: "convergent" and "divergent".

Critique of materialistic scientism
Schumacher was very much in favor of the scientific spirit, but felt that the dominant methodology within science, which he called materialistic scientism, was flawed and stood in the way of achieving knowledge in any other arena than inanimate nature. Schumacher believed that this flaw originated in the writings of Descartes and Francis Bacon, when modern science was first established.

He makes a distinction between the descriptive and instructional sciences. According to Schumacher the descriptive sciences are primarily concerned with what can be seen or otherwise experienced, e.g. botany and sociology, while the instructional sciences are concerned with how certain systems work and can be manipulated to produce certain results, e.g. biology and chemistry. Instructional science is primarily based on evidence gained from experimentation.

Materialistic scientism is based on the methodology of the latter, which developed to study and experiment with inanimate matter. According to Schumacher many philosophers of science fail to recognize the difference between descriptive and instructional science, or ascribe this difference to stages in the evolution of a specific science, which for these philosophers means that the instructional sciences are seen as being the most advanced variety of science.

He is particularly offended by the view that instructional science is the most advanced form of science, because for Schumacher, it is the study of the low hanging fruit of inanimate matter, or less metaphorically the study of the lowest and least complex level of being. As Schumacher sees it, knowledge gained about the higher levels of being, while far harder to get and far less certain, is all the more valuable.

He argues that applying the standards and procedures of instructional science to descriptive sciences is erroneous, because in the descriptive fields it is simply not possible to use the experimental techniques of instructional sciences. Experimentation is an appropriate method when dealing with inanimate matter, but applying it to the living world is liable to destroy or damage living things and systems, and is therefore inappropriate.

He uses the term scientism because he argues that many people, including some philosophers of science, have misunderstood the theory behind instructional science and instead believe that it produces truth. But the instructional sciences are based on induction; and as David Hume famously points out induction is not the same as truth. Furthermore, according to Schumacher, instructional sciences are primarily concerned only with the parts of truth that are useful for manipulation, i.e. they focus on those instructions which are necessary to reliably produce certain results. For Schumacher, instructional sciences therefore produce theories which are useful: pragmatic truths. By contrast, Schumacher argues that the descriptive sciences are interested in the truth in the wider sense of the word.

He argues that materialistic scientism follows a policy of leaving something out if it is in doubt. Consequently, the maps of western science fail to show large 'unorthodox' parts of both theory and practice of science and social science, and reveal a complete disregard for art and many other high level humanistic qualities. Such an approach, Schumacher argues, provides a grey, limited, utilitarian worldview without room for vitally important phenomena like beauty and meaning.

He observes that the mere mention of spirituality and spiritual phenomena in academic discussion is seen among scientists as a sign of 'mental deficiency'. Schumacher argues that where there is near total agreement a subject becomes effectively dead; it is therefore the subjects where there is doubt that deserve the most intense research. Schumacher believes in contrast to materialistic science that what is in doubt should be shown prominently, not hidden away or ignored.

His biggest complaint against materialistic scientism is that it rejects the validity of certain questions, which for Schumacher are actually the most important questions of all. Materialistic scientism rejects the idea of levels of being, but for Schumacher this leads to a one-sided view of nature. For Schumacher, you can learn much about humanity by studying from the perspective of minerals, plants and animals, because humans contain the lower levels of being. But that is not the full or even the most important part of the story, as he puts "...everything can be learned about him except that which makes us human."

Evolutionism
Schumacher first states that the evolutionist doctrine clearly sits in the descriptive sciences rather than instructive sciences. Schumacher accepts that evolution as a generalization within the descriptive science of biological change has been established beyond any doubt whatsoever. However, he considers the "evolutionist doctrine" to be a very different matter. The evolutionist doctrine purports to prove and explain biological change in the same manner as the proof and explanation offered by the instructional sciences. Schumacher quotes the 1975 Encyclopædia Britannica as an example of this view: "Darwin did two things: he showed that evolution was in fact contradicting scriptural legends of creation and that its cause, natural selection, was automatic leaving no room for divine guidance or design."

He considers the evolutionist doctrine to be a major philosophical and scientific error. Schumacher argues that the evolutionist doctrine starts with the perfectly reasonable explanation of change in living beings, and then jumps to using it as an explanation for the development of consciousness, self-awareness, language, social institutions and the origin of life itself. Schumacher points out that making this conceptual leap simply does not meet the standards of scientific rigor and the uncritical acceptance of this leap is, for Schumacher, completely unscientific.

Levels of being
For Schumacher one of science's major mistakes has been rejecting the traditional philosophical and religious view that the universe is a hierarchy of being. Schumacher makes a restatement of the traditional chain of being.

He agrees with the view that there are four kingdoms: Mineral, Plant, Animal, Human. He argues that there are important differences of kind between each level of being. Between mineral and plant is the phenomenon of life. Schumacher says that although scientists say we should not use the phrase 'life energy', the difference between inorganic and organic matter still exists and has not been explained by science to the extent of rendering said phrase fully invalid. Schumacher points out that though we can recognize life and destroy it, we can't create it. Schumacher notes that the 'life sciences' are 'extraordinary' because they hardly ever deal with life as such, and instead content themselves with analyzing the "physico-chemical body which is life's carrier." Schumacher goes on to say there is nothing in physics or chemistry to explain the phenomenon of life.

For Schumacher, a similar jump in level of being takes place between plant and animal, which is differentiated by the phenomenon of consciousness. We can recognize consciousness, not least because we can knock an animal unconscious, but also because animals exhibit at minimum primitive thought and intelligence.

The next level, according to Schumacher, is between Animal and Human, which are differentiated by the phenomenon of self-consciousness or self awareness. Self-consciousness is the reflective awareness of one's consciousness and thoughts.

Schumacher realizes that the terms—life, consciousness and self-consciousness—are subject to misinterpretation so he suggests that the differences can best be expressed as an equation which can be written thus:
 * "Mineral" = m
 * "Plant"  = m + x
 * "Animal" = m + x + y
 * "Human"    = m + x + y + z

In his theory, these three factors (x, y and z) represent ontological discontinuities. He argues that the differences can be likened to differences in dimension; and from one perspective it could be argued that only humans have actualized existence insofar as they possess life, consciousness and self-consciousness. Schumacher uses this perspective to contrast with the materialistic scientism view, which argues that what is true is inanimate matter, denying the realness of life, consciousness and self-consciousness, despite the fact each individual can verify those phenomena from their own experience.

He directs our attention to the fact that science has generally avoided seriously discussing these discontinuities, because they present such difficulties for strictly materialistic science, and they largely remain mysteries.

Next he considers the animal model of humanity which has grown popular in science. Schumacher notes that within the humanities the distinction between consciousness and self consciousness is now seldom drawn. Consequently, people have become increasingly uncertain about whether there is any difference between animals and humans. Schumacher notes that a great deal of research about humans has been conducted by studying animals. Schumacher argues that this is analogous to studying physics in the hope of understanding life. Schumacher goes on to say that much can be learned about humanity by studying minerals, plants and animals because humans have inherited those levels of being: all, that is, "except that which makes him [sic] human."

Schumacher goes on to say that nothing is "more conducive to the brutalisation of the modern world" than calling humans the "naked ape". Schumacher argues that once people begin viewing humans as "animal machines" they soon begin treating them accordingly.

Schumacher argues that what defines humanity are our greatest achievements, not the common run of the mill things. He argues that human beings are open-ended because of self-awareness, which as distinct from life and consciousness has nothing mechanical or automatic about it. For Schumacher "the powers of self awareness are, essentially, a limitless potentiality rather than an actuality. They have to be developed and 'realized' by each human individual if one is to become truly human, that is to say, a person."

Progressions
Schumacher points out that there are a number of progressions that take place between the levels. The most striking, he believes, is the movement from passivity to activity; there is a change in the origination of movement between each level: One consequence of this progression is that each level of being becomes increasingly unpredictable, and it is in this sense that humans can be said to have free will.
 * Cause (Mineral kingdom)
 * Stimulus (Plant kingdom)
 * Motive (Animal kingdom)
 * Will (Humanity)

He notes increasing integration is a consequence of levels of being. A mineral can be subdivided and it remains of the same composition. Plants are more integrated; but sometimes parts of a plant can survive independently of the original plant. Animals are physically integrated; and so an appendage of an animal does not make another animal. However, while animals are highly integrated physically, they are not integrated in their consciousness. Humans, meanwhile, are not only physically integrated but have an integrated consciousness; however they are poorly integrated in terms of self-consciousness.

Another interesting progression, for him, is the change in the richness of the world at each level of being. A mineral has no world as such. A plant has some limited awareness of its immediate conditions. An animal, however, has a far more rich and complex world. Finally, humans have the most rich and complicated world of all.

Implications
For Schumacher, recognizing these different levels of being is vital, because the governing rules of each level are different, which has clear implications for the practice of science and the acquisition of knowledge. Schumacher denies the democratic principles of science. He argues that all humans can practice the study of the inanimate matter, because they are a higher level of being; but only the spiritually aware can know about self-consciousness and possibly higher levels. Schumacher states that "while the higher comprises and therefore in a sense understands the lower, no being can understand anything higher than themselves."

Schumacher argues that by removing the vertical dimension from the universe and the qualitative distinctions of "higher" and "lower" qualities which go with it, materialistic scientism can in the societal sphere only lead to moral relativism and utilitarianism. While in the personal sphere, answering the question "What do I do with my life?" leaves us with only two answers: selfishness and utilitarianism.

In contrast, he argues that appreciating the different levels of being provides a simple but clear morality. The traditional view, as Schumacher says, has always been that the proper goal of humanity is "...to move higher, to develop one's highest faculties, to gain knowledge of the higher and highest things, and, if possible, to "see God". If one moves lower, develops only one's lower faculties, which we share with the animals, then one makes oneself deeply unhappy, even to the point of despair." This is a view, Schumacher says, which is shared by all the major religions. Many things, Schumacher says, while true at a lower level, become absurd at a higher level, and vice versa.

Schumacher does not claim there is any scientific evidence for a level of being above self-consciousness, contenting himself with the observation that this has been the universal conviction of all major religions.

Adequateness
Schumacher explains that the bodily senses are adequate for perceiving inanimate matter; but we need 'intellectual' senses for other levels. Schumacher observes that science has shown that we perceive not only with the senses, but also with the mind. He illustrates this with the example of a complex scientific book; it means quite different things to an animal, illiterate man, educated man and scientist. Each person possesses different internal 'senses' which means they 'understand' the book in quite different manners.

He argues that the common view that "...the facts should speak for themselves" is problematic because it is not a simple matter to distinguish fact and theory or perception and interpretation. He quotes R. L. Gregory in Eye and Brain, "Perception is not determined simply by the stimulus pattern, rather it is a dynamic searching for the best interpretation of data." He argues that we 'see' not just with our eyes; but our mental equipment and "since this mental equipment varies greatly from person to person, there are inevitably many things which some people can 'see' while others cannot, or, to put it differently, for which some people are adequate while others are not."

For him, higher and more significant perceptive abilities are based on the ability to be critically aware of one's presuppositions. Schumacher writes "There is nothing more difficult than to be aware of one's thought. Everything can be seen directly except the eye through which we see. Every thought can be scrutinised directly except the thought by which we scrutinise. A special effort, an effort of self-awareness is needed — that almost impossible feat of thought recoiling upon itself: almost impossible but not quite. In fact, this is the power that makes man human and also capable of transcending his humanity."

He notes that for anyone who views the world through materialistic scientism this talk of higher perception is meaningless. For a scientist who believes in materialistic scientism, higher levels of being "simply do not exist, because his faith excludes the possibility of their existence."

He points out that materialistic science is principally based on the sense of sight and looks only at the external manifestation of things. Necessarily according to the principle of adequateness, materialistic science cannot know more than a small portion of nature. Schumacher argues that by restricting the modes of observation, a limited "objectivity" can be attained; but this is attained at the expense of knowledge of the object as a whole. Only the 'lowest' and most superficial aspects are accessible to objective scientific instruments.

He notes that science became "science for manipulation" following Descartes. Descartes promised humanity would become "masters and possessors of nature", a point of view first popularised by Francis Bacon. For Schumacher this was something of a wrong turn, because it meant the devaluation of "science for understanding" or wisdom. One of Schumacher's criticisms is that "science for manipulation" almost inevitably leads from the manipulation of nature to the manipulation of people. Schumacher argues that 'science for manipulation' is a valuable tool when subordinated for wisdom; but until then "science for manipulation" has become a danger to humanity.

Schumacher argues that if materialistic scientism grows to dominate science even further, then there will be three negative consequences:
 * 1) Quality of life will fall, because solutions of quantity are incapable of solving problems of quality.
 * 2) 'Science for understanding' will not develop, because the dominant paradigm will prevent it being treated as a serious subject.
 * 3) Problems will become insoluble, because the higher powers of man will atrophy through lack of use.

Schumacher argues that the ideal science would have a proper hierarchy of knowledge from pure knowledge for understanding at the top of the hierarchy to knowledge for manipulation at the bottom. At the level of knowledge for manipulation, the aims of prediction and control are appropriate. But as we deal with higher levels they become increasingly absurd. As he says "Human beings are highly predictable as physico-chemical systems, less predictable as living bodies, much less so as conscious beings and hardly at all as self aware persons."

The result of materialistic scientism is that humanity has become rich in means and poor in ends. Lacking a sense of higher values Western societies are left with pluralism, moral relativism and utilitarianism, and for Schumacher the inevitable result is chaos.

Four fields of knowledge
Schumacher identifies four fields of knowledge for the individual:
 * 1) I → inner
 * 2) I → other persons (inner)
 * 3) other persons → I
 * 4) I → the world

These four fields arise from combining two pairs: Myself and the World; and Outer Appearance and Inner Experience. He notes that humans only have direct access to fields one and four.

Field one is being aware of your feelings and thoughts and most closely correlates to self awareness. He argues this is fundamentally the study of attention. He differentiates between when one's attention is captured by the item it focusses upon, which is when a human being functions much like a machine; and when a person consciously directs their attention according to their choosing. This for him is the difference between "being lived" and living.

Field two is being aware of what other people are thinking and feeling.

Despite these problems, we do experience a "meeting of minds" with other individuals at certain times. People are even able to ignore the words actually said, and say something like "I don't agree with what you are saying; but I do agree with what you mean." Schumacher argues that one of the reasons we can understand other people is through bodily experience, because so many bodily expressions, gestures and postures are part of our common human heritage.

Schumacher observes that the traditional answer to the study of field two has been "You can understand others to the extent you understand yourself." Schumacher points out that this is a logical development of the principle of "adequateness": how can you understand someone's pain unless you too have experienced pain?

Field three is understanding oneself as an objective phenomenon. Knowledge in field three requires a person to be aware of what other people think of them. Schumacher suggests that the most fruitful advice in this field can be gained by studying the Fourth Way concept of "external considering".

Schumacher observes that relying on just field one knowledge makes one feel that they are the centre of the universe; while focusing on field three knowledge makes one feel that they are far more insignificant. Seeking self-knowledge via both fields provides more balanced and accurate self-knowledge.

Field four is the behaviourist study of the outside world. Science is highly active in this area of knowledge, and many people believe it is the only field in which true knowledge can be gained. For Schumacher, applying the scientific approach is highly appropriate in this field.

Schumacher summarises his views about the four fields of knowledge as follows:
 * Only when all four fields of knowledge are cultivated can one have true unity of knowledge. Instruments and methodologies of study should only be applied to the appropriate field they are designed for.
 * Clarity of knowledge depends on relating the four fields of knowledge to the four levels of being.
 * The instructional sciences should confine their remit to field four, because it is only in the field of "appearances" that mathematical precision can be obtained. The descriptive sciences, however, are not behaving appropriately if they focus solely on appearances, and must delve in meaning and purpose or they will produce sterile results.
 * Self-knowledge can only be effectively pursued by balanced study of field one and field three.
 * Study of field two (understanding other individuals) is dependent on first developing a powerful insight into field one (self awareness).

Two types of problems
Schumacher argues that there are two types of problems in the world: convergent and divergent. For him, discerning whether a problem is convergent or divergent is one of the arts of living.

Convergent problems are ones in which attempted solutions gradually converge on one solution or answer. An example of this has been the development of the bicycle. Early attempts at developing human-powered vehicles included three- and four-wheelers and involved wheels of different sizes. Modern bicycles look much the same nowadays.

Divergent problems are ones which do not converge on a single solution. A classic example he provides is that of education. Is discipline or freedom the best way to teach? Education researchers have debated this issue for thousand of years without converging on a solution.

He summarises by saying that convergent problems are those that are concerned with the non-living universe. While divergent problems are concerned with the universe of the living, and so there is always a degree of inner experience and freedom to contend with. According to Schumacher, the only solution to divergent problems is to transcend them, arguing that in education, for instance, that the real solution involves love or caring; love and discipline work effectively, but so does love and freedom.

Art
Schumacher, in a digression from his main argument, discusses the nature and importance of art. He notes that there is considerable confusion about the nature and meaning of art; but argues that this confusion dissipates when one considers art with relation to its effect on human beings. Most art fits into two categories. If art is designed to primarily affect our feelings then it is entertainment; while if art is primarily designed to affect our will then it is propaganda.

Great art is a multi-faceted phenomenon, which is not content to be merely propaganda or entertainment; but by appealing to people's higher intellectual and emotional faculties, it is designed to communicate truth. When entertainment and propaganda are transcended by, and subordinated to, the communication of truth, art helps develop our higher faculties and that makes it "great".

Tasks of humanity
Schumacher notes that within philosophy there is no field in more disarray than ethics. He argues that this is because most ethical debate sidesteps any "prior clarification of the purpose of human life on the earth." Schumacher believes that ethics is the study of divergent problems; which require transcendence by the individual, not a new type of ethics to be adopted by all.

He argues that there is an increasing recognition among individuals that many solutions to human problems must be made by individuals, not by society, and cannot be solved by political solutions that rearrange the system. For Schumacher, the "modern attempt to live without religion has failed."

He says that the tasks of an individual can be summed up as follows:
 * 1) Learn from society and tradition.
 * 2) Interiorize this knowledge, learn to think for yourself and become self-directed.
 * 3) Grow beyond the narrow concerns of the ego.

Humanity, he says, in the larger sense must learn again to subordinate the sciences of manipulation to the sciences of wisdom; a theme he further develops in his book Small Is Beautiful.

Reviews
The reviews of this book include:

 * America v. 138 (February 11, 1978).
 * Best Sellers v. 37 (December 1977).
 * Choice v. 15 (September 1978).
 * The Christian Century v. 94 (October 12, 1977).
 * The Christian Science Monitor (Eastern edition) (September 28, 1977).
 * Commonweal v. 105 (April 14, 1978).
 * Critic v. 36 (spring 1978).
 * The Economist v. 265 (October 1, 1977).
 * Library Journal (1876) v. 102 (October 1, 1977).
 * The New York Times Book Review (October 2, 1977).
 * New Statesman (London, England: 1957) v. 94 (October 7, 1977).

title: A Guide for the Perplexed


text:
Jeffrey Bergner

Jeffrey Thomas Bergner (born 1946) is an American foreign policy expert. He is a visiting lecturer at the Batten School of Public Policy and Leadership at the University of Virginia. He is the author of The Origin of Formalism in Social Science, The New Superpowers, Against Modern Humanism, The Vanishing Congress, and Turning Point: Judaism, Christianity and Islam Confront Greek Philosophy. He is also co-author (with Lisa Spiller) of Branding the Candidate and several other books concerning American politics and foreign affairs.

He served as managing partner of Bergner Bockorny, a government relations firm specializing in tax, trade and international issues

Bergner was Policy Director, Lugar for President Campaign; Staff Director, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations; Chief of Staff/Legislative Director, Senator Richard Lugar; Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Pennsylvania; Visiting Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Michigan; visiting professor at Georgetown University and Visiting Professor of American Studies at Christopher Newport University in Newport News, VA.

Bergner served as Assistant Secretary of State for Legislative Affairs from 2005 until July 2008.

Bergner has had affiliations with the Asia Foundation, the Calvert Institute for Public Policy, the Hudson Institute, Business Executives for National Security and the Project for the New American Century.

Bergner received his BA from Carleton College (1969), MA from Princeton University (1971), and PhD from Princeton (1973).

title: Jeffrey Bergner


text:
Duchy of Benevento

The Duchy of Benevento (after 774, Principality of Benevento) was the southernmost Lombard duchy in the Italian Peninsula that was centred on Benevento, a city in Southern Italy. Lombard dukes ruled Benevento from 571 to 1077, when it was conquered by the Normans for four years before it was given to the Pope. Being cut off from the rest of the Lombard possessions by the papal Duchy of Rome, Benevento was practically independent from the start. Only during the reigns of Grimoald (r. 662–671) and the kings from Liutprand (r. 712–744) on was the duchy closely tied to the Kingdom of the Lombards. After the fall of the kingdom in 774, the duchy became the sole Lombard territory which continued to exist as a rump state, maintaining its de facto independence for nearly 300 years, although it was divided after 849. Benevento dwindled in size in the early 11th century, and was completely captured by the Norman Robert Guiscard in 1053.

Paul the Deacon refers to Benevento as the "Samnite Duchy" (Ducatum Samnitium) after the region of Samnium.

Foundation
The circumstances surrounding the creation of the duchy are disputed. According to some scholars, Lombards were present in southern Italy well before the complete conquest of the Po Valley: the duchy by these accounts would have been founded in 571. The Lombards may have entered later, around 590. Whatever the case, the first duke was Zotto, a leader of a band of soldiers who descended the coast of Campania. Though at first independent, Zotto was eventually made to submit to the royal authority of the north. His successor was Arechis, his nephew, and the principle of hereditary succession guided the Beneventan duchy to the end.

The Lombard duchies, part of the loosely-knit Lombard kingdom, were essentially independent, in spite of their common roots and language, and law and religion similar to that of the north, and in spite of the Beneventan dukes' custom of taking to wife women from the royal family. A swathe of territory that owed allegiance to Rome or to Ravenna separated the dukes of Benevento from the kings at Pavia. Cultural autonomy followed naturally: a distinctive liturgical chant, the Beneventan chant, developed in the church of Benevento: it was not entirely superseded by Gregorian chant until the 11th century. A unique Beneventan script was also developed for writing Latin. The 8th-century writer Paul the Deacon arrived in Benevento in the retinue of a princess from Pavia, the duke's bride. Settled into the greatest of Beneventan monasteries, Monte Cassino, he wrote first a history of Rome and then a history of the Lombards, the main source for the history of the duchy to that time as well.

Expansion
Under Zotto's successors, the duchy was expanded against the Byzantine Empire. Arechis, himself from the duchy of Friuli, captured Capua and Crotone, and sacked Byzantine Amalfi, but was unable to capture Naples. After his reign, Byzantine holdings in southern Italy were reduced to Naples, Amalfi, Gaeta, Sorrento, Calabria, and the maritime cities of Apulia (Bari, Brindisi, Otranto, etc.). In 662, Duke Grimoald I (duke since 647), went north to aid the King Godepert against his brother, the co-king Perctarit, and instead killed the former, forced the latter into exile, and captured Pavia. As king of the Lombards, he tried to reinstate Arianism over the Catholicism of the late king Aripert I. However, Arianism was disappearing even in the duchy, as was the distinction between the ethnic Lombard population and the Latin- and Greek-speaking one. In 663, the city itself was besieged by the Byzantines during the failed attempt of Constans II, who had disembarked at Taranto, to recover southern Italy. Duke Romuald I defended the city bravely, however, and the Emperor, also fearing the arrival of Romuald's father, King Grimoald, retired to Naples. However, Romuald intercepted part of the Roman army at Forino, between Avellino and Salerno, and destroyed it. A peace between the Duchy and the Eastern Empire was signed in 680.

In the following decades, Benevento conquered some territories from the Byzantines, but the main enemy of the duchy was now the northern Lombard kingdom itself. King Liutprand intervened several times to impose a candidate of his own on the ducal throne. His successor, Ratchis, declared the duchies of Spoleto and Benevento foreign countries where it was forbidden to travel without royal permission.

Secundum Ticinum
In 758, king Desiderius briefly captured Spoleto and Benevento, but with Charlemagne's conquest of the Lombard kingdom in 774, Arechis II tried to claim the royal dignity and make Benevento a secundum Ticinum: a second Pavia (the old Lombard capital). Seeing that this was impractical and would draw Frankish attention to himself, he opted instead for the title of princeps (prince). In 787, he was forced by Charlemagne's siege of Salerno to submit to Frankish suzerainty. At this time, Benevento was acclaimed by a chronicler as a Ticinum geminum—a "twin Pavia". Arechis expanded the Roman city, with new walled enclosures extending onto the level ground southwest of the old city, where Arechis razed old constructions for a new princely palace, whose open court is still traceable in the Piano di Corte of the acropolis. Like their Byzantine enemies, the dukes linked the palace compound with a national church, Saint Sophia.

In 788, the principality was invaded by Byzantine troops led by Desiderius's son, Adelchis, who had taken refuge at Constantinople. However, his attempts were thwarted by Arechis' son, Grimoald III, who had, however, partially submitted to the Franks. The Franks assisted in the repulsion of Adelchis, but, in turn, attacked Benevento's territories several times, obtaining small gains, notably the annexation of Chieti to the duchy of Spoleto. In 814, Grimoald IV made vague promises of tribute and submission to Louis the Pious, which were renewed by his successor Sico. None of these pledges were followed up, and the decreased power and influence of the individual Carolingian monarchs allowed the duchy to increase its autonomy.

The Beneventan dukes employed seal rings to confirm documents, just like the Lombard kings, and the princes may have continued to use them into the ninth century. They indicate a continuation (or imitation) of Roman forms of administration, as well as widespread literacy (or "sub-literacy").

Decline through division and conquest
In the following century despite the continuing hostility of the Frankish sovereigns, Benevento reached its apex, imposing a tribute on Naples and capturing Amalfi under Duke Sicard. When Sicard was assassinated in 839, a civil war broke out. Sicard's brother, Siconulf, was proclaimed prince in Salerno while the assassin Radelchis took the throne in Benevento. After 10 years of civil war, Emperor Louis II ended the conflict by decreeing that the duchy be split into two distinct principates: Benevento (with Molise and Apulia north to Taranto) and the Principality of Salerno. As a part of the partition, Capua was made part of the Principality of Salerno.

The crisis was aggravated by the beginning of Muslim ravages, the first Saracens having been called in by Radelchis and subsequently Siconulf in their decade-long war. Often spurred by rival Christian rulers, the Saracens attacked Naples and Salerno unsuccessfully. The Islamic colony in southern Lazio was eliminated only in 915, after the Battle of Garigliano. At the same time, however, the Byzantine Empire reconquered a great part of southern Italy, beginning at Bari, which they retook from the Saracens in 876, and eventually elevating their themes under strategoi into a Catapanate of Italy (999), further reducing the already declining Beneventan power.

In 899, Atenulf I of Capua conquered Benevento and united the two duchies. He declared them inseparable and introduced the principle of co-rule, whereby sons would be associated with their fathers, a principle soon borrowed by Salerno. However, all Langobardia minor was unified for the last time by Duke Pandulf Ironhead, who became prince of Salerno in 978. He succeeded in making Benevento an archdiocese in 969. Before his death (March 981), he had gained from Emperor Otto I the title of Duke of Spoleto also. However, he split it between his sons: Landulf IV received Benevento-Capua and Pandulf II, Salerno. Soon, Benevento was stripped away again when Pandulf, the Ironhead's nephew, rebelled, demanding his part of the inheritance.

The first decades of the eleventh century saw Benevento dwindle to less than either of her sister duchies, Salerno, then prominent, or Capua. Around 1000, Benevento still comprised 34 separate counties. In 1022, Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor conquered both Capua and Benevento, but returned to Germany after the failed siege of Troia. The Normans arrived in the Mezzogiorno in these years, and Benevento then acknowledged to be in papal suzerainty, was only an off-and-on ally. The Beneventan duke still had enough prestige to lend his son, Atenulf, to the Norman-Lombard rebellion in Apulia as leader, but Atenulf abandoned the Normans and Benevento lost what was left of its influence.

The greatest of the Norman rulers of the south was Robert Guiscard, who captured Benevento in 1053. Guiscard, in turn, gave Benevento to his nominal suzerain, Pope Leo IX. Pope Leo IX and his successors appointed a series of minor Lombards as dukes until Pope Gregory VII appointed Guiscard Prince of Benevento in 1078. Finally, in 1081, Guiscard returned the title to the papacy with little but the city remaining of the once-great principality which had determined the direction of South Italian affairs for generations. No dukes or princes were thereafter named.

In 1806, Napoleon, after conquering Benevento, named as prince the famous Charles Maurice de Talleyrand. Talleyrand held the title till 1815 and was quite capable in administering the duchy besides his other tasks. Benevento was conquered by Joachim Murat in February 1814 and at the Congress of Vienna was restored to the Pope.

General References

 * Cooper, Duff, Talleyrand (Frankfurt: 1982, ISBN 3-458-32097-0).

title: Duchy of Benevento


text:
Salonta

Salonta (Nagyszalonta, colloquially Szalonta, ; Großsalontha) is a city in Bihor County, in the geographical region of Crișana, north-western Romania, near the Hungarian border.

Population

According to the 2021 census, Salonta has a population of 15,792. At the census from 2011, the city had a population of 17,042, made up of Hungarians (58.1%), Romanians (38.83%), Romani (2.4%), Slovaks (0.4%), and others (0.5%). In terms of religion, at the 2002 census, 51.12% were Reformed (Calvinist), 36.46% Romanian Orthodox, 6.56% Roman Catholic and 5.86% was split between Baptists, Romanian Greek-Catholic, Pentecostals, and other faiths.

History
The city, a part of the Kingdom of Hungary, was first documented in 1214 under the name of Zolonta and in 1332 a Papal document used the name Zalanta. The Hungarian spelling Szalonta was used since 1587.

Etymologically, the name is probably related with those of other Romanian localities (slavic names) like Slatina, Zlatna, or Slănic, whose Romanian meaning is "Sărata" ("Saline"). It can also be derived from Hungarian "szalona" ("bacon"), a term having the same etymological meaning, and in regional context – the name of two contiguous villages are probably related with the types of stock growth in the area: Mădăras, from Hungarian "madar" ("bird"), and Tulca from Hungarian "tulok" ("bullock") – it may refer to the numerous pig growers in its perimeter.

Until the 16th century, it was only a small village of about 300 inhabitants and was on the land of the Toldi family. A bigger city was the fort of Culiser, which was however destroyed by the Ottoman Turks in 1598. Culiser was never rebuilt and Salonta began to have a more important role in the region after 1606, when the prince of Transylvania, Stephan Bocskai settled 300 soldiers here and appropriated land for them. They built their own farms, but had to keep their arms ready to repel an attack by the Turks. 3 June, the day in which the soldiers were settled, is nowadays declared "the day of the city". However, Ottoman Turks captured the town in 1660 and as Salanta, it became the sanjak center of Varat vilayet until 1692.

The 19th century Hungarian poet János Arany was born and lived in Salonta for most of his life. Lajos Zilahy, another noted Hungarian author, was also born in Salonta in 1891. Violist and musicologist Egon Kenton was born there the same year.

After the collapse of Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I, and the declaration of the Union of Transylvania with Romania, the Romanian Army took control of Salonta in April 1919, during the Hungarian–Romanian War. The city officially became part of the territory ceded to the Kingdom of Romania in June 1920 under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon. During the interwar period, it became the seat of plasa Salonta, in Bihor County. In August 1940, under the auspices of Nazi Germany, which imposed the Second Vienna Award, Hungary retook the territory of Northern Transylvania (which included Salonta) from Romania. Towards the end of World War II, however, the city was taken back from Hungarian and German troops by Romanian and Soviet forces in October 1944, during the initial stages of the Battle of Debrecen. The Paris Peace Treaties of 1947 reaffirmed the Trianon border. Following the administrative reform of 1950, the town became the seat of Salonta Raion within Bihor Region (renamed Oradea Region in 1952 and Crișana Region in 1960). In 1968, the old territorial division into județe was reinstituted, and the city reverted to being part of Bihor County.

Natives

 * János Arany (1817–1882), Hungarian poet, writer, translator, and journalist
 * Iosif Ardeleanu (1909–1988), communist activist and bureaucrat
 * Miklós Bonczos (1897–1971), Hungarian politician
 * Gabriel Buta (born 2002), footballer
 * Yasin Hamed (born 1999), footballer
 * Egon Kenton (1891–1987), Hungarian and American musicologist
 * Elemér Kocsis (1910–1981), footballer
 * Dorin Mihuț (born 1982), footballer
 * Alexandru Moghioroș (1911–1969), communist activist and politician
 * Sergiu Oltean (born 1987), footballer
 * Mircea Pavlov (born 1937), chess International Master
 * Eugen Rozvan (1878–1938), communist activist, lawyer, and Marxist historian
 * Enikő A. Sajti (born 1944), Hungarian historian
 * Lajos Sătmăreanu (born 1944), footballer
 * Andra Ursuța (born 1979), Romanian-American sculptor
 * Lajos Zilahy (1891−1974), Hungarian novelist and playwright

Climate and geography
Salonta has a continental humid climate, with warm to hot summers and cold to very cold winters, but relatively little snow. The average annual precipitation is 578 cubic mm (35.2 inches). The average January temperature is -2.4 C and in July it is 20.7 C (averages for low and high). It is located in the plains west of the Apuseni Carpathians at an elevation between 91 and 100 m.

Economy
Salonta is famous nationwide for its Salam de Salonta sausage products that have been produced since the 1970s. Most of the state-owned factories built during the communist period went into bankruptcy since 1989. During the 2000s however, there has been a considerable foreign direct investment in small factories and assembly plants – particularly in the clothing industry.

In 2008, Inteva Products LLC – a large multinational – started production at its Salonta facility, the only one the company has in Romania and one in only five throughout Central and Eastern Europe. Inteva produces cables and latches and other car parts at the Salonta facility.

The Salonta gas field (which started production in 2010) is located near the city.

Trivia
The city of Salonta hosted the 2006 Romanian National Gliders Championship (Campionat naţional de aeromodelism) and its team, Metalul Salonta, has won the championship several times.

Politics
The Salonta Municipal Council, elected in the 2012 local government elections, is made up of 17 councillors, with the following party composition:

Sports
Basketball: C.S.S. "TEODOR NES" SALONTA

Tengo Salonta is Salonta's football tennis team, a very successful club at national level and also the current Football Tennis Club World Cup champions, title won in 2017 after a 3–1 in the final against Czech club from Karlovy Vary, the host of the tournament.

Football is also a sport with a long tradition in the town situated near the Hungarian border. Olimpia Salonta is the team of Salonta, being founded in 1911, the club played mostly at Liga III and Liga IV, with 31 seasons played in the third league of the Romanian football league system.

For 10 years, between 2003 and 2013, in Salonta existed another football club, Liberty Salonta, a club with a strong academy at national level that promoted many interesting players over time, even managing a promotion to Liga I in 2006, but the club sold its place to UTA Arad and never played at the highest level of the Romanian football.

Twin towns – sister cities
Salonta is twinned with:
 * 🇭🇺 Csepel, Hungary
 * 🇭🇺 Hajdúböszörmény, Hungary
 * 🇭🇺 Nagykőrös, Hungary
 * 🇸🇰 Rimavská Sobota, Slovakia
 * 🇭🇺 Sarkad, Hungary (since 2001)
 * 🇭🇺 Túrkeve, Hungary (since 1994)
 * 🇭🇺 Derecske, Hungary
 * 🇭🇺 Békéscsaba, Hungary

title: Salonta


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Levin Schücking

Levin Schücking (full name: Christoph Bernhard Levin Matthias Schücking; September 6, 1814 – August 31, 1883) was a German novelist. He was born near Meppen, Kingdom of Prussia, and died in Bad Pyrmont, German Empire. He was the uncle of Levin Ludwig Schücking.

Biography
Born into the Westphalian nobility on the estate of Klemenswerth, near Meppen, his mother, Sibilla Katharina née Busch (1791–1831) was a poet who occasionally published, whilst his father was Paulus Modestus Schücking. Levin's mother became friend of the poet Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, who wrote her son a letter of introduction when he left home for the gymnasium in Münster. Shortly after he left home, his mother died, and Baroness von Droste-Hülshoff did her best to fill this void in his life.

After studying law at Munich, Heidelberg and Göttingen, Schücking wished to enter the government judicial service, but, confronted by serious difficulties, abandoned the legal career, and settling at Münster in 1837, devoted himself to literary work. In 1841 he removed to Schloss Meersburg on the Lake of Constance.

In 1843, Schücking married Baroness Luise von Gall. Up to this time, Droste-Hülshoff had been a major inspiration in his life, but she and his wife did not get along. Droste-Hülshoff felt he neglected her and that his head was too turned by the revolutionary "Young Germany". And then Schücking published a novel on the Westphalian nobility, which did not depict them favorably, and Droste-Hülshoff's friends, sometimes rightly, sometimes wrongly, traced many of the depictions back to Droste-Hülshoff. This annoyance led to her avoiding Schücking for the rest of her life.

Also in 1843, he joined the editorial staff of the Allgemeine Zeitung in Augsburg, and in 1845, he joined that of the Kölnische Zeitung in Cologne as a literary editor and occasional foreign correspondent. In 1852 he left his career in journalism for his estate in Sassenberg near Münster to have more time for writing. He died at Pyrmont on 31 August 1883.

Works
His first efforts were descriptive:
 * Das Malerische und romantische Westfalen (1842)
 * Der Dom zu Köln und seine Vollendung (1842)

Among his numerous romances, which are distinguished by good taste and patriotic feeling, largely reflecting the sound, sturdy character of the Westphalians, the most noteworthy include: Schucking wrote a number of short stories:
 * Ein Schloss am Meer (1843)
 * Ein Sohn des Vosges (1849)
 * Ein Staatsgeheimnis (1854)
 * Verschlungene Wege (1867)
 * Die Herberge der Gerechtigkeit (1879)
 * Aus den Tagen der grossen Kaiserin (1858)
 * Neue Novellen (1877)

In Annette von Droste-Hülshoff (1862) he gives a sketch of this poet and acknowledges his indebtedness to her beneficial influence upon his mind. There appeared posthumously, Lebenserinnerungen (1886) and Briefe von Annette von Droste-Hülshoff und Levin Schücking (1893).

His wife, Luise (1815–1855), daughter of the General Freiherr von Gall, in the Hessian service, published some novels and romances of considerable merit. Among the latter may be mentioned Gegen den Strom (1851) and Der neue Kreuzritter (1853). She also wrote a successful comedy, Ein schlechtes Gewissen (1842).

Schücking's Gesammelte Erzählungen und Novellen appeared in 6 vols (1859–1866); Ausgewählte Romane (12 vols, 1864; 2nd series, also 12 vols, 1874–1876).

Several of Schücking's works appeared in the popular German weekly Die Gartenlaube (such as "Pulver und Gold" in January 1871).

title: Levin Schücking


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Romanian Football Federation

The Romanian Football Federation (Federația Română de Fotbal; FRF) is the governing body of football in Romania. They are headquartered in the capital city of Bucharest and affiliated to FIFA and UEFA since 1923 and 1955 respectively. The Federation organizes the men's national team and the women's national team, as well as most of the Romanian football competitions.

History
In 1909, the first governing body for the activity of football players appeared, the Association of Sports Clubs in Romania, which later became the "Association of Football Clubs", with headquarters in Bucharest and Mario Gebauer as president. Also in 1909, the first national football championship begins, which will be won, in the spring of the following year, by "Olimpia" Bucharest, which was the first team established in Romania in 1904.

On December 1, 1912, the "Association of Football Clubs" will join the Central Football Association Commission (president Mario Gebaur, secretary Lazăr Breyer), which in turn was part of the Federation of Romanian Sports Associations (FSSR), also established in 1912.

The "Venus" Bucharest and "Prahova" Ploiesti teams will appear in 1915; "Student Sports" Bucharest, in 1916; CA Oradea and "Chinese" Timisoara in 1910, and AMFA Arad, in 1911, according to the "Encyclopedia of Physical Education and Sport in Romania". The Romanian national team began its activity on June 8, 1922, in a match in Belgrade, against Yugoslavia, winning 2–1.

On May 20, 1923, the Association Football Commission of the FSSR was admitted to the Zurich Congress as a member of FIFA. In this capacity, Romania participates in the Olympic Football Tournament from the 1924 Olympic Games held in Paris. On February 16, 1930, the Central Football Association Commission was transformed into the Romanian Football Association Federation (FRFA), an independent body with legal authority, deciding Romania's participation in the World Championship in Uruguay in July of the same year.

The first president of the FRFA was the lawyer Aurel Leucutia (1930–1933), who has the merit of having organized the first unitary championship of the first division (1932–1933), states the website of the Romanian Football Federation, frf.ro.

The domestic championship, Division A, began with the 1932-1933 edition, initially being divided into two series. In 1934 Division B appeared; in 1936, Division C; and in 1937, the National Junior Championship. The political events at the end of 1989 determined essential organizational changes, as well as regarding the football activity.

In the competitive year 1990–91, a massive group of the most valuable Romanian players went abroad, being requested by big continental clubs.

On February 23, 1991, the General Assembly of the FRF adopted the new statute, elected the federal council, and by court decision no. 290, of April 12, 1991, FR de Fotbal became a legal entity under private law, equivalent to autonomy and thus having the path open to professionalism, mentions the "Encyclopedia of Physical Education and Sport in Romania". On August 1, 1991, through a decision of the Government, the transition to professionalism was approved. From 1930 until the current president of the Federation, there were 28 other leaders of the FRF. Among them, the prefect of the Capital in the 30s, Gabriel Marinescu (1936–1940), the engineer, sports journalist and coach Virgil Economu (1946–1947), the politician Corneliu Mănescu (1958–1960), the former great player of the CCA, Gheorghe Popescu (1963–1967), Mircea Angelescu (1969–1975 and 1986–1989), Andrei Rădulescu (1989–1990), Mircea Pascu (Jan. 1990–Aug. 1990), Mircea Sandu, (Aug. 1990–Mar. 2014).

Currently, the Romanian Football Federation is led by Răzvan Burleanu (since March 2014). FRF organized the national football championship year after year until 1997, when it was decided to take over and organize it by the Professional Football League (LPF).

The Romanian Football Federation is a founding member of the European Football Association (UEFA) since 1954.

National teams

 * FIFA World Cup
 * Quarter-finals (1): 1994
 * Round of 16 (4): 1934, 1938, 1990, 1998
 * UEFA European Football Championship
 * Quarter-finals (1): 2000
 * Football at the Summer Olympics
 * Fifth-place (1): 1964
 * Round of 16 (1): 1924
 * Balkan Cup:
 * Winners (4) – Record: 1929–31, 1933, 1936, 1977–80
 * Runners-up (1): 1973–76

National youth teams

 * UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship
 * Under-19 era, 2002–present

 * Champions (0):
 * Runner-up (0):

 * Under-18 era, 1957–2001

 * Champions (1): 1962
 * Runner-up (1): 1960

title: Romanian Football Federation


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Perry Belmont

Perry Belmont (December 28, 1851 – May 25, 1947) was an American politician and diplomat. He served four terms in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1881 to 1888.

Early life and education
Belmont was born on December 28, 1851, in New York City, the son of Caroline Slidell (née Perry) and financier August Belmont. His maternal grandfather was Commodore Matthew C. Perry. His brothers were Oliver Hazard Perry Belmont and August Belmont Jr.

He attended Everest Military Academy in Hamden, Connecticut; and graduated from Harvard College in 1872; attended the law school in the University of Berlin; and graduated from the Columbia Law School in 1876. He was admitted to the bar that same year.

Ancestry and memberships
Through his mother, he was a descendant of Captain Christopher Raymond Perry who had served as a privateer during the American Revolution and was also the father of Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry and Commodore Matthew C. Perry. By virtue of his descent from Captain Perry, Belmont became a member of the Rhode Island Society of the Sons of the Revolution. In 1929 he was elected as a hereditary member of the Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati. He was also a member of the Veteran Corps of Artillery.

Career
Belmont practiced law in New York City for five years. Partnered with him in the law firm, Vinton, Belmont & Frelinghuysen, were his cousin, the writer Arthur Dudley Vinton, and George Frelinghuysen, future president of the Ballantine Brewing Company. He and his brother, August Belmont Jr., were also founding members of The Jockey Club.

Elected as a Democrat to the 47th Congress and reelected to the next three Congresses, Belmont served as the U.S. representative for the first district of New York from March 4, 1881, until his resignation on December 1, 1888. During his first term, he was a member of the committee on foreign affairs; noted for his cross-examination of James G. Blaine, the former secretary of state. The cross-examination concerned Blaine's relations with a syndicate of American capitalists interested in the development of certain guano deposits in Peru. An attempt was made to show that Blaine's efforts toward mediation between Chile and Peru were from interested motives. Belmont served from 1885 to 1887 as chairman of the committee on foreign affairs.

He was appointed United States Minister to Spain in November 1888 and served until May 1889.

On October 6, 1890, Belmont was invested as a Commander of the French Legion of Honor.

In 1898, during the Spanish–American War, Belmont served for six weeks in the Army as an Inspector General of the First Division, Second Army Corps, United States Volunteers, with the rank of major.

When the Consolidated National Bank of New York was organized on July 1, 1902, the fourteen directors included individuals such as Belmont, John W. Griggs, Henry C. Brewster, George Crocker, and Mortimer H. Wagar.

In 1906, Belmont became "permanent president" of the National Publicity Bill Organization, which fought for campaign finance disclosure.

During the First World War, despite being 65 years old, Belmont was commissioned as a captain in the U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps on May 5, 1917. He was assigned to the Remount Division in Washington, D.C., and was discharged on May 21, 1920.

Personal life
In 1899, after 17 years of marriage, Jessie Ann Robbins (1858–1935) divorced Henry T. Sloane (son of William Sloane, the founder of W. & J. Sloane) to marry Perry Belmont. The marriage occurred only five hours after the divorce was decreed and, at the time, was considered scandalous.

Belmont died in Newport, Rhode Island, on May 25, 1947 (age 95 years, 148 days). He is interred along with his parents and his brother August Belmont Jr. in the Belmont family plot in the Island Cemetery in Newport. His former home in Washington, D.C., became the International Temple for the Order of the Eastern Star.

Military awards

 * Spanish War Service Medal
 * World War I Victory Medal

title: Perry Belmont


text: Category:1710s books

title: Category:1710s books


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William Schneider Jr.

William J. Schneider Jr. (born November 20, 1941) is an American who has served in a

number of federal government positions.

Schneider served as Under-Secretary of State in the Reagan administration, and later became a member of the Project for the New American Century (PNAC). He was one of the signers of the January 26, 1998, PNAC Letter sent to President Bill Clinton that encouraged an attack against Iraq. In that same year he served on the Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States, which came to the conclusion that Iraq could develop a ballistic missile capable of striking the US in ten years.

In January 2001, as President George W. Bush prepared to take office, Schneider served on a panel for nuclear weapons issues sponsored by the National Institute for Public Policy, a conservative think tank. Other members of the panel included Stephen Hadley, Stephen Cambone, and Robert Joseph, who later were appointed to senior positions in the Bush administration. This panel advocated using tactical nuclear weapons as a standard part of the United States defense arsenal.

In 2001 he was appointed by the US Senate to the Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry.

Schneider was selected by Donald Rumsfeld to chair the Defense Science Board. In this position, Schneider continued to advocate using nuclear weapons in certain limited first-strike situations.

title: William Schneider Jr.


text:
1938 in rail transport

January

 * January 1 – Creation of the following European railway networks under government control:
 * SNCF (Société Nationale des Chemins de fer Français), bringing the principal railway companies of France together.
 * NS (Nederlandsche Spoorwegen), merging the Hollandsche IJzeren Spoorweg-Maatschappij (HSM) and the Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van Staatsspoorwegen (SS) in the Netherlands.
 * January 22 – The Pacific Electric Whittier Line is truncated to Walker.

February

 * February 22 – The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway introduces the El Capitan passenger train between Chicago and Los Angeles.
 * February 26 – A second all-lightweight trainset enters service on the Super Chief.

March

 * March 6 – The Pacific Electric Walker Line is discontinued.
 * March 18 – Bundesbahn Österreich (BBÖ, Federal Railway of Austria) integrated into Deutsche Reichsbahn.
 * March 27 – Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway inaugurates the San Diegan passenger train between Los Angeles and San Diego.

May

 * May 8 — President Manuel L. Quezon inaugurates regular services on the Main Line South of the Manila Railroad in Del Gallego, Camarines Sur. Trial runs already began five months prior.
 * May 15
 * The Lake Shore Electric Railway in Ohio ceases operations.
 * Inauguration of a major Nederlandse Spoorwegen electrification scheme in the central Netherlands, centred on Utrecht.

June

 * June 1 – Pacific Electric's Owensmouth Line and San Fernando Line are truncated to Sherman Way.
 * June 15 – New York Central Railroad introduces an all-streamlined consist on the 20th Century Limited and also introduces the New England States passenger train between Chicago and Boston.
 * June 16 – The Pike's Peak Cog Railway in Colorado operates gasoline-powered railcar number 7, the first rack railcar in the world, for the first time.
 * June 19 – Custer Creek train wreck kills at least 47 near Saugus, Montana. A bridge, weakened by a flash flood, collapses under the Milwaukee Road's Olympian plunging the locomotive and seven lead cars into the rain-swollen creek. It remains the worse rail disaster in Montana history.
 * June 30 – London Underground 1938 Stock enters public service, on Northern line.

July

 * July 3 – The London and North Eastern Railway 4-6-2 Mallard reaches a speed of 126 mph (203 km/h), the highest certified speed for a steam locomotive.
 * July 31 – The Pennsylvania Railroad, in its public timetable issued today, boasts that “19% of all passengers are carried on the Pennsylvania Railroad.”

October

 * October – Electro-Motive Corporation introduces the EMC E4.

November

 * November 1 – Passenger service ends on the Maine narrow gauge Monson Railroad.

December

 * December 13 – The Reading Railroad's Crusader passenger train is introduced.
 * December 15
 * The first diesel locomotives in the southeast United States, EMC E4s, appear on the Orange Blossom Special.
 * The second section of the Itō Line, connecting Ajiro to Itō in Japan, opens.
 * December 23 – Jean Renoir's film of La Bête Humaine released in France.

Unknown date

 * Pennsylvania Railroad's Broadway Limited is completely re-equipped based on an industrial design by Raymond Loewy.
 * Overhead wire on the Pennsylvania Railroad's mainline from New York City reaches Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
 * Overhead wire on the newly formed SNCF system between Tours and Bordeaux in France completes electrification from Paris to the Spanish frontier.
 * The first passenger car equipped with fluorescent lights is operated on the New York Central Railroad.

January births

 * January 11 – Alastair Morton, chief executive of Eurotunnel 1987–1996, chairman of British Strategic Rail Authority 1999-2001 (d. 2004).

Unknown date births

 * John H. Kuehl, editor of Private Varnish magazine, passenger car historian and photographer (died 2005).

February deaths

 * February 2 – Frederick William Vanderbilt, director of the New York Central system (born 1856).
 * February 9 – Arturo Caprotti, Italian inventor of Caprotti valve gear for steam locomotives (born 1881).

October deaths

 * October 16 – Sir Henry Fowler, Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Midland Railway 1909–1923 and the London, Midland and Scottish Railway 1925–1931 (born 1870).

December deaths

 * December 1 – David Blyth Hanna, first president of Canadian National Railway (born 1858).

title: 1938 in rail transport


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James Schouler

James Schouler (March 20, 1839 – April 16, 1920) was an American lawyer and historian best known for his historical work History of the United States under the Constitution, 1789–1865.

Biography
Schouler was born in West Cambridge (now Arlington), Massachusetts. He was the son of William Schouler, who from 1847 to 1853 edited the Boston Atlas, one of the leading Whig journals of New England. The son graduated at Harvard in 1859, studied law in Boston and was admitted to the bar there in 1862. In 1869 he removed to Washington, where for three years he published the United States Jurist.

After his return to Boston in 1874, he devoted himself to office practice and to literary pursuits. He was a lecturer at Boston University School of Law between 1885 and 1903, a non-resident professor and lecturer in the National University Law School, Washington, DC, in 1887–1909, and a lecturer on American history and constitutional law at Johns Hopkins University in 1908.

Schouler is best known, however, as an historian. In 1896–1897 he was president of the American Historical Association. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1907.

He died in Intervale, New Hampshire on April 16, 1920.

Works
His most important work is History of the United States under the Constitution, 1789–1865 (7 vols, 1880–1917) whose components include:
 * v. 1. 1783–1801. Rule of Federalism.
 * v. 2. 1801–1817. Jefferson Republicans.
 * v. 3. 1817–1831. Era of good feeling.
 * v. 4. 1831–1847. Democrats and Whigs.
 * v. 5. 1847–1861. Free soil controversy.
 * v. 6. 1861–1865. The civil war.
 * v. 7. 1865–1877. History of the Reconstruction Period.

Among his other publications are:
 * A Life of Thomas Jefferson (1893)
 * Historical Briefs (1896)
 * Constitutional Studies, State and Federal (1897)
 * Life of Alexander Hamilton (1901)
 * Americans of 1776 (1906)
 * Ideals of the Republic (1908)

His legal treatises are:
 * The Law of Domestic Relations (1870)
 * The Law of Personal Property (1872–1876; new ed., 1907)
 * The Law of Bailments (1880)
 * The Law of Executors and Administrators (1883)
 * The Law of Husband and Wife (1882)
 * The Law of Wills (1910)

title: James Schouler


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Talk:Alois Mock

Untitled
Although I am not an expert on this man, I am a native speaker of English living in Austria and when I found this article I decided to correct it. What I have done is basically to remove German terms like "EWR" from the text. In this case, for example, "EWG" would mean nothing to an English reader. "EEC" is the English term. In places the grammar and syntax also needed altering. I have also fixed the Germanisms (e.g. "communist break down" - which is not very idiomatic - changed to "fall of communism", the widely-used English phrase) and anglicised some of the political terms so they are understandable to a reader who has no foreknowledge of the German language or of Austrian politics. Some of the links to other articles needed reformatting, e.g. the country names where the adjectival n has been added on at the end instead of being put into the link itself. I think it is an improvement on an already interesting article! - --Garethhamilton 20:59, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Alois Mock