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Pink film

Pink film (ピンク映画) refers in Japan to movies produced by independent studios that includes nudity (hence 'pink') or deals with sexual content. This encompasses everything from dramas to action thrillers and exploitation film features. Many pink films would be analogous to erotic thrillers, e.g. Fatal Attraction, Fifty Shades of Grey, Basic Instinct, 9½ Weeks.

Independent studios that release pink films include OP Eiga, Shintōhō Eiga, Kokuei and Xces. The phrase 'pink film' came into use after the major Toei began advertising some of its movies as 'porno' in 1971, and other major Nikkatsu switched to producing only Roman Porno films later that year.

Until the early 2000s, they were almost exclusively shot on 35 mm film. Recently, filmmakers have increasingly used video (while retaining their emphasis on soft-core narrative). Many theaters swapped 35mm for video projectors and began relying on old videos to meet the demand of triple-feature showings.

Films that are now regarded as pink films became wildly popular in the mid-1960s, and made up a large part of the Japanese domestic market through the mid-1980s. In the 1960s, the pink films were largely the product of small, independent studios. Around 1970, the major studio Nikkatsu started focusing almost exclusively on erotic content, but Toei, another major film production company, started producing a line of what came to be known as Pinky Violence films. With their access to higher production values and talent, some of these films became critical and popular successes. Though the appearance of the adult video led viewers to move away from pink film in the 1980s, films in this genre are still being produced.

Description
The "pink film", or "eroduction" (erotic production) as it was first called, is a cinematic genre without an exact equivalent in the West. Though called pornography, the terms "erotica", "soft porn" and "sexploitation" have been suggested as more appropriate, although none of these precisely matches the pink film genre.

The Japanese film ethics board Eirin has long enforced a ban on the display of genitals and pubic hair. This restriction forced Japanese filmmakers to develop sometimes elaborate means of avoiding showing the "working parts", as American film historian Donald Richie puts it. He wrote: "The eroductions are the limpest of softcore, and though there is much breast and buttock display, though there are simulations of intercourse, none of the working parts are ever shown. Indeed, one pubic hair breaks an unwritten but closely observed code. Though this last problem is solved by shaving the actresses, the larger remains: how to stimulate when the means are missing."

To work around this censorship, most Japanese directors positioned props—lamps, candles, bottles, etc.—at strategic locations to block the banned body parts. When this was not done, the most common alternative techniques are digital scrambling, covering the prohibited area with a black box or a fuzzy white spot, known as a mosaic or "fogging".

Some have claimed that it is this censorship that gives the Japanese erotic cinema its particular style. Richie wrote: "American pornography is kept forever on its elemental level because, showing all, it need do nothing else; Japanese eroductions have to do something else since they cannot show all. The stultified impulse has created some extraordinary works of art, a few films among them. None of these, however, are found among eroductions."

Richie makes a distinction between the erotic films of the major studios such as Nikkatsu and Toei as against the low-budget pink films produced by independents such as OP Eiga.

Contrasting the pink film with Western pornographic films, Pia Harritz says, "What really stands out is the ability of pinku eiga to engage the spectator in more than just scenes with close-ups of genitals and finally the complexity in the representation of gender and the human mind."

Richie and Harritz enumerate the fundamental elements of the pink film formula as:
 * 1) The film must have a required minimum quota of sex scenes.
 * 2) The film must be approximately one hour in duration.
 * 3) It must be filmed on 16 mm or 35 mm film within one week.
 * 4) The film must be made on a very limited budget.

Background
In the years since the end of World War II, eroticism had been gradually making its way into Japanese cinema. The first kiss to be seen in Japanese film—discreetly half-hidden by an umbrella—caused a national sensation in 1946. Although throughout the 1940s and early 1950s nudity in Japanese movie theaters, as in most of the world, was a taboo, some films from the mid-50s such as Shintoho's female pearl-diver films starring buxom Michiko Maeda, began showing more flesh than would have previously been imaginable in the Japanese cinema. During the same period, the taiyozoku films on the teen-age "Sun Tribe", such as Kō Nakahira's Crazed Fruit (1956), introduced unprecedented sexual frankness into Japanese films.

Foreign films of this time, such as Ingmar Bergman's Summer with Monika (1953), Louis Malle's Amants (1958), and Russ Meyer's Immoral Mr. Teas (1959) introduced female nudity into international cinema, and were imported to Japan without problem. Nevertheless, until the early 1960s, graphic depictions of nudity and sex in Japanese film could only be seen in single-reel "stag films," made by film producers such as those depicted in Imamura's film The Pornographers (1966).

First wave (The "Age of Competition" 1962–1971)
The first wave of the pink film in Japan was contemporary with the similar U.S. sexploitation film genres, the "nudie-cuties" and "roughies". Nudity and sex officially entered Japanese cinema with Satoru Kobayashi's controversial and popular independent production Flesh Market (Nikutai no Ichiba, 1962), which is considered the first true pink film. Made for 8 million yen, Kobayashi's independent feature film took in over 100 million yen. Kobayashi remained active in directing pink films until the 1990s. Tamaki Katori, the star of the film, went on to become one of the leading early pink film stars, appearing in over 600, and earning the title "Pink Princess".

In 1964, maverick kabuki, theater and film director Tetsuji Takechi directed Daydream, a big-budget film distributed by the major studio Shochiku. Takechi's Black Snow (1965), resulted in the director's arrest on charges of obscenity and a high-profile trial, which became a major battle between Japan's intellectuals and the establishment. Takechi won the lawsuit, and the publicity surrounding the trial helped bring about a boom in the production of pink films.

In her introduction to the Weisser's Japanese Cinema Encyclopedia: The Sex Films, actress Naomi Tani calls this period in pink film production "The Age of Competition". Though Japan's major studios, such as Nikkatsu and Shochiku made occasional forays into erotica in the 1960s, such as director Seijun Suzuki's Gate of Flesh (1964)—the first Japanese film from one of the big four major studios to contain nudity, the majority of erotic films were made by the independents. Independent studios such as Nihon Cinema and World Eiga made dozens of cheap, profitable "eroductions". Among the most influential independent studios producing pink films in this era were Shintōhō Eiga (the second studio to use this name), Million Film, Kantō, and Ōkura. Typically shown on a three-film program, these films were made by these companies to show at their own chain of specialty theaters.

Another major pink film studio, Wakamatsu Studios, was formed by director Kōji Wakamatsu in 1965, after quitting Nikkatsu. Known as "The Pink Godfather", and called "the most important director to emerge in the pink film genre", Wakamatsu's independent productions are critically respected works usually concerned with sex and extreme violence mixed with political messages. His most controversial early films dealing with misogyny and sadism are The Embryo Hunts In Secret (1966), Violated Angels (1967), and Go, Go Second Time Virgin (1969).

Three other important pink film directors of this time, Kan Mukai, Kin'ya Ogawa and Shin'ya Yamamoto are known as "The Heroes of the First Wave". In 1965, the same year as Wakamatsu became independent, directors Kan Mukai and Giichi Nishihara established their own production companies—Mukai Productions and Aoi Eiga.

The "first queen of Japanese sex movies" was Noriko Tatsumi, who made films at World Eiga and Nihon Cinema with director Kōji Seki. Other major Sex Queens of the first wave of pink film included Setsuko Ogawa, Mari Iwai, Keiko Kayama, and Miki Hayashi. Other pink film stars of the era include Tamaki Katori, who appeared in many films for Giichi Nishihara and Kōji Wakamatsu; Kemi Ichiboshi, whose specialty was playing the role of a violated innocent; and Mari Nagisa. Younger starlets like Naomi Tani, and Kazuko Shirakawa were starting their careers and already making names for themselves in the pink film industry, but are best remembered today for their work with Nikkatsu during the 1970s.

Toei Porno
Most exploitation films produced in the 1960's were made by low-budget independent companies. The major studio Toei released a few films with female nudity, starting with Kunoichi ninpō in 1964 by director Sadao Nakajima. In films like his ero-guro series and Joys of Torture series of the late 1960s director Teruo Ishii provided a model for Toei's sexploitation ventures by "establishing a queasy mix of comedy and torture."

In 1972, Richie reported, "In Japan, the eroduction is the only type of picture that retains an assured patronage." To tap into this market, Toei began advertising some of its films using the English word 'porno,' a new word at the time. Onsen mimizu geisha directed by Norifumi Suzuki and starring Reiko Ike was the first such in July 1971.

Producer Kanji Amao designed a group of series—shigeki rosen (Sensational Line), ijoseiai rosen (Abnormal Line), and harenchi rosen (Shameless Line), today referred to by English critics as Toei's "Pinky Violence". Most of Toei's films in this style used eroticism in conjunction with violent and action-filled stories. Several of these films have the theme of strong women exacting violent revenge for past injustices. The series was launched with the Delinquent Girl Boss (Zubeko Bancho) films starring Reiko Oshida. Other series in the Pinky Violence genre included Norifumi Suzuki's Girl Boss (Sukeban) films, and the Terrifying Girls' High School films, both starring Reiko Ike and Miki Sugimoto.

Other examples of Toei's films in this genre include Shunya Ito's Sasori (Scorpion) series of women in prison films based on Toru Shinohara's manga. Starting with Female Prisoner#701: Scorpion (1972), the Scorpion series starred Meiko Kaji, who had left Nikkatsu Studios to distance herself from their Roman Porno series. Toei also set the standard for Japanese nunsploitation films (a subgenre imported from Italy) with the critically acclaimed School of the Holy Beast (1974) directed by Norifumi Suzuki. Toei also produced a whole series of erotic samurai pictures such as Bohachi Bushido: Clan of the Forgotten Eight (Bōhachi Bushidō: Poruno Jidaigeki) (1973).

Nikkatsu Roman Porno
In 1971, Takashi Itamochi, president of Nikkatsu, Japan's oldest major film studio, decided to stop his own company's involvement with action films and start making sexploitation films. Like Toei, Nikkatsu had made some previous films in the sexploitation market, such as Story of Heresy in Meiji Era (1968) and Tokyo Bathhouse (1968), which featured over 30 sex-film stars in cameo appearances. Nikkatsu launched its Roman Porno series in November 1971 with Apartment Wife: Affair In the Afternoon, starring Kazuko Shirakawa. The film became a huge hit, inspired 20 sequels within seven years, established Shirakawa as Nikkatsu's first "Queen", and successfully launched the high-profile Roman Porno series. Director Masaru Konuma says that the process of making Roman Porno was the same as that of making a pink film except for the higher budget. Nikkatsu made these higher-quality sexploitation films almost exclusively, at an average rate of three per month, for the next 17 years.

Nikkatsu gave its Roman Porno directors a great deal of artistic freedom in creating their films, as long as they met the official minimum quota of four nude or sex scenes per hour. The result was a series that was popular both with audiences and with critics. One or two Roman Pornos appeared on the top-ten lists of Japanese critics every year throughout the run of the series. Nikkatsu's higher-quality sex films essentially took the pink film market away from the smaller, independent studios until the mid-1980s, when adult videos began to lure away much of the pink film's clientele.

Tatsumi Kumashiro was one of the major directors of the Roman Porno. Kumashiro directed a string of financial and critical hits unprecedented in Japanese cinematic history, including Ichijo's Wet Desire (1972) and Woman with Red Hair (1979), starring Junko Miyashita. He became known as the "King of Nikkatsu Roman porno" Noboru Tanaka, director of A Woman Called Sada Abe (1975), is judged by many critics today to have been the best of Nikkatsu's Roman Porno directors. The S&M subgenre of the Roman Porno was established in 1974 when the studio hired Naomi Tani to star in Flower and Snake (based on an Oniroku Dan novel), and Wife to be Sacrificed, both directed by Masaru Konuma. Tani's immense popularity established her as Nikkatsu's third Roman Porno Queen, and the first of their S&M Queens. Tani was also directed by the important director Shôgorô Nishimura in titles that became classics, such as Rope Cosmetology (1978). Other subgenres developed under the Roman Porno line included "Violent Pink", established in 1976 by director Yasuharu Hasebe.

1980s
When ownership of VCRs first became widespread in the early 1980s, adult videos made their appearance, and quickly became highly popular. As early as 1982, the AVs had already attained an approximately equal share of the adult entertainment market with theatrical erotic films. In 1984, new government censorship policies and an agreement between Eirin (the Japanese film-rating board) and the pink-film companies added to Nikkatsu's difficulties by putting drastic new restrictions on theatrical films. Theatrical pink movie profits dropped 36% within a month of the new ruling. Eirin dealt a serious blow to the pink film industry in 1988 by introducing stricter requirements for sex-related theatrical films. Nikkatsu responded by discontinuing their Roman Porno line. Bed Partner (1988) was the final film of the venerable 17-year-old Roman Porno series. Nikkatsu continued to distribute films under the name Ropponica, and pink films through Excess Films, however these were not nearly as popular or critically respected as the Roman Porno series had been in its heyday. By the end of the 1980s, adult videos had become the main form of adult cinematic entertainment in Japan.

The dominant directors of pink films of the 1980s, Genji Nakamura, Banmei Takahashi and Mamoru Watanabe are known collectively as "The Three Pillars Of Pink". All three were veterans of the pink film industry since the 1960s. Coming to prominence in the 1980s, a time when the theatrical porn film was facing considerable difficulties on several fronts, this group is known for elevating the pink film above its low origins by concentrating on technical finesse and narrative content. Some critics dubbed the style of their films "pink art".

By the time Nakamura joined Nikkatsu in 1983, he had already directed over 100 films. While the plots of his films, which could be extremely misogynistic, were not highly respected, his visual style earned him a reputation for "erotic sensitivity." Nakamura directed one of Japan's first widely distributed, well-received films with a homosexual theme, Beautiful Mystery: Legend of the Big Penis (1983), for Nikkatsu's ENK Productions, which was founded in 1983 to focus on gay-themed pink films. Some of Nakamura's later pink films were directed in collaboration with Ryūichi Hiroki, and Hitoshi Ishikawa under the group pseudonym Go Ijuin.

Banmei Takahashi directed "intricate, highly stylistic pinku eiga", including New World of Love (1994), the first Japanese theatrical film to display genitals. Another prominent cult director of this era, Kazuo "Gaira" Komizu, is known for his Herschell Gordon Lewis-influenced "splatter-eros" films, which bridge the genres of horror and erotica.

1990s
Nikkatsu, Japan's largest producer of pink films during the 1970s and 1980s, filed for bankruptcy protection in 1993. Nevertheless, even in this most difficult period for the pink film, the genre never completely died out, and continued exploring new artistic realms. Indeed, at this time the pink film was viewed as one of the last refuges of the "auteur" in Japan. So long as the director provided the requisite number of sex scenes, he was free to explore his own thematic and artistic interests.

Three of the most prominent pink film directors of the 1990s, Kazuhiro Sano, Toshiki Satō and Takahisa Zeze all made their directorial debuts in 1989. A fourth, Hisayasu Satō, debuted in 1985. Coming to prominence during one of the most precarious times for the pink film, these directors worked under the assumption that each film could be their last, and so largely ignored their audience to concentrate on intensely personal, experimental themes. These directors even broke one of the fundamental pink rules by cutting down in the sex scenes in pursuit of their own artistic concerns. Their films were considered "difficult"—dark, complex, and largely unpopular with the older pink audience. The title "Four Heavenly Kings of Pink" (ピンク四天王) was applied to these directors, at first sarcastically, by disgruntled theater owners. On the other hand, Roland Domenig, in his essay on the pink film, says that their work offers "a refreshing contrast to the formulaic and stereotyped films that make up the larger part of pink eiga production, and are strongly influenced by the notion of the filmmaker as auteur."

21st century
The newest prominent group of seven pink film directors all began as assistant directors to the shitennō. Their films display individualistic styles and introspective character indicative of the insecurity of Japan's post-bubble generation. Known together as the "Seven Lucky Gods of Pink" (ピンク七福神) they are Toshiya Ueno, Shinji Imaoka, Yoshitaka Kamata, Toshiro Enomoto, Yūji Tajiri, Mitsuru Meike and Rei Sakamoto. Ueno was the first director of this group to rise to prominence, acting as an "advance guard" for the group when his Keep on Masturbating: Non-Stop Pleasure (1994) won the "Best Film" award at the Pink Grand Prix. Founded in 1989, the Pink Grand Prix has become a yearly highlight for the pink film community by awarding excellence in the genre and screening the top films.

The 2000s have seen a significant growth in international interest in the pink film. Director Mitsuru Meike's The Glamorous Life of Sachiko Hanai (2003) made an impression in international film festivals and gained critical praise. A planned annual "women-only" pink film festival was first held in South Korea in 2007, and again in November 2008. In 2008, a company called Pink Eiga, Inc. was formed with the sole purpose of releasing pink films on DVD in the U.S.

Directors
While some directors have used pink films as a steppingstone for their careers, others work exclusively with the genre. Some notable directors of pink films include:

• Masao Adachi

• Tarō Araki

• Sachi Hamano

• Yasuharu Hasebe

• Ryuichi Hiroki

• Toshiharu Ikeda

• Yutaka Ikejima

• Shinji Imaoka

• Takashi Ishii

• Teruo Ishii

• Shunya Itō

• Yoshikazu Katō

• Satoru Kobayashi

• Kazuo "Gaira" Komizu

• Masaru Konuma

• Minoru Kunizawa

• Kiyoshi Kurosawa

• Tatsumi Kumashiro

• Mitsuru Meike

• Yoshimitsu Morita

• Kan Mukai

• Giichi Nishihara

• Shōgorō Nishimura

• Kōyū Ohara

• Kazuhiro Sano

• Hisayasu Satō

• Toshiki Satō

• Kōji Seki

• Kazuyoshi Sekine

• Chūsei Sone

• Masayuki Suo

• Norifumi Suzuki

• Yūji Tajiri

• Banmei Takahashi

• Tetsuji Takechi

• Tetsuya Takehora

• Yōjirō Takita

• Rumi Tama

• Noboru Tanaka

• Naoyuki Tomomatsu

• Toshiya Ueno

• Kōji Wakamatsu

• Mamoru Watanabe

• Yumi Yoshiyuki

• Takahisa Zeze

Actresses
Some notable pinku eiga actresses include:

• Izumi Aki

• Minami Aoyama

• Asami

• Mayu Asada

• Lemon Hanazawa

• Yumika Hayashi

• Hotaru Hazuki

• Rinako Hirasawa

• Reiko Ike

• Yayoi Watanabe

• Kiyomi Itō

• Sakurako Kaoru

• Tamaki Katori

• Kyōko Kazama

• Maiko Kazama

• Konatsu

• Megumi Makihara

• Junko Miyashita

• Reiko Oshida

• Motoko Sasaki

• Kazuko Shirakawa

• Miki Sugimoto

• Izumi Suzuki

• Rumi Tama

• Naomi Tani

• Noriko Tatsumi

• Yumi Yoshiyuki

• Miki Takakura

•  Izumi Shima

Pink films

 * Flesh Market (Kobayashi, 1962)
 * Daydream (Tetsuji Takechi, 1964)
 * The Embryo Hunts In Secret (Koji Wakamatsu, 1966)
 * Violated Angels (Wakamatsu, 1967)
 * Inflatable Sex Doll of the Wastelands (Yamatoya, 1967)
 * Slave Widow (Noriko Tatsumi, 1967)
 * Go, Go Second Time Virgin (Wakamatsu, 1969)
 * Alleycat Rock: Female Boss (Yasuharu Hasebe, 1970)
 * Sexy Battle Girls (1986)
 * S&M Hunter (Shuji Kataoka, 1986), five-film series
 * Tokyo Decadence (Ryu Murakami, 1992)
 * The Glamorous Life of Sachiko Hanai (Meike, 2003)
 * Ambiguous (Ueno, 2003)
 * Uncle's Paradise (Imaoka, 2006)

Nikkatsu "Roman Porno"

 * Apartment Wife: Affair In the Afternoon (Nishimura, 1971)
 * Ichijo's Wet Desire (Kumashiro, 1972)
 * Flower and Snake (Konuma, 1974)
 * Wife to be Sacrificed (Konuma, 1974)
 * A Woman Called Sada Abe (Tanaka, 1975)
 * Cloistered Nun: Runa's Confession (Konuma, 1976)
 * Watcher in the Attic (Tanaka, 1976)
 * Fairy in a Cage (Kōyū Ohara, 1977)
 * Rope Hell (Ohara, 1978)
 * Rope Cosmetology (Nishimura, 1978)
 * Angel Guts (A series of six films, 1978–1994)
 * Woman with Red Hair (Kumashiro, 1979)
 * Star of David: Beautiful Girl Hunter (Norifumi Suzuki, 1979)

Toei "Pinky violence"

 * Shogun's Joys of Torture (Teruo Ishii, 1968)
 * Female Prisoner #701: Scorpion (Itō, 1972)
 * Girl Boss Guerilla (Norifumi Suzuki, 1972)
 * Terrifying Girls' High School: Lynch Law Classroom (Norifumi Suzuki, 1973)
 * Sex & Fury (Norifumi Suzuki, 1973)
 * Female Yakuza Tale: Inquisition and Torture (Teruo Ishii, 1973)
 * School of the Holy Beast (Norifumi Suzuki, 1974)
 * Zero Woman: Red Handcuffs (Yukio Noda, 1974)
 * Deep Throat in Tokyo (Mukai, 1975)

Awards
Outstanding pink films and their actors and directors have been given awards both from the adult entertainment industry and from the mainstream film community. The following is a partial listing.

Hochi Film Award
Mainstream film award. 1979
 * Best Actress—Junko Miyashita for The Woman with Red Hair'

Kinema Junpo awards
Cinema bi-weekly journal film award. 1969 1972
 * Best Independent Film—Shinya Yamamoto for Spring of Ecstasy (1968)
 * Best Director and Best Scriptwriter—Tatsumi Kumashiro for Ichijo's Wet Lust

Nikkatsu awards
Nikkatsu studio's in-house awards. 1985 1987
 * Best Film—Shinji Somai for Love Hotel
 * Best Film—Junichi Suzuki for Angel Guts: Red Rope – "Until I Expire"

Ona-Pet Award
Tabloid magazine award for "the girl you think of while masturbating". The other yearly award was given for the "Tsuma No Mibun", or "girl you would like to marry." 1976
 * Terumi Azuma

Pink Grand Prix
Hosted every April by PG magazine. Currently the major pink film award ceremony. Founded 1989, covers 1988–present.
 * See: Pink Grand Prix

Pinky Ribbon Awards
Annual award held by the Kansai region Pink Link magazine. 2004–present.
 * See: Pinky Ribbon Awards

Yokohama Film Festival
Mainstream film festival awards. 1985
 * Best New Director Shūsuke Kaneko for Kōichirō Uno's Wet and Swinging, OL yurizoku 19 sai and Eve-chan-no hime

Zoom-Up Awards
The Zoom-Up Film Festival (ズームアップ映画祭) pink film awards began in 1980 for movies released in the previous year. The awards continued to at least 1994. Since no listing of the awards seems to be presently available, the following scattered references are what items can be gleaned from the web.

1st Zoom-Up Awards (1980)
 * Best Film—Virgin Rope Makeover (少女縄化粧) directed by Mamoru Watanabe for Shintōhō Eiga
 * Best Actress—Mayuko Hino
 * Best Supporting Actor—Masayoshi Nogami
 * Best Supporting Actress—Naomi Oka
 * Best Director—Mamoru Watanabe

2nd Zoom-Up Awards (1981)
 * Best Supporting Actress—Cecile Goda
 * Best Director—Genji Nakamura

3rd Zoom-Up Awards (1982)
 * Best Actor—Shirō Shimomoto
 * Best Supporting Actor—Hiroshi Imaizumi
 * Best Supporting Actress—Kayoko Sugi
 * Best Director—Banmei Takahashi

5th Zoom-Up Awards (1984)
 * Best Supporting Actor—Makoto Yoshino
 * Best Director—Yōjirō Takita

6th Zoom-Up Awards (1985)

– Held in Shinjuku, Tokyo in May 1985.
 * Best Actor—Tōru Nakane
 * Best Director—Yōjirō Takita

7th Zoom-Up Awards (1986)
 * Best Actor—Tōru Nakane

8th Zoom-Up Awards (1987)
 * Best Actor—Shirō Shimomoto
 * Best Actress—Kyōko Hashimoto
 * Best Supporting Actor—Yutaka Ikejima
 * Best Director—Motusuga Watanabe

9th Zoom-Up Awards (1988)
 * Best Actress—Kaori Hasegawa
 * Best Supporting Actor—Kinkichi Ishibe
 * Best Director—Hitoshi Ishikawa
 * Best New Director—Daisuke Goto

title: Pink film


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Hi, you should put your articles in categories or no one will ever see them. On your caravan training article, it never says what kind of training is involved. Sales? Mechanical? THB 18:57, 24 February 2006 (UTC)

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Fondmetal

Fondmetal S.p.A. is an Italian manufacturer of alloy wheels, founded in 1972 by Gabriele Rumi.

A Formula One constructor of the same name, also owned by Rumi, competed in the and  seasons, scoring no championship points. The company also sponsored, and supplied wheels to, numerous other constructors from the mid-1980s to the early 2000s.

In 2014 the Fondmetal brand expanded to the United States and became known as Fondmetal USA. All wheels continue to be made in Italy and are TUV approved.

Early years
In 1961, Gabriele Rumi took over the iron foundry business that had been established by his grandfather in Brescia. A motor racing enthusiast, the business allowed him to compete in hillclimbs and in the Formula Monza category during the 1960s.

Rumi had a passion for cars and racing and saw a demand for the manufacturing of parts for the automobile industry. In Palosco they made induction manifolds, water conduits, clutch bellhousing, oil pumps, cylinder heads and engine blocks for clients such as Maserati Biturbo, Fiat, Iveco, OM and Magneti Marelli.

For Rumi this was not enough. He found himself too reliant on his customers in a sensitive time period following the oil crisis. This led him to the courageous decision of launching his own product line in 1972.

The choice of product was alloy wheels, due to his involvement and passion for the automobile industry. From there the Fondmetal brand grew, and was established as a leader in forged and cost wheel design, engineering and manufacturing in Italy.

Fondmetal first appeared in Formula One in 1983 as a sponsor for Italian driver Piercarlo Ghinzani. In the mid-1980s, the company supplied wheels to Williams, Tyrrell and Ligier, while continuing to sponsor Ghinzani and, later, the Osella team. In 1989, Fondmetal became Osella's major sponsor, and by 1990 Rumi had become the team's majority shareholder. At the end of that year, he decided to take over the whole operation.

Team Fondmetal
Rumi transferred the team from Volpiano near Turin to his headquarters in Bergamo and ran it for one and a half years on his own. He initially persevered with Osella's driver, Olivier Grouillard, until he tired of the Frenchman's reckless side and attitude problem, replacing him with Gabriele Tarquini. The new team was no more successful than in the Osella days, sometimes the results being even worse than those of its fellow back row contenders Coloni or AGS.

1991
For the 1991 Formula One season, Osella Squadra Corse was gone; the team re-appeared as Fondmetal Corse. Initially, Fondmetal entered the FA1M-E car which was a mere carry-over from the previous year (and, in fact, from 1989 as Osella had not been able to construct a new car in 1990). Driven by Olivier Grouillard, the blue and grey coloured machine was uncompetitive by any means. Although Fondmetal was able to use Cosworth engines prepared by Brian Hart for the previous years' Tyrrell, even Pedro Chaves in his Coloni was ahead of the Fondmetal car. In that hostile atmosphere, pre-qualification turned out to be impossible. But Rumi had high hopes for the European season. By the San Marino Grand Prix, a new car appeared, called the Fomet-1. It was conceived by a newly founded think-tank in the UK called Fomet. The Bicester-based design office was headed by Tino Belli and founded by Rumi who thought that British input was necessary for gaining success. The Fomet-1 featured new aerodynamics, a new suspension and some other improvements, but apart from this, the new car obviously preserved its Osella roots. Finally, things improved a little, but not significantly. With the new car, Grouillard managed to be faster than the Coloni machine, but that does not mean that Fondmetal was able to pass pre-qualifying regularly. Only a handful of race participations were possible, but results were poor, although Grouillard did qualify 10th for the 1991 Mexican Grand Prix, ahead of Andrea de Cesaris in the Jordan, who eventually finished 4th. In the end, Grouillard was replaced by former AGS man Gabriele Tarquini who finished twice (from three attempts), although he also failed to pre-qualify once; but no points were scored in the end.

1992
At the end of 1991, the British subsidiary Fomet was sold. Its designers had been working on a new Formula One car since the previous summer. Tino Belli sold the designs of the new car to the Larrousse Formula One team which left Fondmetal without a new car for the next season. In late December 1991 Gabriele Rumi commissioned Sergio Rinland from Astauto to design a new car. It was not ready for the start of the season, so the team used the previous year's car for the first few races. The car received a Ford HB V8 engine (from the previous year's Benetton) to replace the Lamborghini V12 or the Judd V10 that Rumi had preferred. The engine and the chassis did not go together well. There were some cooling troubles, and reliability was poor. The team appeared with two drivers, Tarquini, the other one being the Swiss debutant Andrea Chiesa. Tarquini showed speed, but the car broke down frequently.

In late spring Rinland's new chassis was ready to race. The GR02 had nothing in common with former years' Osellas and Fondmetals. The roots of its design dated back to late 1991 when he was working for the Brabham team on the Brabham BT61 that never saw the light of day. Elements of its design were carried over to the 1992 Fondmetal. Its drivers found it an improvement over the GRß1, but it had disappointing race results, with minor problems often stopping the cars after they qualified well. The team was poorly funded so tests were few and development was slow. Finishes were rare. Tarquini often qualified his car relatively high in the order, and at the Belgian Grand Prix put in Fondmetal's best qualifying performance of the season to qualify 11th. Chiesa often failed to qualify, and was replaced by Eric van de Poele for the Hungarian Grand Prix.

While van de Poele proved competitive, he spun off on the third lap in Hungary, losing the Italian team's last good chance of a points finish. Tarquini had already collided with Herbert's Lotus and with the Ligiers of Boutsen and Comas in the first lap.

Only two races later after the Italian Grand Prix in September 1992, the team withdrew from the championship for financial reasons, having scored a pair of 10th places, although Tarquini managed to qualify for all thirteen races in which the team participated in 1992 and Chiesa (in ten attempts) and van de Poele (in only three) qualified three times each.

The team's mounting debt coincided with a global recession. Rumi contemplated racing Giuseppe Bugatti as a pay-driver in order to get through the 1992 Portuguese Grand Prix, but decided instead to close his team.

Forti Corse
During 1992 Sergio Rinland and his Astauto team started to work on a 1993 F1 car in the hope that Fondmetal would carry on. That was not the case, since the contract was cancelled by Fondmetal in September 1992, well before the end of the season due to lack of funds. The design of that car was finished in early 1993. A year later, Rinland sold that design to Guido Forti who started running a Formula One team called Forti by 1995. The team's FG01 chassis still had several similarities to the, by then three year-old, 1992 Fondmetal GR02.

Tyrrell and Minardi

Rumi would return to Formula One in a more modest capacity in 1994, with Fondmetal as a technical partner and sponsor of Tyrrell, and for 1996 Minardi. Fondmetal's wind tunnel in Northern Italy was leased to Tyrrell, Minardi and other teams. Rumi would gradually increase his interest in the Faenza outfit, becoming co-owner and chairman, even going as far as rebadging the Ford Zetec-R engines in 2000. However, Rumi was diagnosed with cancer, and was forced to withdraw his backing later that year when the team was sold to Paul Stoddart. Rumi eventually died in May 2001. Fondmetal is still in operation as a wheel manufacturer.

Complete Formula One results
(key)

title: Fondmetal


text:
User:GeoffPurchase

Originally I was keeping a record of all edits I have made to pages, but I have decided to only keep a list of original articles I have written. If you wish to see a complete list of all my contributions click the "User contributions" link, probably to the left of this text somewhere.

Original Articles

 * Audience analysis
 * AuthorIT
 * Technical communication tools
 * Technical communication (Forums)
 * Technical communication (Associations)

title: User:GeoffPurchase


text:
User talk:BlueShadow

Hi Gareth! - Paul Weaver 12:42, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:BlueShadow


text:
Motori Moderni

Motori Moderni (Modern Engines) was a Formula One engine manufacturer from 1985 through 1987. It was established in Novara by Italian engine designer Carlo Chiti.

Chiti, a former Ferrari, Automobili Turismo e Sport and Alfa Romeo Formula One chief designer, founded Motori Moderni with the idea of supplying custom turbocharged V6 engines, also known as Tipo 615-90, to Formula One teams. The engines were used by Minardi in Formula One from to  and by AGS in.

1985
Motori Moderni's power unit debuted at the 1985 San Marino Grand Prix with the newly-born Minardi Formula One team. Rookie Pierluigi Martini qualified the M185 19th on the grid but was forced to retire after 14 laps. Martini failed to score a point in 1985 with a best finish of 8th and last in the season ending Australian Grand Prix. The Motori Moderni engine produced 720 bhp. This compared unfavourably to the approximately 1000 bhp of the Renault, Honda and BMW turbo engines, and the 900 bhp of the TAG-Porsche and Ferrari engines. At Silverstone for the British Grand Prix, Martini was 8.054 seconds slower than Keke Rosberg's pole winning Williams-Honda (Rosberg had set the pole at an average of 160.9 mph (258.9 km/h), the fastest ever turbo lap speed). At the Österreichring in Austria he was 11.2 seconds slower than Alain Prost's McLaren TAG-Porsche, while at Monza in Italy he was 8.8 seconds slower than Ayrton Senna's Lotus-Renault.

1986
In 1986, as the Minardi team expanded to running two cars, Martini was replaced with Andrea de Cesaris, and paired with F1 rookie Alessandro Nannini, who showed his class by often out pacing his more experienced countryman. Again, no points were scored with the Motori Moderni engines rated at approximately 780 bhp next to the leading Honda, BMW, Ferrari, Renault and TAG-Porsche units which were producing well over 950 bhp in race trim (the BMW was said to be the most powerful qualifying engine at around 1400 bhp).

The AGS team was Motori Moderni's second customer. The team only participated in two races during the 1986 season, with Ivan Capelli retiring from both the Italian and Portuguese Grands Prix.

1987
1987 would be the last season the Motori Moderni engine would be used in Formula One. Minardi, who had retained Nannini after an impressive debut season, replaced de Cesaris (who had moved to Brabham) with Spanish driver Adrián Campos. Once more no points were scored throughout the season, despite some spirited drives by Nannini which only resulted in 11th-placed finishes in Hungary and Portugal. The engines, now rated at 800 bhp after the introduction of the FIA's mandatory pop-off valve aimed at limiting the turbos power to 4.0 bar, were often struggling against the 575 bhp V8 Cosworth DFZ powered cars.

At the 1987 Australian Grand Prix in Adelaide, Nannini qualified an impressive 13th on the grid only 3.434 behind Gerhard Berger's pole winning Ferrari. Unfortunately his race only lasted a few hundred metres as he was pushed into the fence just out of the chicane after the start. Campos qualified 26th and last (3.42 seconds slower than Nannini), with his race ending with transmission failure after 46 of the scheduled 82 laps.

With being the final year for the turbos in Formula One (until ), Motori Moderni pulled out of the sport at the end of 1987 rather than try to adapt the engine for an even lower pop-off valve limit of 2.5 bar and a lower fuel limit of just 150 litres. As a result Minardi switched to the Cosworth DFZ engine in 1988.

Subaru
In late 1988 Chiti was commissioned by Subaru to design a new 12-cylinder boxer engine, known as the 1235 for the new 3.5-litre normally aspirated F1 regulations. This was tested by Minardi. The Japanese car company then bought the Coloni team but withdrew and sold the team back to Enzo Coloni at the end of the season. The engine was later adopted in the 1989 Jiotto Caspita prototype sports car before it was used by Subaru for the 1990 season.

Sportscar racing
After abandoning Formula One, the flat-12 engines were deployed in the Alba Racing Team's AR20 entry in the 1990 World Sportscar Championship, but failed to start any rounds before being replaced by a more conventional 4.5-litre engine from Buick.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (results in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap) $†$ — Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.

title: Motori Moderni


text:
Talk:Rover P6

Copyvio
This article is full of POV and non-encyclopedic language. Would need to be heavily re-written. — Asbestos | Talk 12:44, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Actually, take that back. It's merely copyvio from the company's website. — Asbestos | Talk 12:49, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * FYI, the above comment applies to the former content of this page, which was deleted as copyvio. The current (from April 16, 2005) is brand new and not copyvio.  --SFoskett 14:51, Apr 17, 2005 (UTC)

NADA Cars
Is it just me, or do some of these cars appear, in a modified form, in the film Gattaca? Douglasnicol 18:40, 4 March 2006 (UTC)

Yes they do appear in Gattaca. The police cars are American spec (NADA)V8 versions that among others things had their exhaust shortened so it would not show and the sound of the V8 was overdubbed with a kind of electric motor sound to make they sound more futuristic.

 * I thought so, they don't appear for more than a few seconds, but the P6 has a rather distinctive look. Douglasnicol 22:27, 23 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I was going to add a NADA section to the article. Gattaca was on TV last night, funnily enough I turned over just as one was onscreen. There's a different bonnet to the car, it has three air intakes which make it fairly distinctive and bumper overriders. There are some other internal changes I must look up next time I'm back home with my magazine collection Alastairward 09:57, 11 September 2006 (UTC)

Last P6
I have added a few bits to these P6 pages as I own the last P6 off the production line and have done quite extensive research, however I am still looking for lots more info about my car. The white estate/ estoura was mine up until a couple of weeks ago also. Roverp6man 07:48, 8 july 2006

Fair use rationale for Image:P6cray 02.jpg
Image:P6cray 02.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 15:05, 8 March 2008 (UTC)

5 cylinder version
I've a number of P6 owner magazines and there's something interesting in there. Rover done some R+D on a 5-cylinder engine, by welding two 4 cyliner engines together. The idea was abandoned when the 3500 cc engine came along.

Also, not sure if it's mentioned in the article, but some models had air conditioning. In which case the fuel pump was changed to an electric one, which went to the back of the car, near the tank. A great car was the P6. It had plenty of character, unlike the cars of today which all look so similar as they are designed by computer to be fuel efficient. Drkirkby (talk) 22:34, 17 October 2011 (UTC)

Death of Grace Kelly
Does #Death of Grace Kelly really deserve a subheading? From the content here, the reason for the crash was a stroke rather than a mechanical fault. I've tagged it Undue-section. -- Trevj (talk) 11:16, 20 June 2012 (UTC)

Good point, and I agree. To me it seems disproportionate to devote so much space on the main article to the death of princess Grace. The P6 was in existance for over a decade with a large production volume do we list all those who might have been unfortunate enough to die driving one? Or does just being famous warrant inclusion? Currently the Wiki page on the Rover SD1 (successor to the P6) does not record that great British motocycling World Champion Mike Hailwood died in an SD1. Yet Mike's own page mentions the SD1. Perhaps the death of Grace Kelly and the fact that she was in a P6 when she died really belongs on her page. Furthermore the facts surrounding the accident which killed grace Kelly are far from proven fact. There are several theories as to the cause of the accident. It is inappropriate here to discuss the "common knowledge" of what really happened, but its readily available on the web. Nevertheless it is a proven fact that following the accident the Grimaldi family claimed the brakes failed on the Rover. Rover cars immediately set up an investigation team who were on route to Monaco when the Grimaldi's recanted. This was widely reported at the time. I personnaly feel the sad death of princess Grace and its sordid aftermath dosen't really belong on the mnain article. There are far better points of FACT and interest regarding the P6 for a start why not mention Gattaca? The the producers of this Science Fiction film were keen to project an extremely stylish futuristic look to the film and chose the P6 amongst others to represent cars of the future. A great achievment for a car designed in the early 1960s to appear as a car of the future in a film made nearly 40 years after its creation. Surely a more worthy mention than Grace Kelly? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.148.43.82 (talk) 23:27, 19 November 2012 (UTC)

I agree. I would prefer to remove the reference to Grace Kelly completely, as it has nothing to do with the car, which is what the article should be about. Alternatively, it could be cut down, and similar snippets added about various other notable people who owned a P6, most of whom did not have serious accidents, to keep it balanced. After all, the P6 did have a rather good safety record, compared to many cars of its era. Tiger99 (talk) 12:07, 4 December 2012 (UTC)

Side Lamp Tell-Tales
The purpose of these tell-tales was to monitor the operation of the side lamps, not to provide night-time corner markers as stated. The Rover P4 had used metal 'horns' with polished ball ends for the same purpose. This was a change to the original design of the P4 and a cheaper and more effective method was adopted for the 'clean sheet' design of the P6. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.137.58.249 (talk) 17:25, 14 October 2013 (UTC)

Buick V8 mods
Why was the Buick design modified and what were the modifications? Eddaido (talk) 04:02, 29 March 2016 (UTC)

Power Output
I'm confused. The article states the engine power output as:

2000SC - 104bhp

2000TC - 124bhp

but

2200SC - 98bhp

2200TC - 115bhp

Did the power really go down with the increase in engine size ?

LewisR (talk) 22:13, 25 July 2016 (UTC)

 * Yes, this is quite correct. Reason: "The change (to a larger engine) has been made mainly to meet exhaust emission requirements and to anticipate legislation on the use of low-lead petrol" other changes, quieter exhaust system, better sound insulation. TC will be the main export car. Likely to be last change to this car before replaced in BL five-year replacement programme.  Item: New Rover 2200 cars meet pollution requirements.  "The Times" 1 October 1973, page 4. Eddaido (talk) 00:44, 26 July 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rover P6


text:
Gordini

Gordini is a division of Renault Sport Technologies (Renault Sport). In the past, it was a sports car manufacturer and performance tuner, established in 1946 by Amédée Gordini (1899–1979), nicknamed "Le Sorcier" (The Sorcerer). Gordini became a division of Renault in 1968 and of Renault Sport in 1976.

History

Amédée Gordini tuned cars and competed in motor races since the 1930s. His results prompted Simca (the French assembler of Fiat) to hire him for its motorsport program and to develop road cars. Their association continued after World War II.

In 1946, Gordini introduced the first cars bearing his name, Fiat-engined single-seaters raced by him and José Scaron, achieving several victories. In the late 1940s, the company opened a workshop at the Boulevard Victor in Paris, entering sports car and Grand Prix races. Gordini and Simca started to diverge in 1951 because of political conflicts.

Gordini competed in Formula One from 1950 to 1956 (with a brief return in 1957 with an eight cylinder engine), although it achieved a major success in Formula Two during that period.

After its Formula One program ended, Gordini worked with Renault as an engine tuner, entering Renault-Gordini cars at the 24 Hours of Le Mans between 1962 and 1969. It also tuned engines for Alpine, a rival sports car manufacturer also associated with Renault. In 1957, Gordini and Renault manufactured the Dauphine Gordini, a modified version of the Renault Dauphine which was a sales success. Gordini-tuned Renault cars also won various rallies during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1963, the Gordini company planned to move its headquarters to Noisy-le-Roi. At the end of 1968, Amédée Gordini retired and sold a 70% majority stake from his firm to Renault. Renault-Gordini was moved to Viry-Châtillon in 1969 and became a sport division of Renault, before being merged with Alpine to form Renault Sport in 1976. On 1 January 1976, René Vuaillat became director of Gordini. The Gordini company name became wholly owned by Renault in 1977.

Renault sold Gordini-badged performance versions of models including the Renault 5, the Renault 8 the Renault 12 and the Renault 17.

In November 2009, Renault announced that it would be reviving the Gordini name for an exclusive line of hot hatches, in a similar fashion to Fiat's revival of its Abarth name. Modern models to bear the name include the Renault Twingo and the Renault Clio.

Models

 * Dauphine Gordini (1957–1967)
 * Renault 8 Gordini (1964–1970)
 * Renault 12 Gordini (1970–1974)
 * Renault 17 Gordini (1974–1978)
 * Renault 5 Gordini (1979-1985) UK market only, sold elsewhere as the Renault 5 Alpine
 * Clio Gordini RS (2010–present)
 * Twingo Gordini (2010–present)
 * Twingo Gordini RS (2010–present)
 * Wind Gordini (2011–2013)

Car colours
Since its early Renault models the most characteristic colour scheme of Gordini cars has been bleu de France (the French motor racing colour) with white stripes, although different combinations have been used over the years.

Formula One results
(key) († indicates shared drive)

title: Gordini


text:
User:Malcolmj~enwiki

My corner of the net: http://www.24track.net

title: User:Malcolmj~enwiki


text:
Talk:List of Israelis

Vaanunu
I reckon the dude belongs to the "criminals" section. He broke the Israeli law and paid time in prision for it. Spikeballs 12:44, Apr 2, 2005 (UTC)

And the guy is not a scientist. He was a technician. I had no idea this was such a charged topic. Maybe we should make a new category for him: Political Prisoners. I'm removing him from the scientists category in the mean time - but I'll leave him under political activists. Spikeballs 21:34, Apr 2, 2005 (UTC)
 * Nobody's replying so I'm moving him to the criminal category. If you disagree, don't just edit it (to avoid edit wars). Please consult here first. Spikeballs 19:37, Apr 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * And again. Don't start an edit war please. Spikeballs 12:02, May 11, 2005 (UTC)

Infamous?
The "Infamous" category is non-neutral in essense. Unless somebody objects, I'll rename this category to "Other." Maybe even put those categorized there under "Activists."

You are right! I believe these can definately be categorized as criminals, probably also as terrorists. In order not to make this category too narrow (the other categories aren't either), I have opted for the former definition. gidonb 19:02, 29 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Criteria for inclusion?
Recent edits have shown that there is no clear consensus as to who should be listed here as opposed to any of the sublists or sister articles (ie, Culture of Israel, List of Israeli politicians etc.) I suggest that we work these out, as opposed to reverting back and forth. One thing to keep in mind is that most of these articles have evolved independently, so that one might expect redundancy on the one hand and inconsistency in naming and other conventions on the other.

Here's what I suggest:

1.a. All the sublists should be merged into a single inclusive list, divided by subsections. The advantage of this would be to have a single, searchable document. More prominent individuals would be described (as opposed to listed) on relevant sister pages, such as Israeli literature, Israeli film etc.

OR

b.(the model I'm assuming Juko would suggest) List of Israelis should contain only certain prominent or particularly representative individuals, with links leading off to more inclusive/comprehensive sublists.

2. In either case, I suggest that articles that do not contain "list" in the title, should not consist of lists, but rather of general descriptive paragraphs with links to relevant existing lists. Hence, the place to list an anonymous film maker would be List of Israeli filmmakers as opposed to Israeli Film. Culture of Israel is NOT the proper place to list all Israelis.

I believe we should choose one of these models, and coordinate our editing efforts as opposed to working against each other. Plus, we should either make the lists inclusive, or lay down some actual guidlines for a more exclusive list. For instance, I personally don't feel that being born in Israel or having an Israeli parent is enough to qualify one as an Israeli artist - let alone a PROMINENT Israeli artist - if the entire of your creative work has been done outside of Israel (see Natalie Portman, Sacha Baron Cohen, Shiri Appleby, etc.) --Woggly 12:47, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * First, sorry to Woggly and 82.166.133.142. I think I probably got out of the wrong side of the bed this morning, which might explain (but not justify) the snappy reverts. You are correct in noting that the current situation is unclear and in suggesting that some consensus should be reached.

 * You are also correct in guessing that I would personally favour option 1b. As far as I can see, there are four ways of marking out nationality: in categories, in a general list, in specialized sublists, and in longer discursive articles. The last, in my opinion, is best (see comment later), but the first three all have their advantages:

 * Categories: for quick unannotated access to people with writeups on Wikipedia.
 * Main list: for an overview of key/representative individuals (mainly those with, or deserving of, a writeup) without the background noise of less prominent figures.
 * Specialized sublists: for comprehensive searchable references.

 * My fear is that merging everything into one list would reduce the usefulness of that list for simple browsing.

 * Regarding your other points, I agree completely about Culture of Israel, etc. Unfortunately, it is much easier to make lists than write encyclopedic entries, which probably explains the current situation. ( Furthermore, he.wikipedia.org doesn't seem to have a תרבות בישראל article yet that can be translated. Oops, browser failed to render ישראל article properly.)

 * Regarding Natalie Portman, etc., again you're probably right, though I suppose it depends on whether you view 'Israeli' as possessing some cultural identity beyond nationality. This is definitely true for strongly diasporic identities like Lebanese or Irish (hence it is not ridiculous to identify the Mexican Salma Hayek as half-Lebanese). How true it is for Israeliness is another question.

 * — Juko 15:13, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Sorry I don't have time now for a longer answer, but there actually is an article called תרבות ישראלית on the Hebrew wikipedia, which I believe was the origin for "Culture of Israel". But the Hebrew version wasn't much better, last time I looked at it. --Woggly 17:11, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Okay. Unless anyone else joins this discussion and raises an objection, I'm going to treat 1.b. as policy. But I still forsee problems deciding who is "Internationally Prominent". "Besame Mucho" directed by Joseph Pidchadze, was probably one of the important Israeli feature films of the year 2000, and "Shnat Effes" looks pretty serious - but this is apparantly not enough to make him "Internationally prominent"? Personally, I wouldn't want to add "Malka" Mayron, Omri Katz or Mayim Bialik - who all had Israeli parents - just because Americans have probably heard of Thirtysomething, Dallas and Blossom; but I do feel that Keren Mor and Moni Moshonov, deserve a place, even though most Americans have never seen anything they've been in. "Internationally prominent" is a prolematic criterion. --Woggly 20:34, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * How about just "prominent" then, allowing people to use whatever criteria seem relevant for the particular field? There will still be no 'right' answer, but that's inevitable for this type of list. (Regarding the not-really-Israeli people such as Bialik or Baron Cohen, they could be removed, or even put in a separate section.) Juko 00:07, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Listed?
please add to the list or answer me.

 * M. Ben-Ari
 * Hugo Bergmann
 * Mane-Katz
 * Oedoen Partos
 * Rivka Golani
 * Julius Guttmann
 * Abraham Z. Joffe
 * Abraham Even-Shoshan
 * Leonid Polterovich
 * Joseph Raz
 * Jehuda Reinharz
 * Hayim Tadmor
 * Shmuel Eisenstadt
 * Felix Weltsch
 * Yehoshua Leib Diskin

 * medieval people
 * Hayyim ben Joseph Vital
 * Bezalel Ashkenazi
 * Moshe Alshich
 * Adin Steinsaltz
 * Abraham Sternhartz
 * Cordovero
 * Alqabitz
 * http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=23&letter=H

 * ancient
 * Sextus Africanus (from Jerusalem) 2 c. Christian

 * --Sheynhertz-Unbayg 06:10, 31 July 2005 (UTC)

Who is an Israeli?
I'm removing Hayyim Nahman Bialik from the list, since he died 14 years prior to the founding of the State of Israel. If criteria is not limited to people who actually held Israeli citizenship, then it would set a bad precedent. This does not only concern Israel, but also pre-1947 Pakistanis and pre-1971 Bangladeshis. --Soman (talk) 12:40, 14 July 2008 (UTC)

Removal of Redlinks
I just removed a whole bunch of people who were redlinked. Per WP:NOT, Wikipedia is not a directory or an indiscriminate list of information. We need some sort of criteria to determine who should be listed. The easiest and most straightforward criteria is 1) has own Wikipedia page or 2) has a reliable citation asserting notability. So, I pulled out anyone who didn't meet one of those two. Qwyrxian (talk) 11:07, 15 August 2010 (UTC)

Proposal: Removing sub-lists that have their own page
Generally speaking lists should be duplicated on multiple pages. So, I propose that for those subsections that have their own page (like List of Israeli musicians) that we completely remove the list here, and change the "see also" to a "main" link. This way the lists are all consistent, they only need to be edited in one place, and there is no unnecessary duplication. Anyone else want to weigh in? Qwyrxian (talk) 11:07, 15 August 2010 (UTC)
 * I agree, although in that case some more lists should be created so that all major categories have a list. Otherwise there will be a serious undue weight problem (undue weight is not limited to prose). —Ynhockey (Talk) 18:38, 15 August 2010 (UTC)
 * OK. I added to the politicians & musicians. More work still needs to be done. -- -- -- 22:46, 27 May 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 8 external links on List of Israelis. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081011221504/http://www.sport5.co.il/articles.aspx?FolderID=64&docID=8505&lang=he to http://www.sport5.co.il/articles.aspx?FolderID=64&docID=8505&lang=he
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120509193529/http://www.umterps.com/sports/w-baskbl/spec-rel/051007aaa.html to http://www.umterps.com/sports/w-baskbl/spec-rel/051007aaa.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100610102513/http://www.thegreatrabbino.com/2009_11_01_archive.html to http://www.thegreatrabbino.com/2009_11_01_archive.html
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Entertainment?
Why are poets, authors and artists under entertainment? This should be titles "Arts". Musicians and actors are also artists. TMagen (talk) 14:12, 19 March 2019 (UTC)

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The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 17:22, 25 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Chanoch Nissany and Eddie Jordan.jpg

title: Talk:List of Israelis


text:
User:Arenhaus

Eugene Arenhaus lives in Haifa, does computer programming, illustration and art, literary criticism, and many other unrelated things.

Home page: Chiseled Rocks

title: User:Arenhaus


text:
Cohomology operation

In mathematics, the cohomology operation concept became central to algebraic topology, particularly homotopy theory, from the 1950s onwards, in the shape of the simple definition that if F is a functor defining a cohomology theory, then a cohomology operation should be a natural transformation from F to itself. Throughout there have been two basic points:

 * 1) the operations can be studied by combinatorial means; and
 * 2) the effect of the operations is to yield an interesting bicommutant theory.

The origin of these studies was the work of Pontryagin, Postnikov, and Norman Steenrod, who first defined the Pontryagin square, Postnikov square, and Steenrod square operations for singular cohomology, in the case of mod 2 coefficients. The combinatorial aspect there arises as a formulation of the failure of a natural diagonal map, at cochain level. The general theory of the Steenrod algebra of operations has been brought into close relation with that of the symmetric group.

In the Adams spectral sequence the bicommutant aspect is implicit in the use of Ext functors, the derived functors of Hom-functors; if there is a bicommutant aspect, taken over the Steenrod algebra acting, it is only at a derived level. The convergence is to groups in stable homotopy theory, about which information is hard to come by. This connection established the deep interest of the cohomology operations for homotopy theory, and has been a research topic ever since. An extraordinary cohomology theory has its own cohomology operations, and these may exhibit a richer set on constraints.

Formal definition
A cohomology operation $$\theta$$ of type

 * $$(n,q,\pi,G)\,$$

is a natural transformation of functors

 * $$\theta:H^{n}(-,\pi)\to H^{q}(-,G)\,$$

defined on CW complexes.

Relation to Eilenberg–MacLane spaces
Cohomology of CW complexes is representable by an Eilenberg–MacLane space, so by the Yoneda lemma a cohomology operation of type $$(n,q,\pi,G)$$ is given by a homotopy class of maps $$K(\pi,n) \to K(G,q)$$. Using representability once again, the cohomology operation is given by an element of $$H^{q}(K(\pi,n),G)$$.

Symbolically, letting $$[A,B]$$ denote the set of homotopy classes of maps from $$A$$ to $$B$$,

 * $$\begin{align}\displaystyle\mathrm{Nat}(H^n(-,\pi),H^q(-,G)) &= \mathrm{Nat}([-,K(\pi,n)],[-,K(G,q)])\\ &= [K(\pi,n),K(G,q)]\\ &= H^q(K(\pi,n);G).\end{align}$$

title: Cohomology operation


text:
User:Garzo/monobook.css

body {font-family: 'Myriad Pro';}

p, li, ul, ol, dl {font-family: 'Minion Pro'; font-size: 12pt;}

title: User:Garzo/monobook.css


text:
Repco

Repco is an Australian automotive engineering/retailer company. Its name is an abbreviation of Replacement Parts Company and was for many years known for reconditioning engines and for specialised manufacturing, for which it gained a high reputation. It is now best known as a retailer of spare parts and motor accessories.

The company gained fame for developing the engines that powered the Brabham Formula One cars in which Jack Brabham and Denny Hulme won the 1966 and 1967 World Championship of Drivers titles. Brabham-Repco was awarded the International Cup for F1 Manufacturers in the same two years.

Repco currently runs a series of stores across Australia and New Zealand specialising in the sale of parts and aftermarket accessories.

History
Repco was founded by Geoff Russell in 1922 and first traded under the name Automotive Grinding Company, from premises in Collingwood, Victoria.

Repco was listed on the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX) in 1937. It was acquired by Pacific Dunlop in 1988 and delisted.

In September 2001 Repco was purchased by a private equity consortium, before again becoming a listed company, this time as a dual listed company on the ASX and New Zealand Exchange. Following acquisition of all shares by CCMP Capital in December 2006, Repco was again delisted. On 1 July 2013, Repco and the entire Exego group (consisting of Ashdown-Ingram, Mcleod Accessories and Motospecs) were acquired by Genuine Parts Company.

Sponsorships
Since 2021, the company has held the naming rights to the Bathurst 1000 and Supercars Championship. It previously sponsored Garry Rogers Motorsport and Dick Johnson Racing and the 1979 Round Australia Trial. In 2024, Repco became the title sponsor of the D1NZ National Drifting Championship, a sanctioned championship under Motorsport New Zealand, the official FIA appointed governing body of motor-racing in New Zealand.

Repco V8 engine
In 1964 the Australian/New Zealand Tasman Series was created with a 2,500 cc capacity limit applied to engines. Jack Brabham approached Repco to develop a suitable engine, and together they decided to base the SOHC design on Oldsmobile Jetfire 215 ci block with six cylinder-head studs per cylinder. Combined with a short stroke flat-plane crankshaft, Repco designed cylinder heads, camshafts and two-stage chain/gear cam drive, a 2.5 L engine was built in 1965 with its cylinder head cast by Commonwealth Aircraft.

In 1963 the international motor racing body, the FIA, announced that the maximum engine capacity for the Formula One category would be doubled to three litres to start from the 1966 season. Despite calls for a "return to power" having been made, few teams were prepared as the main engine supplier in the UK, Coventry Climax, decided to get out of race engine building.

Jack Brabham used his friendship with engineer Phil Irving at Repco. He proposed they design and build a 3 L version of the 2.5 L engine by using a longer stroke flat-plane crankshaft.

The Repco board agreed to his proposal in light of the expected rival 2.75 L Coventry Climax FPF DOHC engine being of four-cylinder configuration deemed to be near-obsolete, and the plan to build the Cosworth DFV (revealed at the end of 1965 by Ford, its sponsor) was not known yet. A small team at Repco under Phil Irving developed the F1 engine, fitted with two valves per cylinder SOHC heads from the 2.5L version.

The first advantage of this Repco 620 V8 was its compact size and lightness, which allowed it to be bolted into an existing 1.5-litre Formula One chassis. With no more than 310 bhp, the Repco was by far the least powerful of the new 3-litre engines, but unlike the others it was frugal, light and compact. Also unlike the others, it was reliable and due to low weight and power, the strain on chassis, suspension, brakes and tyres was low.

This engine being based on British/American Rover V8/Buick 215 block is a common misconception. The Oldsmobile version of this engine, although sharing the same basic architecture, had cylinder heads and angled valve covers designed by Oldsmobile engineers to look like a traditional Olds V8 and was produced on a separate assembly line. Oldsmobile's intention to produce a higher-powered, turbo-charged Jetfire version led to significant differences from the Buick 215, primarily in cylinder head design: Buick used a 5-bolt pattern around each cylinder where Oldsmobile used a 6-bolt pattern. The sixth bolt was added to the intake manifold side of the head, one extra bolt for each cylinder, meant to alleviate a head-warping problem on high-compression versions. This meant that Buick heads would fit on Oldsmobile blocks, but not vice versa. Changing the compression ratio on an Oldsmobile 215 required changing the heads, but on a Buick 215, only the pistons, which was less expensive and simpler. General Motors later use of parts diagrams drawn for Oldsmobile in Buick parts catalogue showing a six-stud cylinder block sowed further confusion. Later Rover versions of the aluminum block and subsequent Buick iron small blocks went to a 4-bolt-per-cylinder pattern.

Four world titles for the single-camshaft 16-valve
In 1966, the Repco engine was good enough to score three poles for Jack Brabham. In his one-off BT19, it helped him get four consecutive wins and both titles in the nine-race-long season, a unique accomplishment for a driver and constructor. This was his third title.

The 2,995.58 cc V8 Repco had a bore and stroke of 3.50 × 2.375" (88.9 × 60.3 mm). Initially it gave about 285 bhp. A test-bed figure of 315 bhp at 7,800 rpm with 230 lbft torque at 6,500 rpm was obtained. In race trim, about 299 bhp was available. In 1967, the bore and stroke remained unaltered. In that year, 330 bhp bhp at 8,500 rpm was often quoted. A test-bed figure of 327 bhp at 8,300 rpm was recorded. For 1968, a 32-valve version with 400 bhp at 9,500 rpm was planned. Only about 380 bhp at 9,000 rpm was achieved.

In 1967 the competition had made progress. Repco produced a new version of the engine, the 700 series, this time with a Repco designed block. Brabham scored two poles early in the year, but then the new Ford Cosworth DFV V8 appeared in the Lotus 49, setting a new pace with its 410 hp at 9,000 rpm, with Jim Clark and Graham Hill taking all poles in the rest of the season. As the Lotus was still fragile, the Brabham drivers scored two wins each. Brabham used new parts on his cars, which was not always helpful, so Denis Hulme collected more results and the title, followed by Brabham himself, who again won the constructors' title.

The double-camshaft 32-valve
The new Ford engine, which was made available to other teams in 1968 also, convinced Brabham that more power was needed. With hindsight Brabham commented that the single cam motor's reliability may have been enough to supplant the more powerful Cosworths as late as the 1968 season. A new version of the Repco V8, with gear-driven double-overhead camshafts and four valves per cylinder, was produced for 1968 to maintain its competitiveness. A figure of 400 bhp at 9,500 rpm was targeted but only about 380 bhp at 9,000 rpm was achieved. The season was a disaster as it proved very unreliable due to insurmountable valve gear unreliability. There was also a 4.2-litre derivative for the Indianapolis 500. Jochen Rindt, who had moved to Brabham at the wrong time, managed to score two poles and two podiums that year, while Brabham himself collected only two points. The Repco project had always been hindered by the lengthy lines of communication between the UK and Australia, which made correcting problems very difficult. Repco, having spent far more money than originally envisaged and having sold very few customer versions of its engine, stopped the project.

For 1969, the works Brabham team and most of the private Brabham entries also used the ubiquitous Cosworth powerplant. A pair of older Brabham-Repcos were entered in the season opening 1969 South African Grand Prix by local drivers Sam Tingle and Peter de Klerk, but no points were scored on the engine marque's last appearance in the world championship.

Also, LDS fitted with Repcos were used in the South African Grand Prix in the late 1960s, as well as in the national F1 series there.

Other racing
Repco had been involved in Australian motor racing many years prior to the association with Brabham. Most famous had been development of the engine of the series of Maybach Specials in the 1950s to various wins including the 1954 New Zealand Grand Prix.

The Brabham-Repco project was initially aimed at the Tasman Series, where Coventry-Climax's obsolete FPF four-cylinder engine was dominant in the mid-1960s. The 2.5-litre version of the Repco V8 was never very successful in this series, initially producing no more power than the FPF. It did, however, record one Tasman Series round win with Jack Brabham driving his Repco powered Brabham BT23A to victory in the 1967 South Pacific Trophy at the Longford Circuit in Tasmania.

Brabham-Repco's were also prepared and entered in the 1968 and 1969 Indianapolis 500. In 1969, Peter Revson finished fifth in such a car. He also won a USAC race in the same year.

Further versions of the V8 engine were produced, including a 4.3-litre variant for sports car racing and a turbo-charged version intended for United States Automobile Club races. Neither version met with any international success, the turbo in particular being labelled 'Puff the Tragic Wagon' by its development team due to its lack of horsepower (compared with "Puff, the Magic Dragon").

The sports car engine (increased in size to 5.0 litres) was, however, dominant domestically, powering cars to several wins in the Australian Sports Car Championship and its predecessor the Australian Tourist Trophy, most notably powering the Matich sports cars built and raced by Frank Matich, and Elfin Sports Cars built and raced by Garrie Cooper.

Repco Brabham racing cars
When Jack Brabham began building racing cars in England he named his cars Repco Brabhams, the result of a sponsorship deal between Brabham and Repco. This name was applied regardless of the engine used, and the arrangement existed through to the end of the 1960s. The agreement saw Repco's international marketing of its automotive parts and service equipment supported by Brabham's racing achievements.

Repco-Holden Formula 5000 engine
Repco also developed and built the Repco-Holden Formula 5000 engine for Formula 5000 racing. Repco used the block and head castings of the Holden 308 V8 engine as its basis, but it featured many modifications including Lucas fuel injection, dual-coil Bosch ignition and more than 150 special components designed by Repco. The engine first tasted success in the 1970 Australian Grand Prix that was won by Frank Matich driving a Repco-Holden powered McLaren M10B.

The engine was then used extensively in racing vehicles including cars competing in the Tasman Series, the Australian Drivers' Championship, the Australian Sports Car Championship and the Australian Sports Sedan Championship.

By 1976, power for the 5.0 L Repco-Holden V8 was rated at approximately 500 bhp. This compared to approximately 520 bhp for the other main engine in the Australian Formula 5000 and Sports Sedans categories, the 5.0 L Chevrolet V8.

Due to the success of the Repco-Holden V8, Holden enlisted Repco to carry out the development work (on the dynamometer only, according to Holden Dealer Team boss Harry Firth) on Holden's 308 engine for its Torana SL/R 5000 that was released in 1974. Firth believed that developing the engine on the dyno and not on the race track saw continual problems for the engine such as oil surge—especially in touring car racing. He also claimed to have already cured the oil problems while developing the still-born Torana GTR XU-1 V8 in 1972 and that Holden ignored his warnings about the Repco engine.

The list of Repco-Holden's Formula 5000 engine race, championship and series wins includes:

Australian Grand Prix
 * 1970 – Frank Matich, McLaren M10B
 * 1971 – Frank Matich, Matich A50
 * 1976 – John Goss, Matich A53

Australian Drivers' Championship
 * 1972 – Frank Matich, Matich A50
 * 1973 – John McCormack, Elfin MR5
 * 1975 – John McCormack, Elfin MR6

New Zealand Grand Prix
 * 1973 – John McCormack, Elfin MR5
 * 1974 – John McCormack, Elfin MR5

Australian Sports Car Championship
 * 1975 – Garrie Cooper, Elfin MS7

Australian Sports Sedan Championship
 * 1980 – Tony Edmondson, Alfa Romeo Alfetta GTV

Australian Tourist Trophy
 * 1976 – Stuart Kostera, Elfin MS7

Toby Lee Series
 * 1974 – John McCormack, Chrysler Charger

International Cup for F1 Manufacturers – results

 * 1966 Brabham-Repco – 1st
 * 1967 Brabham-Repco – 1st
 * 1968 Brabham-Repco – 8th
 * 1969 Brabham-Repco – NC

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (results in bold indicate pole position) (results in italics indicate fastest lap)

title: Repco


text:
Supertec

Supertec was a brand of Formula One engines supplied by Dutch company Super Performance Competition Engineering BV, managed by Flavio Briatore and Bruno Michel. Supertec engines were updated 1997 Renault RS9 units, built by Mecachrome.

In May 1998 Super Performance Competition Engineering signed an exclusive distribution agreement with Mecachrome to begin in the 1999 season. The engines were purchased and rebadged as Supertec. Supertecs powered Williams, Benetton and BAR in 1999, and Benetton and Arrows in 2000. The Benetton team rebadged the engines as Playlife.

After the 2000 season, Supertec collapsed due to financial problems and Renault Sport F1 bought back Supertec's assets in 2001.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (results in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

title: Supertec


text:
Japanese warship San Buena Ventura

San Buena Ventura was a 120-ton ship built in Japan under the direction of the English navigator and adventurer William Adams for the shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu. The ship was built in 1607, and followed the construction of a smaller 80-ton ship, also by William Adams, which had been used for the charting of the waters around Japan. Tokugawa Ieyasu ordered the second, bigger, ship for travels to other countries.

On 30 September 1609, the Spanish galleon San Francisco with a crew of 373 was wrecked on the coast of Chiba, Japan (near the present-day town of Onjuku), and the 317 survivors were received warmly by the Japanese. One of the passengers was the governor of the Philippines, Rodrigo de Vivero y Aberrucia. He had the opportunity to meet the shogun Tokugawa Hidetada, and the following year his father Tokugawa Ieyasu, meetings in which the Franciscan friar Luis Sotelo, who had been in Japan for a few years, acted as an interpreter.

Ieyasu expressed his desire to expand trade with New Spain (Mexico) and Spain. Rodrigo de Vivero answered that he could readily organize trade on a scale surpassing that of the Dutch, the main rivals of Spain in Asia at the time. He also offered to send to Japan 50 experts in silver mining from Mexico. In exchange, he asked for the protection of Spanish priests in Japan, support for shipwrecked boats on the Japanese coasts, and the expulsion of Dutch merchants from Japan, the last request being rejected by Ieyasu.

In order for the Spanish to return to Mexico, Ieyasu lent them William Adams's ship, also lent them the equivalent of 4,000 ducados for the trip. Rodrigo de Vivero made it back to Mexico on board the ship in 1610. Twenty-two Japanese were also on board, led by Tanaka Shōsuke, who became the first recorded Japanese to reach the continent. Luis de Velasco, the viceroy of Nueva España received the 22 Japanese and expressed his great satisfaction at the treatment the Spanish sailors had received in Japan. He confiscated the San Buena Ventura however, fearing that the Japanese would become expert at trans-oceanic navigation.

The viceroy of Nueva España decided to send an embassy to Japan in the person of the famous explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno. Vizcaino also had a mission to return the 4,000 ducados and to research "gold and silver islands", supposedly to the east of Japan. He left for Japan on 22 March 1611, and after another shipwreck eventually returned in 1613 on board the Japanese-built galleon San Juan Bautista with the first official Japanese embassy to the Americas and Europe, led by Hasekura Tsunenaga.

title: Japanese warship San Buena Ventura


text:
Michael Callen

Michael Callen (April 11, 1955 – December 27, 1993) was an American singer, songwriter, composer, author, and AIDS activist. Callen was diagnosed with AIDS in 1982 and became a pioneer of AIDS activism in New York City, working closely with his doctor, Dr. Joseph Sonnabend, and Richard Berkowitz. Together, they published articles and pamphlets to raise awareness about the correlation between risky sexual behaviors and AIDS.

As a major contributor to the foundation of AIDS activism, specifically activism from People With AIDS, Callen helped draft unprecedented documents such as How to Have Sex in an Epidemic: One Approach, and The Denver Principles. In addition to his written work, Callen was a leader and founder of activist organizations including The People with AIDS Coalition and the Community Research Initiative. As a musician, he was a member of the openly gay and politically active a cappella quintet The Flirtations and released two solo albums: Purple Heart in 1988 and Legacy in 1996. He consistently spoke out for AIDS activists and gay and lesbian organizations and made frequent speaking and performance appearances. Callen remained a primary public figure in AIDS activism until he died at age 38 from AIDS-related complications of pulmonary Kaposi's sarcoma at Midway Hospital Medical Center in Los Angeles, California. In Love Doesn't Need a Reason the author, Jones, wrote that Michael Callen requested that Douglas Sadownick and Tim should be granted power of attorney over him.

Activism with Sonnabend, Berkowitz, and Dworkin
In 1983, Callen co-authored the book How to Have Sex in an Epidemic: One Approach, which outlined the tenets of safe sex, developed in collaboration with Richard Berkowitz and Dr. Joseph Sonnabend. In 1990, he wrote Surviving AIDS, which received an Honorable Mention from the American Medical Writers Association.

Inspired by Sonnabend's theory, Callen joined with fellow person with AIDS Richard Berkowitz and partner Richard Dworkin to write an essay entitled "We Know Who We Are: Two Gay Men Declare War on Promiscuity" for the New York Native. What the men referred to as "promiscuity" was the frequent backroom, unprotected sexual encounters that dominated the gay sexual culture of the time and place. In the post-Stonewall Riots and gay liberation years, the popular belief was that sex was a revolutionary act, and more sex was equivalent to being more liberated.

The essay, in which gay men with AIDS placed the blame on themselves and their community for the spread of the disease, was controversial. Callen and Berkowitz were criticized for their alleged internalized homophobia and potentially detrimental stance on AIDS. Berkowitz and Callen, however, highlighted their authority to speak out against promiscuity as gay men with AIDS.

In 1990 he appeared in Rosa von Praunheim's documentary Positive.

Denver Principles and People With AIDS Advocacy
Callen went on to become a pioneer advocate for the representation of people with AIDS in AIDS activism leadership. In 1983, the idea of people with AIDS representing themselves in activism brought Michael Callen to an AIDS forum in Denver. The people with AIDS at the forum attended workshops and exchanged stories of their experiences with AIDS through caucuses.

Callen and Bobbi Campbell became delegates for the other men in attendance, and the two of them synthesized the consensus reached over the course of the forum in the Denver Principles. The document was read during the closing session of the conference and was met with an immediate embrace from the audience of gay and lesbian medical professionals.

The Denver Principles consist of four sections: recommendations for health care professionals, recommendations for all people, recommendations for people with AIDS, and rights of people with AIDS. The principles establish the identifier of People With AIDS as opposed to "victim" or "patient," encourage health care professionals to carefully consider the emotional and psychological effects of AIDS in addition to the medical, highlight the importance of activism and ally-ship from within and outside the community of People With AIDS, and affirms the basic yet fundamental rights including life, love, dignity, and medical confidentiality, of People with AIDS. The Denver Principles draw inspiration from Campbell's nursing background, Callen's work with his doctor, and concepts from women's health activism, as well as the testimonies of men at the forum. They ultimately led to the founding of the National Association of People With AIDS (NAPWA).

Organizational Leadership and Later Activism
Callen was the founder of numerous grassroots organizations in various arenas of AIDS activism. He co-founded the New York People With AIDS Health Group, an underground buyer's club that provided access to new drugs and treatments for AIDS and AIDS related illnesses before the FDA approved them, prompting the FDA to ease restrictions and regulations in the drug approval process. He also founded the Community Research Initiative for people with AIDS and their doctors to test new drugs through clinical trials.

Callen was frequently seen on television talking about AIDS. Appearances included Nightline, Good Morning America, 20/20, and The Phil Donahue Show. He wrote for several newspapers and magazines, including the Village Voice, The New York Native, and Outweek; some of his articles are collected in Surviving and Thriving with AIDS, published by the People with AIDS Coalition in 1988. He also appeared in German filmmaker Rosa von Praunheim's 1990 film Positiv - Die Antwort schwuler Männer in New York auf AIDS.

Opposition
Despite his career and prominence as an activist, Callen was met with resentment, suspicion and opposition from others. Since he was diagnosed with AIDS in 1982 and survived over a decade, people speculated as to whether his diagnosis was real or fabricated to get attention. He responded to that criticism by releasing his medical reports and pictures of his lungs which showed his pulmonary Kaposi's Sarcoma. Additionally, Callen stood by his belief in the multifactorial theory when there was scientific proof that HIV was the cause of AIDS.

Callen openly questioned the HIV theory of AIDS and was especially critical of AZT monotherapy when it was first introduced: "The HIV paradigm has produced nothing of value for my life and I actually believe that treatments based on the arrogant belief that HIV has proven to be the sole and sufficient cause of AIDS has hastened the deaths of many of my friends."

Honors
In June 2019, Callen was one of the inaugural fifty American "pioneers, trailblazers, and heroes" inducted on the National LGBTQ Wall of Honor within the Stonewall National Monument (SNM) in New York City's Stonewall Inn. The SNM is the first U.S. national monument dedicated to LGBTQ rights and history, and the wall's unveiling was timed to take place during the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall riots.

Performance career
Michael Callen briefly was the lead of the a cappella group Mike & the Headsets. In 1982, Callen, along with Janet Cleary, Pamela Brandt, and Richard Dworkin formed a queer rock-and-roll band called Low Life. After Low Life disbanded, Callen's solo album Purple Heart was released and quickly acclaimed as a staple of gay men's music.

He was a founding member of the gay male a cappella singing group The Flirtations, with whom he recorded two albums. He also had a solo album, Purple Heart, which a review in The Advocate called "the most remarkable gay independent release of the past decade." Callen recorded two albums with The Flirtations, as well as a double disc album, Legacy, which was released by Significant Other Records in 1996 after Callen's death.

Additionally, Callen made cameo appearances in the films Philadelphia (1993) and Zero Patience (1993), in which he famously performed a song in falsetto as the fictitious "Miss HIV".

In partnership with Oscar winner Peter Allen and Marsha Melamet, Callen wrote his most famous song, "Love Don't Need a Reason", commissioned by Larry Kramer for his play, The Normal Heart. The song was introduced at a 1986 AIDS Walk and was performed frequently at gay pride and AIDS-related events around the country. The song has been covered by numerous gay men's choirs as well as the Peter Allen Broadway musical The Boy From Oz (1998).

Albums

 * as part of The Flirtations
 * The Flirtations (1990)
 * The Flirtations: Live Out on the Road (1991)
 * Feeding The Flame: Songs By Men to End AIDS (1992)
 * Solo
 * Purple Heart (1988)
 * Legacy – a 2-CD album (posthumously)

Filmography

 * Zero Patience (1993) - Miss HIV
 * Philadelphia (1993) - The Flirtations (final film role)

title: Michael Callen


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject History of Poland/Articles/Drafts

 * drafts *

TO DO:

PLC fleet
done at Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy

Polish-Ottoman War 1633-1634
Completed, moved to Polish-Ottoman War (1633-1634).

History of Silesia
moved to Silesia

Wladislaw IV marriages
moved to Wladislaw IV Waza


text: Category:Bangladeshi politicians

title: Category:Bangladeshi politicians


text:
Heavitree

Heavitree is a historic village and former civil parish situated formerly outside the walls of the City of Exeter in Devon, England, and is today an eastern district of that city. It was formerly the first significant village outside the city on the road to London. It was the birthplace of the librarian Thomas Bodley, and the theologian Richard Hooker, and from the 16th century to 1818 was a site for executions within what is now the car park of the St Luke's Campus of the University of Exeter.

History
The name appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Hevetrowa or Hevetrove, and in a document of c.1130 as Hefatriwe. Its derivation is uncertain, but because of the known execution site at Livery Dole, it is thought most likely to derive from heafod–treow (old English for "head tree"), which refers to a tree on which the heads of criminals were placed, though an alternative explanation put forward by W. G. Hoskins is that it was a meeting place for the hundred court.

The last executions for witchcraft in England took place at Heavitree in 1682, when the "Bideford Witches" Temperance Lloyd, Mary Trembles, and Susanna Edwards were executed. (Local folklore used to associate the name with the aftermath of the Monmouth Rebellion of 1685, when Judge Jeffreys supposedly ran out of gibbets.) The last execution to take place here was in 1818, when Samuel Holmyard was hanged at the Magdalen Drop for passing a forged one pound note.

In the hundred years from 1801 to 1901, the population of Heavitree grew from 833 to 7,529, reflecting its assimilation into the expanding city of Exeter. It first became an independent Urban District, but became a part of the city in 1913. Part of the historic district is still one of the wards for elections to the City Council.

In 1911 the parish had a population of 10,950. On 1 October 1928 the parish was abolished and merged with Exeter, Pinhoe, Topsham and Alphington.

The expanding population necessitated the rebuilding of the small medieval church and the church of St Michael and All Angels was built in 1844–46 to the design of architect David Mackintosh. Its most imposing feature is the west tower, built in 1890 to the design of E. Harbottle. In 2002, a yew tree in the churchyard was included among the " 50 Great British Trees" to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. However, it is unlikely that this is the actual tree from which Heavitree gets its name.

The Heavitree Brewery was a local brewer, located in Heavitree; its history can be traced back to 1790. It was the last brewery in Exeter to cease production, continuing until 1970, the brewery buildings were demolished in 1980. The name continues in use as the owner of a chain of pubs in South West England, and Heavitree Brewery PLC continues as a quoted company with its address in Exeter. There is also a linked charitable trust.

Recreation
By 1905 there was pressure to provide facilities for the youth of the district who were causing problems in Fore Street in the evenings, so at the end of that year the urban district council purchased four fields from a builder for £3,100 and opened a children's playground on 1 May 1906. The rest of the grounds were landscaped by the Veitch family, and a bowling green and tennis courts followed in 1907. Heavitree Pleasure Ground is still open today and contains a number of leisure facilities.

The district's football team, Heavitree Social United (a merger of the previous Heavitree United and Heavitree Social Club), is one of the better known local teams in Exeter, playing in the Devon and Exeter Football League Premier division; the club has previously played in the (more senior) Devon County League.

Geography
Heavitree lies on one of the most convenient routes from the city centre to the northbound M5 motorway and eastbound A30 trunk road ensuring that much traffic continues to pass through the district. Its main thoroughfare is Fore Street, a shopping street which rises sharply to the former execution site of Livery Dole, now marked by almshouses and a small medieval chapel built of red Heavitree stone. From here, Heavitree Road runs downhill to Exeter city centre, passing the former main city Police Station on the right and St Luke's Hall, part of the University of Exeter, left. Heavitree is also the location of the Royal Devon and Exeter Heavitree Hospital.

Heavitree stone is a type of red sandstone that was formerly quarried in the area and was used to construct many of Exeter's older buildings, including Exeter Guildhall.

The Heavitree Gap, a pass through the MacDonnell Ranges in Australia, was named after Heavitree by the surveyor William Mills, who had attended Heavitree School in England. The Heavitree Gap adjoins the city of Alice Springs in Australia's Northern Territory.

Politics
The area falls within the 'Heavitree and Whipton Barton' division for elections to Devon County Council, with the area named for the Whipton Barton house demolished in the 1950s.

For Exeter City Council, there is a specific Heavitree Ward.

Notable people

 * Sir Thomas Bodley, the founder of the Bodleian Library at Oxford University, was born in Heavitree.
 * Samuel James Bouverie Haydon (1815–1891), sculptor
 * Richard Hooker (1554–1600), whose writings were very influential in the Church of England in his own time and later, was born in Heavitree. There is a statue to Hooker in the grounds of Exeter Cathedral.
 * James Ford (1836–1877), cricketer
 * Ned Sanders (1852–1904), cricketer
 * Primrose Pitman (1902–1998), artist

title: Heavitree