text:
Blanchard

Blanchard is a French family name. It is also used as a given name. It derives from the Old French word blanchart which meant "whitish, bordering upon white". It is also an obsolete term for a white horse.

Geographical distribution
As of 2014, 42.3% of all known bearers of the surname Blanchard were residents of France (frequency 1:1,117), 36.3% of the United States (1:7,073), 8.7% of Canada (1:3,021), 3.5% of England (1:11,189), 1.7% of Haiti (1:4,397), 1.2% of Vietnam (1:56,908) and 1.1% of Australia (1:15,892).

In France, the frequency of the surname was higher than national average (1:1,117) in the following regions:
 * 1. Saint-Barthélemy (1:18)
 * 2. Pays de la Loire (1:424)
 * 3. Centre-Val de Loire (1:574)
 * 4. French Guiana (1:677)
 * 5. Brittany (1:690)
 * 6. Nouvelle-Aquitaine (1:700)
 * 7. Bourgogne-Franche-Comté (1:1,098)

In Canada, the frequency of the surname was higher than national average (1:3,021) in the following provinces:
 * 1. New Brunswick (1:511)
 * 2. Prince Edward Island (1:544)
 * 3. Newfoundland and Labrador (1:1,106)
 * 4. Quebec (1:1,693)
 * 5. Yukon (1:1,726)

Surname
Wikipedia articles about people with the surname Blanchard:

 * Al Blanchard (born 1952), ice hockey right winger
 * Alain Blanchard (died 1419), commander of the crossbowmen of Rouen during the Hundred Years' War
 * Alana Blanchard (born 1990), American professional surfer
 * Albert Gallatin Blanchard (1810–1891), American Civil War general in the Confederate Army
 * Allen Blanchard (1929–2008), Australian federal politician
 * Amy Ella Blanchard (1854–1926), American writer of juvenile fiction
 * Antoine Blanchard (1910–1988), French painter
 * Arthur Bailly-Blanchard (1855–1925), American diplomat
 * Barry Blanchard (born 1959), Canadian mountaineer and presenter
 * Brian Blanchard (born 1958), attorney, judge in Wisconsin
 * C. Lemoine Blanchard (1910–1986), served on the Los Angeles City Council from 1959 until 1963
 * Cary Blanchard (born 1968), former American football placekicker in the National Football League
 * Charles A. Blanchard (1848–1925), the second president of Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois
 * Charles A. Blanchard (lawyer) (born 1959), United States lawyer who served as general counsel of the army
 * Charles V. Blanchard (1866–1939), American politician who served as a Massachusetts state representative and a Massachusetts state senator
 * Claude Blanchard (1932–2006), Québécois pop singer and actor
 * Dick Blanchard (born 1949), linebacker in the National Football League
 * Doc Blanchard (1924–2009), American college football player and Heisman Trophy winner
 * Edgar Blanchard (1924–1972), American guitarist and bandleader
 * Edmond Blanchard (1954–2014), Canadian jurist and politician
 * Edmund Blanchard (1824–1886), lawyer and prominent businessman in Centre County, Pennsylvania
 * Édouard-Théophile Blanchard (1844–1879), nineteenth-century French painter
 * Edward Litt Laman Blanchard (1820–1889), English writer best known for his contributions to the Drury Lane pantomime
 * Elizabeth Blanchard (educator) (1834–1891), American educator who was the seventh president of Mount Holyoke College
 * Elizabeth Blanchard (New Hampshire politician), Democratic member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives 2002–2010
 * Elmer Blanchard (1927–1970), lawyer and political figure on Prince Edward Island
 * Émile Blanchard (1819–1900), French zoologist
 * Erin Blanchard (born 1989), American gymnast
 * Esprit Antoine Blanchard (1696–1770), French baroque composer, a contemporary of Jean-Philippe Rameau
 * Étienne Blanchard (1843–1918), Canadian politician
 * Eugénie Blanchard (1896–2010) the world's oldest person at the time of her death on November 4, 2010
 * Françoise Blanchard (1954–2013), French actress
 * Francis Blanchard AC (1916–2009), the second longest-serving Director–General of the International Labour Organization
 * Frank N. Blanchard (1888–1937), American herpetologist, and professor of zoology at the University of Michigan
 * Gabriel Blanchard (1630–1704), known as Blanchard Le Neveu, the only son of Jacques Blanchard, born in Paris in 1630
 * George S. Blanchard (1920–2006), United States Army four-star general who served as Commander in Chief
 * George Washington Blanchard (1884–1964), member of the United States House of Representatives from 1933 to 1935
 * Georges Maurice Jean Blanchard (1877–1954), French general in World War II
 * Gerald Blanchard (born 1972), Canadian jewel thief and criminal mastermind
 * Harry Blanchard (1929–1960), Formula One driver from Buenos Aires, Argentina
 * Hiram Blanchard (1820–1874), Nova Scotia politician
 * Jérôme Blanchard (born 1981), French pair skater
 * J. Merrill Blanchard (1881–1914), American college football and men's basketball head coach
 * Jack Blanchard (born 1942), one-half of singing duo, with Misty Morgan
 * Jacques Blanchard (1600–1638), French baroque painter
 * James Blanchard (born 1942), American politician and former governor of Michigan
 * James Blanchard (Canadian politician) (1876–1952), farmer and political figure in Ontario
 * James Blanchard (scientist), Associate Professor of Community Health Science at the University of Manitoba
 * James W. Blanchard (1903–1987), American submarine commander during the Pacific War
 * Jay Blanchard (born 1946), served one term as a state senator in Arizona, representing District 30 for the Democrats
 * Jean-Baptiste Blanchard (after 1595–1665), French painter
 * Jean-Baptiste Blanchard (1731–1797), French Jesuit and educator, one of the contemporary opponents of Rosseau
 * Jean-Pierre Blanchard (1753–1809), French inventor and pioneer balloonist
 * Jeremiah Blanchard (1859–1939), farmer and political figure in Prince Edward Island
 * Jocelyn Blanchard (born 1972), French footballer
 * John Blanchard, Canadian television director and producer
 * John Blanchard, British designer and creative director
 * John Blanchard (politician) (1787–1849), Whig member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
 * Johnny Blanchard (1933–2009), American baseball player
 * Jonathan Blanchard (abolitionist) (1811–1892), pastor, educator, social reformer, abolitionist and the first president of Wheaton College
 * Jonathan Blanchard (statesman) (1738–1788), American politician
 * Joseph Blanchard (1704–1758), New Hampshire soldier and politician
 * Jotham Blanchard (1800–1839), lawyer, newspaper editor and political figure in Nova Scotia
 * Jules Blanchard (1832–1916), French sculptor
 * Justin Blanchard, American actor
 * Ken Blanchard (born 1939) American management expert known for The One Minute Manager
 * Leo Blanchard (born 1955), former professional Canadian football offensive lineman
 * Leonardo Blanchard (born 1988), Italian footballer
 * Lory Blanchard (1924–2013), New Zealand rugby league footballer and coach
 * Louis Raynaud, dit Blanchard (1789–1868), farmer and political figure in Lower Canada
 * Lowell Blanchard (1910–1968), American radio presenter and performer
 * Lynda Blanchard (born 1959), American ambassador to Slovenia
 * María Blanchard (1881–1932), Spanish painter
 * Marc Blanchard (died 2009), American professor of Comparative Literature and Critical Theory at the University of California, Davis
 * Mari Blanchard (1927–1970), American actress
 * Maxime Blanchard (born 1986), French footballer defender
 * Newton C. Blanchard (1849–1922), United States Senator and Governor of Louisiana
 * Nicolas Blanchard (born 1987), Canadian professional ice hockey player
 * Okie Blanchard (Claire H. Blanchard) (died 1989), head football coach in 1940 at the University of Wyoming
 * Olivier Blanchard (born 1948), French economist
 * Paul Harwood Blanchard (1923–2011), American glider pilot and author
 * Pharamond Blanchard (1805–1873), French historical subject and landscape painter
 * Porter Blanchard (1886–1973), American silversmith
 * Rachel Blanchard (born 1976), Canadian actress
 * Raoul Blanchard (1877–1965), French geographer
 * Raphaël Blanchard (1857–1919), French zoologist
 * Ray Blanchard (born 1945), Canadian sexologist famous for Blanchard's transsexualism typology
 * Red Blanchard (1914–1980), American comedian and country musician
 * Red Blanchard (radio personality) (1920–2011), American radio show personality in California markets
 * Richard E. Blanchard Sr. (1925–2004), writer of the gospel song Fill My Cup Lord
 * Ron Blanchard, Australian film and television actor
 * Rowan Blanchard (born 2001), American actress
 * Samuel Laman Blanchard (1804–1845), British author and journalist
 * Smoke Blanchard (1915–1989), American mountaineer, climber, trekking leader, guide, world traveler, writer, Buddhist, and a truck driver
 * Sophie Blanchard (1778–1819), French aeronaut and the first woman professional balloonist
 * Stanislas Blanchard (1871–1949), Canadian politician and gentleman
 * Steve Blanchard (December 4, 1958), stage actor best known for his musical theatre roles
 * Susan Blanchard (actress) (born 1948), American actress known for her role on All My Children
 * Susan Blanchard (socialite) (born 1928), known for her marriages to Henry Fonda, Michael Wager, and Richard Widmark
 * Tammy Blanchard (born 1976), American actress
 * Tamsin Blanchard, British fashion journalist and author
 * Terence Blanchard (born 1962), American trumpeter, pianist and composer
 * Théotime Blanchard (1844–1911), teacher, farmer, merchant and politician in New Brunswick, Canada
 * Thomas Blanchard (inventor) (1788–1864), American inventor who pioneered interchangeable parts
 * Tim Blanchard (born 1987), Australian championship-winning motor racing driver
 * Tom Blanchard (born 1948), former American football punter
 * Tully Blanchard (born 1954), American professional wrestler
 * Valentine Blanchard (1831–1901), Victorian photographer
 * Vaughn Blanchard (1889–1969), American track and field athlete who competed in the 1912 Summer Olympics
 * William Blanchard (comedian) (1769–1835), English comedian
 * William H. Blanchard (1916–1966), United States Air Force officer
 * William Isaac Blanchard (died 1790), stenographer

Given name
Wikipedia articles about people with the given name Blanchard:
 * Alva Blanchard Adams (1875–1941), Democratic politician who represented Colorado in the United States Senate
 * Azariel Blanchard Miller (1878–1941), an American farmer, rancher, and developer
 * Blanchard Montgomery (born 1961), a retired American football linebacker
 * Blanchard Ryan (born 1967), an American actress
 * Carla Blanchard Dartez (born 1965), a Democratic former member of the Louisiana House of Representatives from District 51
 * Carolyn Blanchard Allen (1921–2018), American politician
 * Clark Blanchard Millikan (1903–1966), a distinguished professor of aeronautics at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)
 * Fleming Blanchard McCurdy, PC (1875–1952), a Canadian politician
 * Forrester Blanchard Washington (1887–1963), the first of four children born to John Washington and Lucy Wily Washington in 1887
 * Graves Blanchard Erskine (1897–1973), United States Marine Corps officer in World War II
 * Kempster Blanchard Miller (1870–1933), an American engineer, author, and businessman
 * Lafayette Blanchard Gleason (1863–1937), the Secretary of the Republican State Committee from 1906 to 1937
 * Louise Blanchard Bethune (1856–1913), the first American woman known to have worked as a professional architect
 * Maurice Blanchard Cohill Jr. (1929–2022), United States federal judge
 * Serge Blanchard Oba, a Congolese politician
 * Thomas Blanchard Stowell (1846–1927), a distinguished American educator
 * Victor Blanchard Scheffer (1906–2011), a prominent American mammalogist and the author of eleven books relating to naturalism
 * William Blanchard Jerrold (1826–1884), an English journalist and author

title: Blanchard


text:
Talk:FM

Please stop
Please stop this foolishness. FM does mean more than Frequency Modulation.Please stop this redirect stuff.--Numerousfalx 00:37, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Of all the links pointing to FM, which are for frequency modulation and which are not?? 66.245.114.74 01:07, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I think we need to start a discussion about what the FM article should be. Any answers?? 66.245.114.74 01:11, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Primary topic dis-ambiguation
This dis-ambiguation page is, of course, large itself anyway, so it almost definitely needs the "(disambiguation)" suffix in its article title. Any primary meaning for the Fm capitalization format?? I'm sure frequency modulation is the primary one for the FM capitalization format (at least 90% of the many links that point there are for frequency modulation.) Georgia guy 18:25, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Large disambiguation pages can be and often are titled without the "(disambiguation)" suffix – the only reason for the suffix is in cases where there is a clear primary meaning for the "naked" title to redirect to, as is the case with FM. — Swpb  talk contribs 20:28, 28 July 2007 (UTC)

Rationale supporting addition of "Fabricaciones Militares"
"FM" is also a well-known brand of armament in Argentina, its main customer being the argentinian military (especially the Army). The organization owner of this brand is the "DGFM", pls see details in the following web page (http://www.fab-militares.gov.ar/index1.htm, in Spanish), last accessed today. Regards, DPdH (talk) 14:32, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

Target of FM Redirect
User:Georgia guy and I have been having a conversation over at Talk:FM about where the FM redirect should point. We'd love some additional thoughts from other involved Wikipedians. — m a k o ๛  05:40, 27 September 2011 (UTC)

Redirect Target
Only several occasions, this page has been redirected to FM (disambiguation) or to another page. On every occasion, it has been reverted back -- the last three types by User:Georgia guy.

I don't think it is in the best interests of our users to redirect FM to frequency modulation. Although this is literally what people mean when they write the letters FM, both readers and editors are at least as likely to be referring to (and interested in) FM broadcasting or FM band rather than the in-depth description of what frequency modulation means and how it works.

I just pulled up a big handful of links from Special:WhatLinksHere/FM. There are tons of pages like Telecommunications in Dominica or Telecommunications in Eritrea that link to FM but are more specifically referring to FM broadcasting. Lincoln, Nebraska, Niger, REO Speedwagon, Rush Limbaugh, BBC World Service, are a series of other examples which (from looking at the article) also pretty clearly are not directly referring to engineering trick of frequency modulation but instead to a type of radio broadcasting.

Of course, there are other articles like pre-emphasis network, frequency-shift keying, capture effect that link to FM and are actually referring to frequency modulation. But there is nothing like an overwhelming consensus in favor of frequency modulation over the uses. By my rough look through a few dozen random pages of links, people who are currently using the redirect would be better off sending people to an article other than frequency modulation more often than not.

If I had to choose, I'd say editors using FM usually mean FM broadcasting. But I don't have to choose. We can point the to the disambiguation page. And I think we should. — m a k o ๛  21:55, 17 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Well, the best choice is to link FM broadcasting at the top of the Frequency modulation article. Georgia guy (talk) 00:27, 18 September 2011 (UTC)

 * I disagree and have included an argument with evidence to support that claim. If most of the incoming links to this article seem to be in reference to FM broadcasting and the split is distributed between a few different options, redirecting to FM broadcasting with a hatnote, and redirecting directly to the disambiguation page would better choices than your suggestion. — m a k o ๛  14:38, 19 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Re-directing to the dis-ambiguation page implies that there is more than one primary meaning. Mercury is a valid dis-ambiguation page because the planet and the element are the 2 primary meanings. Georgia guy (talk) 17:04, 19 September 2011 (UTC)
 * The fact that the "FM" in FM broadcasting stands for frequency modulation is not relevant to this discussion because the concepts and the way they are used are distinct. This is why there are different articles in the first place.
 * But perhaps I am not being clear. I am suggesting that there are, in fact, multiple primary meanings. Looking at WP:DAB this seems pretty like a clear case:
 * Incoming wikilinks from Special:WhatLinksHere/FM indicate that there is a split between articles linking to FM that mean frequency modulation and FM broadcasting but, by my estimate, there are many more referring to FM broadcasting.
 * Traffic to the two articles is of very similar magnitude.
 * Google searches don't seem to be useful in this situation.
 * Thanks for your patience! — m a k o ๛  15:05, 20 September 2011 (UTC)
 * There haven't been any references to Google searches anywhere in the above discussion up until your comment on them. Georgia guy (talk) 17:14, 20 September 2011 (UTC)
 * I was referring to the guidelines for determining what a primary source is in WP:DAB. Apologies that this wasn't clear! — m a k o ๛  18:33, 20 September 2011 (UTC)

I've presented evidence and arguments for why this redirect should point to FM (disambiguation) or, alternatively, to FM broadcasting. If you feel that this evidence and argument is unconvincing or incorrect, please explain why or present other evidence. Otherwise, I want to change the redirect. If you think these needs more people to think through this, we can post messages on talk pages for the articles involved or we can take this to Redirects for Discussion. — m a k o ๛  19:14, 25 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Please notice the difference between this discussion and the discussion (not necessarily current) about moving New York to New York State. That discussion had a lot of Wikipedians come to an agreement. This one is just between Benjamin Mako Hill and me. Georgia guy (talk) 20:09, 25 September 2011 (UTC)
 * I don't understand. Are you suggesting that I try to bring more people into the conversation? I'm happy to do that. I just want to resolve the issue. — m a k o ๛  19:57, 26 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Do you really think a discussion that goes back-to-back between 2 Wikipedians is sensible?? Georgia guy (talk) 20:40, 26 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Alright then. I'll post some messages to ask some others what they think. — m a k o ๛  05:37, 27 September 2011 (UTC)
 * It's clear from the disambiguation page that FM can stand for lots of different things, so FM should redirect there. If article links are pointing at the wrong thing, those links should be corrected. There's no case to muddle these two separate issues together.--Harumphy (talk) 12:42, 27 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Mercury has lots of meanings. However, there is a question whose answer must be yes. This question is "Are at least 2 of these meanings important enough, as opposed to one, so that there can be a primary meaning??" In the case of Mercury, there's a planet and an element. In the case of FM, there's one such meaning, frequency modulation. Georgia guy (talk) 12:54, 27 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Can you cite a reliable source to support this claim?--Harumphy (talk) 21:28, 27 September 2011 (UTC)
 * What arguments are there for the statement that FM has more than one important meaning?? Georgia guy (talk) 22:36, 27 September 2011 (UTC)
 * A few of the meanings listed on the disambiguation page are, in my opinion, sufficiently important to make unsafe any assumption that FM refers to Frequency Modulation and/or FM broadcasting. I know people who refer to the local farmers' market as "the FM".--Harumphy (talk) 08:00, 28 September 2011 (UTC)
 * What country are you from for clarification?? I'm sure I (from the United States) have always heard it referred to as the Farmer's Market. Georgia guy (talk) 12:59, 28 September 2011 (UTC)
 * I have pointed you to evidence that FM is mostly often used in Wikipedia to refer to concept of FM broadcasting and not frequency modulation. I've also shown you that both articles get about as much traffic as each other. I still don't understand why you don't believe that this is not good evidence that FM has more than one important meaning. Even if the letters "FM" in FM broadcasting refer to frequency modulation, the concepts are clearly distinct. The fact that there are other common uses like the one Harumphy is suggesting is just added reason to disambiguate. — m a k o ๛  05:32, 1 October 2011 (UTC)
 * FM broadcasting is just a common use of frequency modulation. The Frequency modulation article has a section that says FM broadcasting is a use and it links to FM broadcasting as a main article. Georgia guy (talk) 11:55, 1 October 2011 (UTC)
 * As there's no consensus for your move I've now restored the redirect to the disambiguation page.--Harumphy (talk) 12:19, 1 October 2011 (UTC)
 * I have restored the redirect to Frequency modulation, since so many article links rely on it. You can't just hijack a redirect that's in use and make it go somewhere different than what it's used for.  Dicklyon (talk) 07:39, 2 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Look carefully at what is actually used for. More of those links are referring to FM broadcasting than to frequency modulation. — m a k o ๛  18:46, 6 October 2011 (UTC)

RFD
Because we don't seem to have gotten enough people involved to make any real progress toward consensus on this, I've nominated the article for redirects for discussion. Folks should throw their $0.02 in there. — m a k o ๛  19:06, 6 October 2011 (UTC)
 * I have just closed the RfD. Given the majority opinion (4:1, 5:1 if you include me) over there is that there is no main target for FM, I moved the disambiguation article to FM. - Nabla (talk) 19:10, 16 October 2011 (UTC)

Furry Migration
See https://www.furrymigration.org/ and http://www.citypages.com/arts/meet-the-furries-of-furry-migration-where-being-weird-is-a-good-thing-video-7621725 66.87.149.228 (talk) 04:09, 4 January 2019 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:FM


text:
Cameroonian

Cameroonian may refer to:
 * Something of, from, or related to the country of Cameroon
 * Culture of Cameroon
 * Demographics of Cameroon
 * Lists of Cameroonians
 * Cameroonian Pidgin English
 * Languages of Cameroon
 * Cameroonian cuisine

title: Cameroonian


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Small

Small may refer to:

Science and technology

 * SMALL, an ALGOL-like programming language
 * Small (journal), a nano-science publication
 * <small>, an HTML element that defines smaller text

Fictional characters

 * Small, in the British children's show Big & Small

Other uses

 * Small (surname)
 * List of people known as the Small
 * "Small", a song from the album The Cosmos Rocks by Queen + Paul Rodgers

title: Small


text:
Eugene Garfield

Eugene Eli Garfield (September 16, 1925 – February 26, 2017) was an American linguist and businessman, one of the founders of bibliometrics and scientometrics. He helped to create Current Contents, Science Citation Index (SCI), Journal Citation Reports, and Index Chemicus, among others, and founded the magazine The Scientist.

Early life and education
Garfield was born in 1925 in New York City as Eugene Eli Garfinkle, his mother being of Lithuanian Jewish ancestry. His parents were second generation immigrants living in East Bronx in New York City. He studied at the University of Colorado and University of California, Berkeley before getting a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry from Columbia University in 1949. Garfield also received a degree in Library Science from Columbia University in 1953. He went on to do his PhD in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania, which he completed in 1961 for developing an algorithm for translating chemical nomenclature into chemical formulas.

Career and research
Working as a laboratory assistant at Columbia University after his graduation, Garfield indexed all previously synthesized compounds so that not to remake them, which helped him understand that his inclination to information towards science was bigger than towards chemistry.

In 1951, he got a position at the Welch Medical Library at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, where most of the National Library of Medicine information systems were developed. There he built search and cataloging system methods using punch-cards. In 1953, at the First Symposium on Machine Methods in Scientific Documentation, Garfield got introduced to Shepard's Citations.

In 1956, Garfield founded the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), which was located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In the 1990's, ISI was faced with bankruptcy and was acquired by JPT Holdings who later sold it to Thomson (Thomas Business Information) where it formed a major part of the science division of Thomson Reuters. In October 2016 Thomson Reuters completed the sale of its intellectual property and science division; it is now known as Clarivate Analytics.

Garfield was responsible for many innovative bibliographic products, including Current Contents, the Science Citation Index (SCI), and other citation databases, the Journal Citation Reports, and Index Chemicus. He was the founding editor and publisher of The Scientist, a news magazine for life scientists. In 2003, the University of South Florida School of Information was honored to have him as lecturer for the Alice G. Smith Lecture. In 2007, he launched Histcite, a bibliometric analysis and visualization software package.

Following ideas inspired by Vannevar Bush's highly cited 1945 article As We May Think, Garfield undertook the development of a comprehensive citation index showing the propagation of scientific thinking; he started the Institute for Scientific Information in 1956 (it was sold to the Thomson Corporation in 1992 ). According to Garfield, "the citation index ... may help a historian to measure the influence of an article — that is, its 'impact factor'". The creation of the Science Citation Index made it possible to calculate impact factor, which ostensibly measures the importance of scientific journals. It led to the unexpected discovery that a few journals like Nature and Science were core for all of hard science. The same pattern does not happen with the humanities or the social sciences.

His entrepreneurial flair in having turned what was, at least at the time, an obscure and specialist metric into a highly profitable business has been noted. A scientometric analysis of his top fifty cited papers has been conducted.

Garfield's work led to the development of several information retrieval algorithms, like the HITS algorithm and PageRank. Both use the structured citation between websites through hyperlinks. Google co-founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin acknowledged Gene in their development of PageRank, the algorithm that powers their company's search engine. Garfield published over 1,000 essays.

Honors and awards
Garfield was honored with the Award of Merit from the Association for Information Science and Technology in 1975.

He was awarded the John Price Wetherill Medal in 1984, the Derek de Solla Price Memorial Medal in 1984, and the Miles Conrad Award in 1985. He was also awarded the Richard J. Bolte Sr. Award in 2007. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society that same year.

The Association for Library and Information Science Education has a fund for doctoral research through an award named after Garfield.

Criticism
Writing in Physiology News, No. 69, Winter 2007, David Colquhoun of the Department of Pharmacology, University College London, described the "impact factor," a method for comparing scholarly journals, as "the invention of Eugene Garfield, a man who has done enormous harm to true science." Colquhoun ridiculed C. Hoeffel's assertion that Garfield's impact factor "has the advantage of already being in existence and is, therefore, a good technique for scientific evaluation" by saying, "you can't get much dumber than that. It is a 'good technique' because it is already in existence? There is something better. Read the papers."

Personal life
Garfield is survived by a wife, three sons, a daughter, two granddaughters, and two great-grandchildren.

title: Eugene Garfield


text:
Talk:Fujifilm Diosynth Biotechnologies

Untitled
This appears to be an advert. See also Organon International.

Ferdinand Pienaar 00:40, 2004 Dec 16 (UTC)

Votes for deletion results
This page was listed on votes for deletion. Please see Votes for deletion/Diosynth for the results of the debate. -- AllyUnion (talk) 12:29, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Faulty information
I'm an intern at MSD, location Oss (Netherlands) (old Organon), and on the company website, on the intranet, it says that Diosynth wasn't around until 1971. Organon, however (the company Diosynth fused with in 2005) was founded in 1923.

Organon focused on research, while Disynth focused on production of APIs (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients).

In 2005 the two companies fused (they were already on the same campus).

155.91.64.11 (talk) 10:02, 21 January 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fujifilm Diosynth Biotechnologies


text:
Line A (Buenos Aires Underground)

Line A is the oldest line of the Buenos Aires Underground. Opened to the public on 1 December 1913, it was the first underground line in South America, the Southern Hemisphere and the Spanish-speaking world. It made Buenos Aires the 13th city in the world to have an underground transport service. The line stretches 9.8 km from Plaza de Mayo and San Pedrito and runs under the full length of the Avenida de Mayo and part of the Avenida Rivadavia, and is used by 258,000 people per day.

On the first day of public service (18 December 1913), it carried 220,000 passengers. Line A used the cars used at its inauguration for just under a century. These cars were built by Belgian company La Brugeoise starting in 1913 and were refurbished in 1927 when their wooden structure was modified for underground-only use.

A peculiarity of the original "pantograph" cars on the "underground tramway" was that until 1926 they had both low doors at the ends for boarding from the street and high doors in the middle for loading from platforms in the tunnel. For this reason, Line A might also be considered the continent's first "light rail subway". The old wooden cars were removed in 2013, and replaced by modern cars.

The line has been extended twice since the completion of the original line in 1914, with the most recent two-station extension of San José de Flores and San Pedrito entering service on 27 September 2013.

History
During the first decade of the 20th century in Buenos Aires, road traffic had sharply increased due to a growing population. In 1903 the city had 895,381 inhabitants and there were 4,791 horse-drawn carriages and 60 cars, while by 1913 there were 1,457,885 people, with 6,211 carriages and 7,438 automobiles.

Because it was necessary to create new forms of mass transit, in 1909 the Congress awarded Ferrocarril del Oeste (FCO) (Buenos Aires Western Railway) a concession to build a two-way underground railway that would join the main route of the Buenos Aires Western Railway (currently the Sarmiento Railway) at Once railway station, near Sadi Carnot Street (now Mario Bravo) with the port. However, on 28 December 1909 the Municipality of the City of Buenos Aires gave a concession to the Anglo-Argentine Tramways Company (AATC), which operated 80% of Buenos Aires' tram system at the time (making it perhaps the largest in the world) to build an underground passenger rail service.

After a dispute, it was agreed that the Western Railway would use the line for freight, but only on one track in a manner that would allow the passage of the AATC passenger line. Thus, construction of the Anglo-Argentine Line began on 15 September 1911, with the German company Philipp Holzmann & Cia as contractor. The construction of this line involved hiring 1,500 workers and used 31 million bricks, 108,000 170 kg bags of cement, 13,000 MT of iron braces, and 90,000 m2 of insulating material. The total investment to build the line was m$n17 million. m$n 3 million was invested in the excavation of the tunnel, m$n 7 million in construction, m$n 2.5 million in the initial 50 trains and m$n 2 million for the Polvorín Workshop.

The Plaza de Mayo-Plaza Miserere section was inaugurated on 1 December 1913. On the following day it opened to the public, carrying 220,000 passengers. It was the first underground railway in South America, the Southern Hemisphere and the Spanish speaking world. Buenos Aires thus became the 13th city in the world to have an underground railway, behind London, Athens, Istanbul, Vienna, Budapest, Glasgow, Paris, Boston, Berlin, New York, Philadelphia, and Hamburg. Each station was 100 m in length and had friezes of specific colours for easy identification.

The construction of the Plaza Miserere station was carried out by two companies, AACT and FCO. At that time the station had two tracks for the railway in the middle, and two pairs of lines for the underground, which were on the laterals. The outside southern track of the subway was eliminated in 1926 and it was decided to extend the platform to make the rail-underground transfer more convenient.

The route was extended to Río de Janeiro Station on 1 April 1914 and on 14 July of that year to Caballito, renamed Primera Junta station in 1923. Beyond Primera Junta a ramp was built in 1915 in the centre of Rivadavia Avenue between Cachimayo and Emilio Mitre streets, for trains to access the Polvorín Workshop on Emilio Mitre and José Bonifacio streets, covering a surface loop shared with tram traffic until 1963. This 2 km route has been used since 1980 by the Asociación Amigos del Tranvía (Association of Friends of the Tram) to run the Buenos Aires Historical Tramway. The ramp had originally taken passengers to the surface at the intersection of Lacarra and Rivadavia Avenues where trains continued to run at street level, a service that ceased on 31 December 1926.

Recent developments
In 1997 the Plaza Miserere station was declared a national historic monument. Over the years, most stations on the line have also been declared part of the national patrimony of Argentina and are thus protected. Unlike other lines, the original stations preserve much of their original appearance and many stations have also been restored or feature exhibits which show the history of the line.

In the first expansion of the line since 1914, Puán and Carabobo stations were opened in December 2008. As part of the opening ceremony for the two stations, Buenos Aires Mayor Mauricio Macri drove one of the La Brugeoise trains. Later in September 2013, the San José de Flores and San Pedrito stations were opened, bringing the length of the line up to 9.8 km and the total number of stations to 18, while adding an additional 35,000 passengers per day to the line. That same year, the line was also converted from 1100 volts to 1500 volts to match the rest of the network.

Chronology

 * 1 December 1913 – the Line is inaugurated between Plaza de Mayo and Plaza Miserere.
 * 1 April 1914 – extended to Río de Janeiro.
 * 1 July 1914 – extended to Caballito (renamed to Primera Junta in 1923).
 * 9 November 1934 – Line C built, creating a new connection at Lima station.
 * 3 June 1937 – Line D built, creating a new connection at Perú station.
 * 17 February 1939 – the line obtained its current name, Line A.
 * 1953 – Pasco Sur and Alberti Norte were closed, leaving Pasco and Alberti with just one platform each.
 * 24 April 1966 – Line E extended to Bolívar, creating another connection at Perú station.
 * 18 October 2007 – Line H built, creating a new connection at Plaza Miserere
 * 22 December 2008 – Line A extended to Carabobo.
 * 27 September 2013 – Line A extended to San Pedrito.

1913–2013

While the line was under construction, the Anglo-Argentine Tramways Company took bids from two companies to provide the rolling stock for the line: the Belgian company La Brugeoise et Nicaise et Delcuve and the British United Electric Car Company. The tram models presented by the respective companies were the La Brugeoise cars and the UEC Preston cars.

The latter was noted for its extravagant interior design, featuring exotic materials and UEC sent four of these trams to Buenos Aires for the AATC's consideration. Ultimately, the company chose to go with the Belgian trams and 125 of them were built to serve the line, although the four Preston trams were also kept to serve on the line. In 1927, the trams were converted to underground cars following the line's extension underground and abandonment of its overground segment.

The UEC Preston cars ended service in 1977 and the three remaining cars are today used on the Buenos Aires Heritage Tramway and also for special occasions on Line A of the underground, such as during its 100-year anniversary. The Brugeoise cars remained in service until 2013, though numerous attempts over the years were made to either modernise the fleet (as was done with a few cars modernised by the Emepa Group in the 1980s) or replace the rolling stock completely. One such attempt to replace the rolling stock was with the purchase of 96 Alstom Metropolis cars in 2001, however these were ultimately assigned to Line D instead of Line A.

After 96 years of continuous service, the La Brugeoise cars were nearing their final withdrawal from service in 2009. Spare parts for these trains were no longer available on the market so they had to be custom-made by request at Polvorín Workshop, where La Brugeoise units and other Buenos Aires Underground rolling stock were maintained and repaired by highly skilled and qualified personnel. At this point, it was already being discussed that these surviving vintage cars could continue operating as a tourist attraction on holidays and Sundays.

According to Metrovías, the Buenos Aires Underground private operator, the La Brugeoise cars underwent a routine check-up every 20 days, while every four years heavy maintenance was performed. Despite their many years of uninterrupted service, La Brugeoise trains had one of the lowest mechanical failure averages in the network: 19 every 100,000 km.

2013–present

By 2013, after nearly 100 years of continuous service, the Brugeoise cars were definitively withdrawn from service on January 12, 2013, 11 months before their 100th anniversary. They were replaced by new CNR rolling stock, which has been slowly introduced as units arrive from China. The original rolling stock has since been maintained, some in exhibition and some being converted to 1500 V to run tourist services on the line. In December 2013 a law was passed which meant that the entire La Brugeoise fleet would receive protection status and would thus only be donated to organisations dedicated to their restoration and preservation.

The 45 200 Series CNR cars which arrived in 2013 were not sufficient to cover the entire fleet of the line, so it had to be supplemented by a temporary fleet of 35 Fiat-Materfer cars, which was still not enough to replace the 120 La Brugeoise units. Some additional refurbished Siemens-Schuckert Orenstein & Koppel trains were added to the temporary fleet in addition to the Materfer trains. However, the replacement of the rolling stock coincided with the opening of the San José de Flores and San Pedrito stations, so the line was still left with insufficient rolling stock causing a decline in passenger numbers.

In the meantime, a further 105 200 Series cars were ordered from China so that the line would be served in its entirety by 150 of these cars. This mean that the Siemens O&K cars could be completely retired from service and the Materfer cars moved to Line E in time for its extension to Retiro. These cars steadily arrived in Argentina from 2015 and were incorporated into the line in order to deal with the declines in frequency and passenger numbers since the retirement of the La Brugeoise cars. The last of the CNR units arrived during 2016 and 2017, by which time Line A's rolling stock consisted entirely of the 200 Series.

Ghost stations
Two ghost stations exist on the line. These are Alberti Norte and Pasco Sur, which were closed in 1953. Both these stations had a single platform which allowed boarding trains only towards a single direction, while their opposite platforms (located close to each of the ghost stations) remain open as Alberti and Pasco.

title: Line A (Buenos Aires Underground)


text:
Culvert

A culvert is a structure that channels water past an obstacle or to a subterranean waterway. Typically embedded so as to be surrounded by soil, a culvert may be made from a pipe, reinforced concrete or other material. In the United Kingdom, the word can also be used for a longer artificially buried watercourse.

Culverts are commonly used both as cross-drains to relieve drainage of ditches at the roadside, and to pass water under a road at natural drainage and stream crossings. When they are found beneath roads, they are frequently empty. A culvert may also be a bridge-like structure designed to allow vehicle or pedestrian traffic to cross over the waterway while allowing adequate passage for the water. Dry culverts are used to channel a fire hose beneath a noise barrier for the ease of firefighting along a highway without the need or danger of placing hydrants along the roadway itself.

Culverts come in many sizes and shapes including round, elliptical, flat-bottomed, open-bottomed, pear-shaped, and box-like constructions. The culvert type and shape selection is based on a number of factors including requirements for hydraulic performance, limitations on upstream water surface elevation, and roadway embankment height.

The process of removing culverts to restore an open-air watercourse is known as daylighting. In the UK, the practice is also known as deculverting.

Materials

Culverts can be constructed of a variety of materials including cast-in-place or precast concrete (reinforced or non-reinforced), galvanized steel, aluminum, or plastic (typically high-density polyethylene). Two or more materials may be combined to form composite structures. For example, open-bottom corrugated steel structures are often built on concrete footings.

Design and engineering

Construction or installation at a culvert site generally results in disturbance of the site's soil, stream banks, or stream bed, and can result in the occurrence of unwanted problems such as scour holes or slumping of banks adjacent to the culvert structure.

Culverts must be properly sized and installed, and protected from erosion and scour. Many US agencies such as the Federal Highway Administration, Bureau of Land Management, and Environmental Protection Agency, as well as state or local authorities, require that culverts be designed and engineered to meet specific federal, state, or local regulations and guidelines to ensure proper function and to protect against culvert failures.

Culverts are classified by standards for their load capacities, water flow capacities, life spans, and installation requirements for bedding and backfill. Most agencies adhere to these standards when designing, engineering, and specifying culverts.

Failures
Culvert failures can occur for a wide variety of reasons including maintenance, environmental, and installation-related failures, functional or process failures related to capacity and volume causing the erosion of the soil around or under them, and structural or material failures that cause culverts to fail due to collapse or corrosion of the materials from which they are made.

If the failure is sudden and catastrophic, it can result in injury or loss of life. Sudden road collapses are often the result of poorly designed and engineered culvert crossing sites or unexpected changes in the surrounding environment cause design parameters to be exceeded. Water passing through undersized culverts will scour away the surrounding soil over time. This can cause a sudden failure during medium-sized rain events. Accidents from culvert failure can also occur if a culvert has not been adequately sized and a flood event overwhelms the culvert, or disrupts the road or railway above it.

Ongoing culvert function without failure depends on proper design and engineering considerations being given to load, hydraulic flow, surrounding soil analysis, backfill and bedding compaction, and erosion protection. Improperly designed backfill support around culverts can result in material collapse or failure from inadequate load support.

For existing culverts which have experienced degradation, loss of structural integrity or need to meet new codes or standards, rehabilitation using a reline pipe may be preferred versus replacement. Sizing of a reline culvert uses the same hydraulic flow design criteria as that of a new culvert however as the reline culvert is meant to be inserted into an existing culvert or host pipe, reline installation requires the grouting of the annular space between the host pipe and the surface of reline pipe (typically using a low compression strength grout) so as to prevent or reduce seepage and soil migration. Grouting also serves as a means in establishing a structural connection between the liner, host pipe and soil. Depending on the size and annular space to be filled as well as the pipe elevation between the inlet and outlet, it may be necessary to add grout in multiple stages or "lifts". If multiple lifts are required, then a grouting plan is required, which should define the placement of grout feed tubes, air tubes, type of grout to be used, and if injecting or pumping grout, then the required developed pressure for injection. As the diameter of the reline pipe will be smaller than the host pipe, the cross-sectional flow area will be smaller. By selecting a reline pipe with a very smooth internal surface with an approximate Hazen-Williams Friction Factor C value of between 140–150, the decreased flow area can be offset, and hydraulic flow rates potentially increased by way of reduced surface flow resistance. Examples of pipe materials with high C-factors are high-density polyethylene (150) and polyvinyl chloride (140).

Environmental impacts

Safe and stable stream crossings can accommodate wildlife and protect stream health, while reducing expensive erosion and structural damage. Undersized and poorly placed culverts can cause problems for water quality and aquatic organisms. Poorly designed culverts can degrade water quality via scour and erosion, as well as restrict the movement of aquatic organisms between upstream and downstream habitat. Fish are a common victim in the loss of habitat due to poorly designed crossing structures.

Culverts that offer adequate aquatic organism passage reduce impediments to movement of fish, wildlife, and other aquatic life that require instream passage. Poorly designed culverts are also more apt to become jammed with sediment and debris during medium to large scale rain events. If the culvert cannot pass the water volume in the stream, then the water may overflow the road embankment. This may cause significant erosion, ultimately washing out the culvert. The embankment material that is washed away can clog other structures downstream, causing them to fail as well. It can also damage crops and property. A properly sized structure and hard bank armoring can help to alleviate this pressure.

Culvert style replacement is a widespread practice in stream restoration. Long-term benefits of this practice include reduced risk of catastrophic failure and improved fish passage. If best management practices are followed, short-term impacts on the aquatic biology are minimal.

Fish passage
While the culvert discharge capacity derives from hydrological and hydraulic engineering considerations, this results often in large velocities in the barrel, creating a possible fish passage barrier. Critical culvert parameters in terms of fish passage are the dimensions of the barrel, particularly its length, cross-sectional shape, and invert slope. The behavioural response by fish species to culvert dimensions, light conditions, and flow turbulence may play a role in their swimming ability and culvert passage rate. There is no simple technical means to ascertain the turbulence characteristics most relevant to fish passage in culverts, but it is understood that the flow turbulence plays a key role in fish behaviour.

The interactions between swimming fish and vortical structures involve a broad range of relevant length and time scales. Recent discussions emphasised the role of secondary flow motion, considerations of fish dimensions in relation to the spectrum of turbulence scales, and the beneficial role of turbulent structures provided that fish are able to exploit them.

The current literature on culvert fish passage focuses mostly on fast-swimming fish species, but a few studies have argued for better guidelines for small-bodied fish including juveniles. Finally, a solid understanding of turbulence typology is a basic requirement to any successful hydraulic structure design conducive of upstream fish passage.

Minimum energy loss culverts

In the coastal plains of Queensland, Australia, torrential rains during the wet season place a heavy demand on culverts. The natural slope of the flood plains is often very small, and little fall (or head loss) is permissible in the culverts. Researchers developed and patented the design procedure of minimum energy loss culverts which yield small afflux.

A minimum energy loss culvert or waterway is a structure designed with the concept of minimum head loss. The flow in the approach channel is contracted through a streamlined inlet into the barrel where the channel width is minimum, and then it is expanded in a streamlined outlet before being finally released into the downstream natural channel. Both the inlet and the outlet must be streamlined to avoid significant form losses. The barrel invert is often lowered to increase the discharge capacity.

The concept of minimum energy loss culverts was developed by a shire engineer in Victoria and a professor at the University of Queensland during the late 1960s. While a number of small-size structures were designed and built in Victoria, some major structures were designed, tested and built in south-east Queensland.

Forestry
In forestry, proper use of cross-drainage culverts can improve water quality while allowing forestry operations to continue.

title: Culvert


text:
Line B (Buenos Aires Underground)

Line B of the Buenos Aires Underground runs 11.75 km from Leandro N. Alem to Juan Manuel de Rosas in Villa Urquiza. Line B opened to the public on 17 October 1930.

In recent years, it has held the title of being the most used line of the Buenos Aires Underground, and its patronage has increased even more after the opening of a section of tunnel between Los Incas station in the neighbourhood of Parque Chas and a shopping centre in Villa Urquiza. It was the first line in Buenos Aires whose stations had turnstiles and moving stairways.

It is the only line that uses third rail current collection, while the rest of the Underground lines collect electric current from overhead lines, although there has been ongoing conversion to overhead lines to incorporate new rolling stock. Its gauge of is the same as the rest of the Buenos Aires underground system.

The rolling stock currently used on the B line are former Tokyo Metro (formerly Eidan Subway) 300/500/900 stock, which was used on Marunouchi Line, and CAF 5000 stock. The Japanese units were acquired in the early 1990s, and offer less sitting room than the previous rolling stock, increasing the line's capacity during peak hours. The Japanese trains are being phased out and replaced by newer CAF 5000 and CAF 6000 rolling stock acquired from the Madrid Metro.

History
In 1912 the Congress of Argentina enacted Law 8,870 to construct a line that would unite the Correo Central (Central Post Office) and the intersection of Triunvirato and Elcano streets, and meet with the tracks of the Buenos Aires Central Railroad (Ferrocarril Central de Buenos Aires or FCCBA), which belonged to the same business group, through an 8.7 km tunnel. The Act provided that the works "would help reduce traffic in the central area of the city".

On 17 December 1927 in New York City the financial agreement to build the line was signed between Teófilo Lacroze, the president of Banco de la Nación Dr. Tomás de Estrada, Dr. Louis J. Rocca directory owner of Ferrocarril Terminal de Buenos Aires and bankers Harris and Forbes. This agreement granted the concession of the line for passengers, parcels and freight to Lacroze Brothers Company.

The construction was carried out by the Argentine builder Dwight P. Robinson & Cía, and the line was called Ferrocarril Terminal Central de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Central Terminal Railroad). The first section between Federico Lacroze and Callao opened on 17 October 1930 and was 7.021 km in length. The Argentine President, José Félix Uriburu, travelled on the maiden journey.

On 22 June 1931, Line B was extended to Carlos Pellegrini station. The line was finally completed on 1 December 1931 when the subway reached the Leandro N. Alem station. These three sections were located below Corrientes Avenue, including 19 curves and 13 stations.

Depending to the depth of the line, some sections were constructed using an open trench (cut-and-cover method) or gallery or tunnel. The open trench approach was used in constructing the Federico Lacroze, Dorrego, Canning (now Malabia), Río de Janeiro (now Ángel Gallardo) and Medrano stations. The tunnel at Maipu Street reached a maximum depth of 17 m. Underneath the Rancagua (today Los Andes) park in Chacarita, a workshop and a 10 track garage (with capacity for 110 cars) were built.

Lione B had escalators and turnstiles for the payment of coin-operated service, initially manufactured in the United States, formerly controlled by guards. Line B is deeper underground than Line A, and like it, each station was decorated with friezes of characteristic colours.

An underground link with the Mercado Central de Abasto (a wholesale fruit and vegetable market) was opened on 12 July 1933, through which goods wagons with freight from the Ferrocarril Central de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Central Railroad) would arrive, driven by electric locomotives. This service ceased after a fire occurred on the link on 27 November 1952.

The line always had an automatic light signalling system. In 1980 the mechanical stop-gear devices were replaced by magnetic induction devices, and in 1998 they were finally replaced by an electronic system with Automatic Train Protection (ATP). The original tracks were replaced, and a new automatic signal system with automatic train protection was installed and the transformers were changed to ones that did not contain PCBs, a carcinogenic chemical.

The modernisation carried out from 1996 by the private concessionaire Metrovías brought about a radical change in the appearance of the stations, covering the walls of both the platforms and the halls with asphalt-type material painted black and ochre in most cases, except for Callao and Carlos Gardel which were decorated with white tiles with black veins. As a result, the previous coloured friezes that embellished the stations and gave them their characteristic touch were covered.

On 9 August 9, 2003, two new stations, Tronador - Villa Ortúzar and De los Incas - Parque Chas, were inaugurated, allowing the line to transport more than 300,000 passengers per business day.

Recent expansion and refurbishment
In 2013 Line B was extended underground further west (2 km) from Los Incas/Parque Chas to Echeverría and Juan Manuel de Rosas (previously named Villa Urquiza) where transfer to the Ferrocarril Mitre line was provided. The new stations opened on 26 July 2013.

Further plans include: installation of a new signal system, acquisition of new cars, construction of a new central workshop for the repair of machinery, widening of platforms, hallways and all areas of pedestrian traffic at stations and at transfer nodes, improvements in transfer centres with other means of transport.

Some refurbishment on the line has come under criticism, mostly due to the overwhelming colour of the new murals, but also due to alleged cases where the historic artwork of the line has been destroyed during the line's modernisation.

Rolling stock
Initially, the Line B had 56 English Metropolitan Cammell cars, with metal bodywork and two bogies, painted cream and red and with a capacity of 47 seated people. Each car had 3 double-leaf sliding doors on each side, at platform height, whose opening and closing was controlled by the guard, and had two 105 HP motors. Then 20 North American Osgood-Bradley cars were added. Between 1965 and 1967, 14 similar cars were purchased from Fabricaciones Militares, and between 1977 and 1979, 20 units with 195 HP Siemens engines.

In 1995, the replacement of the existing fleet began and in 1996 128 second-hand Japanese Tokyo Metro (formerly Eidan Subway) 300/400/500/900 rail cars were purchased that were in excellent condition.

In 2009, it was announced that the Madrid Metro has sold its oldest wide-profile trains to Buenos Aires. The 5000 series trains, which were in operation in Madrid since 1974, entered service in 2011 to replace some of the Eidan 300/400/500/900 sets that were utilized on line B starting in 1996.

In July 2013, Madrid Metro sold 73 of its 6000 series cars (which entered service in Madrid in 1998) to Buenos Aires for €32.6 million in exchange for the retirement of the rest of the Japanese-built trains. The purchase of the CAF 6000 rolling stock was met with major criticism due to the need for large and expensive alterations to accommodate the new rolling stock that was poorly adapted for Line B.

Due to the 6000 series cars using overhead lines for power collection, in contrast to the existing and functional third rail electrification system of Line B, a new solid overhead catenary system had to be installed. The new overhead power collection system turned out be insufficient in powering the 6000 series cars resulting in the cars operating at reduced performance leading to lower acceleration. The trains were significantly narrower than the Line B's original loading gauge necessitating the need for modifications to the trains to reduce the large platform gap. These alterations made the second-hand units not any cheaper than simply purchasing new rolling stock, as was done with the 200 Series on Line A. The rolling stock suburban interior design was a poor fit for the urban Line B. The seating was arranged as transverse seating, designed for long distance comfort with limited standing room which is a poor fit to Line B's typically short passenger trips with high passenger turnover at each station. The trains also were not completely walk through train sets as they were organised into married pairs. These factors and the narrow width of the train cars themselves led to very poor internal passenger circulation. The shorter cars meant that a 6000 series six car train made poor use of the existing platform length compared to older six car trains. These factors led to the new 6000 series rolling stock having a much smaller passenger capacity compared to the existing rolling stock.

As of 2020, the remaining Eidan 300/400/500/900 sets are the oldest rapid transit cars that remain in operation in the world; the remaining cars are expected to be retired in the mid-2020s.

Events and highlights

 * When excavation was carried out for construction of the Leandro Alem station, the remains of a Mammoth of the Quaternary period where found, which were sent to the Museum of Natural Sciences of La Plata.
 * Line B connects through a ramp at Federico Lacroze into the electrified track of the Urquiza Line, where the underground rolling stock heads to the Urquiza Railway workshops in Ruben Darío (Hurlingham) for wheel, gear and axle maintenance.
 * Florida and Carlos Pellegrini stations are the two busiest stations on the line, as most commuters alight there in the morning to work in the downtown financial district. They also provide easy access to the entertainment district in the evening (see also Florida Street).
 * Carlos Pellegrini station can be reached from an underground commercial gallery located right below the Obelisco landmark, used by pedestrians to avoid crossing 9 de Julio Avenue at street level.
 * Since the 1940s, the line used to end in Federico Lacroze Station, near Chacarita Cemetery, where commuters could board the suburban bound Urquiza Line. In the 1990s, work began to expand the line to Villa Ortúzar and Villa Urquiza.

title: Line B (Buenos Aires Underground)


text:
Citizen Left

The Citizen Left Party of Chile (Partido Izquierda Ciudadana de Chile, IC), known until 2013 as Christian Left Party of Chile (Partido Izquierda Cristiana de Chile, same acronym) was a Chilean left-wing political party. Founded in 1971, in its early days it was suppressed by the Pinochet dictatorship. It was part of the Nueva Mayoría coalition, supporting the presidential candidacy president Michelle Bachelet in 2013.

History
The Christian Left Party was founded when a number of Christian Democrats left their party in protest against the party's cooperation with the right-wing forces and confrontation with the Allende government. Thus, on 31 July 1971, Bosco Parra declared that he saw no future for Christian left positions within the Christian Democrat party. He was joined by six other MPs, Fernando Buzeta, Jaime Concha, Alberto Jaramillo, Luís Maira, Pedro Urra and Pedro Videla, as well as by Silvia Alvarez, the only woman and Luís Badilla, the leader of the Christian Democratic youth organization. At this stage, the new organization was joined by a number of MAPU militants (incl. 3 senators: Julio Silva Solar, Alberto Jerez Horta and Jacques Chonchol) who were dissatisfied with their party's affiliation with Marxism-Leninism.

Christian Left was part of the Unidad Popular coalition, and declared itself to be a revolutionary party of Christian and Humanist tradition, and in favour of constructing socialism. It tended to agree with the radical wing of the Unidad Popular (the leftist majority of the Socialist Party and parts of the MAPU). After the 1973 coup, the party members were subject to arrest and torture, like people from other leftist groups. The party's militants continued operating together with and within left-wing groups. After democracy was restored in Chile in 1990, most of the militants joined the Socialist Party while others continued as the Christian Left party.

According to one study

‘The Christian Left assigned itself as its main task: to contribute to the construction of socialism in Chile. At the same level of importance was the defense of the compatibility between Christianity and socialism. Its position towards the capitalist regime was radical. Its purpose was to replace it as a whole and at its roots. To achieve this objective, "understood as popular liberation, two processes had to be combined. 1) The definitive overcoming of the capitalist structure and 2) the progressive transfer of the authorities to the bases responsible for productive activity and the generation of goods and services. The above, the CI maintained, also implied a cultural change, in the values, behaviors and habits of the people".’

In 2003, IC became a member of the political alliance "Together We Can Do More" (Spanish: Juntos Podemos Más), together with the Communist Party of Chile and the Humanist Party. Their joint presidential candidate in 2005 was Tomás Hirsch of the Humanist Party. The second national congress of the Christian Left took place in 2006. The activists chose Manuel Jacques as the president of the Party.

On 3 October 2007, it started a process to re-enter the Political Party Registry (Spanish: Registro de Partidos Políticos), from which it was removed in 1989, for not having obtained enough votes to continue as a legal party. The process ended successfully on 25 May 2008, when the Electoral Service (Servicio Electoral) of Chile re-registered it as a legal political party.

In 2012 formed a party with other political leftist movements called Citizen Left. On the eve of the 2013 presidential election, the Citizen Left joined the opposition pact Nueva Mayoría and supported the presidential candidacy of Michelle Bachelet, formalizing its existence to change the legal name of the Christian Left in the Electoral Service. In 2018, Citizen Left merged with MAS Region to become MAS Citizen Left.

Presidential candidates
The following is a list of the presidential candidates supported by the Citizen Left. (Information gathered from the Archive of Chilean Elections).

 * 1988 plebiscite: "No" (won)
 * 1989: Patricio Aylwin, PDC-Concertación (won)
 * 1993: Eugenio Pizarro, Ind.-ADI (lost)
 * 1999: Ricardo Lagos, PPD-Concertación (won)
 * 2005: Tomás Hirsch, PH-Juntos Podemos (lost)
 * 2009: Jorge Arrate, PCCh-Juntos Podemos (lost)
 * 2013: Michelle Bachelet, PS-Nueva Mayoría (won)
 * 2017: Alejandro Guillier, Ind.-Nueva Mayoría (lost)

title: Citizen Left


text:
Line C (Buenos Aires Underground)

Line C of the Buenos Aires Underground, that runs from Retiro to Constitución terminus, opened on 9 November 1934, and it has a length of 4.3 km. It runs under Lima Sur, Bernardo de Irigoyen, Carlos Pellegrini, Esmeralda, la Plaza San Martín and Avenida Ramos Mejia streets. It not only connects to every other line on the system (with the exception of Line H, which it is planned will be connected at a later date), but its termini at Retiro and Constitución also connect it to some of the most important commuter rail networks in Buenos Aires, such as the Mitre and Roca lines and also long-distance passenger services. It is thus an important artery in Buenos Aires' transport system. At the same time, it is also the shortest line in both terms of length and number of stations.

It was the third line of the network to provide rail services to the public, after Line A and Line B. Up until 2007 with the opening of line H, it was the only line in the system providing a north–south service.

History
The line was constructed by the Compañía Hispano Argentina de Obras Públicas y Finanzas (CHADOPyF, Hispanic-Argentine Company for Public Works and Finances), headed by a Spanish nobleman, Rafael Benjumea, the Count of Guadalhorce. This company took on the task because the Great Depression of the 1930s meant that the Anglo-Argentine Tramways Company (which owned most of the then vast tram network in the city) pulled out of its construction. The line was subsequently opened in 1934 and extended from the present terminus at Constitución to Diagonal Norte in the centre of the city. The stretch from Diagonal Norte to its present terminus at Retiro was opened in 1936 and marked the last expansion of the line, which remains the only line not to be extended since then.

On opening, the stations were decorated with murals depicting rural Spain created by Argentine artists Martín S. Noel and Manuel Escasani, as well as some stations reflecting Moorish influences and were painted with gold powder. It had advanced technology for the time, such as Automatic Train Stop (ATS).

When Line E was opened in 1938, its original terminus was shared with that of Line C at Constitución. However, Line Es' route was altered in 1966 for the lines to meet instead at Independencia, where they still do so to this day. With the extensions of Line E and Line H, they now meet Line C at Retiro, where all three terminate.

Siemens has modernised the signalling systems on the line, at a cost of $18 million which included the use of Communications-based train control (CBTC) in order to improve the line's frequency and potentially open up the possibility of automatic trains in the future. The work was completed towards the end of 2016.

Aside from the signalling system, the line has had its stations refurbished, its rolling stock refurbished and ventilation improved, in part to compensate from the extra heat associated with the air conditioning units added to the trains. Major works took place at Constitución railway station to provide better transfers between the Roca Line, Line C and Metrobus Sur in the area, which includes the construction of a new underground annex to the station. Large segments of track, as well as switches, were replaced.

Rolling stock
When the line was first opened, it was served by Siemens-Schuckert Orenstein & Koppel rolling stock in its entirety until 2007. In 1999, trains were purchased from the Nagoya Municipal Subway but they ultimately ended up being used on Line D, and were then sent to Line C in 2007 as Line D acquired more new Alstom rolling stock and Line H was opened, meaning that the Siemens O&K trains were needed there as temporary stock until newer Alstom Metropolis trains arrived there.

In 2015, refurbished Nagoya Municipal Subway 5000 series rolling stock began to arrive, adding 50% capacity to the line's existing Nagoya trains and reducing journey times. Though the rolling stock was in very good condition and was further refurbished, the purchase was criticised by the Minister of the Interior and Transport, Florencio Randazzo, who accused the Municipal Government of buying dated rolling stock in contrast to the brand new rolling stock purchased by the Ministry for Buenos Aires' commuter rail network and Line A of the underground. Along with the purchase, the existing Nagoya rolling stock was refurbished with air conditioning. 200 Series trains were gradually introduced to the line beginning in 2018, slowly replacing the Nagoya 250/300/700/1200 series cars until the final set was retired in 2020.

title: Line C (Buenos Aires Underground)


text:
File:Golden Earring - Love Sweat.jpg

Cover for album Love Sweat by Golden Earring.

Fair use rationale for

 * It is believed that the use of this image on the English-language Wikipedia to illustrate an article on the audio recording in question falls under the "Non-profit educational" clause of the Fair Use doctrine currently upheld by United States law. (17 U.S.C. § 107)
 * The image is irreplaceable; a free analogue is impossible to produce as the original will be covered by copyright for the foreseeable future
 * Owing to the limited web-resolution of the image, only a small portion of a copyrighted work is used
 * For the same reasons, the portion of the copyrighted work used is of inherently lower quality than the original, reducing the risk of competitiveness and therefore the effects of this copy on the market for or value of versions held by the owner of the copyright

title: File:Golden Earring - Love Sweat.jpg


text:
Line D (Buenos Aires Underground)

Line D of the Buenos Aires Underground runs from Catedral to Congreso de Tucumán. The line opened on 3 June 1937 and has been expanded to the north several times. The line is currently 11 km long and has 16 stations, while running approximately parallel to the city's coastline.

History
Line D was the second line to be built by the Compañía Hispano Argentina de Obras Públicas y Finanzas (CHADOPyF, Hispanic-Argentine Company for Public Works and Finances), following the construction of Line C in 1934. Construction began in 1935 and the first part of the line was inaugurated in 1937 and ran 1.7 km from Catedral (still the current terminus) to Tribunales. Three years later, the section which brought the line to Plaza Italia in Palermo was completed, bringing the length of the line to 6.5 km.

The line was not properly extended until 1993 when it was extended to Ministro Caranza, a station named after the Radical politician. Further extensions occurred in the 1990s, beginning in 1997 with the opening of Olleros and José Hernández, then Juramento in 1999, and finally Congreso de Tucumán in 2000, where it currently terminates.

Over the decades it has been discussed numerous times whether to extend the line out to the limits of the city proper. The last of these proposals came forward in 2002 which would have seen an additional two stations added to the line. However, this was later abandoned since the line was already at full capacity after the opening of Congreso de Tucumán station. In June 2015 the Metrobus Cabildo line opened, connecting Line D from its terminus at Congreso de Tucumán to Vicente López district in Greater Buenos Aires, some kilometres away from the city limits, overlapping any theoretical extension of Line D. Line D is the only line in the network which will not be extended as part of the most recent expansion plan.

The line was closed for two months during the summer of 2024 to upgrade the signal system. However, after the update, the frequency was actually worse and the waiting time ceased to be shown on the stations.

Until the privatisation of the underground in the 1990s, Line D was identified by the red colour; whilst Line B used green.

Museum Stations

Cultural activities occur at the Line D Juramento, Congreso de Tucumán and Olleros stations. These stations can be visited to see the exhibitions provided by the city's and national museums, education institutions and other civil society organisations.

“The objective of the museum-stations is to get the population acquainted with the huge cultural and historical patrimony that the City owns, thus turning the subway network, a massive transport medium, into an ideal diffusion agent. The lending of the facilities is absolutely free for the museum and institutions that wish to exhibit their activities or part of the historical or cultural patrimony they treasure”.

Rolling stock

Line D was originally served by Siemens-Schuckert Orenstein & Koppel rail rolling stock, and then by CAF cars. In 1999, cars from the Nagoya Municipal Subway were purchased second hand from Japan and used on the line. In 2001, numerous Alstom Metropolis 100 Series cars were purchased and built in Brazil and Argentina with the intention of incorporating them into Line A, however they were ultimately put into service on Line D where they remain to this day. More 100 Series cars were purchased up until 2009, making a total of 96 cars.

The remaining Nagoya cars were moved to Line C in 2007 and replaced with the 100 Series cars and with Fiat-Materfer cars. To make the rolling stock more uniform, 24 more modern 300 Series Alstom Metropolis cars were ordered in 2013 to replace the Materfer cars on the line, which meant that the line was entirely composed of 120 Alstom cars. In September 2015, at a conference in Brazil, the head of SBASE gave a presentation in which the number of new cars to be purchased for the line was 84 instead of 30. By 2016, the final figure had been fixed at 60 new cars, which meant that the line had 156 Alstom Metropolis cars by 2017.

title: Line D (Buenos Aires Underground)


text:
Supreme Ruler 2010

Supreme Ruler 2010 is a computer wargame in which a player controls all aspects of a region's government and attempts to unite a world of fragmented states in the year of 2010.

The game was produced by BattleGoat Studios and released by Strategy First in 2005.

Official support for Supreme Ruler 2010 ended in August 2006 with the release of the 6th update. The final version of the game was 4.6.1.

A sequel, Supreme Ruler 2020, was released in 2008 by publisher Paradox Interactive.

Reception
Supreme Ruler 2010 received "average" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.

Brett Todd of GameSpot praised the game's ease of play and quantity of scenarios but criticized the difficulty as being artificially inflated. Barry Brenesal of IGN gave praise to its gameplay and interfaces but criticized the AI and the numerous bugs.

title: Supreme Ruler 2010


text:
Love Sweat

Love Sweat is the twenty-second album by Dutch hard rock band Golden Earring, released in 1995. It contains covers of other artists' songs. The album was not issued in the U.S.

Track listing

 * 1) "When I Was Young" (Vic Briggs, Eric Burdon, Barry Jenkins, Danny McCulloch, John Weider) - 3:10
 * 2) "Darkness, Darkness" (Jesse Colin Young) - 3:54
 * 3) "Gotta See Jane" (Eddie Holland, Ronald Miller, R. Dean Taylor) - 3:15
 * 4) "My Little Red Book" (Burt Bacharach, Hal David) - 2:50
 * 5) "Sail on, Sailor" (Brian Wilson, Van Dyke Parks, Tandyn Almer, Ray Kennedy, Jack Rieley) - 3:19
 * 6) "Motorbikin'" (Chris Spedding) - 2:55
 * 7) "I'll Be Back Again" (John Lennon, Paul McCartney) - 3:37
 * 8) "This Wheel's on Fire" (Rick Danko, Bob Dylan) - 4:02
 * 9) "Ballad of a Thin Man" (Dylan) - 5:07
 * 10) "Collage" (Patrick Cullie, Joe Walsh) - 3:36
 * 11) "Move Over" (Janis Joplin) - 3:46
 * 12) "Who Do You Love" (Ellas McDaniel) - 3:36
 * 13) "Turn the Page" (Bob Seger) - 5:35

Personnel

 * George Kooymans - guitar, vocals
 * Rinus Gerritsen - bass guitar
 * Barry Hay - guitar, vocals
 * Cesar Zuiderwijk - drums

title: Love Sweat


text: Talk:Love Sweat

title: Talk:Love Sweat


title: User:TyGuy5


text:
Death of Mary Reeser

Mary Hardy Reeser (March 8, 1884 – July 2, 1951) of St. Petersburg, Florida, was a woman whose fiery death was surrounded by mystery, and even controversially reported at the time to be a case of spontaneous human combustion (SHC). She was often referred to as the "cinder lady" in newspaper accounts of the day.

Death
At roughly 8 a.m. on July 2, 1951, Reeser's landlady, Pansy Carpenter, arrived at Reeser's apartment at 1200 Cherry St. NE, St. Petersburg, Florida, with a telegram. Trying the door, she found the metal doorknob to be uncomfortably warm to the touch and called the police. Reeser's remains—that were largely ashes—were found among the remnants of a chair in which she had been sitting.

Details
All that remained of Reeser, who contemporaneously became known as the "cinder lady," were part of her left foot (that was wearing a slipper), her backbone, and her skull. Plastic household objects at a distance from the seat of the fire were softened and had lost their shapes. Reeser's skull had survived and was found among the ashes, but shrunken 'to the size of a teacup,' a description disputed by a fire researcher who was in Bradenton for a conference at the time and managed to view the scene.

Investigation and results
On July 7, 1951, St. Petersburg police chief J. R. Reichert sent a box of evidence from the scene to FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover. He included glass fragments found in the ashes, six "small objects thought to be teeth," a section of the carpet, and the surviving shoe. Reichert included a note saying: "We request any information or theories that could explain how a human body could be so destroyed and the fire confined to such a small area and so little damage done to the structure of the building and the furniture in the room not even scorched or damaged by smoke."

The FBI eventually declared that Reeser had been incinerated by the wick effect. As she was a known user of sleeping pills, they hypothesized that she had fallen unconscious while smoking and set fire to her nightclothes. "Once the body starts to burn," the FBI wrote in its report, "there is enough fat and other inflammable substances to permit varying amounts of destruction to take place. Sometimes this destruction by burning will proceed to a degree which results in almost complete combustion of the body."

When interviewed by a local paper, Reeser's daughter-in-law said: "the cigarette dropped to her lap. Her fat was the fuel that kept her burning. The floor was cement, and the chair was by itself. There was nothing around her to burn".

Personal life
Mary Reeser was born in Columbia, Pennsylvania and married Richard Reeser. Their only surviving child, also named Richard Reeser, was born in Pennsylvania in 1910. She was buried in the Chestnut Hill Cemetery outside Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania. Her son died in 1998 at the age of 88. He had a daughter, Mary Carole, named for her grandmother, who died in 2005. They had another daughter, Nancy, who died in 2021, and another, Martha Reeser Rice, who is still alive. Their mother died in 2008.

title: Death of Mary Reeser


text:
Line H (Buenos Aires Underground)

Line H is a line of the Buenos Aires Underground. The first phase, between Plaza Once and Caseros, which opened on 18 October 2007, currently stretches over 8.8 km between Hospitales and Facultad de Derecho stations. It is the first entirely new line built in Buenos Aires since the opening of Line E on 20 June 1944. According to projections, the line will stretch a total of about 11.85 km and will run from between Retiro to Sáenz once the remaining sections are constructed. It connects the southern part of the city with the north, improving traffic flow to the centre of the city. It is also designed to serve as a transversal line and provide cross-connections across all radial lines, mainly under the axis of Jujuy and Pueyrredón avenues.

Rolling stock
During its early years, Line H was served by a temporary fleet of refurbished and original vintage Siemens-Schuckert Orenstein & Koppel train sets originally introduced on line C, with electric current supplied by overhead lines. The cars featured 42 seats and 4 doors per side.

As the line was extended and passenger numbers increased, the rolling stock was replaced by new Alsom 300 Series units ordered from that company in 2012 in order to make up the entirety of the Line's rolling stock. The first 6 of the 120 new Alstom cars arrived In August 2015, with the remainder phased-in as the line has been extended.

Further expansion
An initial extension to Corrientes station was inaugurated on Monday 6 December 2010. The Córdoba and Las Heras stations opened in December 2015 with Santa Fe station (which links Line H to Line D) opening in April 2016. Alstom Metropolis rolling stock is now being used on the line.

The Facultad de Derecho station (located at the University of Buenos Aires Faculty of Law) was originally intended to be located across the road next to Plaza Francia, however concerns that it would damage the prestigious Recoleta Cemetery necessitated revisions to these plans and therefore delayed construction of the station, which eventually opened in May 2018. The final stretch to Retiro is not set to open until some time after the revision of the route following the relocation of the Plaza Francia station.

title: Line H (Buenos Aires Underground)


text:
User:Elf/welcome

Welcome to Wikipedia, the greatest encyclopedia on Earth!

You seem to be off to a good start. Hopefully you will soon join the vast army of Wikipediholics. You may wish to review the welcome page, tutorial, and stylebook, as well as the avoiding common mistakes and Wikipedia is not pages. The Wikipedia directory is also quite useful. In addition, if you made any edits before getting an account, you may wish to assign those to your username.

By the way, an important tip: To sign comments on talk pages, simply type four tildes, like this: ~. This automatically adds your name and the time after your comments.

Hope to see you around the Wiki! And if you have any questions whatsoever, feel free to contact me on my talk page! - Elf

title: User:Elf/welcome


text:
Explorer 7

Explorer 7 was a NASA satellite launched on 13 October 1959, at 15:30:04 GMT, by a Juno II launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) to an orbit of 573 xx and inclination of 50.27°. It was designed to measure solar X-ray and Lyman-alpha flux, trapped energetic particles, and heavy primary cosmic rays. Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration, molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance.

Satellite description
The spin-stabilized satellite's external structure consisted of two truncated conical fiberglass shells joined by a cylindrical aluminum center section. The spacecraft was 76 cm wide at its equator and about 76 cm high with a payload mass of about 41.5 kg. The spacecraft was powered by approximately 3000 solar cells mounted on both the upper and lower shells. Additional power was provided by 15 rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries that were positioned on its equator near the outer skin as an aid in maintaining a proper spin rate. Two crossed dipole (1 W, 20-MHz) telemetry antennas projected outward from the center section, and a 108-MHz antenna used for tracking was mounted on the bottom of the lower shell.

Located around the periphery of the center section were five bolometers for thermal radiation measurements and three cadmium sulfide micrometeoroid detector cells. A cylindrical ion chamber (lithium fluoride window) and a beryllium window X-ray chamber were located on opposite sides of the upper cone, and a cosmic-ray Geiger counter was located on the very top. A primary cosmic-ray ionization chamber was located within the center portion of the upper cone. Communications and tracking were provided by a 108-MHz transmitter at 15-mW designed to operate for 2 months and a 20-MHz transmitter at 600-mW powered by the solar cells designed for cut-off after about one year.

Ground Based Ionospheric
An all-transistor beacon telemetry transmitter was operated at a fundamental frequency of 19.9915 MHz. This transmitter, which was powered by solar cells and rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries, provided 660-mW of power at the fundamental frequency. It also radiated the second and third harmonics (15-mW each) at 39.9830 and 59.9745-MHz. Beacon receivers were known to have been located in Washington, D.C., and Chicago, Illinois. Interpretation of the changes of beacon signal characteristics between the satellite and the ground station showed irregularities to be present at all times of the day with horizontal dimensions of 5 km to 500 km. Data were received over a period of 16 months.

Heavy Primary Cosmic Rays
This experiment was designed to measure the omnidirectional flux of heavy primary cosmic rays in the rigidity range 1 to 15.5 GV. Particles with atomic numbers Z >5, Z >8, and Z >15 were counted separately by an ionization chamber in which each incident particle yielded a pulse. Pulse amplitude was substantially independent of the energy of the incident particle but was proportional to the square of its Z value. Each of the three counting rates was determined every 15 seconds. The experiment performed as planned from launch until 25 October 1959. About 80% of the data acquired for the 25 October 1959, to 31 May 1960, period are useful, with most problems occurring in the lowest Z mode. Very little useful data were acquired after 31 May 1960.

Micrometeorite
Three photoconducting cadmium sulfide cells were used to measure micrometeorite penetration and molecular sputtering. The three cells were identical in design and effective area (18 sq mm) and were mounted on a magnesium plate on the satellite's equator facing outward perpendicular to the satellite's spin axis. The experiment was exposed to the space environment of micrometeorites, trapped radiation, and sputtering for 38 days of active life. The three cells and a thermistor that was included as part of the experiment performed normally. One cell was penetrated on the 16th day by a particle approximately 10 microns in diameter.

Solar X-Ray and Lyman-Alpha Radiation
The solar X-ray and Lyman-alpha radiation were measured by means of gas ionization chambers mounted on opposite sides of the upper portion of the double cone configuration of the Explorer 7 satellite. Intensities were monitored in order to obtain a long-term history of solar X-ray and Lyman-alpha fluxes and to correlate these with terrestrial atmospheric responses. The two X-ray detectors (2.5 cm deep) were filled with argon gas and had beryllium windows (.021 g/sq cm) resulting in a sensitivity to X-rays in the 2 to 8 A range. The Lyman-alpha detectors (on the opposite side), which were circular ionization chambers (1.9 cm in diameter) filled with nitric oxide gas, had lithium fluoride windows. Their sensitivity was in the 1050 to 1350 A interval. The data, however, were impossible to interpret in terms of incident solar radiation due to both the saturation of detector circuits by Van Allen radiation (150 keV electrons) and electronic difficulties in the feedback amplifier.

Thermal Radiation
The Explorer 7 thermal radiation experiment was designed to measure incident and reflected solar UV radiation and terrestrial IR radiation in order to obtain a better understanding of the driving forces of the Earth-atmosphere system. The primary instrumentation consisted of five bolometers in the form of hollow silver hemispheres that were thermally insulated from, but in close proximity to specially aluminized mirrors. The hemispheres thereby behaved very much like isolated spheres in space. Two of the hemispheres had black coatings and responded about equally to solar and terrestrial radiation. A third hemisphere, coated white, was more sensitive to terrestrial radiation than to solar radiation. A fourth, which had a gold metal surface, was more sensitive to solar radiation than to terrestrial radiation. The fifth hemisphere, protected from direct sunlight, was used to measure the reflected sunlight. A glass-coated bead thermistor was mounted on the top of each hemisphere to measure the temperature. A complete set of four temperature observations and one reference sample required 30 seconds. Thus, in each orbit, about 180 temperature measurements could be obtained. The experiment was a success, and usable data were obtained from launch until 28 February 1961.

Significantly, it also carried Dr. Verner E. Suomi's flat-plate radiometer, improved with the help of Robert Parent, that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate. It made the first coarse maps of "the solar radiation reflected by the Earth and the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth".

Using both satellite observations of the Earth's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes, Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy. These observations established that Earth's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds, the surface albedo, and other absorbing constituents. Using these instruments, Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget. Explorer 7 was unable to detect solar X-rays due to its sensors being saturated by background radiation in the Van Allen radiation belt.

Trapped Radiation and Solar Protons
Two omnidirectional Geiger counters (Anton 302 and 112) were used to conduct a comprehensive spatial and temporal monitoring of total cosmic-ray intensity, geomagnetically trapped corpuscular radiation, and solar protons. The detector was sensitive to protons (E >20 MeV) and electrons (E >30 keV). The experiment operated satisfactorily from launch until 28 February 1961, except for a brief period in September and October 1960.

Launch
Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959, but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff, causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7's launch vehicle. However, the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired.

Explorer 7 was launched on a Juno II at 15:31 GMT on 13 October 1959 from the Atlantic Missile Range into a 573 xx orbit. On 16 June 1960, NASA announced one of the four frequency modulated subcarriers on the second transmitter had become erratic and the information it was transmitting on 3 of the 7 experiments was no longer intelligible. The tracking beacon ceased transmitting on 5 December 1959. As of September 1960 the orbit was 554 xx with an inclination of 50.3° and a period of 101.2 minutes. Useful real-time data were transmitted from launch through February 1961 and intermittently until 24 August 1961. The spacecraft provided significant geophysical information on radiation and magnetic storms, demonstrated methods of controlling internal temperatures, recorded the first micrometeorite penetration of a sensor in flight, and detected large scale weather patterns.

Mission results
It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on 24 August 1961. It is still in orbit.

title: Explorer 7


text:
ISO 20022

ISO 20022 is an ISO standard for electronic data interchange between financial institutions. It describes a metadata repository containing descriptions of messages and business processes, and a maintenance process for the repository content. The standard covers financial information transferred between financial institutions that includes payment transactions, securities trading and settlement information, credit and debit card transactions and other financial information.

The repository contains a huge amount of financial services metadata that has been shared and standardized across the industry. The metadata is stored in UML models with a special ISO 20022 UML Profile. Underlying all of this is the ISO 20022 metamodel – a model of the models. The UML profile is the metamodel transformed into UML. The metadata is transformed into the syntax of messages used in financial networks. The first syntax supported for messages was XML Schema.

ISO 20022 is widely used in financial services. Organizations participating in ISO 20022 include SWIFT. ISO 20022 is the successor to ISO 15022; originally ISO 20022 was called ISO 15022 2nd Edition. ISO 15022 was the successor of ISO 7775.

Parts of the standard
ISO 20022 Financial services – Universal financial industry message scheme.

Management of the standard

 * The Standard is issued by ISO Technical Committee 68 (TC68), which is responsible for Financial Services in ISO.
 * The Standard is managed by Sub Committee 9 (SC 9) "Information exchange for financial services".
 * The Working Group 4 (WG4), a sub-group of SC 9, who works on the next revision of ISO 20022.
 * The Standard defines a Registration Management Group (RMG) Composed of senior industry experts. It is the highest registration body.
 * SEG Standard Evolution Group composed of industry experts in specific business domains of the financial industry
 * SWIFT is the Registration Authority (RA) for ISO 20022. RA is the guardian of the ISO 20022 financial repository. The AG 1 Group oversees the performance of RA.

Adoption
A 2015 report by the United States's Federal Reserve System classified Europe having "mature adopters" of ISO 20022; India, South Africa, Japan, Singapore, and Switzerland as having "growing adopters"; and Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand as having "interested adopters". The report concluded that the Federal Reserve should push for ISO 20022 adoption within the United States financial system.

Australia's New Payments Platform, launched in February 2018, uses ISO 20022 messaging.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand plans to support ISO 20022 from November 2022 onward.

Nordic countries launched the P27 payment platform.

The Eurosystem in March 2023 switched its real-time gross settlement to T2, which follows ISO 20022. The switch involves transactions for settling payments related to the Eurosystem's monetary policy operations, as well as bank‑to‑bank and commercial transactions. TARGET2 previously handled transactions for over 2000 G€ per day.

In the United States, The Federal Reserve's FedNow instant payments service uses ISO 20022 messaging. Its Fedwire funds transfer service will migrate to using ISO 20022 messaging in March 2025. The private Clearing House Payments Company, which operates the competing RTP instant payments service uses ISO 20022 messaging. Its CHIPS funds transfer service migrated to using ISO 20022 in April 2024.

title: ISO 20022