text:
Ismo Alanko

Ismo Kullervo Alanko (born November 12, 1960) is a Finnish musician. He is known as the frontman of several bands, most famously Hassisen Kone, Sielun Veljet and Ismo Alanko Säätiö, as well as a successful solo artist.

Alanko is known for his versatility and interest in different musical styles. During his career he has recorded punk rock, alternative rock, progressive rock, electronic music, schlager, dance music, children's music and film scores. He has achieved eight platinum records, 16 gold records and four Emma awards. Also a recognized lyricist, Alanko won the Juha Vainio Writer's Award (Juha Vainio -sanoittajapalkinto) in 2003 for his song texts.

In a City magazine article in 1999, 43 Finnish journalists picked the top 99 Finnish rock artists. Ismo Alanko placed 20th, with his former bands Hassisen Kone and Sielun Veljet placing 12th and 4th, respectively.

Alanko comes from a musical family: of his two younger brothers, Petri Alanko is a reputed classical flute player, Ilkka Alanko is the singer/guitarist of Neljä Ruusua, and his sister Satu Alanko-Rautamaa a violinist, and a member or the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra.

Background
Alanko was born on November 12, 1960, in Kerava, but grew up in Joensuu, North Karelia. As a 15-year-old he played in a band called Sight, already writing some of his own songs. In the Finnish Rock Championship, an annual competition for young musicians, the band finished second in the progressive rock category. After completing his secondary education degree (ylioppilastutkinto), he took a break from music to move to work in Stockholm.

Hassisen Kone
After returning to Finland in 1979, Alanko, then 19 years of age, gained immediate success as the singer, songwriter and rhythm guitarist of the new wave group Hassisen Kone. They won the Finnish rock championship in 1980 and recorded three very successful albums, Täältä tullaan Venäjä, Rumat sävelet and Harsoinen teräs, where the band went from punk-related new wave to progressive rock. All three remain among the best-selling records in Alanko's career. Hassisen Kone disbanded in 1982.

Sielun Veljet
Soon after Hassisen Kone broke up, Alanko and former Hassisen Kone guitarist Jukka Orma started Sielun Veljet. Some of their early audience was expecting another Hassisen Kone, but instead the band played aggressive and repetitive post-punk. Only one Sielun Veljet album came close to reaching Hassisen Kone's album sales (L'amourha, 1985), but the band gained fame for their powerful, loud and intense live performances. The band toured constantly and played a wide variety of musical styles, including old schlager hits under the alias Kullervo Kivi & Gehenna. Sielun Veljet quit in 1991, after seven studio albums, two EPs, a box set and a 1991 documentary film titled Veljet.

Solo career
Alanko's solo debut, Kun Suomi putos puusta, was released in 1990. At this point Sielun Veljet still existed, but the band had become less and less active. After the band broke up, Alanko recorded the electronic music -influenced Jäätyneitä lauluja and toured Finland with his band that was named Tuonelan Lukio. The band's keyboardist was Izmo Heikkilä of the band Raptori. Alanko went on to release two more solo albums, Taiteilijaelämää (1995) and Irti (1996).

In 1997, a four-CD box set Alangolla – Ismo Alangon lauluja was released. It spanned his entire career starting from Hassisen Kone and including material from different side projects. Until then, very few Finnish artists had released a box set. Sielun Veljet had released Musta laatikko in 1991 and CMX their collection Cloaca Maxima in 1997.

Alanko's most popular song, "Pop-musiikkia", was recorded in 1997 with fellow rock stars Ilkka Alanko (of Neljä Ruusua), Kalle Ahola (of Don Huonot) and A. W. Yrjänä (of CMX) under the name Neljä baritonia (Four Baritones). The single has been certified platinum in Finland and is one of the most successful songs of all time on the Finnish singles chart.

In 2002, Alanko appeared on Timo Rautiainen's platinum-selling Tiernapojat play with Jarkko Martikainen, Toni Wirtanen and Rautiainen himself, playing King Herod.

In 2009, Alanko continues his varied projects playing with contemporary Finnish artists. In April he joined former Alanko Säätiö percussionist Teho Majamäki onstage as Teholla at Helsinki's mini-festival Arctic Paradise Live, having the same evening performed a solo concert in the Ateneum Art Museum series (A Land Without Kantele) with resident houseband of Jarmo Saari (guitars), Arttu Tolonen (bass) and Abdissa "Mamba" Assefa (drums).

Ismo Alanko Säätiö
In 1998, Alanko started the semi-ironically named Ismo Alanko Säätiö (Ismo Alanko Foundation). Though Säätiö performed many of Alanko's old hits, the arrangements were radically revamped to fit with their unique acoustic sound, heavily featuring the avant-garde accordion sound of Kimmo Pohjonen, a successful artist in his own right. Even though Säätiö is a band, it can be said that it is a backing band for solo performances by Alanko, as members of the band have changed rapidly.

Ismo Alanko Teholla
In 2007, Alanko ended Säätiö in its current form, and began touring with multi-instrumentalist Teho Majamäki as "Ismo Alanko Teholla". The name of the band is a play on words, and can mean either "Ismo Alanko with Power" or "Ismo Alanko in ICU (Intensive Care Unit)".

Instruments
Alanko studied classical cello in his youth, but didn't pursue a classical career because he felt it would require too much practice. In Hassisen Kone and onwards, he has played rhythm guitar in his bands in addition to singing. He still occasionally plays the cello, as well as the piano, both in the studio and on live performances.

Alanko composed the music for the 2007 TV series Taivaan tulet by Kari Väänänen. Alanko also played all instruments for the score, except for flute parts that were played by his brother Petri. Alanko has said that the decision to play all the instruments himself came "out of curiosity".

title: Ismo Alanko


text:
Talk:Franz Josef Land

[Untitled]
I don't agree that "non-English pictures don't belong here any more than non-English text". There is a fundamental difference between a map and a piece of text: you can understand a map without understanding the language. Both maps are perfectly comprehensible for an English speaker, particularly in the context of the article (one has almost exclusively Russian names in it, although written in Latin script, the other is mostly in German but leaves not the slightest doubt what it is about). Geographical articles need maps. If we don't have better ones, we should keep these until we do. There is no policy that I know of that prohibits use of foreign-language maps. (And by the way, while reverting is occasionally acceptable, re-reverting without discussion is no good style. A note to revert-war-happy contributors: with the exception of obvious vandalism I refuse on principle to enter revert wars, so any attempt to entice me into one is hopeless.) Happy editing, Kosebamse 19:49, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Category:Arctic islands vs. Category:Franz Josef Land
Category:Franz Josef Land is itself a category within Category:Arctic islands. — Robert Greer (talk) 01:52, 2 March 2009 (UTC)

about how many people are stationed/live there?
The article mentions a few bases there, but gives no indication of how large a population as would normally be done on articles about islands. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.148.183.191 (talk) 20:07, 25 January 2010 (UTC)

I have seen a couple of very brief and (for my purposes) non-citeworthy articles from tour providers that say that Franz Josef Land is completely unpopulated. 72.70.73.26 (talk) 14:36, 8 March 2010 (UTC)

FJL is home to an outpost of the Russian Federal Security Service, therefore, there are people there. Likely Russia has not anounced the population of this contingent.Moryak (talk) 23:04, 12 January 2012 (UTC)

Franz Josef Land not volcanic
Franz Josef Land is not a volcanic formation and the volanic tag should be removed.Moryak (talk) 23:04, 12 January 2012 (UTC)

disectn rate
legibl pl..(2teknkl81.11.231.230 (talk) 18:40, 21 February 2016 (UTC)

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Dissection rate?
The article states that the dissection rate is 3.6 square kilometers per coastline kilometer, however, this quantity is not defined strictly because the length of coastline is dependent on the scale of the measurement (see coastline paradox). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.163.117.90 (talk) 14:45, 8 January 2017 (UTC)

Discovery
Does Dutch shipmaster Cornelis Roule have a claim? Nicolaes Witsen (Noort ooster gedeelte van Asia en Europa, p. 920 (1705)) recounts Roule's claim to have sailed in the longitude of Novaya Zemlya as far as 84.5 or 85 degrees north, discovering land in the process. Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld briefly mentions it in his account of the voyage of the Vega:

"17th Century, year not stated. Shipmaster Cornelis Roule is said to have sailed in the longitude of Novaya Zemlya to 84° or 85° N.L. and there discovered a fjord-land, along which he sailed ten miles. Beyond that a large open sea was seen. From a high mountain situated on a sound, in which he rode, it appeared that he might sail one or two watches further to the north. He found there large numbers of birds, which were exceedingly tame {Witsen, p. 920). If we take some degrees from the latitude stated, which is perhaps not very unreasonable in dealing with the narratives of old whalers, which have passed through two or three hands, Roule may, as far back as two hundred years ago, have reached Franz-Josef's Land, and sailed along its coast to a very high latitude for those regions." (Voyage of the Vega 199 - Eroica (talk) 14:42, 15 July 2017 (UTC)

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text: Category:Elections in Haiti

title: Category:Elections in Haiti


text:
Wrong Is Right

Wrong Is Right, released in the UK as The Man with the Deadly Lens, is a 1982 American political satire comedy thriller film directed, written, and co-produced by Richard Brooks and starring Sean Connery as TV news reporter Patrick Hale. The film, based on Charles McCarry's novel The Better Angels, is about the theft of two suitcase nukes.

Plot
In the near future, violence has become something of a national sport and television news has fallen to tabloid depths. Patrick Hale, a globe-trotting reporter with access to a staggering array of world leaders, has ventured to the Arab country of Hegreb to interview his old acquaintance, King Ibn Awad.

Awad has learned that the President of the United States may have issued orders for his removal; as a result, Awad is apparently making arrangements to deliver two suitcase nukes to a terrorist, with the intention of detonating them in Israel and the United States, unless the President resigns.

In the intricate plot that unfolds, nothing is quite the way it seems, and Hale finds himself caught between political leaders, revolutionaries, CIA agents and other figures, trying to get to the bottom of it all.

In the final twist, the government, with Hale in tow, locates two atomic bombs supposedly planted by terrorist "Rafeeq" atop the World Trade Center. The US uses this as pretext for invading the Middle East and taking possession of oilfields. Hale correctly intuits that the government had planted the bombs in order to rally US support for the invasion, but gladly covers the story the way the government wants in exchange for front-line access to film the action.

Critical reception
The film received negative reviews from critics who cited its "unfocused script" that tries "to satirize so many targets", as well as its confusing visuals. Vincent Canby of The New York Times said the screenplay was scattershot and Connery's performance is "the first uncertain [one] of his otherwise exemplary career". Based on 11 reviews on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, Wrong Is Right has an approval score of 27%.

Stanley Kauffmann of The New Republic wrote, "Wrong Is Right is possibly the noisiest film ever made, and the most incessantly whirling one. Its only distinction is that, besides being basically rotten, it is also rotten on the surface."

Donald Guarisco of AllMovie said, "If viewed through a cult-movie mindset, it's easy to see why Wrong Is Right is appealing to that group of viewers. The script has a scathing, darkly funny take on international politics that one wouldn't expect from a well-funded Hollywood project of the early 1980's and also mixes up offbeat humor and message-oriented drama in a way that keeps the film from affecting a comfortable Hollywood style."

Awards and nominations
Rosalind Cash was nominated for an Image Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture.

title: Wrong Is Right


text: Category:Elections in Liechtenstein

title: Category:Elections in Liechtenstein


text:
English country house

An English country house is a large house or mansion in the English countryside. Such houses were often owned by individuals who also owned a town house. This allowed them to spend time in the country and in the city—hence, for these people, the term distinguished between town and country. However, the term also encompasses houses that were, and often still are, the full-time residence for the landed gentry who dominated rural Britain until the Reform Act 1832. Frequently, the formal business of the counties was transacted in these country houses, having functional antecedents in manor houses.

With large numbers of indoor and outdoor staff, country houses were important as places of employment for many rural communities. In turn, until the agricultural depressions of the 1870s, the estates, of which country houses were the hub, provided their owners with incomes. However, the late 19th and early 20th centuries were the swansong of the traditional English country house lifestyle. Increased taxation and the effects of World War I led to the demolition of hundreds of houses; those that remained had to adapt to survive.

While a château or a Schloss can be a fortified or unfortified building, a country house, similar to an Ansitz, is usually unfortified. If fortified, it is called a castle, but not all buildings with the name "castle" are fortified (for example Highclere Castle in Hampshire).

Stately homes of England

The term stately home is subject to debate, and avoided by historians and other academics. As a description of a country house, the term was first used in a poem by Felicia Hemans, "The Homes of England", originally published in Blackwood's Magazine in 1827. In the 20th century, the term was later popularised in a song by Noël Coward, and in modern usage it often implies a country house that is open to visitors at least some of the time. In England, the terms "country house" and "stately home" are sometimes used vaguely and interchangeably; however, many country houses such as Ascott in Buckinghamshire were deliberately designed not to be stately, and to harmonise with the landscape, while some of the great houses such as Kedleston Hall and Holkham Hall were built as "power houses" to dominate the landscape, and were most certainly intended to be "stately" and impressive. In his book Historic Houses: Conversations in Stately Homes, the author and journalist Robert Harling documents nineteen "stately homes"; these range in size from the vast Blenheim Palace and Castle Howard to the minuscule Ebberston Hall, and in architecture from the Jacobean Renaissance of Hatfield House to the eccentricities of Sezincote. The book's collection of stately homes also includes George IV's Brighton town palace, the Royal Pavilion.

Evolution

The country houses of England have evolved over the last five hundred years. Before this time, larger houses were usually fortified, reflecting the position of their owners as feudal lords, de facto overlords of their manors. The Tudor period of stability in the country saw the building of the first of the unfortified great houses. Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries saw many former ecclesiastical properties granted to the King's favourites, who then converted them into private country houses. Woburn Abbey, Forde Abbey and many other mansions with abbey or priory in their name became private houses during this period. Other terms used in the names of houses to describe their origin or importance include palace, castle, court, hall, mansion, park, house, manor, and place.

It was during the second half of the reign of Elizabeth I, and under her successor, James I, that the first architect-designed mansions, thought of today as epitomising the English country house, began to make their appearance. Burghley House, Longleat House, and Hatfield House are among the best-known examples of the showy prodigy house, often built with the intention of attracting the monarch to visit. By the reign of Charles I, Inigo Jones and his form of Palladianism had changed the face of English domestic architecture completely, with the use of turrets and towers as an architectural reference to the earlier castles and fortified houses completely disappearing. The Palladian style, in various forms, interrupted briefly by baroque, was to predominate until the second half of the 18th century when, influenced by ancient Greek styles, it gradually evolved into the neoclassicism championed by such architects as Robert Adam. Some of the best known of England's country houses were the work of only one architect/designer, built in a relatively short, particular time: Montacute House, Chatsworth House, and Blenheim Palace are examples. While the latter two are ducal palaces, Montacute, although built by a Master of the Rolls to Queen Elizabeth I, was occupied for the next 400 years by his descendants, who were gentry without a London townhouse, rather than aristocracy. They finally ran out of funds in the early 20th century.

However, the vast majority of English country houses, often owned at different times by gentlemen and peers, are an evolution of one or more styles with facades and wings in different styles in a mixture of high architecture, often as interpreted by a local architect or surveyor, and determined by practicality as much as by the whims of architectural taste. An example of this is Brympton d'Evercy in Somerset, a house of many periods that is unified architecturally by the continuing use of the same mellow, local Ham Hill stone.

The fashionable William Kent redesigned Rousham House only to have it quickly and drastically altered to provide space for the owner's twelve children. Canons Ashby, home to poet John Dryden's family, is another example of architectural evolution: a medieval farmhouse enlarged in the Tudor era around a courtyard, given grandiose plaster ceilings in the Stuart period, and then having Georgian façades added in the 18th century. The whole is a glorious mismatch of styles and fashions that seamlessly blend together. These could be called the true English country house. Wilton House, one of England's grandest houses, is in a remarkably similar vein; although, while the Drydens, mere squires, at Canons Ashby employed a local architect, at Wilton the mighty Earls of Pembroke employed the finest architects of the day: first Holbein, 150 years later Inigo Jones, and then Wyatt followed by Chambers. Each employed a different style of architecture, seemingly unaware of the design of the wing around the next corner. These varying "improvements", often criticised at the time, today are the qualities that make English country houses unique.

Sizes and types
"Wealthy and influential people, often bored with their formal duties, go to the country in order to get out of London, the ugliest and most uncomfortable city in the world; they invented the long week-end to stay away as long as possible. Their métier is politics; they talk politics; and they make politics, quite spontaneously."

- John Gunther, 1940

There are no written terms for distinguishing between vast country palaces and comparatively small country houses; the descriptive terms, which can include castle, manor and court, provide no firm clue and are often only used because of a historical connection with the site of such a building. Therefore, for ease or explanation, Britain's country houses can be categorised according to the circumstances of their creation.

Power houses

The great houses are the largest of the country houses; in truth palaces, built by the country's most powerful – these were designed to display their owners' power or ambitions to power. Really large unfortified or barely fortified houses began to take over from the traditional castles of the crown and magnates during the Tudor period, with vast houses such as Hampton Court Palace and Burghley House, and continued until the 18th century with houses such as Castle Howard, Kedleston Hall and Holkham Hall. Such building reached its zenith from the late 17th century until the mid-18th century; these houses were often completely built or rebuilt in their entirety by one eminent architect in the most fashionable architectural style of the day and often have a suite of Baroque state apartments, typically in enfilade, reserved for the most eminent guests, the entertainment of whom was of paramount importance in establishing and maintaining the power of the owner. The common denominator of this category of English country houses is that they were designed to be lived in with a certain degree of ceremony and pomp. It was not unusual for the family to have a small suite of rooms for withdrawing in privacy away from the multitude that lived in the household. These houses were always an alternative residence to a London house.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, for the highest echelons of English society, the country house served as a place for relaxing, hunting and running the country with one's equals at the end of the week, with some houses having their own theatre where performances were staged.

The country house, however, was not just an oasis of pleasure for a fortunate few; it was the centre of its own world, providing employment to hundreds of people in the vicinity of its estate. In previous eras, when state benefits were unheard of, those working on an estate were among the most fortunate, receiving secured employment and rent-free accommodation. At the summit of this category of people was the indoor staff of the country house. Unlike many of their contemporaries prior to the 20th century, they slept in proper beds, wore well-made adequate clothes and received three proper meals a day, plus a small wage. In an era when many still died from malnutrition or lack of medicine, the long working hours were a small price to pay.

As a result of the aristocratic habit of only marrying within the aristocracy, and whenever possible to a sole heiress, many owners of country houses owned several country mansions, and would visit each according to the season: Grouse shooting in Scotland, pheasant shooting and fox hunting in England. The Earl of Rosebery, for instance, had Dalmeny House in Scotland, Mentmore Towers in Buckinghamshire, and another house near Epsom just for the racing season. For many, this way of life, which began a steady decline in 1914, continued well into the 20th century, and for a few continues to this day.

Minor country houses
In the second category of Britain's country houses are those that belonged to the squirearchy or landed gentry. These tend either to have evolved from medieval hall houses, with rooms added as required, or were purpose-built by relatively unknown local architects. Smaller, and far greater in number than the "power houses", these were still the epicentre of their own estate, but were often the only residence of their owner.

However, whether the owner of a "power house" or a small manor, the inhabitants of the English country house have become collectively referred to as the ruling class, because this is exactly what they did in varying degrees, whether by having high political influence and power in national government, or in the day-to-day running of their own localities or "county" in such offices as lord/deputy lieutenant, magistrates, or occasionally even clergy.

The Country house mystery was a popular genre of English detective fiction in the 1920s and 1930s; set in the residence of the gentry and often involving a murder in a country house temporarily isolated by a snowstorm or similar with the suspects all at a weekend house party.

Victorian houses
Following the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, a third category of country houses was built as newly rich industrialists and bankers were eager to display their wealth and taste. By the 1850s, with the English economy booming, new mansions were built in one of the many revivalist architectural styles popular throughout the 19th century. The builders of these new houses were able to take advantage of the political unrest in Europe that gave rise to a large trade in architectural salvage. This new wave of country house building is exemplified by the Rothschild properties in the home counties and Bletchley Park (rebuilt in several styles, and famous for its code-breaking role in World War II).

Decline

The slow decline of the English country house coincided with the rise not just of taxation, but also of modern industry, along with the agricultural depression of the 1870s. By 1880, this had led some owners into financial shortfalls as they tried to balance maintenance of their estates with the income they provided. Some relied on funds from secondary sources such as banking and trade while others, like the severely impoverished Duke of Marlborough, sought to marry American heiresses to save their country houses and lifestyles.

The ultimate demise began immediately following World War I. The members of the huge staff required to maintain large houses had either left to fight and never returned, departed to work in the munitions factories, or filled the void left by the fighting men in other workplaces. Of those who returned after the war, many left the countryside for better-paid jobs in towns. The final blow for many country houses came following World War II; having been requisitioned during the war, they were returned to the owners in poor repair. Many estate owners, having lost their heirs, if not in the immediately preceding war then in World War I, were now paying far higher rates of tax, and agricultural incomes had dropped. Thus, the solution for many was to hold contents auctions and then demolish the house and sell its stone, fireplaces, and panelling. This is what happened to many of Britain's finest houses.

Despite this slow decline, so necessary was the country house for entertaining and prestige that in 1917 Viscount Lee of Fareham donated his country house Chequers to the nation for the use of a prime minister who might not possess one of his own. Chequers still fulfills that need today as do both Chevening House and Dorneywood, donated for sole use of high-ranking ministers of the Crown.

Today
Today, many country houses have become hotels, schools, hospitals and museums, while others have survived as conserved ruins, but from the early 20th century until the early 1970s, hundreds of country houses were demolished. Houses that survived destruction are now mostly Grade I or II listed as buildings of historic interest with restrictions on restoration and re-creation work. However such work is usually very expensive. Several houses have been restored, some over many years. For example at Copped Hall where the restoration started in 1995 continues to this day.

Although the ownership or management of some houses has been transferred to a private trust, most notably at Chatsworth, other houses have transferred art works and furnishings under the Acceptance in Lieu scheme to ownership by various national or local museums, but retained for display in the building. This enables the former owners to offset tax, the payment of which would otherwise have necessitated the private sale of the art works. For example, tapestries and furniture at Houghton Hall are now owned by the Victoria and Albert Museum. In addition, increasing numbers of country houses hold licences for weddings and civil ceremonies. Another source of income is to use the house as a venue for parties, a film location or a corporate entertainment venue. While many country houses are open to the public and derive income through that means, they remain homes, in some cases inhabited by the descendants of their original owners.

The lifestyles of those living and working in a country house in the early 20th century were recreated in a BBC television programme, The Edwardian Country House, filmed at Manderston House in Scotland. Another television programme which features life in country houses is the ITV series Downton Abbey.

Media

 * Country Life
 * Downton Abbey
 * The Edwardian Country House (a Channel 4 series)
 * Country House

Sources and further reading

 * Coutu, Joan, et al. eds. Politics and the English Country House, 1688–1800 (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2023) online book review
 * Coutu, Joan, et al. eds. Politics and the English Country House, 1688–1800 (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2023) online book review

 * Details the impact of social change on design.
 * Gives much detail of how a smaller country house operated in the early 20th century.
 * Gives much detail of how a smaller country house operated in the early 20th century.
 * Gives much detail of how a smaller country house operated in the early 20th century.
 * Gives much detail of how a smaller country house operated in the early 20th century.

 * Robinson, John Martin, The English Country Estate, 1988, Century Hutchinson/ National Trust, ISBN 0712622756
 * Robinson, John Martin, The English Country Estate, 1988, Century Hutchinson/ National Trust, ISBN 0712622756
 * Robinson, John Martin, The English Country Estate, 1988, Century Hutchinson/ National Trust, ISBN 0712622756

title: English country house


text: Category:Elections in Montserrat

title: Category:Elections in Montserrat


text: Category:Elections in Saint Kitts and Nevis


text: Category:Elections in Saint Lucia

title: Category:Elections in Saint Lucia


text: Category:Elections in Trinidad and Tobago


text:
Category:Elections in South Ossetia

See also: Category:Referendums in South Ossetia

title: Category:Elections in South Ossetia


text: Category:Elections in Sudan

title: Category:Elections in Sudan


text:
Serial decimal

In computers, a serial decimal numeric representation is one in which ten bits are reserved for each digit, with a different bit turned on depending on which of the ten possible digits is intended. ENIAC and CALDIC used this representation.

title: Serial decimal


text: Category:South Ossetia

title: Category:South Ossetia


text: Category:Romanian poets

title: Category:Romanian poets


text:
Talk:Quasi-Monte Carlo method

What is the exponent s in this formula?

 * The discrepancy of sequences typically used for the quasi-Monte Carlo method is bounded by a constant times

 * $$ \frac{(\log N)^s}{N} $$

Michael Ward 19:55, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * s is the dimensionality of the integral, and therefore it's also the dimensionality of the elements x of the low-discrepancy sequence. The problem statement shows a 1-dimensional integral; that should be generalized to show an integral over s dimensions. Hope this helps, Wile E. Heresiarch 07:23, 24 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Then how is that relevant to the convergance? N is a scalar quantity, or could just as easily be, so what value does it have to complicate the convergence illustration with the s? Also, why is the covnergence for the Monte Carlo method shown in this complicated form, when the $$1/\sqrt{N}$$ form given by the Central limit theorem is so much simpler? Detail that adds value is good, detail that doesn't is just confusing the reader and making the article accessible to less people. I think both of these fall in the latter case. - Taxman Talk 14:07, Jun 14, 2005 (UTC)
 * Well, (1) one of the relevant differences between Monte Carlo and quasi-Monte Carlo is that the discrepancy is a function of the dimension s for QMC but not for MC. Since the article is about QMC, it seems relevant to bring s into play. Maybe this point could stand to have greater emphasis. (2) The formula sqrt ((log log N)/(2 N)) is for the expected discrepancy of MC -- this is proportional to an upper bound on the error. If I'm not mistaken, the usually-cited 1/sqrt(N) is the expected error for MC. Hope this helps, Wile E. Heresiarch 03:25, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

My impression is that Quasi-MC is not a whole lot of use because (as noted in article) it works best for smooth (ie low derivative and higher derivative) functions in small numbers of dimensions. That's exactly the kind of function where extended Simpson's rule and the like work ok and you don't need MC. One interesting case to physicists is the Metropolis algorithm, where the first derivative is infinite. Quite a few applications also have large numbers of dimensions. But i guess the promise of Quasi-MC from the theory is enough that people would like to extend it to work in more cases. If anyone out there knows these issues a bit more discussion in the article would be nice. Thanks. 203.164.222.150 02:29, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Good points. Another issue is that the upper-bound on the discrepancy of the Quasi-MC samples can't be very tight.  All parameters being equal, the discrepancy of the Quasi-MC should be lower than uniform samples but the asymptotics for the given bounds show the opposite.  I assume tight upper-bounds don't exist for the Quasi-MC points, but it's confusing for the reader.  It would be nice to point out this problem in the article. Mesterharm (talk) 17:42, 2 July 2010 (UTC)

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Chipata

Chipata is a city and administrative centre of the Eastern Province of Zambia and Chipata District. It was declared the 5th city of the country, after Lusaka, Ndola, Kitwe and Livingstone, by President Edgar Lungu on 24 February 2017. The city has undergone rapid economic and infrastructure growth in the years, leading up to city status.

Location
Chipata is located on the Great East Road, approximately 570 km east of Lusaka, the capital city of Zambia. This is about 150 km west of Lilongwe, the capital city of Malawi. The geographical coordinates of Chipata are 13°38′43.0″S, 32°38′47.0″E. The average elevation of Chipata is 1181 m, above sea level.

Overview
Having a modern market, a central hospital, shopping malls, a university, some colleges and a number of schools, Chipata is the business and administrative hub of the region. The town boasts a four star hotel, a golf course, an airport, and a "welcome arch". Developed areas includes Kalongwezi, Moth, and Little Bombay.

Chipata is the regional head of the Ngoni of Zambia. The Ngoni adopted the languages of the tribes they conquered, so Chewa and Nsenga are the principal languages, although Tumbuka and English are widely spoken, plus some Indian languages, as a large number of Zambian Indians live in the town. It is located near the border with Malawi, and lies on the Great East Road which connects the capitals Lilongwe 150 km to the east, and Lusaka 570 km to the west. It is a popular access point for the South Luangwa National Park, which is 100 km to the north-west.

History
Chipata's name comes from the Chewa word "Chimpata" meaning "large space", in reference to the town's situation in a shallow valley between hills. The name of the central neighbourhood of Kapata, the original centre of town, comes from the Chewa word meaning "small space."

Chipata was formerly known as Fort Jameson (and informally as "Fort Jimmy"), being named after Sir Leander Starr Jameson, the 19th-century British politician and adventurer. Even during the colonial period, few supported that Jameson, who is mainly known for his part in the infamous Jameson Raid, fully deserved the honour of having any town named after him. Like 'Fort Manning' and 'Fort Rosebery', Fort Jameson was called a "fort" because the local government offices, or "Boma", were once fortified.

Fort Jameson was the capital of the British protectorate of North-Eastern Rhodesia between 1900 and 1911.

During World War II, 80 Polish refugees escaping from German- and Soviet-occupied Poland, were admitted in Fort Jameson in 1941.

Government
The mayor of the city of Chipata is the head of the city government.

Population
With a population of about 327,059 in 2022, the Chipata District is believed to be the 8th largest city of the country. The city of Chipata had 193,288 inhabitants in 2022. The predominant ethnic groups in the city are the Chewa, Tumbuka, Ngoni and Nsenga.

Economy
Chipata is the primary transport hub for trade between Zambia and Malawi. "Down Shops" is Chipata's bustling down-town area, most shops and other businesses having proprietors of Indian origin. Two notable shops are Kavulamungu Bargain Centre, and Ally & Sons.

Tourism
The Nc'wala ceremony of the Ngoni people takes place at Mutenguleni on the outskirts of Chipata. The ceremony celebrates the first fruits harvest and is usually held at the end of February.

Rail
An extension of the Sena railway, connecting the city of Chipata to the territory of Malawi (via Mchinji) was opened in August 2011. Since then, Chipata acts as the Zambian railhead and entry point from Malawi and beyond. In the pipeline since 1982, the short link, about 35 km, provides a through-route for rail traffic from Zambia via Malawi to the Indian Ocean deep-water port at Nacala in Mozambique. The route and alignment of the line has been laid out, including the site of Chipata station and the basic station building.

The route will provide an alternative to two existing rail routes to the Indian Ocean, at Dar es Salaam and Beira. In 2015 it was proposed to build a rail link to Serenje, a town on the TAZARA Railway line.

Road
The T4 road (Great East Road) connects Chipata with Lusaka to the west (570 kilometres away) and the Mwami border with Malawi to the east (20 kilometres away).

The M12 road connects Chipata with Lundazi to the north (100 kilometres away). The D104 road connects Chipata with Mfuwe and the South Luangwa National Park to the north-west (100 kilometres away). The D128 road connects Chipata with Chadiza to the south-west (65 kilometres away).

Rivers
Chipata has four major streams pouring into the Luangwa river. The Luangwa river rises in the Lilonda and Mafinga Hills in north-east Zambia at an elevation of around 1500 meters near the border with Tanzania and Malawi, and flows in a southwesterly direction through a broad valley. The water from the streams and the Luangwa river is used for farming by the inhabitants around the district.

Soil and vegetation
There are three main soil types: acrisols, fersiallitic soils, and lithosols. There are four vegetation types, the main one being the brachystegia (miombo) woodland and munga vegetation types.

Climate
Chipata features a tropical savanna climate (Köppen: Aw) with wet and dry seasons. Summers are characterized by warm to hot temperatures, reaching peak values in October and November. Winters are milder, with July being the coolest month. The wet season, from November to March, experiences high humidity and significant rainfall. The dry season, from May to October, is marked by minimal precipitation.

Suburbs

 * Kalongwezi
 * Kalongwezi Extension
 * Kapata
 * Umodzi
 * Moth
 * Muchini
 * Nabvutika
 * Little Bombay
 * Mchenga
 * Damview
 * Old Gym
 * New Gym
 * Chimwemwe
 * Magazine
 * Eastrise
 * Walela
 * Chawama
 * Munga
 * Chipata Motel
 * Nadalitsika
 * Katopola
 * Maferendum
 * Rose
 * Hillview
 * Gash
 * Msekera
 * Messengers
 * David Kaunda area
 * Hollywood
 * Kalongola site and service
 * Hillview
 * Chimzere
 * Gondar Barracks
 * Highlands
 * Aslot

title: Chipata


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District of Columbia Court of Appeals

The District of Columbia Court of Appeals is the highest court of the District of Columbia, the capital city of the United States. The court was established in 1942 as the Municipal Court of Appeals, and it has been the court of last resort for matters of D.C. local law since 1970. The court is located in the former District of Columbia City Hall building at Judiciary Square. The D.C. Court of Appeals and the Superior Court of the District of Columbia comprise the District of Columbia's court system.

The D.C. Court of Appeals is the equivalent of a state supreme court. Because the District of Columbia is not a U.S. state, however, the court's authority derives from the U.S. Congress rather than from the inherent sovereignty of the states. The D.C. Court of Appeals is sometimes confused with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, which is the federal U.S. court of appeals that covers the District of Columbia.

History
For much of the history of the District of Columbia, appeals in local matters were adjudicated by federal courts: first the Circuit Court of the District of Columbia (1801–1863), then the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia (1863–1893) (later renamed the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia), and finally the District of Columbia Court of Appeals (1893–1970) (later renamed the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit). The first local appellate court was established in 1942 when Congress created the Municipal Court of Appeals to hear appeals from the D.C. Municipal Court and the Juvenile Court. Consisting of a Chief Judge and two Associate Judges, the Municipal Court of Appeals acted as an intermediate appellate court, its decisions reviewable on a discretionary basis by the D.C. Circuit. In 1962, Congress renamed the court the District of Columbia Court of Appeals, and in 1967 its membership was enlarged to six judges.

Federal and local jurisdiction in the D.C. remained entangled until 1970, when Congress enacted the District of Columbia Court Reform and Criminal Procedure Act. In addition to establishing the Superior Court of the District of Columbia, the Act established the District of Columbia Court of Appeals as the "highest court for the District of Columbia," expanded its size to its present composition of nine judges, and broadened its jurisdiction to hear all appeals from the Superior Court and review decisions of the city's mayor and administrative agencies.

Powers
As the court of last resort for the District of Columbia, the Court of Appeals is authorized to review all final orders, judgments, and specified interlocutory orders of the associate judges of the Superior Court of the District of Columbia, as well as decisions of certain D.C. agencies. The court also has jurisdiction to review decisions of administrative agencies, boards, and commissions of the District government, as well as to answer questions of law presented by the Supreme Court of the United States, a United States court of appeals, or the highest appellate court of any state. As authorized by Congress, the court reviews proposed rules of the trial court and develops its own rules for proceedings.

Cases before the court are determined by randomly selected three-judge divisions, unless a hearing or rehearing before the court sitting en banc (with all judges present) is ordered. A hearing or rehearing before the court sitting en banc may be ordered by a majority of the judges in regular active service, generally only when consideration by the full court is necessary to maintain uniformity of its decisions, or when the case involves a question of exceptional importance. The en banc court consists of the nine judges of the court in regular active service, except that a retired judge may sit to rehear a case or controversy if the judge heard the original hearing. The Chief Judge may designate and assign temporarily one or more judges of the Superior Court of the District of Columbia to serve on the District of Columbia Court of Appeals when required.

Members of the court are empowered to adjudicate the oath of office ceremony for the executive cabinet of the president.

In the exercise of its inherent power over members of the legal profession, the court established the District of Columbia Bar and has the power to approve the rules governing attorney disciplinary proceedings. The court also reviews the rules of professional conduct and has established rules governing the admission of members of the District of Columbia Bar and the resolution of complaints concerning the unauthorized practice of law in the District of Columbia.

Judges
The court consists of a chief judge and eight associate judges. The court is assisted by the service of retired judges who have been recommended and approved as senior judges. Despite being the District's local appellate court, judges are appointed by the president of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate for 15-year terms. In 2011, the district's judicial conduct entity, the Commission on Judicial Disabilities and Tenure, gained the ability to reappoint judges that it deems "well qualified" for subsequent 15-year terms without input from the president or senate. If the commission deems the judge "qualified," the president has the option of renominating them, but if the commission deems the judge "unqualified," they are ineligible for reappointment. In 2021, the commission reappointed Chief Judge Anna Blackburne-Rigsby to a new 15-year term.

Chief judges
The first three chief judges of the Municipal Court of Appeals were nominated and confirmed specifically as chief judges. However, in 1961, the Department of Justice determined that the relevant law was ambiguous enough that President Kennedy could elevate sitting judge Andrew M. Hood as chief judge without submitting a nomination to the Senate for that purpose, as President Truman had done when elevating Nathan Cayton as chief judge in 1946. The Library of Congress issued a legal opinion calling the Department of Justice's determination into question, but Hood remained as chief judge. Since 1973, the chief judge has been selected by the District of Columbia Judicial Nomination Commission for renewable four-year terms.

title: District of Columbia Court of Appeals


text:
Vergnügungszug

Vergnügungszug (Pleasure Train), op. 281 is a polka composed by Johann Strauss II in 1864. It was written for the Association of Industrial Societies' Ball held in the Redoutensaal on 19 January 1864 and was inspired by the opening of the Austrian Southern Railway – the Südbahn – which operated many 'pleasure trains' offering trips from Vienna to the countryside.

Strauss was not the first composer to write a piece celebrating technological innovation. Much earlier Hans Christian Lumbye, the popular Danish composer, had written his Kjøbenhjavns Jernbane-Damp-Galop (Copenhagen Railway Steam Galop), while Johann Strauss I celebrated the opening of the first Austrian steam railway on 14 November 1837 between the Viennese suburbs of Floridsdorf and Deutsch Wagram with his appropriately titled waltz Eisenbahn-Lust Walzer (Railway Joy Waltz) op. 89. Eduard Strauss, too, wrote his famous quick polka Bahn Frei (Track Clear) op. 45, another piece celebrating the opening of a new railway line.

Johann Strauss II's vividly descriptive polka, however, is remarkable for its use of triangles in imitation of train bells and of horns to suggest the chuffing of the train. In the trio section the melody constantly hints of the train's progression. The polka, like the train's journey, has to end, however, and Strauss powers home the conclusion with high chords before a resounding flourish underlined by a powerful roll on snaredrum.

Although many of Strauss's works commemorate travel and other forms of transport, neither he nor his brother eagerly undertook extensive journeys. One anecdote states that Johann himself was terrified at the mere mention of the overhanging precipices at the Semmering Pass and later during a railway trip he made to Boston in the 1870s as part of a concert tour of the United States, his wife Henrietta Treffz noted that Strauss confessed he would rather die than be forced take another trip on the American railroad. Many (unsubstantiated) stories suggest that Strauss was so terrified of rail travel that he spent train journeys huddled on the carriage floor.

title: Vergnügungszug


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KCBS

KCBS may refer to:

 * KCBS-TV, a television station (PSIP 2.1/RF31) licensed to Los Angeles, California, United States
 * KCBS-FM, a radio station (93.1 FM) licensed to Los Angeles, California, United States
 * KCBS (AM), a radio station (740 AM) licensed to San Francisco, California, United States
 * KFRC-FM, a radio station (106.9) also licensed to San Francisco which simulcasts KCBS (AM) and is branded as such
 * Kansas City Barbeque Society
 * Korean Central Broadcasting Station

title: KCBS


text: Category:Elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina


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Circus Charlie

Circus Charlie (サーカスチャーリー) is an action game originally published in arcades by Konami in 1984. The player controls a circus clown named Charlie in six different circus-themed minigames. It was released for MSX in the same year, followed by ports to the Famicom in 1986 by Soft Pro and the Commodore 64 in 1987.

Gameplay
In the game there are six regular stages (plus an extra stage) of differing tasks that are to be completed by Charlie. Grabbing money bags, performing dangerous tricks, avoiding enemies, completing stages, etc., earns Charlie points. After the sixth stage is completed, the game starts over again but with a faster pace and more difficult (but exactly the same in terms of task to be completed) levels.

Charlie also races against time. Bonus points are awarded according to the time remaining, but running out of time will cost the player a life.

Levels
The standard Arcade version has 6 levels in total. Levels 1, 2, 4 and 5 have 5 sublevels. Level 3 contains 7 sublevels. Each sublevel gets more difficult. Level 6 also has 5 sublevels, but repeats as long the user has lives.

 * Level 1: Ride on a lion and jump through flaming rings.
 * Level 2: Tightrope walking whilst jumping over monkeys.
 * Level 3: Jump between trampolines and beware the knife throwers and fire breathers. In sublevel 3 and 6 the trampolines are placed in a swimming pool and the knife throwers and fire breathers are replaced by jumping dolphins. This level is not present in the MSX and Famicom/NES ports of the game.
 * Level 4: Jump from ball to ball.
 * Level 5: Ride a horse and jump over trampolines and walls.
 * Level 6: Swing from one trapeze to the next.

Versions
In arcades, there's a "Level Select" version of the game, in which the player can choose any of the stages to play, but only a limited number of times each, whereupon the level will become unselectable. There is no "ending" to the game—after the first five levels have each been played to their limit, the player then repeats the trapeze stage until all their lives are exhausted.

The Famicom version just like MSX port drops the trampoline stage, but offers a "B" mode, in which all the levels are repeated with added difficulty. The game often shows up on Famicom clone systems and multicarts, usually with its title screen altered to remove copyright, some versions also have the levels split up to make up separate games in multicarts.

The music comes from "American Patrol" and "The Blue Danube".

Reception
In Japan, Game Machine listed Circus Charlie on their May 15, 1984 issue as being the third most-successful table arcade unit of the month.

Legacy
In Mikie, another Konami arcade game, headbutting the teacher's desk from below three times in the classroom stage will make Circus Charlie appear, giving the player extra points.

Circus Charlie was released along with other Konami classic games on the Nintendo DS compilation Konami Classics Series: Arcade Hits.

Other media

 * Circus Charlie is one of the video games that were adapted into a manga titled Susume!! Seigaku Dennou Kenkyuubu, published in the Gamest comics collection from April 1999, drawn by Kouta Hirano.
 * Charlie has a cameo appearance in the panel Seinen manga Konami 4Koma Manga Wai Wai World which is part of the Famicom Runners High.

title: Circus Charlie


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Michael Louden

Michael Louden (April 21, 1964 – September 4, 2004) was an American actor.

Career
Louden was born in Marblehead, Massachusetts and went on to become an actor. He studied theater at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill but graduated from Juilliard. He started as a 1988-day player on daytime soap Another World but his most notable role was Duke Kramer on As the World Turns. Duke was a moody young man who discovered his father was the volatile John Dixon (allowing Louden many scenes with theater powerhouse Larry Bryggman). Duke went on to medical school as well as a lengthy relationship with Lien Hughes, played by future ER star Ming-Na Wen. Louden played the role from 1988 to 1990 and for a brief visit in 1993.

Louden had a small part on One Life to Live in 1995 as a court reporter. Among the handful of his other film and TV appearances was a role in the 2000 film Space Cowboys. In 2003 he briefly hosted the video game show Arena on the G4 network. In Hellbent in 2004, he was a cop-loving drag queen. While working at G4, Michael became very involved with the Black Rabbit Society.

He continued to work in theater and independent film until his sudden death from a brain aneurysm.

title: Michael Louden


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User talk:X-interupt

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
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If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username. If you have any questions, see the help pages or add a question to the village pump. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

Regards, Fire Star 20:04, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

The Sollog article has been subject to constant vandalism, much of it by anon posters and I removed it mostly because you didn't have a username and the first sentence wasn't capitalized. Another factor was that it discussed his cold reading, which I generally regard as a non-topic. That said, I'm glad to see you have a username and welcome to Wikipedia! Wyss 20:39, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:X-interupt


text:
PAETEC Holding Corp.

PAETEC Holding Corporation was a Fortune 1000 telecommunications company headquartered in Perinton, New York, United States. It was founded as the private company PaeTec Communications, Inc. in 1998 by Arunas A. Chesonis. In 2007 it merged with US LEC and then Cavalier Telephone Company and became a publicly traded company, and in 2011 it was acquired by Windstream Communications.

PAETEC provided local and long-distance voice services, data and Internet services, and software applications, among others. PAETEC provided service to medium and large businesses, colleges and universities, hospitals, hotels, governmental organizations and other institutions within its service area.

Mergers and acquisitions

 * September 9, 1999 - Purchased CAMPUSLINK Communications Systems, a privately owned telecommunications company based in Ann Arbor, Mich.
 * August 19, 2004 - Purchased Covista North East Call Zone (Covista Still Privately owned company, also operating as Total Tel)
 * January 4, 2005 - Purchased American Long Lines, a privately owned telecommunications company.
 * February 28, 2007 - Acquired Charlotte, NC based telecommunications company US LEC, becoming the publicly traded PAETEC Holding Corp
 * October 12, 2007 - Acquired Allworx Corp
 * February 8, 2008 - Acquired McLeodUSA
 * December 6, 2010 - Acquired Cavalier Telephone Corporation
 * December 28, 2010 - Acquired FTS Ltd. subsidiary, Leap RevChain
 * May 31, 2011 - Acquired XETA Technologies, Inc.
 * December 1, 2011 - Acquired by Windstream Communications

PAETEC owned the naming rights to PAETEC Park, a soccer-specific stadium in nearby Rochester, New York, from its opening in 2006 to 2008.

Name origin
The name PAETEC was derived from the initials of the first names of its founder's wife Pam and four children Adam, Erik, Tessa and Emma. In earlier days, the name was displayed as PaeTec Communications, Inc. After the acquisition of US LEC, the new merged entity became PAETEC Holding Corp., however, the company is simply referred to as PAETEC.

Controversy
Since its acquisition, PAETEC (also known as STARNET PAETEC) has been listed several times as the provider of VOIP services to phone scammers.

Other

 * October 16, 2007 - New York State Governor Eliot Spitzer and PAETEC CEO Arunas Chesonis announced plans to tear down Rochester's Midtown Plaza, to build a new corporate headquarters. These plans have since been canceled.
 * PAETEC sponsored Rochester Institute of Technology's Imagine RIT: Innovation and Creativity Festival on May 3, 2008.

title: PAETEC Holding Corp.


text:
National Police

National Police may refer to the national police forces of several countries:

 * Afghanistan: Afghan National Police
 * Haiti: Haitian National Police
 * Canada: Royal Canadian Mounted Police
 * Colombia: National Police of Colombia
 * Cuba: National Revolutionary Police Force
 * East Timor: National Police of East Timor
 * El Salvador: National Civil Police of El Salvador
 * France: National Police (France)
 * India:
 * Indian Police Service
 * Indian Imperial Police
 * Indonesia: Indonesian National Police
 * Japan:
 * National Police Agency (Japan)
 * National Police Reserve
 * Kenya:
 * Kenya National Police Service
 * Liechtenstein: National Police (Liechtenstein)
 * Lithuania: Lithuanian Police Force
 * Luxembourg: Grand Ducal Police
 * Monaco: Public Security of Monaco
 * The Netherlands:
 * Rijkspolitie (National Police), 1945 to 1994
 * National Police Corps (Netherlands), 2013 to present
 * Nicaragua: National Police of Nicaragua
 * Niger: National Police (Niger)
 * Panama: Panamanian National Police
 * Paraguay: National Police of Paraguay
 * Peru: National Police of Peru
 * Philippines: Philippine National Police
 * Portugal: Public Security Police
 * South Korea: National Police Agency (South Korea)
 * Spain: National Police Corps (Spain)
 * Taiwan: National Police Agency (Taiwan)
 * Ukraine: National Police of Ukraine
 * Vietnam: Vietnam People’s Police
 * Venezuela: Venezuelan National Police

title: National Police


text: Template:Campaignbox Maryland Campaign

title: Template:Campaignbox Maryland Campaign


text: User talk:69.47.184.112

title: User talk:69.47.184.112


text:
Walter Hess

Walter Hess may refer to:

 * Walter Rudolf Hess (1881–1973), Swiss physiologist
 * Walter W. Hess (1892–1972), United States Army brigadier general

title: Walter Hess


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User:Works Progress Administration

Great Depression

title: User:Works Progress Administration


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User talk:Works Progress Administration

Hello. --Works Progress Administration 20:08, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Works Progress Administration


text:
Muji

Ryohin Keikaku Co., Ltd. (株式会社良品計画) (tyo: 7453), or Muji (無印良品) is a Japanese retailer which sells a wide variety of household and consumer goods. Muji's design philosophy is minimalist, and it places an emphasis on recycling, reducing production and packaging waste, and a no-logo or "no-brand" policy. The name Muji is derived from the first part of Mujirushi Ryōhin, translated as No-Brand Quality Goods on Muji's European website.

Products and businesses

Muji started with only 40 products in the 1980s. Some of their products include pens, pencils, notebooks, storage units, apparel, kitchen appliances, food items, and household care products. Muji has also created an automobile. Muji storefronts such as the one in New York are large and stocked with nearly every single product available. The primary business also includes Café Muji, Meal Muji, Muji Campsite, florist and home furnishing; the company has also engaged in architectural projects such as Muji House.

By the end of the 2000s, Muji was selling more than 7,000 different products. It is positioned as a "reasonably priced" brand, keeping the retail prices of products "lower than usual" by the materials it selects, streamlining its manufacturing processes, and minimising packaging. In April 2019, Muji opened its largest Muji store in Ginza, Japan. The company added Atelier Muji Ginza located on the sixth floor.

Muji has opened hotels in Shenzhen, Beijing, and Ginza, Tokyo.

History
Mujirushi (no-brand) Ryōhin (quality goods) began as a product brand of the supermarket chain The Seiyu, Ltd. in December 1980. The Mujirushi Ryōhin product range was developed to offer affordable quality products and were marketed using the slogan “Lower priced for a reason.” Products were wrapped in clear cellophane, plain brown paper labels and red writing. Mujirushi Ryōhin's drive to cut retail prices for consumers saw the company cutting waste by, for example, selling U-shaped spaghetti, the left-over part that is cut off to sell straight spaghetti.

In 1981, Seiji Tsutsumi, the president of the Seiyu Ryutsu group proposed opening a dedicated shop for Mujirushi Ryōhin products. Although the idea was rejected by the directors of Seiyu, the advisory board of the company supported the idea, proposing the idea of a shop positioned against mass production. The company began to develop products that would allow the shop to expand from a supermarket product range to an independent product company. Such products included food, clothing, stationery, and household goods.

In 1983, the first directly operated Mujirushi Ryōhin store opened in Aoyama, Tokyo. In 1985, Mujirushi Ryōhin started overseas production and procurement, started to place direct factory orders in 1986, and in 1987 Muji started to develop materials globally. And it was a real success.

In 1989, Ryohin Keikaku Ltd became the manufacturer and retailer for all Mujirushi Ryōhin products and operations, including planning, development, production, distribution and sale.

In 1991, Mujirushi Ryōhin opened its first international store in London.

In 1995, shares in “Muji Tsunan Campsite” were registered as over-the-counter shares of Japan Securities Dealers Association. In 1998, Ryōhin Keikaku listed on the second section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange. From 2001 onwards, it was listed on the first section. In April 2001 they issued the Muji Car 1000 (ムジ・カー 1000), a limited release of 1,000 badgeless and decontented Nissan Marches, only available online. Intended as an exercise to test their online marketing systems it was developed together with Nissan. The spartanly equipped little car (with the rear seat upholstered in vinyl, for instance) was only offered in "marble white".

The brand name "Muji" appears to have been used since around 1999.

In 2011, the first Muji store in Aoyama was redeveloped as a concept store with products from around the world.

In 2020 and 2021, Muji faced scrutiny over the use of cotton produced under conditions of forced labor in Xinjiang. Muji subsequently stopped labelling goods as "Xinjiang cotton" in certain markets, such as Hong Kong. In December 2021, it was reported that the same Muji garments labelled simply as "organic cotton" in the Hong Kong, Taiwanese, and Japanese markets were still being sold by Muji under the "Xinjiang cotton" banner in China.

Countries of operation

In Japan, Ryohin Keikaku had 328 directly operated stores, and supplied 124 outlets,. Ryohin Keikaku has three factory outlets at Osaka, Gotenba and Fukuoka.

There were 579 International retail outlets, located in Denmark (1) UK (7), Finland (1), France (7), Italy (6), Germany (7),Ireland (1), Spain (4), Poland (1), Portugal (1), United States (10), Canada (9), Hong Kong (19), Macau (1), Singapore (15), Malaysia (9), South Korea (40), Mainland China (325), Taiwan (58), Thailand (27), Australia (5), Philippines (5), Bahrain (2), Kuwait (3), Qatar (2), Saudi Arabia (5), UAE (7), Oman (1), India (3), Vietnam (3).

Muji had operations in Indonesia, Turkey, Sweden and Switzerland in the past but has closed operations due to its low sales and other circumstances.

American operations
Muji entered the US market in 2002; its products were stocked at MOMA, New York.

Muji opened its first American store on November 16, 2007, in SoHo, Manhattan. In 2008, it opened two more stores in Manhattan: one in Times Square, and one in Chelsea.

On November 30, 2012, it opened its first store on the West Coast in South of Market, San Francisco. The San Francisco store, the Hollywood store, and the Santa Monica store are now permanently closed.

In New York City, Muji supplies products to a design store at the Museum of Modern Art and maintains a flagship store. , there were 7 stores in Manhattan, one in Boston, one in Portland, and another location in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. A small branch is at JFK International Airport.

In July 2020, Muji USA filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, citing shutdowns from the COVID-19 pandemic.

No-brand branding
Muji's no-brand strategy (generic brand) means that little money is spent on advertisement or classical marketing, and Muji's success is attributed to word of mouth, a simple shopping experience, and the anti-brand movement. Muji's no-brand strategy also means its products are attractive to customers who prefer unbranded products for aesthetic reasons, and because it provides an alternative to traditional branded products.

In terms of Muji's advertising of their products, Kenya Hara states that because customers perceived Muji in different ways, advertising would have to be used to present information rather than to communicate a message. These customer perceptions included liking Muji's ecological approach, appreciation for their urban aesthetics, a perception of low cost, and a perception of sophisticated design.

Muji has released a T-shirt with a rubber square on the chest for customers to design their own logo or message. Muji now sells paper products (such as notebooks) which can be personalized by customers using rubber stamps in-store at no charge. They also sell soft goods (such as T-shirts and hats) which can be computer embroidered to customer specifications, and picked up a few hours or days later.

Design
Muji is known for its distinctive design, which is extended throughout its more than 7,000 products. Commentators have described Muji's design style as having mundanity, being "no-frills", being "minimalist", and "Bauhaus-style".

Muji product design, and brand identity, is based around the selection of materials, streamlined manufacturing processes, and minimal packaging. Muji products have a limited colour range and are displayed on shelves with minimal packaging, displaying only functional product information and a price tag. Detailed instructions included with the product are usually printed only in Japanese, although multilingual translations are starting to be included with some products.

Design approach and production
On its corporate website, Ryohin Keikaku Ltd rationalises its principles in terms of producing high quality products at "lower than usual" retail prices, true to the original Muji marketing slogan "lower priced for a reason". On its catalogue website Muji states that "at the heart of Muji design is the Japanese concept of Kanketsu, the concept of simplicity", aiming to "bring a quiet sense of calm into strenuous everyday lives". In an interview, Hiroyoshi Azami, President of Muji USA, described Muji's design culture as centred around designing "simple" products that are basic and necessary.

In its design, Muji also follows environmental guidelines, seeking to "restrict the use of substances that may have a significant impact on people or the environment" and "reduce waste by standardising modules, facilitating disassembly, and by reducing packaging".

The Muji design process resists technology for its own sake, and prototype designs are produced on paper rather than computers, so as not to encourage unnecessary detail. The manufacturing process is determined by the consumer's use of the product, which is a design priority. Finishes, lines, and forms are minimised for manufacturing ease.

In recent years, Muji has looked towards appreciating local culture and craftsmanship. The Found Muji line of products is a movement where Muji's designers find products and designs that follow the company's design approach, focusing on crafts and items that are used globally.

Designers
Muji products are not attributed to individual designers. While Muji has stated that some of its products have been the works of famous international designers, it does not disclose who they are. There are, however, some designers who made their involvement public. The most notable are Naoto Fukasawa, Jasper Morrison,  James Irvine,  Sam Hecht,  and Konstantin Grčić.

Muji participates in design collaborations with other companies. In 2001, Muji and Nissan Motors produced the Muji Car 1000. This fuel efficient, low-emission, and low-cost limited edition vehicle aimed to incorporate recycled materials wherever possible. Following Muji's no-brand strategy, the car had no branding logos.

Manufacturers
Generally, Muji keeps its manufacturing sources private.

One notable exception is the brand's collaboration with Thonet, the oldest German furniture maker. In 2008, Muji and Thonet announced their cooperation to produce two lines of minimalist furniture. The first was bentwood chairs designed by James Irvine in homage to the iconic No. 14 chair of Thonet. The second was steel tubular chairs and desks designed by Konstantin Grčić. Roland Ohnacker, managing director of Thonet, stated that the aim was "to help 18 to 35 year-olds enter the Thonet brand world". From Spring 2009, these furniture are available at selected Muji stores.

Directors
The first art director of Muji was Ikko Tanaka. Tanaka is credited with developing the Muji concept together with Kazuko Koike (marketing consultant), and Takashi Sugimoto (interior designer). Tanaka articulated the Muji vision and appearance, and he provided ideas and prototypes that visualized the design strategy. Tanaka's design strategy included brown paper and clear cellophane packaging. In 2001, Kenya Hara, an internationally recognized graphic designer and curator, took over as art director. He stated that:

I found that the company was at a standstill with the original idea, 'No design', which was advocated at its inception. They also had more than 250 outlets and sold more than 5,000 items, including products that deviated from the initial Muji concept or were low cost, but of substandard quality.

Kenya Hara has been credited as key figure in further developing Muji. Hara has a background in graphic design, hence had experience in designing packaging and corporate identities. Beyond that, he is credited with significantly moulding the Muji brand and design identity. In an interview in 2005, Hara stated that "Everything in the world has become an object of interest for me. Everything is designed." Hara has published books on design philosophy, most recently Designing Design.

Sam Hecht, Creative Director of Muji Europe, is quoted as saying "The human is not the centre of everything, but on the same level of everything".

Design awards and competition
In 2005, Muji was awarded five gold product design awards by the International Forum Design in Germany.

In 2006, Muji held its first international design competition, “Muji Award 01”. In 2007, Chen Jiaojiao published a book on Muji design and brand entitled "Brands A-Z: Muji".

Following
The Berlin correspondent for The New York Times reports that the Japanese call Muji-fans "Mujirers". Muji's international stores and The Muji Catalogue mainly retail Muji home consumer goods, furniture and clothing, while Muji Japan sells in a wide range of sectors, including food, bicycles, camp sites, phones, yoga, florists, cafes, and concept houses.

title: Muji


text:
New Belgium

New Belgium can refer to:

 * New Netherland, the territory claimed by the United Provinces (the Netherlands) on the eastern coast of North America in the 17th century
 * New Belgium Brewing Company, a brewery located in Fort Collins, Colorado

Similar terms:

 * New Belgian Front, a neo-Nazi political organization in Belgium.

title: New Belgium


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Human cells

Human cells
Human cells was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was redirect to List of distinct cell types in the adult human body.

This article doesn't need to exist for the same reason cat cell or female cell don't exist. It doesn't report anything new or exclusive to humans. If there are cells that only existed in humans (afaik, there isn't), then they could be listed here and I'd keep. I've never heard the distinction "human cell" ever being made/used. --jag123 20:10, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect to cell. [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 20:57, Dec 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete it. Wyss 21:36, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Has potential. Megan1967 23:35, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Redirect to List of distinct cell types in the adult human body Michael Ward 00:16, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Agree with the above redirect, unless air birds and tree birds are going to be reinstated. iMeowbot~Mw 00:31, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Redirect as Michael said.  --fvw *  01:08, 2004 Dec 23 (UTC)
 * Do the redirect, and I've been waiting to write about Flybirdia. -- Cyrius|✎ 08:12, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't know. I figure there must be something distinct about a human cell, otherwise they'd be cat cells or fish cells or space alien cells, wouldn't they? Everyking 12:57, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm not aware of anything special about or exclusive to human cells but I could be wrong. Like I said above, if someone knows more about this, I'll keep it. I doubt there is any fundamental difference between bone cells, for instance, of human, cat or fish. I can't say as much for space alien cells though, I've never seen them. --jag123 13:20, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * The differences aren't really at the cell level, that's why transgenic substitution works. There are more logical starting points above and below this level, and Wikipedia has articles tacking those approaches. iMeowbot~Mw 13:24, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * There's no fundamental difference at the undifferentiated "cell" level between a "human cell" and a "generic multicelluar animal cell". -- Cyrius|✎ 18:11, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


text:
Lotka's law

Lotka's law, named after Alfred J. Lotka, is one of a variety of special applications of Zipf's law. It describes the frequency of publication by authors in any given field. Let X be the number of publications, $$Y$$ be the number of authors with $$X$$ publications, and $$k$$ be a constants depending on the specific field. Lotka's law states that $$Y \propto X^{-k}$$.

In Lotka's original publication, he claimed $$k=2$$. Subsequent research showed that $$k$$ varies depending on the discipline.

Equivalently, Lotka's law can be stated as $$Y' \propto X^{-(k-1)}$$, where $$Y'$$ is the number of authors with at least $$X$$ publications. Their equivalence can be proved by taking the derivative.

Example
Assume that n=2 in a discipline, then as the number of articles published increases, authors producing that many publications become less frequent. There are 1/4 as many authors publishing two articles within a specified time period as there are single-publication authors, 1/9 as many publishing three articles, 1/16 as many publishing four articles, etc.

And if 100 authors wrote exactly one article each over a specific period in the discipline, then:

That would be a total of 294 articles and 155 writers, with an average of 1.9 articles for each writer.

Software

 * Friedman, A. 2015. "The Power of Lotka’s Law Through the Eyes of R" The Romanian Statistical Review. Published by National Institute of Statistics.
 * - Software to fit a Lotka power law distribution to observed frequency data.

title: Lotka's law


text:
Semiconductor memory

Semiconductor memory is a digital electronic semiconductor device used for digital data storage, such as computer memory. It typically refers to devices in which data is stored within metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) memory cells on a silicon integrated circuit memory chip. There are numerous different types using different semiconductor technologies. The two main types of random-access memory (RAM) are static RAM (SRAM), which uses several transistors per memory cell, and dynamic RAM (DRAM), which uses a transistor and a MOS capacitor per cell. Non-volatile memory (such as EPROM, EEPROM and flash memory) uses floating-gate memory cells, which consist of a single floating-gate transistor per cell.

Most types of semiconductor memory have the property of random access, which means that it takes the same amount of time to access any memory location, so data can be efficiently accessed in any random order. This contrasts with data storage media such as CDs which read and write data consecutively and therefore the data can only be accessed in the same sequence it was written. Semiconductor memory also has much faster access times than other types of data storage; a byte of data can be written to or read from semiconductor memory within a few nanoseconds, while access time for rotating storage such as hard disks is in the range of milliseconds. For these reasons it is used for primary storage, to hold the program and data the computer is currently working on, among other uses.

, sales of semiconductor memory chips are US$124 billion annually, accounting for % of the semiconductor industry. Shift registers, processor registers, data buffers and other small digital registers that have no memory address decoding mechanism are typically not referred to as memory although they also store digital data.

Description
In a semiconductor memory chip, each bit of binary data is stored in a tiny circuit called a memory cell consisting of one to several transistors. The memory cells are laid out in rectangular arrays on the surface of the chip. The 1-bit memory cells are grouped in small units called words which are accessed together as a single memory address. Memory is manufactured in word length that is usually a power of two, typically N=1, 2, 4 or 8 bits.

Data is accessed by means of a binary number called a memory address applied to the chip's address pins, which specifies which word in the chip is to be accessed. If the memory address consists of M bits, the number of addresses on the chip is 2M, each containing an N bit word. Consequently, the amount of data stored in each chip is N2M bits. The memory storage capacity for M number of address lines is given by 2M, which is usually in power of two: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 and 512 and measured in kilobits, megabits, gigabits or terabits, etc. the largest semiconductor memory chips hold a few gigabits of data, but higher capacity memory is constantly being developed. By combining several integrated circuits, memory can be arranged into a larger word length and/or address space than what is offered by each chip, often but not necessarily a power of two.

The two basic operations performed by a memory chip are "read", in which the data contents of a memory word is read out (nondestructively), and "write" in which data is stored in a memory word, replacing any data that was previously stored there. To increase data rate, in some of the latest types of memory chips such as DDR SDRAM multiple words are accessed with each read or write operation.

In addition to standalone memory chips, blocks of semiconductor memory are integral parts of many computer and data processing integrated circuits. For example, the microprocessor chips that run computers contain cache memory to store instructions awaiting execution.

Volatile memory

Volatile memory loses its stored data when the power to the memory chip is turned off. However it can be faster and less expensive than non-volatile memory. This type is used for the main memory in most computers, since data is stored on the hard disk while the computer is off. Major types are:

RAM (Random-access memory) – This has become a generic term for any semiconductor memory that can be written to, as well as read from, in contrast to ROM (below), which can only be read. All semiconductor memory, not just RAM, has the property of random access.
 * DRAM (Dynamic random-access memory) – This uses memory cells consisting of one MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor) and one MOS capacitor to store each bit. This type of RAM is the cheapest and highest in density, so it is used for the main memory in computers. However, the electric charge that stores the data in the memory cells slowly leaks out, so the memory cells must be periodically refreshed (rewritten) which requires additional circuitry.  The refresh process is handled internally by the computer and is transparent to its user.
 * FPM DRAM (Fast page mode DRAM) – An older type of asynchronous DRAM that improved on previous types by allowing repeated accesses to a single "page" of memory to occur at a faster rate.  Used in the mid-1990s.
 * EDO DRAM (Extended data out DRAM) – An older type of asynchronous DRAM which had faster access time than earlier types by being able to initiate a new memory access while data from the previous access was still being transferred. Used in the later part of the 1990s.
 * VRAM (Video random access memory) – An older type of dual-ported memory once used for the frame buffers of video adapters (video cards).
 * SDRAM (Synchronous dynamic random-access memory) – This added circuitry to the DRAM chip which synchronizes all operations with a clock signal added to the computer's memory bus. This allowed the chip to process multiple memory requests simultaneously using pipelining, to increase the speed. The data on the chip is also divided into banks which can each work on a memory operation simultaneously.  This became the dominant type of computer memory by about the year 2000.
 * DDR SDRAM (Double data rate SDRAM) – This could transfer twice the data (two consecutive words) on each clock cycle by double pumping (transferring data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock pulse). Extensions of this idea are the current (2012) technique being used to increase  memory access rate and throughput.  Since it is proving difficult to further increase the internal clock speed of memory chips, these chips increase the transfer rate by transferring more data words on each clock cycle
 * DDR2 SDRAM – Transfers 4 consecutive words per internal clock cycle
 * DDR3 SDRAM – Transfers 8 consecutive words per internal clock cycle.
 * DDR4 SDRAM – Transfers 16 consecutive words per internal clock cycle.
 * RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) – An alternate double data rate memory standard that was used on some Intel systems but ultimately lost out to DDR SDRAM.
 * XDR DRAM (Extreme data rate DRAM)
 * SGRAM (Synchronous graphics RAM) – A specialized type of SDRAM made for graphics adaptors (video cards). It can perform graphics-related operations such as bit masking and block write, and can open two pages of memory at once.
 * GDDR SDRAM (Graphics DDR SDRAM)
 * GDDR2
 * GDDR3 SDRAM
 * GDDR4 SDRAM
 * GDDR5 SDRAM
 * GDDR6 SDRAM
 * HBM (High Bandwidth Memory) – A development of SDRAM used in graphics cards that can transfer data at a faster rate. It consists of multiple memory chips stacked on top of one another, with a wider data bus.
 * PSRAM (Pseudostatic RAM) – This is DRAM which has circuitry to perform memory refresh on the chip, so that it acts like SRAM, allowing the external memory controller to be shut down to save energy. It is used in a few game consoles such as the Wii.
 * SRAM (Static random-access memory) – This stores each bit of data in a circuit called a flip-flop, made of 4 to 6 transistors. SRAM is less dense and more expensive per bit than DRAM, but faster and does not require memory refresh.  It is used for smaller cache memories in computers.
 * CAM (Content-addressable memory) – This is a specialized type in which, instead of accessing data using an address, a data word is applied and the memory returns the location if the word is stored in the memory. It is mostly incorporated in other chips such as  microprocessors where it is used for cache memory.

Non-volatile memory
Non-volatile memory (NVM) preserves the data stored in it during periods when the power to the chip is turned off. Therefore, it is used for the memory in portable devices, which don't have disks, and for removable memory cards among other uses. Major types are:

 * ROM (Read-only memory) – This is designed to hold permanent data, and in normal operation is only read from, not written to.  Although many types can be written to, the writing process is slow and usually all the data in the chip must be rewritten at once.  It is usually used to store system software which must be immediately accessible to the computer, such as the BIOS program which starts the computer, and the software (microcode) for portable devices and embedded computers such as microcontrollers.
 * MROM (Mask programmed ROM or Mask ROM) – In this type the data is programmed into the chip when the chip is manufactured, so it is only used for large production runs. It cannot be rewritten with new data.
 * PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – In this type the data is written into an existing PROM chip before it is installed in the circuit, but it can only be written once. The data is written by plugging the chip into a device called a PROM programmer.
 * EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory or UVEPROM) – In this type the data in it can be rewritten by removing the chip from the circuit board, exposing it to an ultraviolet light to erase the existing data, and plugging it into a PROM programmer. The IC package has a small transparent "window" in the top to admit the UV light. It is often used for prototypes and small production run devices, where the program in it may have to be changed at the factory. [[Image:4Mbit EPROM Toshiba TC574200D (2).jpg|thumb|4M EPROM, showing transparent window used to erase the chip]]
 * EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) – In this type the data can be rewritten electrically, while the chip is on the circuit board, but the writing process is slow. This type is used to hold firmware, the low level microcode which runs hardware devices, such as the BIOS program in most computers, so that it can be updated.
 * NVRAM (Non-volatile random-access memory)
 * FRAM (Ferroelectric RAM) – One type of nonvolatile RAM.
 * Flash memory – In this type the writing process is intermediate in speed between EEPROMS and RAM memory; it can be written to, but not fast enough to serve as main memory. It is often used as a semiconductor version of a hard disk, to store files.   It is used in portable devices such as PDAs, USB flash drives, and removable memory cards used in digital cameras and cellphones.

History
Early computer memory consisted of magnetic-core memory, as early solid-state electronic semiconductors, including transistors such as the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), were impractical for use as digital storage elements (memory cells). The earliest semiconductor memory dates back to the early 1960s, with bipolar memory, which used bipolar transistors. Bipolar semiconductor memory made from discrete devices was first shipped by Texas Instruments to the United States Air Force in 1961. The same year, the concept of solid-state memory on an integrated circuit (IC) chip was proposed by applications engineer Bob Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor. The first single-chip memory IC was the BJT 16-bit IBM SP95 fabricated in December 1965, engineered by Paul Castrucci. While bipolar memory offered improved performance over magnetic-core memory, it could not compete with the lower price of magnetic-core memory, which remained dominant up until the late 1960s. Bipolar memory failed to replace magnetic-core memory because bipolar flip-flop circuits were too large and expensive.

MOS memory
The advent of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, enabled the practical use of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors as memory cell storage elements, a function previously served by magnetic cores in computer memory. MOS memory was developed by John Schmidt at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1964. In addition to higher performance, MOS memory was cheaper and consumed less power than magnetic-core memory. This led to MOSFETs eventually replacing magnetic cores as the standard storage elements in computer memory.

In 1965, J. Wood and R. Ball of the Royal Radar Establishment proposed digital storage systems that use CMOS (complementary MOS) memory cells, in addition to MOSFET power devices for the power supply, switched cross-coupling, switches and delay-line storage. The development of silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968 enabled the production of MOS memory chips. NMOS memory was commercialized by IBM in the early 1970s. MOS memory overtook magnetic core memory as the dominant memory technology in the early 1970s.

The term "memory" when used with reference to computers most often refers to volatile random-access memory (RAM). The two main types of volatile RAM are static random-access memory (SRAM) and dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). Bipolar SRAM was invented by Robert Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963, followed by the development of MOS SRAM by John Schmidt at Fairchild in 1964. SRAM became an alternative to magnetic-core memory, but required six MOS transistors for each bit of data. Commercial use of SRAM began in 1965, when IBM introduced their SP95 SRAM chip for the System/360 Model 95.

Toshiba introduced bipolar DRAM memory cells for its Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator in 1965. While it offered improved performance over magnetic-core memory, bipolar DRAM could not compete with the lower price of the then dominant magnetic-core memory. MOS technology is the basis for modern DRAM. In 1966, Dr. Robert H. Dennard at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center was working on MOS memory. While examining the characteristics of MOS technology, he found it was capable of building capacitors, and that storing a charge or no charge on the MOS capacitor could represent the 1 and 0 of a bit, while the MOS transistor could control writing the charge to the capacitor. This led to his development of a single-transistor DRAM memory cell. In 1967, Dennard filed a patent under IBM for a single-transistor DRAM memory cell, based on MOS technology. This led to the first commercial DRAM IC chip, the Intel 1103, in October 1970. Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) later debuted with the Samsung KM48SL2000 chip in 1992.

The term "memory" is also often used to refer to non-volatile memory, specifically flash memory. It has origins in read-only memory (ROM). Programmable read-only memory (PROM) was invented by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956, while working for the Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation. In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze of Bell Labs proposed that the floating gate of a MOS semiconductor device could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable read-only memory (ROM), which led to Dov Frohman of Intel inventing EPROM (erasable PROM) in 1971. EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) was developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1972. Flash memory was invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in the early 1980s. Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention of NOR flash in 1984, and then NAND flash in 1987. Toshiba commercialized NAND flash memory in 1987.

title: Semiconductor memory