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Achrafieh

Achrafieh (الأشرفية) is an upper-class area in eastern Beirut, Lebanon. In strictly administrative terms, the name refers to a sector (secteur) centred on Sassine Square, the highest point in the city, as well as a broader quarter (quartier). In popular parlance, however, Achrafieh refers to the whole hill that rises above Gemmayze in the north and extends to Badaro in the south, and includes the Rmeil quarter.

Although there are traces of human activity dating back to the neolithic era, the modern suburb was heavily settled by Greek Orthodox merchant families from Beirut's old city in the mid-nineteenth century. The area contains a high concentration of Beirut's Ottoman and French Mandate era architectural heritage. During the civil war, when Beirut was separated into eastern and western halves by the Green Line, Achrafieh changed from a mostly Christian residential area (compared to bustling, cosmopolitan Hamra, in Ras Beirut) to a commercial hub in its own right. In the early 2000s, the area became a focal point of the city's real estate boom.

Overview
The etymology of Achrafieh most likely relates to the steep hill that defines the area, although this is contested. The area centers on Beirut's highest point, the hill of Saint Dimitrios, and comprises neighbourhoods that slope towards the port in the north, and to what was once a vast pine forest, to the south. The name long predates the present administrative divisions of the Municipality of Beirut, and first appears to designate a suburb in Salih bin Yahya's History of Beirut, in the early 1400s. The writer Elias Khoury recalls how the area was called the "little mountain" (al-jabal as-saghir) by locals, as if it were a small outpost of nearby Mount Lebanon on the coast.

Administratively, Achrafieh today designates a quarter of the city, made up of 9 sectors (Achrafieh, Adlieh, Corniche el-Nahr, Furn el-Hayek, Ghabi, Hotel Dieu, Mar Mitr, Nasra, Sioufi). However, Saint Nicolas and Sursock Street, which are strictly within the quarter of Rmeil, have always been considered part of Achrafieh by local residents and real estate developers alike. Similarly, certain southern parts of the administrative quarter, such as Adlieh, are generally not considered to be part of the area. Achrafieh is therefore defined somewhat nebulously and synonymously with East Beirut.

Achrafieh comprises residential areas characterized by narrow winding streets and cafes along with more commercial areas, with large apartment and office buildings and major arteries between central Beirut and the north-eastern suburbs. The following neighbourhoods are counted within Achrafieh:

 * Accaoui, a hill leading from Gemmayze up to the Sursock neighbourhood
 * Furn el-Hayek
 * Karm el-Zeitoun, a densely populated settlement that was established by Armenian refugees in the 1920s, who were later joined by Syriac Christians. Syrian & Egyptian laborers (mainly males) as well as domestic migrant workers (mainly females) also reside in the area but live communally in shared apartments to minimize their living expenses
 * Mar Mitr, named after the Saint Demetrios Church, hosts one of the city's main Greek Orthodox cemeteries
 * Mar Naqoula or Saint Nicolas, named after the parish church; includes Sursock Street with its old palatial villas, the St Nicolas Stairs (Escalier de l'Art) and many office buildings (Sofil Center, Ivory Building)
 * Nasra, named after the Dames de Nazareth girls school
 * Rue Monot
 * Rue Huvelin
 * Sassine Square, a busy road intersection atop the Saint Dimitrios hill, roughly coterminous with the Achrafieh sector, named after the Sassine family, the original landowners
 * Sodeco Square
 * Sioufi, a residential area on the southern slopes of the hill, built on land that was used for hunting in the mid twentieth century; named for the Sioufi family, which established a furniture factory here
 * Tabaris Square and Abdel Wahab Street

History
There are traces of human activity on the slopes of Achrafieh in antiquity. The area included a necropolis, with archeological findings now in the National Museum of Beirut, and a possible shrine around a water spring at what is today Saint Demetrios Church.

Ottoman period
After several centuries of being a small, walled city, Beirut expanded rapidly in the mid-nineteenth century, as a result of increased trade and immigration, including refugees from inter-communal conflicts in Mount Lebanon and inland Syria. As the old city became increasingly cramped and overpopulated, many Greek Orthodox trading families relocated from the port into semi-rural eastern areas, where they built spacious villas on the slopes of the hill, with large gardens and views commanding the port. These Orthodox families (including the Bustros, Gebeily, Trad, Tueni, and Sursock) made their money through the silk trade as well as money exchanging and tax collection, and were some of the largest property owners and tax payers in the city in the 1860s and 70s. The Orthodox community's communal institutions followed them. The Greek Orthodox Archbishop's palace was also relocated from the Saint George Cathedral complex in downtown Beirut to the Sursock's neighbourhood overlooking the port. The Ecole des Trois Docteurs, founded in 1835 in the Orthodox Cathedral complex in central Beirut, moved eastward until it found its present location at the bottom of the Accaoui hill.

The first palace was built by Nicolas Sursock, probably on what is now the St Nicolas Stairs, and hosted Russia's Grand Duke Nicholas when he visited Beirut in 1872. Other villas included: Taswinat al-Tueni, a palace built by Georges Tueni in the early 1860s and named for the fence that ringed the extensive grounds; the Fadlallah Bustros Palace, completed around 1863 and now housing the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Moussa Sursock's palace, completed around 1870; and Elias Sursock's palace, which hosted General Gouraud during the French Mandate and was demolished in the 1960s. The last major villa was built for Nicolas Ibrahim Sursock in 1912, and upon his death, he left the palace to the Municipality of Beirut as a land grant or waqf, to become what is now the Sursock Museum. These palatial villas remain emblematic of Achrafieh, with one such palace, built for Abdullah Bustros, being sold for $22 million in 2018.

Besides the bourgeois families, many Christian refugees came to settle in the expanding suburbs, starting with the 1860 inter-communal conflict in Mount Lebanon, between Maronites and Druze, and in Damascus, between Orthodox Christians and Muslims. Dimitri Youssef Debbas was one such refugee from the Damascus conflict, who settled in Achrafieh and wrote a memoir of the conflict. Historian Leila Fawaz describes how Dimitri Debbas was part of the first caravan fleeing Damascus, and placed into quarantine outside the city. The Bustros family persuaded the Mutessarif to allow the refugees into the town, and they were housed in the Ecole des Trois Docteurs, near the St George Cathedral. As the school became overcrowded, some were given shelter in Khalil Sursock's house, with families staying in the cellar, and men (including Dimitri Debbas) sleeping in the open. Dimitri Debbas, who had been part of a successful business family in Damascus, rebuilt his wealth from Beirut and built a residence of his own in Achrafieh, on what is now known as Montee Debbas.

Lebanese Civil War
Given its large Christian population, Achrafieh was a focal point of conflict during the Lebanese Civil War. The area was the Beirut heartland of the Christian militias under the Lebanese Front. The Hundred Days' War in 1978 saw the Christian militias of the Lebanese Front fight the Syrian deterrent forces. In 1982, Lebanon's president-elect Bachir Gemayel was assassinated by a bomb explosion at the Kataeb office on Sassine Street. The documentary Beirut: The Last Home Movie (1987) by Jennifer Fox shows the day-to-day life of the Bustros family, inside the Tueni-Bustros palace during the early 1980s. Mouna Bustros, who features in the film, was killed in 1989 when a rocket was fired from the nearby Rizk Tower at the palace. The Achrafieh experience of the war is also chronicled by Elias Khoury in his novel The Little Mountain (1989).

Contemporary Achrafieh
In 2005, journalist Samir Kassir was assassinated by a bomb placed under his car at his residence in Achrafieh.

In 2006, as part of the unrest surrounding the Danish cartoons of Muhammad, protestors torched the Danish embassy building in Tabaris and damaged the nearby Mar Maroun Church in Saifi.

In October 2012, Wissam al-Hassan, head of the Intelligence Branch of Lebanon's Internal Security Force, was killed along with 8 others by a bomb on Sassine Street.

Urbanism
Achrafieh contains some of Beirut's largest remaining clusters of historic buildings from the late Ottoman and French Mandate periods. However, much of this heritage was destroyed during the Civil War (1975–1990), with many structures undergoing reconstruction in the following decades. The area also saw several construction booms (including during the Civil War, in the mid-1990s, and the 2000s), during which much of the built heritage including gardens was replaced with tower blocks to maximize land value. Heritage buildings have been torn down for inheritance reasons, as a way of evicting tenants on so-called "old rents", or because of lack of maintenance.

The area now contains the tallest towers in Beirut, including Sama Beirut near Sodeco, and SkyGate near Sassine Square. The area around Sursock Street has been rebranded by developers as a "golden triangle" (triangle d'or), as it has a balance between permissible population density and development rights (e.g., height of buildings). In 2003 ABC Achrafieh department store and shopping mall was built on what was Salam football field.

The built environment was badly affected by the explosion at Beirut's port in 2020, particularly in the northern parts of Achrafieh. An emergency law was promulgated in the immediate aftermath to stop the sale of land and evictions from houses around the port for the following two years. Several civil society organizations, most notably the Beirut Heritage Initiative, have been working to restore groups of houses affected by the disaster.

Very few of the remaining heritage buildings have any official protection, despite lobbying from civil society groups. A new bill was passed in 2017 by the Lebanese government to protect heritage sites around the city, marking a historical turning point for activists who have pressed for legislative action since the end of the war, but has not been ratified.

Timeline

 * 1st century AD - Roman necropolis established on hill of St Dimitrios
 * 1839 - Reform under Egyptian administration allows expansion of city beyond walls
 * 1842 - Beirut takes over from Acre as seat of vilayet
 * 1860 - Inter-communal conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus leads to influx of Christian refugees, many of whom settle in Achrafieh
 * 1862 - Greek Orthodox Archbishop's residence moved from central Beirut to Achrafieh's Sursock Street
 * 1870 - Moussa Sursock's palace completed
 * 1885 - Zahrat al-Ihsan school constructed
 * 1909 - Grand Lycee Francophone established by Mission Laique Francaise, near what is now Sodeco
 * 1910 - Ilyas Sioufi establishes the Sioufi Furniture Factory along with Sioufi Gardens
 * 1912 - Nicolas Sursock's villa constructed
 * 1920 - Karm el-Zeitoun established as settlement for Armenian refugees
 * 1927 - Church of the Annunciation, demolished during the construction of Place de l'Etoile, rebuilt in Achrafieh
 * 1931 - Danger Plan aims to make Beirut into a garden city, never put into effect
 * 1952 - Nicolas Sursock dies and leaves his villa to the city as a waqf, stipulating that it will become a public museum
 * 1978 - Hundred Days' War centers on Achrafieh
 * 1982 - Bachir Gemayel assassinated at Beit al-Kataeb on Sassine Street
 * 2003 - ABC Achrafieh department store and shopping mall built on what was Salam football field
 * 2020 - Beirut's port explosion devastates the city, especially northern areas of Achrafieh

Education
Schools and universities:
 * Universite Saint Joseph de Beyrouth
 * Grand Lycée Franco-Libanais
 * Collège de la Sagesse
 * Greater Beirut Evangelical School

 * American University of Science and Technology
 * University of Balamand, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences
 * Zahrat al-Ihsan
 * École des Trois Docteurs
 * SSCC Sioufi

Places of worship
Catholic churches:

 * St Youhanna Maronite Church, on Adib Ishak Street

Greek Orthodox churches:

 * Notre Dame de l'Annonciation, historic church on Lebanon Street
 * Saydet el Doukhoul Church
 * St Dimitrios Church, hosting the Greek Orthodox cemetery for eastern Beirut
 * St George Church, attached to the St George Hospital
 * St Nicolas Church, an important parish church that was rebuilt in Byzantine style in the mid-twentieth century

Mosques:

 * Beydoun Mosque

Syriac Orthodox churches:

 * St Ephraim Church

Notable people

 * Michel Sassine, Prominent Lebanese politician, MP for the district of Beirut for 24 years (1968-1992)
 * Bachir Gemayel, born in the Achrafieh, he founded the Lebanese Forces. On 23 August 1982, he was elected President of Lebanon.
 * Gebran Tueini, former editor and publisher of the daily paper An-Nahar
 * Joe Kodeih, writer, actor and director
 * Samir Assaf, CEO of HSBC Global Banking & Markets
 * Nicolas Amiouni, rally driver
 * Nancy Ajram, singer

title: Achrafieh


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Mississippian culture

The Mississippian culture was a Native American civilization that flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 to 1600, varying regionally. It was known for building large, earthen platform mounds, and often other shaped mounds as well. It was composed of a series of urban settlements and satellite villages linked together by loose trading networks. The largest city was Cahokia, believed to be a major religious center located in what is present-day southern Illinois.

The Mississippian way of life began to develop in the Mississippi River Valley (for which it is named). Cultures in the tributary Tennessee River Valley may have also begun to develop Mississippian characteristics at this point. Almost all dated Mississippian sites predate 1539–1540 (when Hernando de Soto explored the area), with notable exceptions being Natchez communities. These maintained Mississippian cultural practices into the 18th century.

Cultural traits
A number of cultural traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. Although not all Mississippian peoples practiced all of the following activities, they were distinct from their ancestors in the adoption of some or all of these traits.
 * 1) The construction of large, truncated earthwork pyramid mounds, or platform mounds. Such mounds were usually square, rectangular, or occasionally circular. Structures (domestic houses, temples, burial buildings, or other) were usually constructed atop such mounds.
 * 2) Maize-based agriculture. In most places, the development of Mississippian culture coincided with the adoption of comparatively large-scale, intensive maize agriculture, which supported larger populations and craft specialization.
 * 3) Shell-tempered pottery. The adoption and use of riverine (or more rarely marine) shells as tempering agents in ceramics.
 * 4) Widespread trade networks extending as far west as the Rocky Mountains, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and east to the Atlantic Ocean.
 * 5) The development of the chiefdom or complex chiefdom level of social complexity.
 * 6) The development of institutionalized social inequality.
 * 7) A centralization of control of combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one.
 * 8) The beginnings of a settlement hierarchy, in which one major center (with mounds) has clear influence or control over a number of lesser communities, which may or may not possess a smaller number of mounds.
 * 9) The adoption of the paraphernalia of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC), also called the Southern Cult. This is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. SECC items are found in Mississippian-culture sites from Wisconsin (see Aztalan State Park) to the Gulf Coast, and from Florida to Arkansas and Oklahoma. The SECC was frequently tied into ritual game-playing, as with chunkey.

The Mississippians had no writing system or stone architecture. They worked naturally occurring metal deposits, such as hammering and annealing copper for ritual objects such as Mississippian copper plates and other decorations, but did not smelt iron or practice bronze metallurgy.

Chronology
The Mississippian stage is usually divided into three or more chronological periods. Each period is an arbitrary historical distinction varying regionally. At a particular site, each period may be considered to begin earlier or later, depending on the speed of adoption or development of given Mississippian traits. The "Mississippian period" should not be confused with the "Mississippian culture". The Mississippian period is the chronological stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society.

 * The Early Mississippian period (c. 1000–1200) had just transitioned from the Late Woodland period way of life (500–1000). Different groups abandoned tribal lifeways for increasing complexity, sedentism, centralization, and agriculture. Production of surplus corn and attractions of the regional chiefdoms led to rapid population concentrations in major centers.
 * The Middle Mississippian period (c. 1200–1400) is the apex of the Mississippian era. The expansion of the great metropolis and ceremonial complex at Cahokia (in present-day Illinois), the formation of other complex chiefdoms, and the spread and development of SECC art and symbolism are characteristic changes of this period. The Mississippian traits listed above came to be widespread throughout the region.
 * The Late Mississippian period (c. 1400–1540) is characterized by increasing warfare, political turmoil, and population movement. The population of Cahokia dispersed early in this period (1350–1400), perhaps migrating to other rising political centers. More defensive structures are often seen at sites, and sometimes a decline in mound-building and large-scale, public ceremonialism. Although some areas continued an essentially Middle Mississippian culture until the first significant contact with Europeans, the population of most areas had dispersed or were experiencing severe social stress by 1500.  Along with the contemporaneous Ancestral Pueblo peoples, these cultural collapses coincide with the global climate change of the Little Ice Age. The Little Ice Age led to a period of cold-season-like conditions which reduced effective moisture from 1200 to 1800, consistent with the population decline of Cahokia from 1200 and its abandonment from 1350 to 1400. Scholars theorize drought and the reduction of maize agriculture, together with possible deforestation and overhunting by the concentrated populations, forced them to move away from major sites. This period ended with European contact in the 16th century.

Middle Mississippian

The term Middle Mississippian is also used to describe the core of the classic Mississippian culture area. This area covers the central Mississippi River Valley, the lower Ohio River Valley, and most of the Mid-South area, including western and central Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Alabama and Mississippi. Sites in this area often contain large ceremonial platform mounds, residential complexes and are often encircled by earthen ditches and ramparts or palisades.

Middle Mississippian cultures, especially the Cahokia polity located near East St. Louis, Illinois, were very influential on neighboring societies. High-status artifacts, including stone statuary and elite pottery associated with Cahokia, have been found far outside of the Middle Mississippian area. These items, especially the pottery, were also copied by local artists.

 * Cahokia (fl. 1050–1350 CE): The largest and most complex Mississippian site and the largest Pre-Columbian settlement north of Mexico, Cahokia is considered to have been the most influential of the Mississippian culture centers. Discoveries found at the massive site include evidence of copper working (Mound 34), astronomy (Cahokia Woodhenge and the symbolic maximum southern moon rise aligned Rattlesnake Causeway), and ritual retainer burials (Mound 72).
 * Angel Mounds: A chiefdom in southern Indiana near Evansville. It is thought by some archaeologists that the Late Mississippian Caborn-Welborn culture developed from the Angel phase people around 1400 and lasted to around 1700 CE.
 * Kincaid site: A major Mississippian mound center in southern Illinois across the Ohio River from Paducah, Kentucky.
 * Moundville: Ranked with Cahokia as one of the two most important sites at the core of the Mississippian culture, located near Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
 * The Parkin site: The type site for the "Parkin phase", an expression of Late Mississippian culture, believed by many archaeologists to be the province of Casqui visited by Hernando de Soto in 1542.

South Appalachian Mississippian
The term South Appalachian Province was originally used by W. H. Holmes in 1903 to describe a regional ceramic style in the southeast involving surface decorations applied with a carved wooden paddle. By the late 1960s, archaeological investigations had shown the similarity of the culture that produced the pottery and the midwestern Mississippian pattern defined in 1937 by the Midwestern Taxonomic System.

In 1967, James B. Griffin coined South Appalachian Mississippian to describe the evolving understanding of the peoples of the Southeast. South Appalachian Mississippian area sites are distributed across a contiguous area including Alabama, Georgia, northern Florida, South Carolina, central and western North Carolina, and Tennessee. Chronologically this area became influenced by Mississippian culture later than the Middle Mississippian area (about 1000 as compared to 800) to its northwest. It is believed that the peoples of this area adopted Mississippian traits from their northwestern neighbors.

Typical settlements were located on riverine floodplains and included villages with defensive palisades enclosing platform mounds and residential areas. Etowah and Ocmulgee in Georgia are both prominent examples of major South Appalachian Mississippian settlements. Both include multiple large earthwork mounds serving a variety of functions.

Villages with single platform mounds were more typical of the river valley settlements throughout the mountainous area of southwest North and South Carolina and southeastern Tennessee that were known as the historic Cherokee homelands. In Western North Carolina for example, some 50 such mound sites in the eleven westernmost counties have been identified since the late 20th century, following increased research in this area of the Cherokee homeland.

Caddoan Mississippian
The Caddoan Mississippian area, a regional variant of the Mississippian culture, covered a large territory, including what is now eastern Oklahoma, western Arkansas, northeastern Texas, and northwestern Louisiana. Archaeological evidence has led to a scholarly consensus that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present, and that the Caddo and related Caddo language speakers in prehistoric times and at first European contact are the direct ancestors of the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma.

The climate in this area was drier than areas in the eastern woodlands, hindering maize production, and the lower population on the plains to the west may have meant fewer neighboring competing chiefdoms to contend with. Major sites such as Spiro and the Battle Mound Site are in the Arkansas River and Red River Valleys, the largest and most fertile of the waterways in the Caddoan region, where maize agriculture would have been the most productive. The sites generally lacked wooden palisade fortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns. Living on the western edge of the Mississippian world, the Caddoans may have faced fewer military threats from their neighbors. Their societies may also have had a somewhat lower level of social stratification.

The Caddoan people were speakers of one of the many Caddoan languages. These languages once had a broad geographic distribution, but many are now extinct. The modern languages in the Caddoan family include Caddo and Pawnee.

Hernando de Soto led an expedition into the area in the early 1540s, he encountered several native groups now thought to have been Caddoan. Composed of many tribes, the Caddo were organized into three confederacies, the Hasinai, Kadohadacho, and Natchitoches, which were all linked by their similar languages.

Plaquemine Mississippian
The Plaquemine culture was an archaeological culture in the lower Mississippi River Valley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana. Good examples of this culture are the Medora site (the type site for the culture and period) in West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, and the Anna, Emerald Mound, Winterville and Holly Bluff sites located in Mississippi. Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture at the Cahokia site near St. Louis, Missouri. It is considered ancestral to the Natchez and Taensa Peoples.
 * Emerald Mound: A Plaquemine Mississippian period archaeological site located on the Natchez Trace Parkway near Stanton, Mississippi. The site dates from the period between 1200 and 1730. The platform mound is the second-largest Pre-Columbian earthwork in the country, after Monks Mound at Cahokia.
 * Grand Village of the Natchez: The main village of the Natchez people, with three mounds. The only mound site to be used and maintained into historic times.

Known Mississippian settlements
Although the Mississippian culture was heavily disrupted before a complete understanding of the political landscape was written down, many Mississippian political bodies were documented and others have been discovered by research.

Related modern nations
Mississippian peoples were ancestral to the majority of the American Indian nations living in this region when European trade began. The historic and modern day American Indian nations believed to have descended from the overarching Mississippian culture include: the Alabama, Apalachee, Arikara, Caddo, Chickasaw, Catawba, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek, Guale, Hitchiti, Ho-Chunk, Houma, Iowa, Kansa, Koroas, Missouria, Mobilian, Natchez, Omaha, Osage (possibly), Otoe, Pawnee, Ponca, Quapaw (possibly), Seminole (broad origins), Taensas, Tunicas, Yamasee, Yazoos, and Yuchi.

Contact with Europeans
Scholars have studied the records of Hernando de Soto's expedition of 1539–1543 to learn of his contacts with Mississippians, as he traveled through their villages of the Southeast. He visited many villages, in some cases staying for a month or longer. The list of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition chronicles those villages. Some encounters were violent, while others were relatively peaceful. In some cases, de Soto seems to have been used as a tool or ally in long-standing native feuds. In one example, de Soto negotiated a truce between the Pacaha and the Casqui.

De Soto's later encounters left about half of the Spaniards and perhaps many hundreds of Native Americans dead. The chronicles of de Soto are among the first documents written about Mississippian peoples and are an invaluable source of information on their cultural practices. The chronicles of the Narváez expedition were written before the de Soto expedition; the Narváez expedition informed the Court of de Soto about the New World.

After the destruction and flight of the de Soto expedition, the Mississippian peoples continued their way of life with little direct European influence. Indirectly, however, European introductions dramatically changed these native societies. Because the natives lacked immunity to infectious diseases unknowingly carried by the Europeans, such as measles and smallpox, epidemics caused so many fatalities that they undermined the social order of many chiefdoms. Some groups adopted European horses and changed to nomadism. Political structures collapsed in many places.

At Joara, near Morganton, North Carolina, Native Americans of the Mississippian culture interacted with Spanish colonizers of the Juan Pardo expedition, who built a base there in 1567 called Fort San Juan. Expedition documentation and archaeological evidence of the fort and Native American culture both exist. The soldiers were at the fort about 18 months (1567–1568) before the natives killed them and destroyed the fort. (They killed soldiers stationed at five other forts as well; only one man of 120 survived.) Sixteenth-century Spanish artifacts have been recovered from the site, marking the first European colonization in the interior of what became the United States.

By the time more documentary accounts were being written, the Mississippian way of life had changed irrevocably. Some groups maintained an oral tradition link to their mound-building past, such as the late 19th-century Cherokee. Other Native American groups, having migrated many hundreds of miles and lost their elders to diseases, did not know their ancestors had built the mounds dotting the landscape. This contributed to the myth of the Mound Builders as a people distinct from Native Americans, which was rigorously debunked by Cyrus Thomas in 1894.

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title: Mississippian culture


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Cover for album 2nd Live by To the Hilt.

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Fort Macleod

Fort Macleod is a town in southern Alberta, Canada. It was originally named Macleod to distinguish it from the North-West Mounted Police barracks (Fort Macleod, built 1874) it had grown around. The fort was named in honour of the then Commissioner of the North-West Mounted Police, Colonel James Macleod. Founded as the Municipality of the Town of Macleod in 1892, the name was officially changed to the already commonly used Fort Macleod in 1952.

History
The fort was built as a 70 x 70 m square on October 18, 1874. The east side held the men's quarters and the west side held those of the Mounties. Buildings such as hospitals, stores and guardrooms were in the south end. Stables and the blacksmith's shop were in the north end.

The town grew on the location of the Fort Macleod North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) Barracks, the second headquarters of the NWMP after Fort Livingstone was abandoned in 1876. Fort Macleod was originally established in 1874 on a peninsula along the Oldman River, then moved in 1884 to the present town location. The Museum of the North-West Mounted Police is located in Fort Macleod.

Once agricultural settlement and the railway came to the region, Macleod boomed. The town became a divisional point for the Canadian Pacific Railway and frontier wood construction began to be replaced by brick and sandstone. In 1906 a fire devastated the downtown and destroyed most of the wooden buildings. From 1906 to 1912 Macleod had its greatest period of growth, as more new brick and stone building replaced the destroyed wooden ones. Then in 1912 the CPR moved the divisional point and 200 jobs to Lethbridge, devastating the local economy. Fort Macleod ceased to grow, and in 1924 was forced to declare bankruptcy. Until the 1970s, the town's economy stagnated and the buildings from the turn-of-the-century remained untouched.

In 1978 Alberta Culture started to inventory the downtown buildings, and in 1982 the downtown became Alberta's first "Provincial Historic Area". As well, Heritage Canada started a Main Street Restoration Project in 1982, aiming to preserve the sandstone and brick buildings, some dating back to 1878.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Town of Fort Macleod had a population of 3,297 living in 1,342 of its 1,440 total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of 2,967. With a land area of 22.54 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

In the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Town of Fort Macleod recorded a population of 2,967 living in 1,226 of its 1,426 total private dwellings, a NaN% change from its 2011 population of 3,117. With a land area of 23.41 km2, it had a population density of in 2016.

Geography
The town is located in the Municipal District of Willow Creek No. 26, at the intersection of Highway 2 and Highway 3, on the Oldman River. It lies west of the larger community of Lethbridge, near the reserves of the Peigan and Kainai First Nations. It is also located close to the Waterton Lakes National Park.

The town is located 8 km north of the McBride Lake Wind Farm, one of the largest wind farms in Alberta. The wind farm has a capacity of 75 megawatts of electricity.

Climate
Fort Macleod experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb).

The community enjoys frequent breaks from cold spells in winter when the Chinook wind blows down-slope from the Rocky Mountains. A Chinook on 27 February 1992 caused the temperature to rise to 26.5 C.

The highest temperature ever recorded at Fort Macleod was 102 F on 7 July 1896, 18 July 1910, and 17 July 1919. The coldest temperature ever recorded was -49 F on 2 February 1905, 17 December 1924, and 28 January 1929.

Sports
The town is home to the Fort Macleod Mustangs, Senior AA men's hockey team of the Ranchland Hockey League.

Media
Fort Macleod's local weekly newspaper is the Fort Macleod Gazette.

 * Historical newspapers
 * Macleod Advertiser — published May 25, 1909, through September 11, 1913
 * Macleod Chronicle — in print approximately July 1908 through June 1909
 * Macleod Gazette — early issues were entitled The Macleod Gazette and Alberta Stock Record
 * Macleod News — ran from November 2, 1916, through to June 1919
 * Macleod Spectator — lasted from April 30, 1912, until October 26, 1916

A selection of historical newspapers from Fort Macleod have been digitized from microfilm and are available in the Southern Alberta Newspaper Collection from the University of Lethbridge Library digitized collections. Included are: Macleod Advertiser (1908–1913), Macleod Chronicle (1908–1909), Macleod Gazette (1897–1907), Macleod News (1916–1919), & Macleod Spectator (1912–1916).

Notable people

 * Henrietta Muir Edwards (1849–1931), women's rights activist
 * Frederick Maurice Watson Harvey (1888–1980), Irish-Canadian soldier and rugby union athlete
 * Sir Frederick Haultain (1857–1942), former premier of the North-West Territories
 * Joni Mitchell (born 1943), musician
 * Ryland Moranz (born 1986), musician
 * Constantine Scollen (1841–1902), missionary
 * John Wort Hannam (born 1968), musician

Film
The 2005 romantic drama film Brokeback Mountain was filmed in part in Fort Macleod. The laundry apartment is located at 2422 Third Avenue, where a sign is posted marking the "passionate reunion" of Jack and Ennis. Passchendaele was also filmed in Fort Macleod's historic downtown, which acted as a stand-in for Calgary circa 1915. Scenes involving the dust storm and Matthew McConaughey's character were also filmed in Fort Macleod in Christopher Nolan's 2014 film Interstellar, where the giant dust clouds were created on location using large fans to blow cellulose-based synthetic dust through the air. Francesco Lucente's motion picture drama Badland was filmed mostly in Fort Macleod. Francesco Lucente lived in Fort Macleod from 1974 to 1978. His father Salvatore Lucente owned the American and Queens Hotels during that time.

The downtown historic buildings were also used in the 2021 film Ghostbusters: Afterlife. This site was also used as a filming location for 2023 TV Series The Last of Us.

title: Fort Macleod


text:
User:Sasquatch

{| style="border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; padding: 0.6em; background-color: #ffffff; width: 100%; margin-top: -2em;"

Note for blocked users emailing me: include your IP address and/or account name that was blocked.

Who/What is Sasquatch?

 * See Sasquatch.

Can Sasquatch operate a computer? Debunking common myths
Contrary to popular belief, I am a rather passive creature just seeking to eek out a peaceful existence in the Canadian Rockies (with the occasional cameo on Kokanee Beer commercials). Despite having over-sized hands, I have learned to operate a computer (though I still am confused by this whole QWERTY business) and am an avid fan of open source projects. Other things of interest would be to note that the reason I am so hairy is that I actually bought copies of Windows which forced me to cut back my clothing budget. This meant the only way to survive in the freezing winters was to grow hair... lots of hair. Also, I have learned to speak many languages in my spare time (see babel). Hope this clears things up with everyone.

Accomplishments
Started Pages: Sampoong Department Store collapse, Sand Shark, Harry Dean Ainlay (among other mayors of Edmonton, Alberta), Shawn Desman, Wave (band), Yogi Rock (which was featured on DYK), Luan Jujie.

Good Edits: Tangshan earthquake, Battlefield Vietnam.

Current Projects: Working to improve Japanese war crimes related articles (attempting to reach a neutral POV somehow...) as well as filling up the red links in List of mayors of Edmonton, Alberta.

Uploaded images: Image:TI-84 Plus Silver Edition.JPG, Image:Yogi Rock.jpg, and Image:Yogi Rock2.jpg.

Templates

 * }

zh:User:Sasquatch

title: User:Sasquatch


text:
2nd Live

2nd Live is the second live album by Dutch hard rock band Golden Earring, released in May 1981 (see 1981 in music). The album was not issued in the U.S.

Track listing
All songs written by Hay and Kooymans except where noted.

CD 1

 * 1) "Don't Stop the Show" (Gerritsen, Hay, Kooymans, Zuiderwijk)
 * 2) "My Town"
 * 3) "No for an Answer"
 * 4) "Heart Beat" (Gerritsen, Hay, Kooymans, Zuiderwijk)
 * 5) "Save Your Skin" (Gerritsen, Hay, Kooymans, Zuiderwijk)
 * 6) "I Don't Wanna Be Nobody Else"
 * 7) "Long Blond Animal"

CD 2

 * 1) "Prisoner of the Night"
 * 2) "Weekend Love" (Gerritsen, Hay, Kooymans, Zuiderwijk)
 * 3) "Sleepwalkin'"
 * 4) "I Do Rock N Roll"
 * 5) "Slow Down" (Larry Williams)
 * 6) "Buddy Joe"
 * 7) "Back Home"

Personnel

 * Rinus Gerritsen – bass, keyboard
 * Barry Hay – flute, Vocals, guitar
 * George Kooymans – guitar, vocals
 * Cesar Zuiderwijk – drums

title: 2nd Live


text:
Preston & Northcote Community Hospital

The Preston & Northcote Community Hospital (often referred to as PANCH ) was a former hospital located in Preston, Victoria, Australia, opened in 1958 and relocated to the Northern Hospital in Epping in February 1998. PANCH was located on the corner of Bell and Hotham Streets. The site was sold off in April 1999, and part of the 30000 m2 site is now occupied by Bell City Centre which is a residential facility, student accommodation and host of two hotels a part of the Mantra Group.

Fixtures from the hospital were removed by volunteers to help rebuild a community hospital in Suai, East Timor. The hospital's former operating theatres were used for a play on genetic engineering named The Teratology Project in 2002.

A new facility called the PANCH Health Service was established in 2003 by the State Government to address a shortage of medical services in the area. This State Government health service, which is located opposite the old PANCH site, is named out of nostalgia and is not directly connected with the former Preston & Northcote Community Hospital.

title: Preston & Northcote Community Hospital


text:
User:TriNotch

I am an archaeologist.

Evolutionary Biology Class
I am currently teaching a course in Evolutionary Biology, and my students are adding to Wikipedia to expand global access to biological information. Links to follow.

 * Draft:Acanthobunocephalus_scruggsi and User:TriNotch/Acanthobunocephalus_scruggsi
 * Draft:Antaresia_papuensis
 * Attalea dubia
 * Bathycongrus aequoreus
 * Brachiaria deflexa
 * Brassica_rupestris
 * Draft:Brotula_clarkae
 * Dianella ensifolia
 * Draft:Dinobdella ferox and alternate User:TriNotch/Dinobdella_ferox
 * Diporiphora nobbi
 * Garcinia sessilis
 * Draft:Geothermobacterium_ferrireducens
 * Draft:Kendall_Warm_Springs_Dace
 * Draft:Leptopelis_grandiceps
 * Leptopelis_montanus
 * Mahasena corbetti
 * Draft:MRSA ST 398
 * Nimba myotis
 * Phytelephas tenuicaulis
 * Pleurotus_eryngii
 * Draft:Polyphagales
 * Draft:Pteroma_pendula
 * User:TriNotch/Saccharomyces_estauri
 * User:TriNotch/Skookum_(cat)
 * Draft:Smutsia_olteniensis
 * Stygiomedusa
 * Draft:Tursiops_truncatus_ponticus
 * Draft:Ussuri_raccoon_dog
 * User:TriNotch/Zygosaccharomyces_rouxii

Wikipedia Role
I am an (intermittently) active editor on Wikipedia for ethical reasons. Specifically, I believe the taxpayers of the United States (and the rest of the world) fund archaeology ONLY BECAUSE IT IS INTERESTING. We can rationalize our work by saying that we are addressing fundamental human problems, facilitating human inter-cultural understanding, or celebrating our shared heritage- and all that is true. Sometimes, we may be able to offer social critique. But for the most part our contribution is a form of entertainment.

If our essential job, then, is to entertain (albeit in a scientific framework) then our greatest responsibilities are two-fold: Do Good Archaeology, and Distribute The Information to the People.

Where do most people today get their information about archaeology from?

Wikipedia.

TriNotch: My wiki handle is from one of the best known projectile points (arrow heads) of the Mississippian culture, the very classy looking Cahokian tri-notched point (which perhaps I will find an image of one day).

I'm working on a doctorate in the archaeology of the Southeastern United States (UPDATE: I completed my doctorate in 2016). I have done fieldwork in Illinois, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Mexico. I read Spanish fairly well but probably not well enough to make significant contributions.

I created the wiki pages for the following articles and/or stubs:

 * American Antiquity
 * chiefdom
 * Chrétien Le Clercq
 * Classic stage
 * earth lodge
 * Formative stage
 * Glenn Albert Black
 * James Bennett Griffin
 * Latin American Antiquity
 * Little barley
 * Mississippian culture
 * Moundville Archaeological Site
 * Nanih Waiya
 * Philip Phillips
 * platform mound
 * Post-Classic stage
 * Slack Farm
 * Society for American Archaeology
 * Swift Creek culture
 * Walam Olum
 * Wickliffe mounds

I have also edited many pages to add or correct information on Native American prehistory, and intend to do more. I am a member of the WikiProject on Indigenous people of North America and the WikiProject Archaeology.

My To Do List:

 * Anything useful for the WikiProject Indigenous peoples of North America or the WikiProject Archaeology
 * Copena culture
 * Marksville culture
 * Little barley (Hordeum pusillum)
 * Coles Creek culture
 * State- Anthropological Theory Definition
 * Warren King Moorehead?
 * fix James A. Ford?
 * greenstone still needs a little work
 * ...other sites and tribes and anthropological terms.

I have been a Wikipedian since 14 December, 2004.

title: User:TriNotch


text: Talk:2nd Live

title: Talk:2nd Live


text:
User:Monkee13

Please read your talk page.

title: User:Monkee13


text:
Talk:Kamal Nath

Copyvio
it's a standard bio, and public domain.
 * Site says "Contents published on this website have no legal sanctity and are for general reference only. Visitors to this website are required to refer to the official documents published by Department of Commerce to ascertain the facts" I have no idea what that means as to our licencing requirements. -- Infrogmation 20:30, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Moved from Copyright problems: End moved text
 * Kamal Nath --fvw *  22:58, 2004 Dec 14 (UTC)
 * Anon poster at Talk: claims it's PD --rbrwr± 07:09, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Source site says "Contents published on this website have no legal sanctity and are for general reference only". Perhaps someone with some familiarity with India copyrights can tell us if that is a form of public domain or not? -- Infrogmation 20:37, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * First of all I AM NOT A LAWYER. IMHO that is just a disclaimer, saying that the content shouldn't be used in a court of law (e.g. if the site provides a date of birth, that alone shouldn't be treated as an evidence for alleged superannuation of a person in the ministry). As the site further says, one should "refer to the official documents published by Department of Commerce to ascertain the facts". I don't think that disclaimer makes it public domain. Note that it might be a work of the Govt. of India, but again, that doesn't necessarily mean PD. -- Paddu 19:25, 31 Jan 2005 (UTC)

I see nothing to support the claim that the material is public domain. Works of the Indian government qualify for copyright, as far as I can tell. -- Cyrius|✎ 03:14, 19 Feb 2005 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as stub, and the rating on other projects was brought up to Stub class. BetacommandBot 18:24, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Doha Trade Round
Wasn't he the politician who killed the Doha trade round over a disagreement between USA/India? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 137.193.54.56 (talk) 15:38, 28 March 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
''' Kamal Nath is a real Indian a Khatri faher and Adivasi mother. Wikipedia is being to make him falsly into a Brahmin'''. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.161.70.23 (talk) 10:33, 15 January 2019 (UTC)

Kamal Nath terrorism
Let's discuss what Kamal Nath was doing leading mobs in 1984 to murder innocent Sikhs. In the arguments on Wednesday, plaintiffs emphasized that despite having knowledge about the case and openly acknowledging the receipt of summons and complaint, Nath did not respond within 21 days as required by the law. In fact, Nath completely ignored the summons till August 2010 when plaintiffs moved for entry of default judgment against him, the plaintiff's counsel argued in the court.

In his motion filed on June 24, 2011, Nath had claimed that he was entitled to immunity from prosecution in the United States and that no one had ever served him with summons and complaints during his April 2010 visit to New York. 142.59.217.7 (talk) 01:39, 5 March 2018 (UTC)

https://scroll.in/article/809821/what-was-kamal-nath-congresss-new-punjab-head-doing-with-mobs-during-the-1984-anti-sikh-riot http://indianexpress.com/article/india/1984-anti-sikh-riots-enough-evidence-against-kamal-nath-cant-evade-law-now-says-hs-phoolka-5023645/ https://www.news18.com/news/politics/ghost-of-anti-sikh-riots-continues-to-haunt-kamal-nath-1257331.html http://www.rediff.com/news/report/resigned-to-ensure-punjabs-issues-remain-in-focus-kamal-nath/20160616.htm https://www.scoopwhoop.com/Under-Attack-Over/#.rvh0ujpvm https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/kamal-nath-s-appointment-cruel-joke-on-sikhs-aap/story-Tgsw49bmQuK0mL4CrcK61N.html https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2010/03/22/sikhs_protest_official_visitor_with_a_murky_past.html https://www.indiatoday.in/india/north/story/us-court-to-hear-sikh-riots-case-against-kamal-nath-on-jan-22-175749-2014-01-06 https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Role-in-1984-anti-Sikh-riots-US-court-reserves-order-in-case-against-Kamal-Nath/articleshow/10086332.cms

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 142.59.217.7 (talk) 01:39, 5 March 2018 (UTC)

longest serving member of Indian Parliament? But based on what criteria? please explain
A lead statement currently says Kamalnath " is the longest serving member of Indian Parliament."... But I Am unable to understand how he is longest serving because If we are talking about who entered first in Parliament among current members than definitely Ramvilas Paswan is senior than him who entered parliament in 1977 itself... And if we are talking about continuous win then Sumitra Mahajan is senior to him because she is continuously winning since 1989 and Kamalnath is continuously winning since 1998... I assumed this statement was based on continuous winning but fact is that Kamalnath is continuously winning since 1998 and sumitra mahajan is continuously winning since 1989... when i pointed this out few days back, one editor reverted it with edit summary "kamal nath is an mp since 1980", so, ok, i thought it is based on seniority in entering the parliament among current MPs, so, i did not revert the statement but I recently found out that even if that's the criteria Ramvilas Paswan is senior to kamalnath among current members since paswan is member since 1977.... hence I reverted it but the same editor now changed the criteria with edit summary "Yes Ramvilas paswan is serving since 1977 but not continuously ,he has cont3sted and lost in 2009".... Now this guy conveniently chose to forget that based on continuous winning I had made first edit because in continuous winning sumitra mahajan beats kamalnath because she is winning non-stop since 1989 and Kamalnath did not contest in 1996 and lost in 1997 bypolls... Can anyone please explain me when Kamalnath is behind Ramvilas Paswan in seniority and behind Sumitra Mahajan based on continuous winning, how is he "longest serving"??..., Can you please help here.... Thank You... Adamstraw99 (talk) 08:22, 16 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Ram Vilas Paswan (8 Time MP ,First elected in 1977)

1977-1979 2 years 1980-1984 5 years 1984-1989 lost 1989-1991 2 years 1991-1996 lost 1996-1997 2 years 1998-1999 1 year 1999-2004 5 years 2004-2009 5 years 2009-2014 lost 2014-2018 4 years (Approxi: 26 years as MP)

Sumitra Mahajan (8 Time MP ,First elected In 1989) 1989-1991 2 year 1991-1996 5 year 1996-1997 2 year 1998-1999 1 year 1999-2004 5 year 2004-2009 5year 2009-2014 5 year 2014-2018 4 year (Approxi: 29 years as MP)

Kamal Nath (9 Time MP ,First elected In 1980) 1980-1984 5 years 1984-1989 5 Years 1989-1991 2 years 1991-1996 5 Years 1996-1997 Not contested 1998-1999 1 year 1999-2004 5 years 2004'2009 5 years 2009-2014 5 years 2014-2018 4 Years (Approxi: 37 years as MP) Adamstraw99 See this.

'Kamal nath is the longest serving member of Indian Parliament.Thats why He was appointed as the pro tem Speaker of the current 16th Lok Sabha of India.A pro tem speaker is a most senior amongst the incoming members of the parliment. Senior most incoming member is not by age but is the one who has been elected most numbers of times to the house or has served the house for more years than anyother member.Atleast do check what cited in the. [| source] before removing the content. Akhiljaxxn (talk) 11:37, 16 July 2018 (UTC)

 * 1) I never said it is by age because that way Advani dada will beat everyone and 2) that source is giving "page not found" error... 3) I think you cleared most of my doubts mainly about "longest serving" in terms of years but a very reliable source defining exactly the eligibility of pro tem speaker will convince me.. I think lets wait until  gets time to have a look on this or I will take this to third opinion forum... thank you. --Adamstraw99 (talk) 12:03, 16 July 2018 (UTC)

 * I helped myself and found out this source quoting an official saying " experience of both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha is taken into consideration in choosing the pro tem Speaker", same source says about Advani that "11th term in Parliament- four as a member of the Rajya Sabha and seven as a member of the Lok Sabha - making him the senior most member", but I Am unable to find sources which say Kamalnath is "longest serving member of Indian Parliament", Thats why I removed the statements due to reasons listed in the opening comment in this thread... However I have no objection in adding "one of the" longest serving members because there are Sumitra mahajan, Paswan and Advani too which may also claim the "longest serving" under different criteria mentioned in opening thread above... Thanks you. --Adamstraw99 (talk) 12:28, 16 July 2018 (UTC)
 * The India today article that you above mentioned is nothing but speculation.and i hope the source that i gave works now. Akhiljaxxn (talk) 13:35, 16 July 2018 (UTC)

 * yes source works now and it confirms he was selected protem speaker but still does not say he is "longest serving MP" And indiatoday article is quoting a parliament secretary and its not speculation but fact that Advani is 11th time parliamentarian and senior most... I think we can close this by including in lead of the article that Kamalnath is "one of the senior most and longest serving members of parliament".. THANK YOU. --Adamstraw99 (talk) 13:46, 16 July 2018 (UTC)
 * The source and lead clearly says that he is the longest serving mp of Lok Sabha (not parliament).Kamal Nath is a 9 time mp of Lok Sabha,were S mahajan and Ram vilas paswan are 8 time mps and Advani is a seven time mp of lokh sabha.There are lot of politicians out there who elected seven and six time so its obviously a different case. Akhiljaxxn (talk) 14:03, 16 July 2018 (UTC)
 * No, the source does not say he is longest serving mp of lok sabha, He is no doubt among the longest serving and senior most "MP" and "parliamentararian" though.. I think this description would be appropriate in the lead.. Adamstraw99 (talk) 14:16, 16 July 2018 (UTC)

His background
Kamal Nath has always deemphasized any connections with any specific community. He calls himself just an Indian, quite appropriately. It has been reported that he is of Punjabi background. Reports that his is a Punjabi Khatri are however inaccurate. he does some Punjabi Khatri relatives named Puri. However based on reliable sources, he is actually a Punjabi Brahmin,. He was born in Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh to businessman father Mahendra Nath and he is an alumnus of the  Doon public school. He has been close to the Gandhi-Nehru family for a long time. His father in-law P.C. Paul had been an active member of RSS, BJP  MLA  Nirbhay Pal Sharma was his brother-in-law and Raghav Lakhanpal Sharma, MLA/MP,  is his nephew.

His family is quite religious, they have constructed a 101.8-foot Hanuman statue in Chhindwara.

Malaiya (talk) 04:55, 14 December 2018 (UTC)

 * A nice guy even a blind guy can make out he is not a Brahmin. He is a Punjabi Khatri a merchant caste. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.88.88.179 (talk) 19:46, 13 April 2019 (UTC)

 * Do you have any source to back up that claim? utcursch | talk 21:08, 13 April 2019 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 21:39, 30 December 2020 (UTC)
 * Shri Kamal Nath assumes the charge of the Union Minister of Commerce and Industry in New Delhi on May 24, 2004.jpg

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 19:51, 14 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Congress leader kamalnath.jpg

title: Talk:Kamal Nath


text:
User talk:Rattlesnake

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! -- Graham ☺ | Talk 03:38, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

Welcome
Greetings - good to see another Dunedinite here (that makes at least three of us - User:Scott Gall is also here in Dn), plus one (User:TimGrin) at Waihola. Hope you enjoy being a Wikipedian! Grutness|hello?

Treble Cone

Hi, I just changed a point on your Treble Cone article, you've really done a good job. I wanted to discuss with you if possible the further expansion of that article over the coming winter. I am in Wanaka, studying on the Tai Poutini Polytechnic, Certificate in Ski Patrol. Thus, I shall be on the mountain a lot in the coming season, and would like to do a lot of editing to the article and add some photos perhaps, taken by me. I'd appreciate talking further with you about all of this when, and if, you have the time. Where would be best to discuss the article, I can provide an e-mail, is that allowed ? samh004 08:40, 16 March 2006 (UTC)
 * I have added the news of the gondola, this would require more collaboration to improve on it. I would be grateful if you would work with me on this, seeing as it is technically your article, you did most of the work.  Thanks.  samh004 06:15, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

Me love you long time. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Nuggetman (talk • contribs) 00:09, August 29, 2007 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
Hi, You appear to be eligible to vote in the current Arbitration Committee election. The Arbitration Committee is the panel of editors responsible for conducting the Wikipedia arbitration process. It has the authority to enact binding solutions for disputes between editors, primarily related to serious behavioural issues that the community has been unable to resolve. This includes the ability to impose site bans, topic bans, editing restrictions, and other measures needed to maintain our editing environment. The arbitration policy describes the Committee's roles and responsibilities in greater detail. If you wish to participate, you are welcome to review the candidates' statements and submit your choices on the voting page. For the Election committee, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 22:13, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rattlesnake


text: Category:Lancaster, Pennsylvania

title: Category:Lancaster, Pennsylvania


text:
National Council for the Defense of Democracy – Forces for the Defense of Democracy

The National Council for the Defense of Democracy –Forces for the Defense of Democracy (Conseil National Pour la Défense de la Démocratie –Forces pour la Défense de la Démocratie, CNDD–FDD) is the major political party in Burundi. During the Burundian Civil War, the CNDD–FDD was the most significant rebel group active and became a major political party in Burundi. The party's rule has been described as authoritarian.

CNDD–FDD's youth wing is known as the Imbonerakure. Human Rights Watch has documented claims that members of Imbonerakure have harassed, arbitrarily detained, tortured, and killed alleged members of opponent parties and militias on behalf of the country's security forces, especially since Évariste Ndayishimiye became the president in 2020.

History
During the civil war, the CNDD was the political wing of the organization, while the FDD was the military wing. The original CNDD was founded in 1994, a year after the first democratically elected President Melchior Ndadaye was killed by elements of Burundi's Tutsi-dominated army in a failed coup d'etat. The political wing was dominated by Hutu intellectuals from the southern region of Bururi led by Léonard Nyangoma, while the armed wing was made up of troops drawn from across the country. During the war, the group was often referred to simply by the name of the armed wing (FDD).

In May 1998, Jean-Bosco Ndayikengurukiye, Nyangoma's chief of staff, caused a schism by ousting the latter over leadership issues and losses suffered by the group during the First Congo War, the Nyangoma-led faction later taking a seat at the Arusha negotiations, while Ndayikengurukiye's faction carried out its fight. In 2001, the CNDD– FDD consisted of about 25,000 rebels, but in September of that year Ndayikengurukiye was ousted by a faction led by Pierre Nkurunziza over the former's handling of negotiations with the government to join the transitional administration set up by in Arusha Accords. The Nkurunziza-led faction, consisting of 20,000 to 22,000 troops signed a ceasefire with the government in December 2002 but continued fighting. The faction led by Ndayikengurukiye became the lesser of the two with about 5,000 fighters. It also signed a ceasefire with the government in October 2002 to which it has roughly held.

At an official ceremony in January 2005, the group registered as a legal political party. Months later, in the largely peaceful parliamentary elections on 4 July 2005, the CNDD–FDD won an estimated 60 to 80 percent of the vote, making it likely that a CNDD–FDD representative would be chosen the president in August. Pierre Nkurunziza indeed was elected President of Burundi unopposed on August 19. At the legislative elections, the party won 57.8% and 64 out of 118 seats.

In March 2012, Pascal Nyabenda was elected as President of CNDD–FDD. Then on 20 August 2016, General Évariste Ndayishimiye was, in the extraordinary congress that took place in Gitega, elected as the Secretary General of the Party.

In June 2020, Nkurunziza died while still serving as President of Burundi and was succeeded by Ndayishimiye. Prior to Nkurunziza's death, Ndayishimiye had been elected President of Burundi in elections which were held in May 2020. Former Senate president Révérien Ndikuriyo, a hardliner, was chosen as the Secretary General of the CNDD–FDD in January 2021.


text:
File:Golden Earring - Cut.jpg

Cover for album Cut by Golden Earring.

Fair use rationale for

 * It is believed that the use of this image on the English-language Wikipedia to illustrate an article on the audio recording in question falls under the "Non-profit educational" clause of the Fair Use doctrine currently upheld by United States law. (17 U.S.C. § 107)
 * The image is irreplaceable; a free analogue is impossible to produce as the original will be covered by copyright for the foreseeable future
 * Owing to the limited web-resolution of the image, only a small portion of a copyrighted work is used
 * For the same reasons, the portion of the copyrighted work used is of inherently lower quality than the original, reducing the risk of competitiveness and therefore the effects of this copy on the market for or value of versions held by the owner of the copyright

title: File:Golden Earring - Cut.jpg


text:
Obrom

An obrom is a type of musical instrument in the percussion family, originating in Nigeria. Formed from one large piece of wood, often a log of paduc, the obrom has two recesses connected to each other by a small channel. This is why it is sometimes referred to as a slit dum. The obrom, when struck with mallets near the recesses, plays two to four tones; these are generally alternated in a repetitive beat, or played in an ostinato. It was used as an instrument for communication, transferring messages in a way similar to morse code.

title: Obrom


text:
Tuxedo (electoral district)

Tuxedo is a provincial electoral division in the Canadian province of Manitoba. It was created by redistribution in 1979, and has formally existed since the provincial election of 1981. The riding is located in the southwest section of the city of Winnipeg.

Geography
Tuxedo is bordered to the east by River Heights, to the south by Roblin and Fort Whyte, to the north by St. James and Kirkfield Park, and to the west by Roblin.

The riding contains the neighbourhoods of Edgeland, J. B. Mitchell, Mathers, Old Tuxedo, Sir John Franklin, South Tuxedo, Tuxedo, Vialoux, as well as Elmhurst and Varsity View east of Laxdal Rd.

Demographics
The riding's population in 1996 was 20,095. The average family income in 1999 was $89,350, almost $40,000 above the provincial average. The unemployment rate was 5.60%. Tuxedo has a significant Jewish population, at 8% of the total. Over 17% of the riding's residents are above 65 years of age, and over 28% have University degrees. Health and social services account for 16% of Tuxedo's industry, with a further 14% in the service sector.

History
Tuxedo was represented by Progressive Conservative MLAs from its creationin 1981 to 2024; both of the two MLAs who served prior to the by-election of 2024 became Premier of Manitoba. Gary Filmon, who served as premier from 1988 until 1999, represented the riding between 1981 and his retirement from politics in 2000. Following Filmon's departure, Heather Stefanson succeeded him as MLA and she held the premiership from 2021 to 2023. Following her resignation in 2024 and the subsequent by-election, the New Democratic Party of Manitoba won the seat for the first time.

List of provincial representatives
This riding has elected the following MLAs:

Electoral results

 * Progressive ||David Pearlman
 * align="right"|104
 * align="right"| 0.97

title: Tuxedo (electoral district)


text:
Cut (Golden Earring album)

Cut is the sixteenth studio album by Dutch hard rock band Golden Earring, released in 1982 (see 1982 in music). The album spawned the hit song "Twilight Zone," which reached No. 1 in the Netherlands and No. 1 in the United States on Billboard's Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks (it reached No. 10 on the Billboard Hot 100.)

The album's cover image is the 1964 photo Cutting the Card Quickly taken by M.I.T. Professor "Doc" Edgerton showing the jack of diamonds playing card being shredded by a bullet. The image is used in the music video of "Twilight Zone" in which the card represents the life of the rogue espionage agent.

Golden Earring

 * Rinus Gerritsen – bass, keyboards
 * Barry Hay – guitar, vocals
 * George Kooymans – guitar, vocals
 * Cesar Zuiderwijk – drums

Additional personnel
Street choirs on "Twilight Zone" & "The Devil Made Me Do It" (album Cut) by: Golden Earring thanking American Gypsy & Evert Nieuwstede on album Cut (inner sleeve-LP & booklet-CD)
 * Robert Jan Stips – synthesizer
 * Steve Clisby (American Gypsy) – backup vocals
 * Omar Dupree (American Gypsy) – backup vocals
 * Evert Nieuwstede (Urban Heroes) – backup vocals

Production

 * Producer: Shell Schellekens
 * Engineer: John Kriek
 * Digital mastering: Dick Van Leeuwen
 * Horn arrangements: Hans Hollestelle
 * Photography: Harold Edgerton, Kees Tabak
 * Lettering: Koos O.

title: Cut (Golden Earring album)


text:
Ted Kluszewski

Theodore Bernard Kluszewski (September 10, 1924 – March 29, 1988), nicknamed "Big Klu", was an American professional baseball player, best known as a power-hitting first baseman for the Cincinnati Reds teams of the 1950s. He played from 1947 through 1961 with four teams in Major League Baseball (MLB), spending 11 of those 15 seasons with the Reds, and became famous for his bulging biceps and mammoth home runs.

Kluszewski was a four-time National League (NL) All-Star who hit at least .300 seven times, and 40 or more home runs in three consecutive seasons. He retired with a .298 lifetime batting average, 279 home runs, and 1,028 runs batted in (RBI) in 1,718 games.

On August 25, 1959, the Chicago White Sox acquired Kluszewski from the Pittsburgh Pirates in return for pitcher Robert Sagers and outfielder Harry Simpson. The veteran hit .297 in 31 games and helped the "Go-Go White Sox" clinch the American League pennant. In six games versus the Los Angeles Dodgers in that year's World Series, Kluszewski hit .391 with three home runs and drove in 10 runs, which remains a record for a six-game series.

Kluszewski ranks among the all-time Reds leaders in home runs (sixth), slugging percentage (sixth), on-base plus slugging percentage (eighth), and RBIs (ninth). His .642 slugging percentage, 1.049 OPS, and home run rate of one per 11.4 at-bats in the 1954 season have been team records for seven decades. In 1962, he was inducted into the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame.

Early life and athletic success
Kluszewski was born of Polish descent in Summit, Illinois, 14 mi west of Comiskey Park in Chicago, where he played with the White Sox in the 1959 and 1960 seasons. He was a star football and baseball player at Argo Community High School. He went on to Indiana University in Bloomington, where he also played both sports. In 1945, he was part of the Hoosiers football powerhouse that finished with a 9–0–1 record. The same year he hit .443 with their baseball team.

Minor league career
Due to wartime travel restrictions, the Cincinnati Reds, who normally held spring training in Tampa, Florida, were forced to train at Indiana University from 1943 to 1945. As a student-athlete at the college, Kluszewski drew the attention of Reds groundskeeper Matty Schwab, who saw him launch several balls over an embankment near the baseball diamond, a 500-plus-foot distance that none of the Reds players were able to reach at the plate. Team scouts were similarly impressed, but Kluszewski, who also was a standout tight end on the Hoosiers football squad, was reluctant to sign a contract because he did not want to jeopardize his collegiate eligibility. Instead, he waited until after graduation in 1946.

After Kluszewski produced .325 and .377 batting averages in two minor league seasons, it was only a matter of time for his big promotion.

Trademark fashion statement
Not long after the 6ft 2in, 225 lb Kluszewski became a regular early in the 1948 season, his immense strength already was the talk of major league baseball. Asked to name five of the strongest players in baseball, Hall of Fame manager Leo Durocher conspicuously left the big first baseman off his list. "(Why not) Kluszewski?" Durocher defended himself. "I'm talking about human beings!"

Much to the chagrin of team management, Kluszewski made a bold fashion statement when he cut off both sleeves of his jersey. The reason being, they constricted his enormous biceps and shoulders and limited his ability to swing a baseball bat freely. "They got pretty upset, but it was either that or change my swing — and I wasn't about to change my swing," he explained.

Cincinnati Reds (1947–1957)
In 1947, Kluszewski earned a spot on the Opening Day roster and remained with the Reds in the first month of the season. After a four-month stint at Class AAA Memphis, he returned to the parent club in September. Kluszewski recorded his first hit on Sept. 23 at Crosley Field, an RBI single off Chicago Cubs starter Hank Wyse in the fifth inning. One year later, he nailed down the starter job that would be his for nine seasons.

It wasn't long before Kluszewski gained the reputation as one of the most unique hitters of his time, one who combined immense power with the ability to make contact on a consistent basis. In 10 of his 15 major league seasons, the first baseman walked (492) more often than he struck out (365). In 1953, Kluszewski hit 40 homers and struck out a mere 34 times. The following season he upped this to 49 homers against just 35 strikeouts. In 1955 he parked 47 home runs and struck out an even 40 times, the last time a major leaguer has hit 40 homers and struck out 40 or fewer times in the same season.

Kluszewski was his most dominant from 1953 through 1956 and was named to the National League All-Star roster in each of the four seasons. In that stretch, he hit a total of 171 home runs, more than any player in the big leagues. He also drove in more than 100 baserunners each time with a league-high of 141 RBI in the 1954 campaign.

Also in that period, Kluszewski became the first and only player in MLB history to hit 35 or more homers in four seasons in which he had fewer strikeouts than homers. Only three other major leaguers achieved the feat even twice: Lou Gehrig, Joe DiMaggio and Johnny Mize, all Hall of Fame members.

Despite somewhat limited range, Kluszewski was a capable defender who combined sure hands with nimble footwork in the field. He led National League first basemen in fielding percentage five straight years (1951–1955), a major league record. In 1,479 games, he compiled a career .993 fielding percentage, which ranked 92nd in major league history at the start of the 2021 season.

Kluszewski had his most dominant season in 1954, when he was the NL Most Valuable Player runner-up. He was in contention for the elusive Triple Crown for much of the season, leading the league in home runs (49) and RBI (141) and finishing fifth in batting average (.326). As late as September 19, he trailed New York Giants star Willie Mays by only eight points (.341–.333) in the batting race. Kluszewski went into a 3-of-20 tailspin down the stretch, while Mays held steady to secure the crown.

In 1956, Kluszewski was headed toward a fourth straight 40-home run season, but after a back issue flared up in September, he hit only .202 and two home runs in the month. He aggravated the injury early in the next season and spent most of the first four weeks as a pinch-hitter. While Kluszewski weighed his medical options, many of his fans offered get-well wishes and "sure cures" for what ailed him.

"On Opening Day, I made a sudden, quick movement to field a ball and the pain was unbearable," Kluszewski recalled. "Finally, it was decided that I had a slipped disc. Some doctors recommended an operation and some didn't. But none would assure me that I would still have as much mobility and I decided against going under the knife."

Kluszewski returned to action on June 12 but was slow to recover. After six consecutive starts, he returned to a pinch-hit role for the remainder of the season. When the veteran was traded after the season, he was widely considered to be the greatest left-handed hitter and among the best fielding first baseman in Reds history. The organization retired his uniform number 18 in a pre-game ceremony on July 18, 1998, at Cinergy Field.

Pittsburgh Pirates (1958–1959)
On December 28, 1957, Kluszewski was traded to the Pittsburgh Pirates in return for Dee Fondy in a swap of experienced first basemen. In spring training, the 33-year-old reported that his back issues had subsided, which raised hopes that he would approach his former All-Star standards. While the veteran hit a respectable .292 in 100 games, however, the problem persisted and his power numbers were limited as a result. He hit only four home runs in 331 at-bats.

In 1959, Kluszewski appeared in 60 games for the Pirates before he was traded to the Chicago White Sox, who were in the midst of a tight pennant race.

Chicago White Sox (1959–1960)
When Kluszewski arrived in Chicago, the White Sox had a tenuous two-game lead on the Cleveland Indians in the AL pennant race. Their primary concern was a chronic lack of power, particularly at the left side, where rookie Norm Cash and veteran Earl Torgeson were the only threats to hit an occasional long ball. In Kluszewski, the front office believed it had a potential solution even though all three candidates played the same position.

“We didn't have a regular first baseman,” White Sox pitcher Billy Pierce told Paul Ladewski in a story for the Society for American Baseball Research. “When we got Ted, we all thought it was a very, very good thing for us, because he gave us a strong left-handed hitter with a good reputation. We never thought he was past his prime but that he would help us. We were very glad to have him on our ballclub.”

The trade failed to pay immediate dividends, however, and it wasn't until his 14th game that Kluszewski finally went deep with his new team. He hit a pair of home runs against the Kansas City Athletics in the second game of a doubleheader on Sept. 7 at Comiskey Park. Even though he would not hit another homer in the regular season, Kluszewski fared well enough (.297 batting average) to hold down a starter role.

After the White Sox held off the Indians to claim their first pennant in 40 years, Kluszewski rose to the occasion and then some against the Los Angeles Dodgers in the first World Series of his career. In 25 plate appearances, Kluszewski hit .391, with three home runs, two walks, and 10 RBI.

In his first trip to the plate, Kluszewski singled off starter Roger Craig to give the White Sox a 1–0 lead in the first inning. He triggered a seven-run onslaught two innings later with a towering drive that landed in the lower deck in right field, a three-run homer that knocked Craig out of the game.

In the fourth, Kluszewski launched his second two-run homer in as many innings, a monstrous shot off reliever Chuck Churn that completed an 11–0 rout. "The Los Angeles right-hander throws a curve ... and Kluszewski lets go with another long salvo to right field ... It's a home run into the upper deck!" NBC Radio broadcaster Byrum Saam exclaimed. "Pandemonium breaks loose in Chicago on the South Side!"

The Dodgers pitched more carefully to Kluszewski from that point on, as they elected to take their chances against Sherm Lollar and Al Smith behind him in the order. They won four of the next five games and the series, but not before the first baseman hit another homer in the final contest.

Before the series, local automobile mogul Jim Moran offered a free car to any White Sox player who hit a home run. As he recalled in a 2005 interview with Mike Downey of the Chicago Tribune, Kluszewski received three original 1960 Ford Falcons when all was said and done.

In 1960, Kluszewski was the Opening Day starter at first base. But the veteran was unable to discover his magic of the previous postseason and served primarily a pinch-hitter in the final four months of the season.

The farewell season for Kluszewski in Chicago wasn't without an unusual major league record, though. White Sox owner Bill Veeck introduced uniforms with the player's last name on the back of the jersey, and on a road trip to New York, Kluszewski became the first player to appear in a game with misspelled name—it had a backwards "z" as well as an "x" instead of the second "k".

When Major League Baseball expanded in the 1960 season, the White Sox left the 36-year-old Kluszewski unprotected in the expansion draft. The Los Angeles Angels chose him at the 45th overall pick, the second first baseman taken, on the belief that he would be a good fit for the short power alleys of that city's minor league Wrigley Field the team would use for its inaugural season.

Los Angeles Angels (1961)
Kluszewski continued to be slowed by back and leg problems in the 1961 season, but his last hurrah produced several historic firsts.

In a telephone interview on the eve of the season opener against the Baltimore Orioles at Memorial Stadium in Baltimore, Kluszewski was asked about his expectations. “If that Milt Pappas is pitching, I'll do alright," The Sporting News quoted him. "I’ve always been able to hit him."

On April 11, with Albie Pearson on first base, Kluszewski stepped to the plate against Pappas in the first inning before hitting a drive deep into the right-field bleachers for the first home run in franchise history. Don Wells called the home run on the Angels radio broadcast:

"Big Klu stands in ... On this chilly day, he has that heavy sweatshirt on, no muscles bare here this afternoon... Here's the stretch again ... And the pitch to Klu ... A swing ... A long, long belt! Stay fair!' Wells begged. 'Out there! It is ... good-bye, baseball! Kluszewski gets one!"

The Angels went on to win their first game by a 7–2 count. One inning later, Kluszewski hit his second homer in as many innings, this one off rookie reliever John Papa with two runners on base.

Kluszewski spent the season as part of a lefty-righty platoon with veteran Steve Bilko at first base. He finished the season with a .243 batting average, 15 homers and 39 RBI in 107 games.

Personal life
In 1958, Kluszewski became a partner in Ted Kluszewski's Steak House in the Walnut Hills neighborhood of Cincinnati, a business venture that lasted 21 years. The popular eatery had five locations at both sides of the Ohio River and reportedly served more than 1,000 pounds of beef on a weekly basis.

After his retirement as a player, Kluszewski returned to the Cincinnati Reds as batting coach in 1970 and remained in that capacity for nine seasons. It was under his tutelage that the so-called Big Red Machine became one of the most potent offenses of the expansion era and won consecutive World Series titles in the 1975 and 1976 campaigns.

"There are a lot of coaches who have received more notoriety than Klu, but I don't think anyone's had more success," said three-time batting champion Pete Rose, one of his prized pupils. "He was just a prince. I never heard a bad word said about him. He was a nice man, a gentle man."

In 1979, largely because of health reasons, Kluszewski took on a less strenuous role as the Reds minor league hitting instructor. He served in the position until 1986, when a massive heart attack resulted in emergency bypass surgery that prompted him to leave baseball permanently. On March 29 two years later, the 63-year-old Kluszewski was stricken by a second heart attack and died at a suburban Cincinnati hospital.

Highlights

 * NL All-Star (1953, 1954, 1955, 1956)
 * NL leader in home runs (1954)
 * NL leader in RBIs (1954)
 * NL leader in hits (1955)
 * NL leader in putouts as first baseman (1951, 1955)
 * NL leader in fielding average as first baseman (1951, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955)
 * AL pennant team (1959)
 * First home run in Los Angeles Angels history (1961)

Records

 * MLB: three home runs by four team members in single game in same season: 1950 Dodgers, 1956 Reds (Gus Bell, Ted Kluszewski, Ed Bailey, and Bob Thurman), and 2001 Brewers
 * NL: five-time leader in fielding average as a first baseman (1951–1955)
 * NL: 17 consecutive games scoring runs (1955)

Other honors and recognitions
1962: Ted Kluszewski is inducted into the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame and Museum.

1974: Ted Kluszewski was inducted into the National Polish-American Sports Hall of Fame.

1981: "Ted Kluszewski" is in first line of the chorus to Terry Cashman's song, "Talkin' Baseball", a musical tribute to baseball.

1998: On July 18, Kluszewski's number 18 was retired by the Cincinnati Reds at a pregame ceremony at Cinergy Field. His widow, Elenor Guckel, threw out the ceremonial first pitch before the game between the San Diego Padres and the Cincinnati Reds.

2003: Great American Ball Park, the home of the Cincinnati Reds, opened on March 31. Before the inaugural game, the Reds dedicated a bronze statue of Kluszewski on the Crosley Terrace area outside the main gate. Statues of Crosley Field era stars Ernie Lombardi, Joe Nuxhall, Frank Robinson, and Pete Rose were erected later. The statues were sculpted by Cincinnati artist Tom Tsuchiya.

title: Ted Kluszewski


text: Talk:Cut (Golden Earring album)

title: Talk:Cut (Golden Earring album)


text:
2nd Duke of Norfolk

The 2nd Duke of Norfolk might refer to:
 * John Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, from the first creation
 * Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, from the third creation

title: 2nd Duke of Norfolk


text:
High Court of Cassation and Justice

The High Court of Cassation and Justice (Înalta Curte de Casație și Justiție) is Romania's supreme court, and the court of last resort. It is the equivalent of France's Cour de Cassation and serves a similar function to other courts of cassation around the world.

Naming history
It held various names during its existence: "Curtea Supremă" (Supreme Court) and "Tribunalul Suprem" (Supreme Tribunal) during the Communist period (1948–1952 and 1952–1989 respectively), and "Curtea Supremă de Justiție" (Supreme Court of Justice) from 1990 to 2003. The name "Înalta Curte de Casație și Justiție" was re-introduced in 2003, having been also used during the United Principalities (1862–1881) and Kingdom of Romania (1881–1947).

Administration
The court is led by a president, seconded by a vice-president and the leading council. Since September 2019, its president is Corina-Alina Corbu. The general assembly of the court's judges assigns two members for the Superior Council of Magistrature. The same assembly approves the annual activity report (released publicly) and the budget of the institution.

According to the law, "The president, the vice-president and the section presidents of the High Court of Cassation and Justice are named by the President of Romania, at the proposal of the Superior Council of Magistrature, out of the judges of the High Court that have worked in at this instance for at least two years". The term lasts for three years, with the possibility of being renewed once.

Controversial decisions
From 1995 to 2000, the Romanian Supreme Court rehabilitated a total of at least 14 convicted war criminals. These included 3 members of Ion Antonescu's wartime government (Nichifor Crainic, Toma Ghițulescu and finance minister Gheron Netta), Radu Dinulescu ("the Eichmann of Romania") and his deputy (Gheorghe Petrescu) as well as other statesmen and journalists such as former minister Stelian Popescu and Pan M. Vizirescu. A procedure known as "extraordinary appeal" was used to overturn their war crimes and "crimes against peace" convictions. In 2004, the "extraordinary appeal" procedure was eliminated from the Romanian legislation following recommendations from the European Court of Human Rights. This, however, backfired on those who wanted these rehabilitations undone, as Efraim Zuroff came to find out. When, in February 2004, Zuroff demanded that the Romanian authorities overturn the rehabilitations of Colonels Radu Dinulescu and Gheorghe Petrescu, he was informed that this was "technically impossible". Due to the abolition of "extraordinary appeal", a decision by the Supreme Court can no longer be challenged within the framework of Romanian legislation.

title: High Court of Cassation and Justice


text:
Hougoumont (disambiguation)

Hougoumont was a fortified farm held by Wellington's army in the Battle of Waterloo.

Hougoumont, Hougomont, or variation may also refer to:

 * Hougoumont (ship), a convict ship;
 * Hougomont (barque), a barque built in 1897
 * Biere d' Hougoumont, a Biere de Garde (strong ale) made by Brewery Ommegang of Cooperstown, NY, United States
 * Hougomont, a painting of the Battle of Waterloo at Hougoumont by Robert Gibb

title: Hougoumont (disambiguation)