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Water supply network

A water supply network or water supply system is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components that provide water supply. A water supply system typically includes the following:
 * 1) A drainage basin (see water purification – sources of drinking water)
 * 2) A raw water collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates, such as a lake, a river, or groundwater from an underground aquifer. Raw water may be transferred using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels, or underground water pipes to water purification facilities.
 * 3) Water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes (usually underground).
 * 4) Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers. Smaller water systems may store the water in cisterns or pressure vessels. Tall buildings may also need to store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper floors.
 * 5) Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be situated at the outlet of underground or aboveground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity flow is impractical).
 * 6) A pipe network for distribution of water to consumers (which may be private houses or industrial, commercial, or institution establishments) and other usage points (such as fire hydrants)
 * 7) Connections to the sewers (underground pipes, or aboveground ditches in some developing countries) are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the sewer system is considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water supply system.

Water supply networks are often run by public utilities of the water industry.

Water abstraction and raw water transfer
Raw water (untreated) is from a surface water source (such as an intake on a lake or a river) or from a groundwater source (such as a water well drawing from an underground aquifer) within the watershed that provides the water resource.

The raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered aqueducts, covered tunnels or underground water pipes.

Water treatment
Virtually all large systems must treat the water; a fact that is tightly regulated by global, state and federal agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) or the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Water treatment must occur before the product reaches the consumer and afterwards (when it is discharged again). Water purification usually occurs close to the final delivery points to reduce pumping costs and the chances of the water becoming contaminated after treatment.

Traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three steps: clarification, filtration and disinfection. Clarification refers to the separation of particles (dirt, organic matter, etc.) from the water stream. Chemical addition (i.e. alum, ferric chloride) destabilizes the particle charges and prepares them for clarification either by settling or floating out of the water stream. Sand, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, removing smaller particulate matter. While other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred method is via chlorine addition. Chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a residual to protect the water supply through the supply network.

Water distribution network
The product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called potable water if it meets the water quality standards required for human consumption.

The water in the supply network is maintained at positive pressure to ensure that water reaches all parts of the network, that a sufficient flow is available at every take-off point and to ensure that untreated water in the ground cannot enter the network. The water is typically pressurised by pumping the water into storage tanks constructed at the highest local point in the network. One network may have several such service reservoirs.

In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a pressure vessel or even by an underground cistern (the latter however does need additional pressurizing). This eliminates the need of a water tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure.

These systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments such as cities or other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise (see water privatization). Water supply networks are part of the master planning of communities, counties, and municipalities. Their planning and design requires the expertise of city planners and civil engineers, who must consider many factors, such as location, current demand, future growth, leakage, pressure, pipe size, pressure loss, fire fighting flows, etc.—using pipe network analysis and other tools.

As water passes through the distribution system, the water quality can degrade by chemical reactions and biological processes. Corrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution system can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects. Release of iron from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of "red water" at the tap. Release of copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of "blue water" and/or a metallic taste. Release of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe together or from brass fixtures. Copper and lead levels at the consumer's tap are regulated to protect consumer health.

Utilities will often adjust the chemistry of the water before distribution to minimize its corrosiveness. The simplest adjustment involves control of pH and alkalinity to produce a water that tends to passivate corrosion by depositing a layer of calcium carbonate. Corrosion inhibitors are often added to reduce release of metals into the water. Common corrosion inhibitors added to the water are phosphates and silicates.

Maintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water distribution. Typically, a chlorine based disinfectant, such as sodium hypochlorite or monochloramine is added to the water as it leaves the treatment plant. Booster stations can be placed within the distribution system to ensure that all areas of the distribution system have adequate sustained levels of disinfection.

Topologies
Like electric power lines, roads, and microwave radio networks, water systems may have a loop or branch network topology, or a combination of both. The piping networks are circular or rectangular. If any one section of water distribution main fails or needs repair, that section can be isolated without disrupting all users on the network.

Most systems are divided into zones. Factors determining the extent or size of a zone can include hydraulics, telemetry systems, history, and population density. Sometimes systems are designed for a specific area then are modified to accommodate development. Terrain affects hydraulics and some forms of telemetry. While each zone may operate as a stand-alone system, there is usually some arrangement to interconnect zones in order to manage equipment failures or system failures.

Water network maintenance
Water supply networks usually represent the majority of assets of a water utility. Systematic documentation of maintenance works using a computerized maintenance management system (CMMS) is a key to a successful operation of a water utility.

Sustainable urban water supply
A sustainable urban water supply network covers all the activities related to provision of potable water. Sustainable development is of increasing importance for the water supply to urban areas. Incorporating innovative water technologies into water supply systems improves water supply from sustainable perspectives. The development of innovative water technologies provides flexibility to the water supply system, generating a fundamental and effective means of sustainability based on an integrated real options approach.

Water is an essential natural resource for human existence. It is needed in every industrial and natural process, for example, it is used for oil refining, for liquid-liquid extraction in hydro-metallurgical processes, for cooling, for scrubbing in the iron and the steel industry, and for several operations in food processing facilities.

It is necessary to adopt a new approach to design urban water supply networks; water shortages are expected in the forthcoming decades and environmental regulations for water utilization and waste-water disposal are increasingly stringent.

To achieve a sustainable water supply network, new sources of water are needed to be developed, and to reduce environmental pollution.

The price of water is increasing, so less water must be wasted and actions must be taken to prevent pipeline leakage. Shutting down the supply service to fix leaks is less and less tolerated by consumers. A sustainable water supply network must monitor the freshwater consumption rate and the waste-water generation rate.

Many of the urban water supply networks in developing countries face problems related to population increase, water scarcity, and environmental pollution.

Population growth
In 1900 just 13% of the global population lived in cities. By 2005, 49% of the global population lived in urban areas. In 2030 it is predicted that this statistic will rise to 60%. Attempts to expand water supply by governments are costly and often not sufficient. The building of new illegal settlements makes it hard to map, and make connections to, the water supply, and leads to inadequate water management. In 2002, there were 158 million people with inadequate water supply. An increasing number of people live in slums, in inadequate sanitary conditions, and are therefore at risk of disease.

Water scarcity
Potable water is not well distributed in the world. 1.8 million deaths are attributed to unsafe water supplies every year, according to the WHO. Many people do not have any access, or do not have access to quality and quantity of potable water, though water itself is abundant. Poor people in developing countries can be close to major rivers, or be in high rainfall areas, yet not have access to potable water at all. There are also people living where lack of water creates millions of deaths every year.

Where the water supply system cannot reach the slums, people manage to use hand pumps, to reach the pit wells, rivers, canals, swamps and any other source of water. In most cases the water quality is unfit for human consumption. The principal cause of water scarcity is the growth in demand. Water is taken from remote areas to satisfy the needs of urban areas. Another reason for water scarcity is climate change: precipitation patterns have changed; rivers have decreased their flow; lakes are drying up; and aquifers are being emptied.

Governmental issues
In developing countries many governments are corrupt and poor and they respond to these problems with frequently changing policies and non clear agreements. Water demand exceeds supply, and household and industrial water supplies are prioritised over other uses, which leads to water stress. Potable water has a price in the market; water often becomes a business for private companies, which earn a profit by putting a higher price on water, which imposes a barrier for lower-income people. The Millennium Development Goals propose the changes required.

Goal 6 of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals is to "Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all". This is in recognition of the human right to water and sanitation, which was formally acknowledged at the United Nations General Assembly in 2010, that "clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to the recognition of all human rights". Sustainable water supply includes ensuring availability, accessibility, affordability and quality of water for all individuals.

In advanced economies, the problems are about optimising existing supply networks. These economies have usually had continuing evolution, which allowed them to construct infrastructure to supply water to people. The European Union has developed a set of rules and policies to overcome expected future problems.

There are many international documents with interesting, but not very specific, ideas and therefore they are not put into practice. Recommendations have been made by the United Nations, such as the Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development.

Optimizing the water supply network
The yield of a system can be measured by either its value or its net benefit. For a water supply system, the true value or the net benefit is a reliable water supply service having adequate quantity and good quality of the product. For example, if the existing water supply of a city needs to be extended to supply a new municipality, the impact of the new branch of the system must be designed to supply the new needs, while maintaining supply to the old system.

Single-objective optimization
The design of a system is governed by multiple criteria, one being cost. If the benefit is fixed, the least cost design results in maximum benefit. However, the least cost approach normally results in a minimum capacity for a water supply network. A minimum cost model usually searches for the least cost solution (in pipe sizes), while satisfying the hydraulic constraints such as: required output pressures, maximum pipe flow rate and pipe flow velocities. The cost is a function of pipe diameters; therefore the optimization problem consists of finding a minimum cost solution by optimising pipe sizes to provide the minimum acceptable capacity.

Multi-objective optimization
However, according to the authors of the paper entitled, “Method for optimizing design and rehabilitation of water distribution systems”, “the least capacity is not a desirable solution to a sustainable water supply network in a long term, due to the uncertainty of the future demand”. It is preferable to provide extra pipe capacity to cope with unexpected demand growth and with water outages. The problem changes from a single objective optimization problem (minimizing cost), to a multi-objective optimization problem (minimizing cost and maximizing flow capacity).

Weighted sum method
To solve a multi-objective optimization problem, it is necessary to convert the problem into a single objective optimization problem, by using adjustments, such as a weighted sum of objectives, or an ε-constraint method. The weighted sum approach gives a certain weight to the different objectives, and then factors in all these weights to form a single objective function that can be solved by single factor optimization. This method is not entirely satisfactory, because the weights cannot be correctly chosen, so this approach cannot find the optimal solution for all the original objectives.

The constraint method
The second approach (the constraint method), chooses one of the objective functions as the single objective, and the other objective functions are treated as constraints with a limited value. However, the optimal solution depends on the pre-defined constraint limits.

Sensitivity analysis
The multiple objective optimization problems involve computing the tradeoff between the costs and benefits resulting in a set of solutions that can be used for sensitivity analysis and tested in different scenarios. But there is no single optimal solution that will satisfy the global optimality of both objectives. As both objectives are to some extent contradictory, it is not possible to improve one objective without sacrificing the other. It is necessary in some cases use a different approach. (e.g. Pareto Analysis), and choose the best combination.

Operational constraints
Returning to the cost objective function, it cannot violate any of the operational constraints. Generally this cost is dominated by the energy cost for pumping. “The operational constraints include the standards of customer service, such as: the minimum delivered pressure, in addition to the physical constraints such as the maximum and the minimum water levels in storage tanks to prevent overtopping and emptying respectively.”

In order to optimize the operational performance of the water supply network, at the same time as minimizing the energy costs, it is necessary to predict the consequences of different pump and valve settings on the behavior of the network.

Apart from Linear and Non-linear Programming, there are other methods and approaches to design, to manage and operate a water supply network to achieve sustainability—for instance, the adoption of appropriate technology coupled with effective strategies for operation and maintenance. These strategies must include effective management models, technical support to the householders and industries, sustainable financing mechanisms, and development of reliable supply chains. All these measures must ensure the following: system working lifespan; maintenance cycle; continuity of functioning; down time for repairs; water yield and water quality.

Sustainable development
In an unsustainable system there is insufficient maintenance of the water networks, especially in the major pipe lines in urban areas. The system deteriorates and then needs rehabilitation or renewal.

Householders and sewage treatment plants can both make the water supply networks more efficient and sustainable. Major improvements in eco-efficiency are gained through systematic separation of rainfall and wastewater. Membrane technology can be used for recycling wastewater.

The municipal government can develop a “Municipal Water Reuse System” which is a current approach to manage the rainwater. It applies a water reuse scheme for treated wastewater, on a municipal scale, to provide non-potable water for industry, household and municipal uses. This technology consists in separating the urine fraction of sanitary wastewater, and collecting it for recycling its nutrients. The feces and graywater fraction is collected, together with organic wastes from the households, using a gravity sewer system, continuously flushed with non-potable water. The water is treated anaerobically and the biogas is used for energy production.

One effective way to achieve sustainable water management is to shift emphasis towards decentralized water projects, such as drip irrigation diffusion in India. This project covers large spatial areas while relying on individual technological adoption decisions, offering scalable solutions that can mitigate water scarcity and enhance agricultural productivity.

Another method that can be utilized is through the promoting of community engagement and resistance against unsustainable water infrastructure projects. Grassroots movements, as observed in anti-dam protests in various countries, play a crucial role in challenging dominant development narratives and advocating for more socially and ecologically just water management practices.

Municipalities and other forms of local governments should also invest in innovative technologies, such as membrane technology for wastewater recycling, and develop policy frameworks that incentivize eco-efficient practices. Municipal water reuse systems, as demonstrated in implementation, offer promising avenues for integrating wastewater treatment and resource recovery into urban water networks.

The sustainable water supply system is an integrated system including water intake, water utilization, wastewater discharge and treatment and water environmental protection. It requires reducing freshwater and groundwater usage in all sectors of consumption. Developing sustainable water supply systems is a growing trend, because it serves people's long-term interests. There are several ways to reuse and recycle the water, in order to achieve long-term sustainability, such as:
 * Gray water re-use and treatment: gray water is wastewater coming from baths, showers, sinks and washbasins. If this water is treated it can be used as a source of water for uses other than drinking. Depending on the type of gray water and its level of treatment, it can be re-used for irrigation and toilet flushing. According to an investigation about the impacts of domestic grey water reuse on public health, carried out by the New South Wales Health Centre in Australia in the year 2000, grey water contains less nitrogen and fecal pathogenic organisms than sewage, and the organic content of grey water decomposes more rapidly.
 * Ecological treatment systems use little energy: there are many applications in gray water re-use, such as reed beds, soil treatment systems and plant filters. This process is ideal for gray water re-use, because of easier maintenance and higher removal rates of organic matter, ammonia, nitrogen and phosphorus.

Other possible approaches to scoping models for water supply, applicable to any urban area, include the following:
 * Sustainable drainage system
 * Borehole extraction
 * Intercluster groundwater flow
 * Canal and river extraction
 * Aquifer storage
 * A more user-friendly indoor water use

The Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development is a good example of the new trend to overcome water supply problems. This statement, suggested by advanced economies, has come up with some principles that are of great significance to urban water supply. These are:
 * 1) Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment.
 * 2) Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners and policy-makers at all levels.
 * 3) Women play a central part in the provision, management and safeguarding of water. Institutional arrangements should reflect the role of women in water provision and protection.
 * 4) Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good.

From these statements, developed in 1992, several policies have been created to give importance to water and to move urban water system management towards sustainable development. The Water Framework Directive by the European Commission is a good example of what has been created there out of former policies.

Future approaches
There is great need for a more sustainable water supply systems. To achieve sustainability several factors must be tackled at the same time: climate change, rising energy cost, and rising populations. All of these factors provoke change and put pressure on management of available water resources.

An obstacle to transforming conventional water supply systems, is the amount of time needed to achieve the transformation. More specifically, transformation must be implemented by municipal legislation bodies, which always need short-term solutions too. Another obstacle to achieving sustainability in water supply systems is the insufficient practical experience with the technologies required, and the missing know-how about the organization and the transition process.

Urban water infrastructure faces several challenges that undermine its sustainability and resilience. One critical issue highlighted in recent research is the vulnerability of water networks to climate variability and extreme weather events. Poor seasonal rains, as observed in the case of the Panama Canal's lock and dam infrastructure, exemplify how inadequate water supply can strain water-intensive infrastructure, raising questions about engineering legitimacy and the reliability of water systems.

Another key challenge is the unequal development associated with large-scale water infrastructure projects such as dams and canals. Such projects, while aimed at promoting economic growth, often actually reproduce social and economic inequalities by displacing rural communities and marginalizing indigenous populations. This phenomenon of "accumulation by dispossession" further emphasizes the need for more equitable and inclusive approaches to water infrastructure development.

Possible ways to improve this situation is simulating of the network, implementing pilot projects, learning from the costs involved and the benefits achieved.

title: Water supply network


text: User talk:217.207.114.109

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:217.207.114.109


text:
FutureGen

FutureGen was a project to demonstrate capture and sequestration of waste carbon dioxide from a coal-fired electrical generating station. The project (renamed FutureGen 2.0) was retrofitting a shuttered coal-fired power plant in Meredosia, Illinois, with oxy-combustion generators. The waste CO2 would be piped approximately 30 mi to be sequestered in underground saline formations. FutureGen was a partnership between the United States government and an alliance of primarily coal-related corporations. Costs were estimated at US$1.65 billion, with $1.0 billion provided by the Federal Government.

First announced by President George W. Bush in 2003, construction started in 2014 after restructuring, canceling, relocating, and restarting. Citing an inability to commit and spend the funds by deadlines in 2015, the Department of Energy withdrew funds and suspended FutureGen 2.0 in February, 2015. The government also cited the Alliance's inability to raise the requisite amount of private funding. The Meredosia power plant that had been planned for retrofit was demolished around 2021.

FutureGen 2.0 would have been the most comprehensive Department of Energy Carbon Capture and Storage demonstration project, involving all phases from combustion to sequestration. FutureGen's initial plan involved integrated gasification combined cycle technology to produce both electricity and hydrogen. Early in the project it was to be sited in Mattoon, IL.

Original project
The original incarnation of FutureGen was as a public-private partnership to build the world's first near zero-emissions coal-fueled power plant. The 275-megawatt plant would be intended to prove the feasibility of producing electricity and hydrogen from coal while capturing and permanently storing carbon dioxide underground. The Alliance intended to build the plant in Mattoon Township, Coles County, Illinois northwest of Mattoon, Illinois, subject to necessary approvals (issuing a “Record of Decision”) by the Department of Energy (DOE) as part of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) process.

FutureGen was to be designed, developed and operated by the FutureGen Industrial Alliance, a non-profit consortium of coal mining and electric utility companies formed to partner with the DOE on the FutureGen project. The project was still in the development stage when its funding was cancelled in January 2008. The Alliance decision of the location of the host site, subject to DOE's completing NEPA environmental reviews, was announced in December 2007 after a two-year bidding and review process. Construction was scheduled to begin in 2009, with full-scale plant operations to begin in 2012.

The estimated gross project cost, including construction and operations, and excluding offsetting revenue, was $1.65 billion. The project was governed by a legally binding cooperative agreement between DOE and the Alliance. Under the agreement, DOE was to provide 74% of the project’s cost, with private industry contributing the other 26%. The DOE also planned to solicit the financial support and participation of international governments in the FutureGen project, since by 2020 more than 60% of man-made greenhouse gas emissions are expected to come from developing countries. Foreign financial support was to offset a portion of DOE’s cost-share. As of January 2008, the foreign governments of China, India, Australia, South Korea, and Japan had expressed interest in participating and sharing the cost of the project.

FutureGen was to sequester carbon dioxide emissions at a rate of one million metric tons per year for four years, which is the scale a Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) report cites as appropriate for proving sequestration. The MIT report also states that “the priority objective with respect to coal should be the successful large-scale demonstration of the technical, economic, and environmental performance of the technologies that make up all of the major components of a large-scale integrated CCS system — capture, transportation and storage.” An injection field test similar to this was done in Norway.

In March 2009 Washington Post reported that U.S. Secretary of Energy Steven Chu expressed support for continuing the project using stimulus funds (after some changes that have not yet been specified) and making it a part of a larger portfolio of research plants developed in collaboration with other countries.

Following the successful completion of the first phase, in February 2013, the Energy Department announced the beginning of Phase II of the project development with a new cooperative agreement between the FutureGen Industrial Alliance and the Department of Energy. This means that the FutureGen project has government support as it moves into its third phase, deployment of the project.

Site selection
Site selection for the FutureGen facility was based on a competitive process which began in May 2006. Seven states responded to the Site Request for Proposals with a total of 12 proposals. Proposals were reviewed against a set of environmental, technical, regulatory, and financial criteria with input from external technical advisors on power plant design and carbon sequestration. In July 2006, four candidate sites were selected for further review, including an environmental impact analysis as required by NEPA.

DOE issued its Final Environmental impact statement (EIS) on November 8, 2007, which concluded that all four sites were acceptable from an environmental impact standpoint and all would move forward in the site evaluation process. EPA published a Notice of Availability (NOA) for the EIS in the Federal Register on November 16, 2007. The DOE is required by federal law to wait at least 30 days after the NOA release before issuing its final Record of Decision (ROD). The waiting period legally closed on December 17, 2007. DOE chose not to issue the ROD and advised the FutureGen Alliance to delay the final site selection announcement, which was scheduled to occur at the end of the 30-day waiting period. The Alliance chose to move ahead with the announcement, citing time, money, and a commitment to proposers to select the final site by year-end. "Every month of delay can add $10 million to the project's cost, solely due to inflation," said Michael Mudd, the Alliance's chief executive.

The FutureGen Alliance announced the selection of Mattoon, Illinois as the host site on December 18, 2007. According to the EIS, Mattoon, IL the site is located about 3.5 mi northwest of downtown Mattoon in the eastern part of Mattoon township section 8 on 1.8 km2 of former farm land. The carbon sequestration area is about 8000 ft below the ground. In July 2007, Illinois Public Act 095-0018 became law giving the state of Illinois ownership of and liability for the sequestered gases.

Technology
Original FutureGen project was intended to combine and test several new technologies in a single location, including coal gasification, emissions controls, hydrogen production, electricity generation, and carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS).

Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) was the core technology behind FutureGen. IGCC power plants use two turbines – a gas and a steam turbine – to produce electric power more efficiently than pulverized coal plants. IGCC plants also make it easier to capture carbon dioxide for carbon sequestration.

FutureGen was to capture carbon dioxide produced during the gasification process and pump it into deep rock formations thousands of feet under ground. FutureGen specifically targeted rock formations containing saline water, as these are one of the most abundant types of geologic formations that can be used to store carbon dioxide worldwide. A study by the Global Energy Technology Strategy Program estimates the storage capacity of these saline rock formations in the U.S. to be 2,970 gigatons of carbon dioxide, compared to a capacity of 77 gigatons of carbon dioxide for all other types of reservoirs, such as depleted gas fields. Focusing on rock formations with saline water was intended to help ensure that the lessons learned from the project are broadly transferable throughout the U.S. and around the world.

Challenges
Maintaining the project schedule and keeping costs down were two major challenges with which the DOE and the FutureGen Alliance grappled. The project had remained on schedule with the announcement of the host site before the end of 2007; however, a desire by DOE to restructure the project’s financial arrangement has brought the project to a halt.

In December 2007, the DOE Acting Deputy Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy James Slutz stated that projected cost overruns for the project "require a reassessment of FutureGen's design." And that "This will require restructuring FutureGen to maximize the role of private-sector innovation, facilitate the most productive public-private partnership, and prevent further cost escalation."

The FutureGen Alliance wrote a letter to the Department of Energy’s Under Secretary C.H. “Bud” Albright Jr. stating that overall inflation and the rising cost of raw materials and engineering services are driving costs up on energy projects around the world. According to James L. Connaughton, chairman of the White House Council on Environmental Quality, the market for steel, concrete and power plant components has “just gone through the roof globally”, and much of the reason is the construction of hundreds of new conventional coal plants.

On January 11, 2008, the FutureGen Alliance sent a letter to the DOE offering to lower the government's portion of the project's costs. The initial plans had called for DOE to pay based on a percentage of the total cost, and their portion had risen from about $620 million to about $1.33 billion. The letter indicated that DOE's portion would now be $800 million.

Risk management was a significant portion of the cost of the first FutureGen experimental implementation. FutureGen involved many complex never-before-solved technology problems. The risks also included significant health risks, if the untested-technology systems failed to work correctly.

Funding cancellation
On January 29, 2008, the U.S. Department of Energy announced that it would pull its funding for the project, mostly due to higher than expected costs. The move is likely to delay the project as other members seek the additional funds that the DOE was to provide. The sudden concern over cost after an Illinois site was chosen over those in Texas raised questions about the motives for the cancellation. Local and state officials in Illinois, including then Governor Rod Blagojevich, expressed frustration at the move, especially in light of the money and resources that the state had spent to attract the project. Democratic Senator Dick Durbin of Illinois accused Energy Secretary Samuel Bodman of "cruel deception" of Illinoisans by "creating false hope in a FutureGen project which he has no intention of funding or supporting." Durbin claimed that "when the city of Mattoon, Illinois, was chosen over possible locations in Texas, the secretary of energy set out to kill FutureGen." Mattoon mayor David Cline said "one could question the motivation of the Department of Energy which was ready to move forward with the project until a site other than Texas was chosen."

In March 2009, Congressional auditors determined that the DOE had miscalculated the government portion of the project's cost, overstating the amount by a half billion dollars. As a result, the Bush administration cited the project as having nearly doubled in cost when, in reality, it had increased by 39%

Secretary Bodman stated that with restructuring the FutureGen project, DOE plans "to equip multiple new clean-coal power plants with advanced CCS technology, instead of one demonstration plant. That will provide more electricity from multiple clean-coal plants, sequestering at least twice as much CO2 and providing for wider use and more rapid commercialization."

Plans for continuing FutureGen
Despite the cancellation of funding by the DOE, the FutureGen Alliance continued to move forward with the project, opening an office in Mattoon and planning to buy the land for the plant in August 2008, in partnership with a local group.

During the 2008 U.S. presidential campaigns, Sen. Barack Obama pledged his support to clean coal technologies, with plans to develop five commercial-scale coal plants equipped with CCS technology.

In November 2008, Fred Palmer, senior vice president at Peabody Energy shared his outlook on FutureGen with the American Coalition for Clean Coal Electricity (ACCCE), saying that the FutureGen Alliance would "Make a concerted effort in the Obama administration to reinstate the project and get this built as originally planned."

On June 12, 2009, the DOE announced a restart of design work for the FutureGen project. "Following the completion of the detailed cost estimate and fundraising activities," the press release states, "the Department of Energy and the FutureGen Alliance will make a decision either to move forward or to discontinue the project early in 2010."

Revised project: FutureGen 2.0
On August 5, 2010, the DOE announced a retooling of the FutureGen project, dubbed FutureGen 2.0. The revised plan includes retrofitting a shuttered coal-fired power plant in Meredosia, Illinois to demonstrate advanced oxy-combustion technology, and piping the carbon dioxide 175 miles to Mattoon for underground storage. Due to these changes, leaders in Mattoon decided to drop out of the FutureGen project.

The Illinois sites vying for the underground storage portion of the project were in Christian, Douglas, Fayette, and Morgan counties, after sites in Adams and Pike counties were cut in December 2010. In February 2011, Morgan County was chosen for the sequestration site.

In Sept, 2014 FutureGen received the first-ever EPA permits for four class VI carbon dioxide sequestration wells in Morgan County, with plans to store 1.1 million metric tons per year for 20 years. Also in 2014 FutureGen survived a lawsuit from Illinois Electric utility ComEd, which challenged the state's ability to impose a surcharge on all customers to pay for FutureGen electricity.

According to critics, including the Illinois Policy Institute, the plan presents major environmental and fiscal pitfalls.

FutureGen 2.0 funding cancellation
The Department of Energy ordered suspension of FutureGen 2.0 in February, 2015. The funds, appropriated by the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, needed to be committed by July 1 and spent by Sept 30, 2015. The government also cited the Alliance's inability to raise the requisite amount of private funding. Energy Secretary Ernest Moniz explained at a press conference “If you look between now and July 1, without them having closed their financing, and try as we might, we just don’t see how it gets over the finish line.” At the time of suspension the power plant part of the project had spent $116.5 million and the sequestration part had spent $86 million.

Alliance members
The FutureGen Industrial Alliance is a consortium of 10 power producers and electric utilities from around the globe.

Former members
Four companies initially a part of the FutureGen Industrial Alliance have since dropped out of the project.

title: FutureGen


text:
Governor's School

Governor's School may refer to:

National organizations

 * National Conference of Governor's Schools, a national organization committed to establishing, supporting, and enriching summer residential governor's school programs.

High schools

 * Virginia Governor's Schools Program, a system of state-chartered regional magnet high schools and summer programs for gifted students in the Commonwealth of Virginia, or, regionally, one of the schools in the system.
 * Maggie L. Walker Governor's School for Government and International Studies, a high school in Richmond, Virginia.
 * Chesapeake Bay Governor's School, a marine-and-environmental-science-oriented program for students in grades 10–12, with campuses in Warsaw, Bowling Green, and Glenns, VA.
 * South Carolina Governor's School For The Arts & Humanities, located in Greenville and opened in 1999.
 * South Carolina Governor's School for Science and Mathematics, a public, two year residential high school in Hartsville.

North Carolina
North Carolina has four Governor's School programs.
 * North Carolina School for Science and Mathematics, public two year residential secondary school in Durham, founded by former governor Terry Sanford.
 * University of North Carolina School for the Arts, public conservatory for arts and humanities, founded by former governor Terry Sanford; and the Winston-Salem campus for the University of North Carolina. Its elementary and secondary school resembles North Carolina State University's Centennial Campus Middle School. It is also a university college and graduate school. North Carolina remains the third-largest film-making industry after California and New York, a courtesy of the parents of Evan Rachel Wood.
 * Governor's School of North Carolina — North Carolina's secondary schools participate in summer programs for gifted rising 11th and 12th graders at the private colleges Salem College and Meredith College.

Summer schools for the gifted

 * Mississippi Governor's School, a two-week tuition-free residential honors program for high school students, founded in 1981 and hosted at Mississippi University for Women.
 * Governor's School of New Jersey, a group of unique summer programs committed to meeting the educational needs of academically gifted high school students who have completed their junior year. The two programs offered as of 2013 are The Governor's School of Engineering and Technology and The Governor's School in the Sciences.
 * Governor's School of North Carolina, a summer program for gifted high school students held in Raleigh and Winston-Salem, North Carolina.
 * North Dakota Governor's School a six-week, tuition-free, resident honors program in North Dakota.
 * Pennsylvania Governor's Schools of Excellence, a collection of summer programs in Pennsylvania.
 * Governor's School of Texas, a 3-week summer program for talented high school students in Texas.
 * Governor's Schools of Tennessee, a group of eleven (11) summer programs for gifted and talented high school students, including Arts, Humanities, International Studies, Engineering, Science, Prospective Teachers, Scientific Exploration of Tennessee Heritage, Information Technology Leadership, and Agricultural Science.
 * Governor's Academy for Teaching Excellence (GATE), at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, a 3-week summer residential program on the Texas Gulf Coast for gifted and talented high school students who are interested in the field of science and math education.
 * Georgia Governor's Honors Program, a tuition-free, 4-week summer residential program for Georgia's most intellectually gifted and artistically talented high school students.
 * Arkansas Governor's School, a six-week, tuition-free, resident honors program in Arkansas founded in 1979 by Bill Clinton.

title: Governor's School


text:
Yahatanishi-ku, Kitakyūshū

Yahatanishi-ku (八幡西区) is a ward of Kitakyūshū, Fukuoka, Japan. It covers 83.04 square kilometres, and had a population of 260,318 in January, 2005. The ward contains JR Kurosaki Station, and JR Orio Station on the Kagoshima Main Line, with several schools and universities nearby. It is chiefly a residential area, bounded by the Onga river in the West.

In the south of the ward by the Onga river is Koyanose-juku, a former post town on the Nagasaki Kaidō which has recently become a tourist area.

Economy
Yaskawa Electric, a global electrical equipment and robot manufacturing company is headquartered in the ward.

Facilities

 * Honjo Stadium

Education
North Korean schools:
 * Kyushu Korean Junior-Senior High School
 * Kitakyushu Korean Elementary School (北九州朝鮮初級学校)

title: Yahatanishi-ku, Kitakyūshū


text:
QS

QS may refer to:

Business

 * QS mark (for "quality and safety"), on Chinese products
 * Quacquarelli Symonds, an education and careers networking company
 * QS World University Rankings, an annual publication
 * Quality System (QS) Regulation, a business process
 * Quantity surveyor, a professional in the construction industry concerned with costs and contracts
 * Travel Service (IATA airline designator QS)
 * Quadraphonic sound, the Sansui QS Regular Matrix system

Politics

 * Québec solidaire, a political party in Quebec, Canada
 * Quis separabit?, an Irish Loyalist motto

Biology and medicine

 * ATCvet code QS Sensory organs, a section of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System for veterinary medicinal products
 * Quantum satis, a Latin term meaning "the amount which is needed", used in food and drug regulation
 * Quinolinate synthase, an enzyme
 * Quorum sensing, a system of interaction in natural and synthetic populations

Computing and mathematics

 * Quadratic sieve, an integer factorization algorithm
 * Quality Score, a variable used by search engines to set the rank and cost of ads
 * Quicksort, a sorting algorithm

Other uses in science and technology

 * Quadraphonic sound, or "Quadphonic Synthesizer", a matrix quadraphonic gramophone record format developed by Sansui
 * Quantified self, a movement to incorporate technology into data acquisition on aspects of a person's daily life
 * Quicksand, a colloid hydrogel consisting of fine granular material and water

Sport

 * Quality start, a baseball statistic calculated for starting pitchers
 * Qualcomm Stadium, a stadium in San Diego, California

Other uses

 * Queen's Scout, a scout who has attained the Queen's Scout Award
 * Queen's Serjeant, an obsolete legal position in the United Kingdom

title: QS


text:
Talk:Full-motion video

one dot zero
killed the advert.

First Use

 * Does anyone know the first home computer of video game to incorporate FMV sequences? The earliest one that comes to mind is Sherlock Holmes: Consulting Detective (1991) Zoganes 14:13, 2004 Dec 6 (UTC)

 * Could use more information on early 90's games, including games focused primarily on FMV as a part of gameplay, their evolution, failure as truly interactive games, and eventual replacement by 3D. Include examples of FMV games for PC and console systems.

Rewrite
The article is completely wrong, confusing Full Motion Video with CG (computer graphics). Notably not talk about real FMV games like "7th Quest", "Phantasmagoria", "Night Trap", "Secret Circle of the Moon".

Final Fantasy never used FMV in gameplay.--Mateusc 28 June 2005 17:34 (UTC) Not true, the majority of FF7 used 3D models placed over looping FMV backgrounds in addition to MANY full-blown FMV sequences. Leggo (talk) 07:05, 16 April 2011 (UTC)

 * I don't claim to be right, but I think FMV is not limited to humans actors in response to your claim about Final Fantasy FMVs. I tried searching for a definition of FMV without finding something really clear about them, but some professional video games websites like http://www.gamespot.com use the term FMV when talking about the videos like this [review] on gamespot where you'll see the word FMV on the 4th paragraph. About the real FMV games, I think you're right, we need to rewrite the article to talk about them.--DarkEvil July 2, 2005 17:00 (UTC)

 * Do you have a citation for the claim that FMV is only live action? The only other time I've seen this argument is in a rather heated debate surrounding the release of Jedi Knight II, and I was under the impression it had been pretty thoroughly debunked there. "Full motion video" does not refer to the content of a particular clip: it refers to video which plays at a full frame rate (24/30 FPS for NTSC, or 25 for PAL video). See here or here. Graphics professionals, game designers, and the general public have been using the term FMV for exactly what the article says it is for years. The term for what you're talking about is "live action," not "full motion." – Seancdaug July 7, 2005 05:25 (UTC)

 * Definitions for terms change (especially considering live-action FMV's died out years ago). Live with it (like the guys at Fighting game do). Taking the rewrite tag off now. Nifboy 7 July 2005 07:39 (UTC)

I think the concept may be wrong and deserves a full rewrite. FMV-based games have always been games that have a defining characteristic of having full motion video, or had a majority of the focus of the title go to the FMV with gameplay seen by popular consensus as more of an afterthought. The usage of FMV has to be considered "gimmicky" for it to be a true FMV title (Acted or rendered). I would go so far as to say that an FMV game would be seen as incomplete or entirely unplayable divorced from the FMV content. (e.g. A game like Myst isn't remembered for being an FMV game even though it had substantial amounts of it because the puzzles stood on their own.) FMV-based games mostly came about with the advent of the CD-ROM, with developers brainstorming as to how to best use the embarrassment of capacity they suddenly had available when previously they were limited to a cartridge or a few floppy disks. Conversely, they've also nearly disappeared not only because they became unpopular, but because with higher television and monitor resolutions, and more sophisticated graphics, the less sense it made to dedicate the space for what's now an expected 1080p video stream when other space-hogging items like textures and 7.1 audio are also fighting for that space. It also used to be the case that adding FMV to a game made it look significantly better, but ever since Metal Gear Solid (the first major title to primarily use in-game models for cutscenes), 3D real-time rendering has been at the point that in the interest of telling compelling stories the industry doesn't seem to feel that including large amounts of FMV is worth breaking immersion. This isn't the case on portables where with their newfound higher capacity and low processing power we're experiencing a small resurgence of re-releases and new FMV titles on handheld consoles and iOS devices. Leggo (talk) 07:05, 16 April 2011 (UTC)

First use of FMV
According to Dragon's Lair, Dragon's Lair was the first movie to sport FMV in 1983. --Abdull 20:47, 4 September 2005 (UTC)

Most Laserdiscs games use FMV and in fact are the ancestors to cd-rom FMV (with a good bunch of them being released as cd-roms or dvd-roms since) Cedric C.

The resurgence of live action
Many games now are coming out live action now again like command and conquer 3 and the new need for speed.Jamhaw 18:31, 29 January 2007 (UTC)jamhaw

In 2009, BigFish games released "Mystery Case Files:Return to Ravenhearst" which uses FMV in the cutscenes. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.17.118.100 (talk) 01:05, 18 July 2009 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Final Fantasy VIII Ball Dance FMV.jpg
Image:Final Fantasy VIII Ball Dance FMV.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 21:21, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

interlaced black lines
I removed the phantasmagoria because when resized automatically it appears all dark, so dark that you can't see anything. It is not representative of the quality of videos since this artefact is introduced by the way the picture is resized. Actually, in full size it's much easier to see what's in the picture. I propose a fix: removing black lines or having a version with and without blacklines and appropriate notice.

See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_talk:Phantasmagoria.png —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.175.74.22 (talk) 12:45, 28 October 2008 (UTC)

List of FMVs
I'm not sure but isn't the list outdated? I think games that spawn from a franchise would be an FMVG (Spider-man, Ironman, Naruto etc)

Mystery Case Files.
This little PC-only game franchise has had FMV in 2 of it's games: 2008's "REturn to Ravenhearts" & 2009's "Dire Grove." —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.17.118.100 (talk) 22:57, 14 January 2010 (UTC)

NPOV, please
"These FMV games frequently used D-list (or worse) movie and TV actors and promised to create the experience of playing an interactive movie. However, production values were quite low with amateurish sets, lighting, costumes, and special effects."

While it's certainly true of several (okay, *many*) FMV games, there were a number of titles that had sizable budgets and decent production values, a few of which are still held in positive critical light to this day...the Tex Murphy series and some of Sierra Entertainment's efforts come to mind. FMV may not have been that successful, but this article subtly generalizes the whole movement as an amateurish disaster that had no redeeming qualities. Perhaps someone with a bit of expertise can make this page a bit more NPOV?

POV
There's a section which says some shit about "used D-list actors (or worse)".

D-list itself isn't a widely used and definable term (who is B-list, C-list, D-list e.t.c.) but 'worse' especially is very much out of place, you can't objectively make a judgement of worse vs better; it ain't neutral to be saying this shit is better or worse than this shit.

It's clear enough what it's trying to say (obscure actors, or REALLY obscure actors) but it needs a new way of saying it. I cannot be arsed to think of a way, and especially can't be arsed to do it given I can see somebody taking exception with it and turning it into an edit war. Therefore, I'm just making the case and somebody else should do it.

thanks very much.
 * Okay, now it says "Argentine and Brazilian" actors, and I'm having trouble figuring out where the hell they're getting this from, it's certainly not referenced. Also, why do people in this particular Talk page have so much trouble signing their messages? --68.6.182.39 (talk) 20:12, 31 October 2012 (UTC)

Delete this article - it has no references.
I move for this article to be deleted unless whoever created it and actually back up its claims. 101.160.5.230 (talk) 22:53, 30 December 2018 (UTC)

Requested move 13 February 2022

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Not moved. (non-admin closure) Natg 19 (talk) 00:50, 8 March 2022 (UTC)

Full-motion video → FMV game – Per WP:COMMONNAME and the fact that the video games are more notable than the technique. (Ref example of common usage of "FMV game") It currently redirects to interactive film, but that seems to be a WP:OVERLAP of this article and could probably be merged into it selectively. ᴢxᴄᴠʙɴᴍ (ᴛ) 11:01, 13 February 2022 (UTC) — Relisting. Sceptre (talk) 17:46, 21 February 2022 (UTC)

 * Oppose I think there is value in having an article dedicated to the FMV technique, separate from the genre of "FMV game"/interactive film. There are plenty of games that use FMV which don't fall into the latter category, and if you look at the source links to this article, many of them would no longer make sense if the article was rescoped to be about FMV games. Colin M (talk) 18:16, 21 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Can you clarify what the "FMV technique" is, and what differentiates it from, say, normal films? When stripped of the game, "full-motion video" is just, well, a standard short film. In my opinion, it only makes sense when discussed in context of games that specifically revolve around it. ᴢxᴄᴠʙɴᴍ (ᴛ) 22:16, 24 February 2022 (UTC)
 * It's the technique of playing pre-recorded video as a cutscene or in-game sequence, rather than rendering the sequence in real time with the game engine. The search I linked above gives lots of examples where it's discussed outside the context of the interactive film genre. e.g. at Resident Evil, Final Fantasy IX, Star Wars: Rebel Assault, etc. Colin M (talk) 17:27, 28 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose per Colin M BilledMammal (talk) 14:09, 22 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose. We should avoid acronyms here.Best Wishes,  Lee Vilenski (talk • contribs) 17:04, 6 March 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose We don't name "first-person shooters" under "FPS" though use redirects for that. Same would apply here. --M asem (t) 17:12, 6 March 2022 (UTC)
 * Regarding the use of acronyms - we do in fact use acronyms and initialisms all the time on Wikipedia, when they're the common name. See BBC, CNN, NASA, laser, HIV/AIDS... Popcornfud (talk) 19:33, 6 March 2022 (UTC)

The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.
 * Oppose The FMV scene is separate from though heavily used in interactive movies, so the two should've be conflated. Also Lee Vilenski's and Masem's point about acronyms. --ProtoDrake (talk) 17:15, 6 March 2022 (UTC)
 * There is also HUD (video gaming), MUD, ACG (subculture) and more. I don't think "you can't use acronyms" is a real thing? ᴢxᴄᴠʙɴᴍ (ᴛ) 21:55, 6 March 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, the acronyms issue is irrelevant, the consideration should be about whether we need separate articles for these subjects. Popcornfud (talk) 16:29, 7 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Full-motion video


text: User talk:66.193.6.2

title: User talk:66.193.6.2


text:
TJ

TJ may refer to:

Fictional characters

 * T.J. Detweiler, the protagonist of Recess
 * T.J. Hammond, a character in the miniseries Political Animals
 * T. J. Hooker, an American television show and title character
 * TJ Wagner, a comic book character known as Nocturne
 * Tamara Johansen, a character in the television series Stargate Universe
 * Theodore Jay Jarvis Johnson, a fictional character from the TV series Power Rangers Turbo and Power Rangers in Space
 * TJ Kippen, a recurring character on the Disney Channel series Andi Mack

People

 * T. J. (given name), shared by several people
 * Thomas Jefferson, third president of the United States
 * Teddyson John, Saint Lucian brand ambassador, singer and songwriter

Places

 * Tajikistan (ISO 3166-1 country code TJ)
 * Tianjin, China (Guobiao abbreviation TJ)
 * Tijuana, Mexico
 * Torrejón de Ardoz, Spain

Schools

 * Temasek Junior College in eastern Singapore
 * Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology
 * Tongji University in Shanghai, China

Transport

 * Thanjavur Junction railway station in Tamil Nadu, India (Indian Railways station code)
 * TransJakarta in Jakarta, Indonesia
 * Trans Jogja in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Other businesses and organizations

 * T.J.'s, a nightclub and live music venue in Newport, Wales
 * Trader Joe's, a chain of specialty grocery stores

Law

 * Therapeutic jurisprudence, the study of the effect that legal rules and procedures produce on individuals involved in legal processes
 * Tribunal de Justiça, or Court of Justice, the appellate courts of Brazil

Science and technology

 * .tj, the country code top level domain (ccTLD) for Tajikistan
 * Terajoule, a unit of energy equal to 1012 joules
 * Thermal Junction, or Junction temperature, in semiconductors
 * Tommy John surgery, a surgical procedure named after a former Major League Baseball pitcher

Other uses

 * Tj (digraph)
 * TJ, aka Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal, published by Creation Ministries International
 * Tamgha-i-Jurat, the fourth highest military award of Pakistan
 * Jeep TJ, the Canadian name for the 1997-2006 Jeep Wrangler, an off-road vehicle
 * Tajikistani somoni (Symbol TJS), the currency of Tajikistan
 * A Theory of Justice, a book by John Rawls
 * toimitusjohtaja, the Finnish equivalent to CEO
 * Triple jump, a discipline in athletics
 * Turbojugend, the international fan club of the Norwegian rock band Turbonegro

title: TJ


text:
Wasserbillig

Wasserbillig (Waasserbëlleg ) is a town in the commune of Mertert, in eastern Luxembourg. , Wasserbillig has 3,485 inhabitants, which makes it the largest town in Mertert. Wasserbillig is the administrative seat of the commune of Mertert.

Geography
Wasserbillig lies at the confluence of the rivers Moselle and Sauer, which form the border with Germany at the town. On the opposite side of the Moselle and linked by a car ferry lies Oberbillig, Germany; on the opposite side of the Sauer and linked by vehicle and rail bridges lies Wasserbilligerbrück, Germany.

Wasserbillig is the lowest settlement in Luxembourg, at 132 m above sea level.

History
Around 100 AD, there was already a town where Wasserbillig is situated which the Roman named Biliacum. This is also where the second part of Wasserbillig's name comes from (-billig from Biliacum). It was mainly a transloading harbour for goods coming down the Sauer or by cart. During the construction of the bridge over the Sauer in 1952, remnants of an old Roman bridge were found.

Prominent citizen
Prominent citizens of Wasserbillig include Jacques Santer, born in the town in 1937, who served as Luxembourg's Prime Minister and as President of the European Commission.

Transport
The town's railway station is on the line between Luxemburg City and the German border, connecting east to Trier.

title: Wasserbillig


text:
Pressure tank

A pressure tank or pressurizer is used in a piping system to maintain a desired pressure. Applications include buffering water pressure in homes.

A simple well water control system

Referring to the figure on the left, a submersible water pump is installed in a well. The pressure switch turns the water pump on when it senses a pressure that is less than Plo and turns it off when it senses a pressure greater than Phi. While the pump is on, the pressure tank fills up. The pressure tank is then depleted as it supplies water in the specified pressure range to prevent "short-cycling", in which the pump tries to establish the proper pressure by rapidly cycling between Plo and Phi.

A simple pressure tank would be just a tank which held water with an air space above the water which would compress as more water entered the tank. Modern systems isolate the water from the pressurized air using a flexible rubber or plastic diaphragm or bladder, because otherwise the air will dissolve in the water and be removed from the tank by usage. Eventually there will be little or no air and the tank will become "waterlogged" causing short-cycling, and will need to be drained to restore operation. The diaphragm or bladder may itself exert a pressure on the water, but it is usually small and will be neglected in the following discussion.

Referring to the diagram on the right, a pressure tank is generally pressurized when empty with a "charging pressure" Pc, which is usually about 2 psi below the turn-on pressure Plo (Case 1). The total volume of the tank is Vt. When in use, the air in the tank will be compressed to pressure P and there will be a volume V of water in the tank (Case 2). In the following development, all pressures are gauge pressures, which are the pressures above atmospheric pressure (Pa, which is altitude dependent). The ideal gas law may be written for both cases, and the amount of air in each case is equal:
 * $$(P_\text{c}+P_\text{a})V_\text{t} = NkT \qquad \text{Case 1}$$
 * $$(P+P_\text{a})(V_\text{t}-V) = NkT \qquad \mathrm{Case 2}$$

where N is the number of molecules of gas (equal in both cases), k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. Assuming that the temperature is equal for both cases, the above equations can be solved for the water pressure/volume relationship in the tank:
 * $$V(P) = V_\text{t}\frac{P-P_\text{c}}{P+P_\text{a}}$$
 * $$P(V) = \frac{P_\text{a} V+P_\text{c} V_\text{t}}{V_\text{t}-V}$$

Tanks are generally specified by their total volume Vt and the "drawdown" (ΔV), which is the amount of water the tank will eject as the tank pressure goes from Phi to Plo, which are established by the pressure switch:
 * $$\Delta V = V(P_\text{hi}) - V(P_\text{lo}) = V_\text{t} \frac{(P_\text{a}+P_\text{c})(P_\text{hi}-P_\text{lo})}{(P_\text{hi}+P_\text{a})(P_\text{lo}+P_\text{a})}$$

The reason for the charging pressure can now be seen: The larger the charging pressure, the larger the drawdown. However, a charging pressure above Plo will not allow the pump to turn on when the water pressure is below Plo, so it is kept a bit below Plo. Another important parameter is the drawdown factor (fΔV), which is the ratio of the drawdown to the total tank volume:
 * $$f_{\Delta V}= \frac{(P_\text{a}+P_\text{c})(P_\text{hi}-P_\text{lo})}{(P_\text{hi}+P_\text{a})(P_\text{lo}+P_\text{a})}$$

This factor is independent of the tank size so that the drawdown can be calculated for any tank, given its total volume, atmospheric pressure, charging pressure, and the limiting pressures established by the pressure switch.

title: Pressure tank