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Primary transcript

A primary transcript is the single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) product synthesized by transcription of DNA, and processed to yield various mature RNA products such as mRNAs, tRNAs, and rRNAs. The primary transcripts designated to be mRNAs are modified in preparation for translation. For example, a precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) is a type of primary transcript that becomes a messenger RNA (mRNA) after processing.

Pre-mRNA is synthesized from a DNA template in the cell nucleus by transcription. Pre-mRNA comprises the bulk of heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA). Once pre-mRNA has been completely processed, it is termed "mature messenger RNA", or simply "messenger RNA". The term hnRNA is often used as a synonym for pre-mRNA, although, in the strict sense, hnRNA may include nuclear RNA transcripts that do not end up as cytoplasmic mRNA.

There are several steps contributing to the production of primary transcripts. All these steps involve a series of interactions to initiate and complete the transcription of DNA in the nucleus of eukaryotes. Certain factors play key roles in the activation and inhibition of transcription, where they regulate primary transcript production. Transcription produces primary transcripts that are further modified by several processes. These processes include the 5' cap, 3'-polyadenylation, and alternative splicing. In particular, alternative splicing directly contributes to the diversity of mRNA found in cells. The modifications of primary transcripts have been further studied in research seeking greater knowledge of the role and significance of these transcripts. Experimental studies based on molecular changes to primary transcripts and the processes before and after transcription have led to greater understanding of diseases involving primary transcripts.

Production
The steps contributing to the production of primary transcripts involve a series of molecular interactions that initiate transcription of DNA within a cell's nucleus. Based on the needs of a given cell, certain DNA sequences are transcribed to produce a variety of RNA products to be translated into functional proteins for cellular use. To initiate the transcription process in a cell's nucleus, DNA double helices are unwound and hydrogen bonds connecting compatible nucleic acids of DNA are broken to produce two unconnected single DNA strands. One strand of the DNA template is used for transcription of the single-stranded primary transcript mRNA. This DNA strand is bound by an RNA polymerase at the promoter region of the DNA. In eukaryotes, three kinds of RNA—rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA—are produced based on the activity of three distinct RNA polymerases, whereas, in prokaryotes, only one RNA polymerase exists to create all kinds of RNA molecules. RNA polymerase II of eukaryotes transcribes the primary transcript, a transcript destined to be processed into mRNA, from the antisense DNA template in the 5' to 3' direction, and this newly synthesized primary transcript is complementary to the antisense strand of DNA. RNA polymerase II constructs the primary transcript using a set of four specific ribonucleoside monophosphate residues (adenosine monophosphate (AMP), cytidine monophosphate (CMP), guanosine monophosphate (GMP), and uridine monophosphate (UMP)) that are added continuously to the 3' hydroxyl group on the 3' end of the growing mRNA.

Studies of primary transcripts produced by RNA polymerase II reveal that an average primary transcript is 7,000 nucleotides in length, with some growing as long as 20,000 nucleotides in length. The inclusion of both exon and intron sequences within primary transcripts explains the size difference between larger primary transcripts and smaller, mature mRNA ready for translation into protein.

Regulation
A number of factors contribute to the activation and inhibition of transcription and therefore regulate the production of primary transcripts from a given DNA template.

Activation of RNA polymerase activity to produce primary transcripts is often controlled by sequences of DNA called enhancers. Transcription factors, proteins that bind to DNA elements to either activate or repress transcription, bind to enhancers and recruit enzymes that alter nucleosome components, causing DNA to be either more or less accessible to RNA polymerase. The unique combinations of either activating or inhibiting transcription factors that bind to enhancer DNA regions determine whether or not the gene that enhancer interacts with is activated for transcription or not. Activation of transcription depends on whether or not the transcription elongation complex, itself consisting of a variety of transcription factors, can induce RNA polymerase to dissociate from the Mediator complex that connects an enhancer region to the promoter.

Inhibition of RNA polymerase activity can also be regulated by DNA sequences called silencers. Like enhancers, silencers may be located at locations farther up or downstream from the genes they regulate. These DNA sequences bind to factors that contribute to the destabilization of the initiation complex required to activate RNA polymerase, and therefore inhibit transcription.

Histone modification by transcription factors is another key regulatory factor for transcription by RNA polymerase. In general, factors that lead to histone acetylation activate transcription while factors that lead to histone deacetylation inhibit transcription. Acetylation of histones induces repulsion between negative components within nucleosomes, allowing for RNA polymerase access. Deacetylation of histones stabilizes tightly coiled nucleosomes, inhibiting RNA polymerase access. In addition to acetylation patterns of histones, methylation patterns at promoter regions of DNA can regulate RNA polymerase access to a given template. RNA polymerase is often incapable of synthesizing a primary transcript if the targeted gene's promoter region contains specific methylated cytosines— residues that hinder binding of transcription-activating factors and recruit other enzymes to stabilize a tightly bound nucleosome structure, excluding access to RNA polymerase and preventing the production of primary transcripts.

R-loops
R-loops are formed during transcription. An R-loop is a three-stranded nucleic acid structure containing a DNA-RNA hybrid region and an associated non-template single-stranded DNA. Actively transcribed regions of DNA often form R-loops that are vulnerable to DNA damage. Introns reduce R-loop formation and DNA damage in highly expressed yeast genes.

RNA processing
Transcription, a highly regulated phase in gene expression, produces primary transcripts. However, transcription is only the first step which should be followed by many modifications that yield functional forms of RNAs. Otherwise stated, the newly synthesized primary transcripts are modified in several ways to be converted to their mature, functional forms to produce different proteins and RNAs such as mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.

Processing
The basic primary transcript modification process is similar for tRNA and rRNA in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. On the other hand, primary transcript processing varies in mRNAs of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. For example, some prokaryotic bacterial mRNAs serve as templates for synthesis of proteins at the same time they are being produced via transcription. Alternatively, pre-mRNA of eukaryotic cells undergo a wide range of modifications prior to their transport from the nucleus to cytoplasm where their mature forms are translated. These modifications are responsible for the different types of encoded messages that lead to translation of various types of products. Furthermore, primary transcript processing provides a control for gene expression as well as a regulatory mechanism for the degradation rates of mRNAs. The processing of pre-mRNA in eukaryotic cells includes 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and alternative splicing.

5' capping
Shortly after transcription is initiated in eukaryotes, a pre-mRNA's 5' end is modified by the addition of a 7-methylguanosine cap, also known as a 5' cap. The 5' capping modification is initiated by the addition of a GTP to the 5' terminal nucleotide of the pre-mRNA in reverse orientation followed by the addition of methyl groups to the G residue. 5' capping is essential for the production of functional mRNAs since the 5' cap is responsible for aligning the mRNA with the ribosome during translation.

Polyadenylation
In eukaryotes, polyadenylation further modifies pre-mRNAs during which a structure called the poly-A tail is added. Signals for polyadenylation, which include several RNA sequence elements, are detected by a group of proteins which signal the addition of the poly-A tail (approximately 200 nucleotides in length). The polyadenylation reaction provides a signal for the end of transcription and this reaction ends approximately a few hundred nucleotides downstream from the poly-A tail location.

Alternative splicing
Eukaryotic pre-mRNAs have their introns spliced out by spliceosomes made up of small nuclear ribonucleoproteins.

In complex eukaryotic cells, one primary transcript is able to prepare large amounts of mature mRNAs due to alternative splicing. Alternative splicing is regulated so that each mature mRNA may encode a multiplicity of proteins. The effect of alternative splicing in gene expression can be seen in complex eukaryotes which have a fixed number of genes in their genome yet produce much larger numbers of different gene products. Most eukaryotic pre-mRNA transcripts contain multiple introns and exons. The various possible combinations of 5' and 3' splice sites in a pre-mRNA can lead to different excision and combination of exons while the introns are eliminated from the mature mRNA. Thus, various kinds of mature mRNAs are generated. Alternative splicing takes place in a large protein complex called the spliceosome. Alternative splicing is crucial for tissue-specific and developmental regulation in gene expression. Alternative splicing can be affected by various factors, including mutations such as chromosomal translocation.

In prokaryotes, splicing is done by autocatalytic cleavage or by endolytic cleavage. Autocatalytic cleavages, in which no proteins are involved, are usually reserved for sections that code for rRNA, whereas endolytic cleavage corresponds to tRNA precursors.

Experiments
A study by Cindy L. Wills and Bruce J. Dolnick from the Department of Experimental Therapeutics at Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center (then known as the Roswell Park Memorial Institute) in Buffalo, New York and from the Cell and Molecular Biology Program at University of Wisconsin in Madison, Wisconsin was made to understand cellular processes involving primary transcripts. Researchers wanted to understand whether 5-Fluorouracil (FUra), a drug known for use in cancer treatment, inhibits or shuts down dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) pre-mRNA processing and/or nuclear mRNA stability in methotrexate-resistant KB cells. Long-term exposure to FUra had no effect on the level of DHFR pre-mRNA containing certain introns, which are sections of pre-mRNA that are usually cut out of the sequence as a part of processing. However, levels of total DHFR mRNA decreased two-fold in cells exposed to 1.0 μM FUra. There was no significant change in the half-life, which refers to the time it takes 50% of the mRNA to decay, of total DHFR mRNA or pre-mRNA observed in cells exposed to FUra. And nuclear/cytoplasmic RNA labeling experiments demonstrated that the rate of nuclear DHFR RNA changing to cytoplasmic DHFR mRNA decreased in cells treated with FUra. These results provide further evidence that FUra may help in the processing of mRNA precursors and/or affect the stability of nuclear DHFR mRNA.

Judith Lengyel and Sheldon Penman from the department of Biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts wrote an article about one type of primary transcript involved in the genes of two dipterans, or insects that have two wings: Drosophila and Aedes. The article describes how researchers looked at hnRNA, or basically pre-mRNA, primary transcripts in the two kinds of insects. The size of hnRNA transcripts and the fraction of hnRNA that is converted to mRNA in cell lines, or groups of cells derived from a single cell of whatever one is studying, of Drosophila melanogaster and Aedes albopictus were compared. Both insects are dipterans, but Aedes has a larger genome than Drosophila. This means that Aedes has more DNA, which means more genes. The Aedes line make larger hnRNA than did the Drosophila line even though the two cell lines grew under similar conditions and produced mature or processed mRNA of the same size and sequence complexity. These data suggest that the size of hnRNA increases with increasing genome size, which is obviously shown by Aedes.

Ivo Melcak, Stepanka Melcakova, Vojtech Kopsky, Jaromıra Vecerova and Ivan Raska from the department of Cell Biology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, at the Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic in Prague studied the influences of nuclear speckles on pre-mRNA. Nuclear speckles (speckles) are a part of the nuclei of cells and are enriched with splicing factors known for involvement in mRNA processing. Nuclear speckles have shown to serve neighboring active genes as storage places of these splicing factors. In this study, researchers showed that, in HeLa cells which derived from cells of a person who had cervical cancer and have proven useful for experiments, the first group of spliceosomes on pre-mRNA come from these speckles. Researchers used microinjections of spliceosome-accepting and mutant adenovirus pre-mRNAs with differential splicing factor binding to make different groups and then followed the sites in which they were heavily present. Spliceosome-accepting pre-mRNAs were rapidly targeted into the speckles, but the targeting was found to be temperature-dependent. The polypyrimidine tract sequences in mRNA promote the construction of spliceosome groups and is required for targeting, but, by itself, was not sufficient. The downstream flanking sequences were particularly important for the targeting of the mutant pre-mRNAs in the speckles. In supportive experiments, the behavior of the speckles was followed after the microinjection of antisense deoxyoligoribonucleotides (complementary sequences of DNA and or RNA to a specific sequence) and, in this case, specific sequences of snRNAs. snRNAs are known for helping in the processing of pre-mRNA as well. Under these conditions, spliceosome groups formed on endogenous pre-mRNAs. Researchers concluded that the spliceosome groups on microinjected pre-mRNA form inside the speckles. Pre-mRNA targeting and buildup in the speckles is a result of the loading of splicing factors to the pre-mRNA, and the spliceosome groups gave rise to the speckled pattern observed.

Related diseases
Research has also led to greater knowledge about certain diseases related to changes within primary transcripts. One study involved estrogen receptors and differential splicing. The article entitled, "Alternative splicing of the human estrogen receptor alpha primary transcript: mechanisms of exon skipping" by Paola Ferro, Alessandra Forlani, Marco Muselli and Ulrich Pfeffer from the laboratory of Molecular Oncology at National Cancer Research Institute in Genoa, Italy, explains that 1785 nucleotides of the region in the DNA that codes for the estrogen receptor alpha (ER-alpha) are spread over a region that holds more than 300,000 nucleotides in the primary transcript. Splicing of this pre-mRNA frequently leads to variants or different kinds of the mRNA lacking one or more exons or regions necessary for coding proteins. These variants have been associated with breast cancer progression. In the life cycle of retroviruses, proviral DNA is incorporated in transcription of the DNA of the cell being infected. Since retroviruses need to change their pre-mRNA into DNA so that this DNA can be integrated within the DNA of the host it is affecting, the formation of that DNA template is a vital step for retrovirus replication. Cell type, the differentiation or changed state of the cell, and the physiological state of the cell, result in a significant change in the availability and activity of certain factors necessary for transcription. These variables create a wide range of viral gene expression. For example, tissue culture cells actively producing infectious virions of avian or murine leukemia viruses (ASLV or MLV) contain such high levels of viral RNA that 5–10% of the mRNA in a cell can be of viral origin. This shows that the primary transcripts produced by these retroviruses do not always follow the normal path to protein production and convert back into DNA in order to multiply and expand.

title: Primary transcript


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Félibrige

The Félibrige (Lo Felibritge in classical Occitan, Lou Felibrige in Mistralian spelling, ) is a literary and cultural association founded in 1854 by Frédéric Mistral and other Provençal writers to defend and promote the Occitan language (also called the langue d'Oc) and literature. It is presided over by a capoulié (classical norm: capolièr). The name possibly derives from an apocryphal Provençal story of Christ disputing in the temple with the seven doctors [sét félibre] of law.

Etymology
The word félibrige is derived from félibre, word of unclear origin.

Origins
Le Félibrige was founded at the Château de Font-Ségugne (located in Châteauneuf-de-Gadagne, Vaucluse) on 21 May 1854 (Saint Estelle's day), by seven young Provençal poets: Théodore Aubanel, Jean Brunet, Paul Giéra, Anselme Mathieu, Frédéric Mistral, Joseph Roumanille and Alphonse Tavan. Together, they aimed to restore the Provençal language and codify its orthography.

Its symbol is a seven-pointed star which, as Frederic Mistral writes in Lou tresor dóu Felibrige, is "a tribute to its seven founders".

The movement was launched in Provence but quickly reached the entire Occitania. It spread among Occitanian writers such as Michel Camélat and Simin Palay (from Gascony and Béarn), Albert Arnavielle, Justin Bessou, Jacques and Gabriel Azaïs and Achille Mir (Languedoc), Arsène Vermenouze (Auvergne), Joseph Roux (Limousin), José Mange (Provence), Brémonde de Tarascon (Bouches-du-Rhône), Batisto Bonnet (Gard) and Charles Maurras.

The Félibrige is an organisation focussed on protecting and promoting Occitan language and culture, fighting for recognition of cultural diversity both within France and across the wider world. It is also one of the two organisations represented across Occitania since 1945, along with the Institut d'Estudis Occitans (IEO). <!-- NOTE: The following seems to be part of the original French article left here by the original translating editor. Most of the following information has NOT been translated and added to the English-language article. In particular, the Etymology section needs to be translated and added here, or one should be researched from scratch and added.

I will try to come back and look into this a bit more. However, if you want to work on adding this information to the article, don't wait on me as my real-life limitations might kick in (see my user page). —Observations by Geekdiva, December 2017 ____________ Son action s'est appliquée au provençal dans un premier temps et s'est étendue très rapidement à l'ensemble des parlers d'oc, dès la fin du. La présence du Félibrige sur le territoire où se parle la langue d'oc a été assurée, entre autres, par des écrivains comme Michel Camélat et Simin Palay (Gascogne et Béarn), Albert Arnavielle, Justin Bessou, Jacques et Gabriel Azaïs et Achille Mir (Languedoc), Arsène Vermenouze (Auvergne), Joseph Roux (Limousin), José Mange (Provence), Charles Maurras.

Le Félibrige est une organisation de défense et de promotion de la langue et de la culture d'oc. Il lutte pour la reconnaissance de la diversité culturelle en France et dans le monde. Il est aussi une des deux organisations présentes sur les 32 départements de langue d'oc avec l'Institut d'études occitanes (I.E.O.) depuis 1945.

Organisation

Les sections régionales du Félibrige sont appelées maintenances (en occitan: mantenènço en norme mistralienne ou mantenenças en norme classique).

Le président porte le titre de capoulié (en norme mistralienne) ou capolier (en norme classique). Jacques Mouttet est l'actuel capoulié du Félibrige, successeur de Frédéric Mistral à la tête du mouvement, après Joseph Roumanille, Félix Gras, Pierre Devoluy, Valère Bernard, Joseph Fallen, Marius Jouveau, Frédéric Mistral neveu, Charles Rostaing, Elie Bachas, René Jouveau, Paul Roux, Paul Pons et Pierre Fabre.

Le congrès (assemblée générale) du Félibrige se déroule tour à tour dans une ville différente d'Occitanie, au moment de la fête de sainte Estelle (ou d'une date proche). C'est en général l'occasion de belles festivités publiques dans la ville d'accueil.

Étymologie
Félibrige est un nom propre qui désigne une organisation précise. Il convient de l'écrire avec un F majuscule, et non avec un f minuscule.

Le nom Félibrige est dérivé du mot félibre (felibre), terme remis à l'honneur par Mistral pour désigner un membre du Félibrige. Une femme est appelée félibresse (felibresso ou felibressa).

Le nom de félibre contient le mot libre qui signifie à la fois « livre » et « libre » en provençal, ce que l'on peut interpréter par l'esprit même du Félibrige : acquérir la liberté au travers de la culture, et en particulier de la littérature.

Le mot pourrait venir d'une erreur populaire. Mistral dans son « Mémoires et récits » évoque un cantique chanté Li revelacioun de sant Antòni, Les sept douleurs de la Vierge Marie. L'une de ces douleurs a été d'avoir perdu son fils qui était au temple, « emé li tiroun de la lèi, emé li sét felibre de la lèi », « avec les scribes de la Loi, avec les sept félibres de la Loi ». « Emé li sét felibre » serait en réalité« Emé li Sefer, libre », « avec les sefers (rouleaux, en Hébreu) livres de la loi ». Comme la chanson se transmettait oralement, et que personne pour ainsi dire, ne connaissait le mot « sefer », les gens auraient découpé les mots ainsi: « emé li sèt felibre de la lèi », « avec les sept félibres de la loi ». Le mot félibre, né d'un prétendu quiproquo, était, quoi qu'il en soit, orné de prestige. Car que pouvaient être ces sept félibres, sinon de grands sages ?

Pour Le Robert historique d'Alain Rey, qui qualifie l'hypothèse des « sefer, libre » de « fantaisiste », Mistral rattachait le mot félibre au bas latin fellibris, « nourrisson » (dérivé du latin fellare, « sucer »), partant de l'image ancienne qui fait des poètes les nourrissons des Muses.

Mistral lui-même, dans son Tresor dóu Felibrige écrit : « Ce vocable mystérieux, rapidement vulgarisé par les œuvres de ceux qui l'avaient adopté, figure depuis lors dans les dictionnaires français (Bouillet, Larousse, Littré, etc.). Son origine a exercé la sagacité des philologues et bien des étymologies ont été proposées Quant à l'étymologie expliquant felibre par « faiseur de livres », elle ne supporte pas l'examen, attendu qu'elle n'est pas dans le génie de la langue, car on dirait en ce cas fa-libre ou fai-libre. »
 * 1) Felibre viendrait du latin felibris ou fellebris, mot qui se trouve dans Solinus, Isidore de Séville et Papias, et que Ducange interprète par « nourrisson adhuc lacte vivens », dérivé du verbe fellare, téter, lequel fellare a donné naissance à filius, fils. Les poètes, de tout temps, ont été dénommés « nourrissons des Muses, alumni Musarum », et, comme le fait observer M. G. Garnier, alumnus, en latin, avait le sens actif et passif et désignait le disciple et le maître, comme escoulan en provençal. Il est à remarquer que le mot tiroun, qui, dans le texte populaire, semble synonyme de felibre, rappelle le verbe provençal tira signifiant aussi « téter ». Le latin tiro veut dire « novice ».
 * 2) Felibre viendrait du grec φιλεβραῖος, « ami de l'hébreu », mot qu'on trouve dans la grammaire hébraïque de Chevalier (1561) et qui a, de longue date, été appliqué dans les synagogues aux docteurs de la loi.
 * 3) Felibre viendrait du grec φίλαβρος, « ami du beau ».
 * 4) Felibre viendrait de l'irlandais filea, poète, barde.
 * 5) Felibre viendrait du germanique felibert, dont le sens est encore inconnu.
 * 6) Felibre viendrait du provençal fe, libre, libre par la foi.
 * 7) Felibre viendrait de l'andalous filabre, dont nous ignorons le sens. La Sierra de Filabres est une montagne d'Andalousie.

Usages courants du mot
Pour Paul Ruat un félibre est « ouvrier de la plume et de la parole qui prend plaisir à parler la langue de son enfance que parlaient ses aieux ». Les félibres, au sens large, sont les auteurs qui créent en langue d'oc.

Normes graphiques au sein du Félibrige
Les deux normes graphiques majoritairement usitées pour la langue d'oc moderne sont la graphie dite mistralienne ou moderne et la graphie dite alibertine ou occitane ou encore classique.

Concernant le Félibrige, celui-ci a adopté dès sa fondation, en 1854, la norme mistralienne, conçue par Joseph Roumanille et développée par Frédéric Mistral, d'où son nom. Cependant, dès le début de XXème siècle, fut proposée une autre norme graphique qui fut adoptée par une partie croissante du Félibrige au cours du XXe siècle (notamment à partir des années 1960, dans le Languedoc). Aujourd'hui, les félibres de la Maintenance de Provence du Félibrige continuent dans leur grande majorité à utiliser la norme mistralienne (ce qui revient à dire qu'en Provence, ceux qui utilisent la norme classique se retrouvent dans d'autres organisations culturelles que le Félibrige) alors même que dans les autres maintenances, c'est la norme alibertine (du nom de Louis Alibert) qui est majoritairement employée.

Il n'empêche que même si le Félibrige accepte en son sein ces deux normes linguistiques, il est moralement dépositaire de la norme mistralienne en ce qui concerne sa gestion et son développement. -->

Felebrigian festivals
There is a yearly meeting, Santo Estello, held in a different town in the Pays d'Oc. The traditional banquet is ended with the ritual of the Copa Santa.

There are also other Fêtes Félibréennes:
 * Since 1323, the Jeux floraux of Toulouse, considered as the model
 * Jeux floraux of Barcelona
 * Orange
 * In 1868 at Saint-Rémy-de-Provence
 * In 1895 at Vic-en-Carladès, with a programme of music and dance (Cabrette)
 * In 1900 at the Château de Ventadour, under the name Fête de l'églantine
 * In 1902 at Béziers
 * In June 1903 and in 2009 at Sceaux
 * In 1907 at Mauvezin, in the Hautes-Pyrénées
 * In August 1914, at Sauveterre-de-Béarn
 * At Puy-en-Velay
 * In 1935 at Monistrol-sur-Loire
 * Perhaps Argentat, after 1935 with the Chorale des gabariers de la Dordogne

The Jardin des Félibres in Sceaux
In 1950 Sceaux, Hauts-de-Seine (one of the Parisien banlieue) was named Cité Félibréenne. A memorial garden for this event was created around the tomb of Jean-Pierre Claris de Florian, a French poet and romancier, well known for his fables and a noted Félibrigist (perhaps because his mother was Castilian). The garden displays eleven busts in all.

The garden is located behind the church of Saint Jean-Baptiste (Saint John the Baptist) in Sceaux. The entry, signed: Parc de Sceaux, Jardin des Félibres is located on Avenue du Président Franklin Roosevelt in Sceaux.

Capouliés of the Félibrige
The Félibrige is presided over by a capoulié.
 * 1876–1888: Frédéric Mistral
 * 1888–1891: Joseph Roumanille
 * 1891–1901: Félix Gras
 * 1901–1909: Pierre Devoluy
 * 1909–1919: Valère Bernard
 * 1919–1922: Joseph Fallen
 * 1922–1941: Marius Jouveau
 * 1941–1956: Frédéric Mistral
 * 1956–1962: Charles Rostaing
 * 1962–1971: Elie Bachas
 * 1971–1982: René Jouveau
 * 1982–1989: Paul Roux
 * 1989–1992: Paul Pons
 * 1992–2006: Pierre Fabre
 * 2006–2022: Jacques Mouttet
 * 2022–: Paulin Reynard

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Félibrige


text:
Programming Language Design and Implementation (conference)

Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI) is an academic conference in computer science, in particular, in the study of programming languages and compilers. PLDI is organized by the Association for Computing Machinery under the SIGPLAN interest group.

History
The precursor of PLDI was the Symposium on Compiler Optimization, held July 27–28, 1970 at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and chaired by Robert S. Northcote. That conference included papers by Frances E. Allen, John Cocke, Alfred V. Aho, Ravi Sethi, and Jeffrey D. Ullman. The first conference in the current PLDI series took place in 1979 under the name SIGPLAN Symposium on Compiler Construction in Denver, Colorado. The next compiler construction conference took place in 1982 in Boston, Massachusetts. The compiler construction conferences then alternated with SIGPLAN Conferences on Language Issues until 1988, when the conference was renamed to PLDI. From 1982 until 2001, the conference acronym was SIGPLAN 'xx. Starting in 2002, the initialism became PLDI 'xx, and in 2006 it became PLDI xxxx.

Conference locations and organizers

 * PLDI 2023 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Orlando, FL, United States
 * General Chair: Steve Blackburn
 * Program Chair: Nate Foster
 * PLDI 2022 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: San Diego, CA, United States
 * General Chair: Ranjit Jhala
 * Program Chair: Isil Dillig
 * PLDI 2021 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Online due to COVID-19
 * General Chair: Stephen N. Freund
 * Program Chair: Eran Yahav
 * PLDI 2020 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: London, United Kingdom (planned); moved online due to COVID-19
 * General Chair: Alastair F. Donaldson
 * Program Chair: Emina Torlak
 * proceedings
 * PLDI 2019 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Phoenix, AZ, United States
 * Conference Chair: Kathryn S. McKinley
 * Program Chair:   Kathleen Fisher
 * PLDI 2018 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Philadelphia, PA, United States
 * Conference Chair: Jeffrey S. Foster
 * Program Chair:   Dan Grossman
 * PLDI 2017 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Barcelona, Spain
 * Conference Chair: Albert Cohen
 * Program Chair:   Martin Vechev
 * PLDI 2016 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Santa Barbara, CA, United States
 * Conference Chair: Chandra Krintz
 * Program Chair:   Emery Berger
 * PLDI 2015 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Portland, OR, United States
 * Conference Chair: Dave Grove
 * Program Chair: Steve Blackburn
 * Part of the Federated Computing Research Conference 2015
 * PLDI 2014 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
 * Conference Chair: Michael O'Boyle
 * Program Chair: Keshav Pingali
 * PLDI 2013 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Seattle, WA, United States
 * Conference Chair: Hans-J. Boehm
 * Program Chair: Cormac Flanagan
 * PLDI 2012 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Beijing, China
 * Conference Chairs: Jan Vitek, Haibo Lin
 * Program Chair: Frank Tip
 * PLDI 2011 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: San Jose, CA, United States
 * Conference Chair: Mary Hall
 * Program Chair: David Padua
 * Part of the Federated Computing Research Conference 2011
 * PLDI 2010 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Toronto, ON, Canada
 * Conference Chair: Ben Zorn
 * Program Chair: Alex Aiken
 * PLDI 2009 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Dublin, Ireland
 * Conference Chair: Michael Hind
 * Program Chair: Amer Diwan
 * PLDI 2008 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Tucson, Arizona, USA
 * Conference Chair: Rajiv Gupta
 * Program Chair: Saman Amarasinghe
 * PLDI 2007 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: San Diego, California, USA
 * Conference Chair: Jeanne Ferrante
 * Program Chair: Kathryn S. McKinley
 * Part of the Federated Computing Research Conference 2007
 * PLDI 2006 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
 * Conference Chair: Michael Schwartzbach
 * Program Chair: Thomas Ball
 * PLDI '05 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Chicago, Illinois, USA
 * Conference Chair: Vivek Sarkar
 * Program Chair: Mary Hall
 * PLDI '04 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Washington, D.C., USA
 * Conference Chair: William Pugh
 * Program Chair: Craig Chambers
 * PLDI 03 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: San Diego, California, USA
 * Conference Chair: Ron Cytron
 * Program Chair: Rajiv Gupta
 * Part of the Federated Computing Research Conference 2003
 * PLDI '02 - SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Berlin, Germany
 * Conference Chair: Jens Knoop
 * Program Chair: Laurie Hendren
 * SIGPLAN '01 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI): Snowbird, Utah, USA
 * Conference Chair: Michael Burke
 * Program Chair: Mary Lou Soffa
 * SIGPLAN '00 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI): Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
 * Conference Chair: James Larus
 * Program Chair: Monica Lam
 * SIGPLAN '99 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI): Atlanta, Georgia, USA
 * Conference Chair: Barbara G. Ryder
 * Program Chair: Benjamin G. Zorn
 * Part of the Federated Computing Research Conference 1999
 * SIGPLAN '98 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI): Montreal, Quebec, Canada
 * Conference Chair: Jack W. Davidson
 * Program Chair: Keith D. Cooper
 * SIGPLAN '97 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI): Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
 * Conference Chair: Marina Chen
 * Program Chair: Ron K. Cytron
 * SIGPLAN '96 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI): Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
 * Conference Chair: Charles N. Fischer
 * Program Chair: Michael Burke
 * Part of the Federated Computing Research Conference 1996
 * SIGPLAN '95 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI): La Jolla, California, USA
 * Conference Chair: David W. Wall
 * Program Chair: David R. Hanson
 * SIGPLAN '94 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI): Orlando, Florida, USA
 * Conference co-Chairs: Barbara Ryder and Mary Lou Soffa
 * Program Chair: Vivek Sarkar
 * SIGPLAN '93 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA
 * Conference Chair: Robert Cartwright
 * Program Chair: David W. Wall
 * SIGPLAN '92 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: San Francisco, California
 * Conference Chair: Stuart I. Feldman
 * Program Chair: Christopher W. Fraser
 * SIGPLAN '91 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Toronto, Ontario, Canada
 * Conference Chair: Brent Hailpern
 * Program Chair: Barbara G. Ryder
 * SIGPLAN '90 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: White Plains, New York, USA
 * Conference Chair: Mark Scott Johnson
 * Program Chair: Bernard Lang
 * SIGPLAN '89 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Portland, Oregon, USA
 * Conference Chair: Bruce Knobe
 * Program Chair: Charles N. Fischer
 * SIGPLAN '88 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation: Atlanta, Georgia, USA
 * Conference Chair: David S. Wise
 * Program Chair: Mayer D. Schwartz
 * SIGPLAN '87 Symposium on Interpreters and Interpretive Techniques: St. Paul, Minnesota, USA
 * Conference Chair: Mark Scott Johnson
 * Program Chair: Thomas Turba
 * SIGPLAN '86 Symposium on Compiler Construction: Palo Alto, California, USA
 * Conference Chair: John R. Sopka
 * Program Chair: Jeanne Ferrante
 * SIGPLAN '85 Symposium on Language Issues in Programming Environments: Seattle, Washington, USA
 * Conference Chair: Teri Payton
 * Program Chair: L. Peter Deutsch
 * SIGPLAN '84 Symposium on Compiler Construction: Montreal, Quebec, Canada
 * Conference Chair: Mary Van Deusen
 * Program Chair: Susan L. Graham
 * SIGPLAN '83 Symposium on Programming Language Issues in Software Systems: San Francisco, California, USA
 * Conference Chair: John R. White
 * Program Chair: Lawrence A. Rowe
 * SIGPLAN '82 Symposium on Compiler Construction: Boston, Massachusetts, USA
 * Conference Chair: John R. White
 * Program Chair: Frances E. Allen
 * SIGPLAN Symposium on Compiler Construction 1979: Denver, Colorado, USA
 * SIGPLAN Symposium on Compiler Optimization 1970: Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, USA


text:
Nishi-ku, Nagoya

Nishi-ku (西区) is one of the 16 wards in the city of Nagoya in Aichi Prefecture, Japan. As of 1 October 2019, the ward has an estimated population of 150,480 and a population density of 8,393 persons per km2. The total area is 17.93 km2.

Geography
The ward is located in the northwestern part of the city. The Shōnai River runs through the ward, as do the Hori River and Shin River.

History
The ward was established in 1908.

Nishi-Ward is the birthplace of pachinko.

Companies
The food companies Marukawa, Kasugai, and Meito Sangyo are located in this ward.

The Hotel Nagoya Castle is located there.

Attractions
The small historical street Shike-michi runs parallel to the Hori Canal. It was used by merchants during the Edo period and is now a historical property.

A museum of the ceramic maker Noritake and the company's headquarters are located in Nishi Ward, and nearby is also the Toyota Commemorative Museum of Industry and Technology.

A popular park are the Shōnai Greens.

The Nagoya Lucent Tower, one of the tallest buildings in Nagoya, is located in the ward.

Notable persons

 * Niwa Nagahide – samurai
 * Sassa Narimasa – samurai

title: Nishi-ku, Nagoya


text:
James Alexandrou

James Alekos Alexandrou (born 12 April 1985) is an English actor and filmmaker. He is known for playing Martin Fowler in the BBC One soap opera EastEnders from 1996 to 2007. He was also the presenter of Bizarre Crime on BBC Three.

Early life
Alexandrou was born in Hackney, London, to a Greek Cypriot father and an English mother. He has two sisters, one older, one a twin, as well as a younger brother. He was educated at Chingford Foundation School in Waltham Forest, as well as at Anna Scher Theatre School.

Career
Alexandrou's acting career began in 1996, when he auditioned successfully for the role of Martin Fowler in the BBC One soap opera EastEnders. The character was created shortly after the show's inception in 1985, with the role becoming vacant following the departure of actor Jon Peyton Price in 1996. Alexandrou appeared as Grant in the short film Blessed Burden in 1999.

In July 2003 he participated in a "Soap Stars Special" edition of The Weakest Link. Over Christmas of 2005, Alexandrou starred in the crime caper, Who Stole The Snowman? On 14 April 2006, it was announced that Alexandrou would leave EastEnders in Autumn 2007. He and Natalie Cassidy, who played his on-screen wife Sonia Fowler, left on 2 February 2007 (to tie in with the exits of Wendy Richard and Ray Brooks). When asked about his departure Alexandrou said, "I've decided to leave the show to experience other aspects of my industry. Having turned 21, I felt it was a good time to leave. I owe everything to the show and would love to come back one day - that's if EastEnders would have me." On 12 October 2014, it was announced that actor James Bye would be taking over playing the role in the character's return to Albert Square. According to BBC News, Alexandrou was said to have "given his blessing to the recasting of the role." When interviewed, Alexandrou implicitly stated that he had turned down the opportunity to return to the show.

In early 2007, Alexandrou appeared in the play The Homecoming opposite Harold Pinter for BBC Radio 3.

Alexandrou toured the UK and Norway with the British Shakespeare Company from June to September 2007. He played Pistol in Henry V, and Orlando in As You Like It. It was incorrectly reported that he turned down the chance to replace Daniel Radcliffe in the West End revival of Equus in 2007.

In 2008 he appeared in In My Name, a new play by Steven Hevey, at the Old Red Lion Theatre, produced by Yaller Skunk Theatre Company. The play transferred to the Trafalgar Studio 2 from 1 to 19 July 2008. In October 2008, Alexandrou appeared in All Quiet on the Western Front at the Nottingham Playhouse, prior to a UK tour of the production.

In March 2009, he played the part of Romeo in the Globe Theatre's production of Romeo and Juliet. In October 2009, Alexandrou joined up with EastEnders cast members, Natalie Cassidy (Sonia Jackson) and Nina Wadia (Zainab Masood), to star in comedy shorts for BBC Raw Words.

In 2010 Alexandrou filmed his first feature film, Semper Fidel in Cuba. The film was released in 2014. He appeared in the role of The Man in John Goodrum's play The Black Veil a thriller adapted from a Charles Dickens short story.

In 2011 Alexandrou took part in the BBC Learning project, Off By Heart Shakespeare, where he played Mercutio from Romeo and Juliet delivering the speech; "'tis not so deep as a well".

In 2012 Alexandrou toured theatres throughout the United Kingdom, with the Hull Truck Theatre starring as Phil, in the play DNA.

In April 2014, as part of the Shakespeare 450 celebrations, he played the Iago in Grassroots Shakespeare London's production of Othello at Leicester Square Theatre in London's West End and also performed sonnets at the Guildhall with Damian Lewis. Rehearsals were recorded by BBC World Service and James Alexandrou's performance as Iago featured in their programme The Why Factor.

In February 2015, Alexandrou appeared in Silent Witness as Carl Parry. and in 2022 as Ronnie Reynolds in Call the Midwife.

Personal life
Alexandrou was in a relationship with EastEnders co-star Kara Tointon which began in April 2006. Their split was reported in November 2007.

title: James Alexandrou


text:
Beauty and the Beast (1946 film)

Beauty and the Beast (La Belle et la Bête – also the UK title) is a 1946 French romantic fantasy film directed by French poet and filmmaker Jean Cocteau. Starring Josette Day as Belle and Jean Marais as the Beast, it is an adaptation of the 1757 story Beauty and the Beast, written by Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont and published as part of a fairy tale anthology.

The plot of Cocteau's film revolves around Belle's father, who is sentenced to death for picking a rose from the Beast's garden. Belle offers to go back to the Beast in her father's place. The Beast falls in love with her and proposes marriage on a nightly basis, which she refuses. Belle eventually becomes more drawn to the Beast, who tests her by letting her return home to her family, and telling her that if she does not return to him within a week, he will die of grief.

Beauty and the Beast is now recognized as a classic of French cinema.

Plot
While scrubbing the floor at home, Belle is interrupted by her brother's friend Avenant who tells her she deserves better and suggests they get married. Belle rejects Avenant, as she wishes to stay home and take care of her father, who has suffered much since his ships were lost at sea and the family fortune along with them. Belle's father arrives home announcing he has come into a great fortune that he will pick up the next day, along with gifts for his daughters, Belle and her shrewish sisters Adelaide and Felicie. Belle's roguish brother Ludovic, believing they will soon be wealthy, signs a contract from a moneylender allowing him the ability to sue Ludovic's father if he can not pay. Belle's sisters ask for a monkey and a parrot as gifts, but Belle asks only for a rose.

However, the next day, Belle's father finds on his arrival that his fortune has been seized to clear his debts and he is as penniless as before. He has no money for lodging and is forced to return home through a forest at night. He gets lost in the forest and finds himself at a large castle whose gates and doors magically open themselves. On entering the castle, he is guided by an enchanted candelabra that leads him to a laden dinner table where he falls asleep. Awakened by a loud roar, he wanders the castle's grounds. Remembering that Belle asked for a rose, he plucks a rose from a tree which makes the Beast appear. The Beast threatens to kill him for theft but suggests that one of his daughters can take his place. The Beast offers his horse Magnificent to guide him through the forest and to his home.

Belle's father explains the situation to his family and Avenant. Belle agrees to take her father's place and rides Magnificent to the castle. Upon meeting the Beast, Belle faints at his monstrous appearance and is carried to her room in the castle. Belle awakens to find a magic mirror which allows her to see anything. The Beast invites Belle to dinner, where he tells her that she's in equal command to him and that she will be asked every day to marry him. Days pass as Belle grows more accustomed to and fond of the Beast, but she continues to refuse marriage. Using the magic mirror, Belle sees that her father has become deathly ill. Belle begs for permission to visit her family, and the Beast reluctantly grants her permission to leave for a week. He gives Belle two magical items: a glove that can transport her wherever she wishes and a golden key that unlocks Diana's Pavilion, the source of the Beast's true riches. He tells Belle that he gives her these precious items to show his trust in her, and says that if she does not return at the end of the week, he will die of grief.

Belle uses the glove to appear in her bedridden father's room, where her visit restores him to health. Belle finds her family living in poverty, having never recovered from Ludovic's deal with the moneylender. Jealous of Belle's rich life at the castle, Adelaide and Felicie steal her golden key and devise a plan to turn Ludovic and Avenant against the Beast. Avenant and Ludovic devise a plan of their own to kill the Beast, and agree to aid Belle's sisters. To stall Belle, her sisters trick her into staying past her seven-day limit by pretending to love her. Belle reluctantly agrees to stay.

The Beast sends Magnificent with the magic mirror to retrieve Belle but Ludovic and Avenant find Magnificent first, and ride him to the castle. Belle later finds the mirror which reveals the Beast's sorrowful face in its reflection. Belle realizes she is missing the golden key as the mirror breaks. Distraught, Belle returns to the castle using the magic glove and finds the Beast in the courtyard, near death from a broken heart.

Meanwhile, Avenant and Ludovic stumble upon Diana's Pavilion. Thinking that their stolen key may trigger a trap, they scale the wall of the Pavilion. As the Beast dies in Belle's arms, Avenant breaks into the Pavilion through its glass roof, whereupon he is shot with an arrow by an animated statue of the Roman goddess Diana and is himself turned into a Beast. As this happens, arising from where the Beast lay dead is Prince Ardent who is cured of being the Beast. He explains that because his parents did not believe in spirits, and therefore, the spirits turned him into the Beast in revenge. Prince Ardent and Belle embrace, then fly away to his kingdom where she will be his Queen. He promises that her father will stay with them and Belle's sisters will carry the train of her gown.

Cast

 * Jean Marais as La Bête (The Beast) / The Prince / Avenant
 * Josette Day as Belle
 * Marcel André as Belle's Father
 * Mila Parély as Félicie
 * Nane Germon as Adélaïde
 * Michel Auclair as Ludovic
 * Raoul Marco as The Usurer

Writing
After the opening credits, Cocteau briefly breaks the fourth wall with a written preamble:

 * L'enfance croit ce qu'on lui raconte et ne le met pas en doute. Elle croit qu'une rose qu'on cueille peut attirer des drames dans une famille. Elle croit que les mains d'une bête humaine qui tue se mettent à fumer et que cette bête en a honte lorsqu'une jeune fille habite sa maison. Elle croit mille autres choses bien naïves.

 * C'est un peu de cette naïveté que je vous demande et, pour nous porter chance à tous, laissez-moi vous dire quatre mots magiques, véritable «sésame ouvre-toi» de l'enfance:

 * Il était une fois...

 * Children believe what we tell them. They have complete faith in us. They believe that a rose plucked from a garden can plunge a family into conflict. They believe that the hands of a human beast will smoke when he slays a victim, and that this will cause him shame when a young maiden takes up residence in his home. They believe a thousand other simple things.

 * I ask of you a little of this childlike sympathy and, to bring us luck, let me speak four truly magic words, childhood's "Open Sesame":

 * Once upon a time...

Filming
The set designs and cinematography were intended to evoke the illustrations and engravings of Gustave Doré and, in the farmhouse scenes, the paintings of Jan Vermeer. The cinematography was performed by Henri Alekan. Christian Bérard and Lucien Carré covered production design.

Soundtrack
The score was composed by Georges Auric.

Filming locations
The outdoor locations were primarily filmed

 * At Oise
 * The Château de Raray
 * At Val-d'Oise
 * At the Royaumont Abbey
 * At Indre-et-Loire
 * The Moulin de Touvoie in Rochecorbon is Belle's home.
 * Parçay-Meslay
 * At the Alpes-Maritimes
 * Èze

The scenes filmed in a studio were shot

 * At the Franstudio Studio in Saint-Maurice, in the Val-de-Marne
 * At the Eclair Studio in Épinay-sur-Seine
 * At Joinville Studios in Joinville-le-Pont

The Beast's makeup
At first, Jean Marais wanted to use a deer head, but decided against it, because in La Chatte blanche, the magical castle has a deer head as its door knocker. He also thought it would be linked to the myth of the Celtic god Cernunnos, the horned god. In addition, Jean Cocteau thought that the audience would think that the head of a deer would be ridiculous for a dangerous, ferocious beast. They got Jean Marais's Alaskan Husky, Moulouk, to be the model of the beast's face.

The beast's makeup and prostheses took a long time to apply, taking about three hours to attach the beast's mask and one hour for each claw. The teeth would be hooked into the actor's mouth, which was not very practical for eating. This caused the actor to eat mainly soup.

In Vincent Pinel's Century of Cinema, he writes (page 207), "With the complexity of the set designer Christian Bérard, the cinematographer Henri Alekan, and his "technical director" René Clément, Jean Cocteau filmed Beauty and the Beast (1946). The impressive makeup of Jean Marais, including both hands and claws, took long hours to apply." Cocteau says, in his film journal, how the close-up shots of the beast resembles a deer. "Clément, hiding behind the beast, moves the beast's ears with a stick to make them stand up. The effect is amazing."

Reception in the U.S.
Upon the film's December 1947 New York City release, critic Bosley Crowther called the film a "priceless fabric of subtle images...a fabric of gorgeous visual metaphors, of undulating movements and rhythmic pace, of hypnotic sounds and music, of casually congealing ideas"; according to Crowther, "the dialogue, in French, is spare and simple, with the story largely told in pantomime, and the music of Georges Auric accompanies the dreamy, fitful moods. The settings are likewise expressive, many of the exteriors having been filmed for rare architectural vignettes at Raray, one of the most beautiful palaces and parks in all France. And the costumes, too, by Christian Bérard and Escoffier, are exquisite affairs, glittering and imaginative." According to Time magazine, the film is a "wondrous spectacle for children of any language, and quite a treat for their parents, too"; but the magazine concludes "Cocteau makes about a half-hour too much of a good thing—and few things pall like a dream that cannot be shaken off."

In 1999 Chicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert added the film to his The Great Movies list, calling it "one of the most magical of all films" and a "fantasy alive with trick shots and astonishing effects, giving us a Beast who is lonely like a man and misunderstood like an animal." A 2002 Village Voice review found the film's "visual opulence" "both appealing and problematic", writing "Full of baroque interiors, elegant costumes, and overwrought jewelry (even tears turn to diamonds), the film is all surface, and undermines its own don't-trust-a-pretty-face and anti-greed themes at every turn." In 2010, the film was ranked #26 in Empire magazine's "100 Best Films of World Cinema".

Adaptations and homages

 * Jacques Demy's 1970 film Donkey Skin is a musical farce adapted from Charles Perrault's incestuous fairy tale about a widowed king who wishes to marry his beautiful daughter. Demy pays homage to Cocteau in numerous references to Beauty and the Beast, including the casting of actor Jean Marais as the king. At one point, the king woos the princess by reading from Cocteau's poem, "Ode à Picasso."
 * American singer-songwriter Stevie Nicks wrote her 1983 ballad "Beauty and the Beast" after screening the film for the second time. While she performs the song, the film plays on the screen behind her and the band.
 * The fourteenth episode of Faerie Tale Theatre, broadcast in August 1984, featured an adaptation of Beauty And The Beast which was an homage to this film. It borrowed many visual elements, including the makeup for the beast, along with segments of the dialogue translated from French into English. It featured Susan Sarandon as Belle and Klaus Kinski as the Beast.
 * In 1994, composer Philip Glass created an opera version — also called La Belle et la Bête — one of a "Cocteau Trilogy" of operas. In its initial incarnation the musicians and singers would perform the work on stage with a restored, newly subtitled print of the film playing on a screen behind them. In the original presentation, Belle was sung by the mezzo-soprano Janice Felty. (The current Criterion Collection Blu-ray release offers the ability to view the movie while listening to either Glass's score or the original soundtrack.)
 * The 2003 American miniseries Angels in America features a dream sequence which duplicates the set design of the Beast's castle. A character is shown reading a book about Cocteau before the dream begins.
 * The Vienna Art Orchestra's 1995 production "The Vienna Art Orchestra plays for Jean Cocteau" was performed with a showing of the film, and uses its text.

Awards

 * Won the Prix Louis Dullec in 1946
 * Nominated for Grand Prize of the Festival for the 1946 Cannes Film Festival
 * Best Actor nominee for Jean Marais for the Bambi Awards in 1948
 * Listed as part of the British Film Institute's list of Top 50 films you should see by the age of 14.

title: Beauty and the Beast (1946 film)


text: Category:190 deaths

title: Category:190 deaths


text:
Juno, Florida

Juno was a town in Palm Beach County, Florida. Settlement in Juno dated back to at least early 1889, when residents of Dade County, which then stretched from modern-day Martin County to Miami-Dade County, voted for the area to become the county seat. Located at the north end of the Lake Worth Lagoon, Juno soon became the southern terminus of the Jupiter and Lake Worth Railway, which is often referred to as the Celestial Railroad due to its stations at Juno, Mars, Venus, and Jupiter. Juno's status as the seat of Dade County attracted people and businesses to the town, including The Tropical Sun, which became the first newspaper in South Florida.

Described as a small but thriving town in its first few years, growth in the community did not last after Henry Flagler refused to purchase the Jupiter and Lake Worth Railway in the mid-1890s while extending his Florida East Coast Railway (FEC) southward, bypassing Juno. The FEC not only drove the Jupiter and Lake Worth Railway out of business but also shifted economic and population increases to the fledgling communities of Palm Beach and West Palm Beach. Additionally, the Dade County seat returned to Miami in 1899. Juno effectively became abandoned following a 1907 fire that destroyed many buildings and the former townsite is now partially located in present-day North Palm Beach and Palm Beach Gardens.

History
By 1888, people residing in the Lake Worth Lagoon region, including local politicians such as Elisha Newton Dimick, Alan E. Heyser, George W. Lainhart, and George W. Potter, began petitioning to move the county seat to the area from the settlements along Biscayne Bay. With a larger population than the Biscayne Bay Country communities, residents of the Lake Worth Lagoon region won the special election in February 1889 to move the county seat. Dade County covered a vast section of southeast Florida at the time, including modern-day Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, Martin, and parts of Okeechobee counties, but a small population of 995 people and just 224 dwellings according to the 1890 census. While many people in the Biscayne Bay Country accepted the results, others threatened violence, causing the Lake Worth Lagoon delegation who arrived to retrieve county records to canoe through the Everglades overnight up to the New River. Juno, then unnamed, likely became the county seat due to its location at the northern terminus of the Lake Worth Transportation Company steamship line. Sometime between March 1889 and January 1890, residents selected the name Juno, the wife of the Roman god Jupiter.

Newly-elected Dade County clerk A. F. Quimby stored the public records at the home of county commissioner Albert M. Fields until a courthouse could be constructed. Fields agreed to donate 1 acre of land for the courthouse, which was located near where the Oakbrook Square shopping center stands today. C. C. Haight received the contract to build the courthouse at a cost of $1,495. Upon opening in the summer of 1890, the courthouse building featured offices for county clerk, judge, and sheriff on the first floor and a full-sized courtroom on the second floor, which could be repurposed for social functions such as dances or church or fraternal organization meetings. The county constructed a jailhouse nearby in 1892, spending about $350 on the building but another $850 for jail cells made of iron.

In 1891, Guy Metcalf moved the Indian River News to Juno from Melbourne and renamed the publication The Tropical Sun, which became the first newspaper in South Florida. Martin County historians Greg and Alice L. Luckhardt described Juno as including "a post office, train station, saloon, hotel, Guy Metcalf's Tropical Sun newspaper, lawyer Charles C. Chillingworth's office located in the new courthouse, and abundant pineapple fields." Chillingworth recalled in 1932 that Juno featured "at various times about seven dwelling houses, two boarding houses, one newspaper building and one very small railroad station and a small store building on the dock near the water's edge." and did not have any banks, churches, medical practices, or schools, until a small one-room schoolhouse opened near the end of its time as the county seat.

Construction of Henry Flagler's Royal Poinciana Hotel in Palm Beach began on May 1, 1893. Residents of Juno assumed that Flagler would purchase the Jupiter and Lake Worth Railway to avoid the flatwoods area to the west, which frequently flooded. Flagler indeed attempted to buy the railroad, but the high price compelled him to decide to continue his Florida East Coast Railway through the flatwoods. In The Florida Historical Quarterly, Nathan D. Shappee described Flagler spurning Juno as "a blow from which the county seat and the Celestial Railroad never recovered." Metcalf moved The Tropical Sun to West Palm Beach in January 1895.

Juno's jailhouse briefly held Sam Lewis, who shot and killed three people in Lemon City in 1895, including Rhett McGregor, considered the first law enforcement officer in Dade County to be murdered while on duty. A posse arrived at the jailhouse on August 17 to abduct Lewis. Although they successfully removed Lewis, the scuffle led to the death of the jailer. Thereafter, the mob hanged Lewis from a telephone pole, an incident considered the first lynching in South Florida. The 1896-1897 edition of the Business Directory, Guide and History of Dade County, Fla. estimated that approximately 100 people lived in Juno and predicted that the community would unlikely ever be more than a farming town with a post office. By March 1899, 500 registered voters in Dade County signed a petition for another county seat referendum, scheduled to occur on May 10. The referendum led to the county seat being relocated to Miami, lessening interesting in Juno even further. Juno had been mostly abandoned by 1907. A forest fire on April 12 of that year burned down all remaining buildings and dwellings, most of which were unoccupied.

Legacy
Former residents and local pioneers erected a monument in the 1930s where the southern terminus of the Jupiter and Lake Worth Railway once stood upon request by Chillingworth, by then a county judge. Several years later, vandals defaced the monument and machinery later damaged it during a re-surfacing of U.S. Route 1. Today, a marker stands in Palm Beach Gardens along U.S. Route 1 just north of Florida State Road 786 (PGA Boulevard), which notes that the Daughters of the American Revolution's (DAR) Seminole chapter first constructed it in 1938.

The present-day town of Juno Beach, incorporated in 1953, is located a few miles north of the former community of Juno. Juno Ridge, a census-designated place, is located near the DAR's historical marker. According to the Historical Society of Palm Beach County, a brick cistern has been preserved inside modern-day North Palm Beach's Twelve Oaks subdivision, where the town dock once stood.

Notable resident
Ivy Julia Cromartie Stranahan, a philanthropist and advocate for the Seminole tribe, noted in an autobiography that she and her family lived in Juno for several years during her childhood, before moving to Lemon City by 1899.

title: Juno, Florida


text:
British Rail Class 401

The Southern Railway (SR) gave the designation 2-BIL to the DC third rail electric multiple units built during the 1930s to work long-distance semi-fast services on the newly electrified lines from London to Eastbourne, Portsmouth and Reading. This type of unit survived long enough in British Rail ownership to be allocated TOPS Class 401.

Construction
The 2-BIL units (2-car Bi-Lavatory stock) were so-called because each set had two lavatories, one in each car. They were built in four batches, each for service on newly electrified lines:

The different batches were broadly similar, though in the first one, the driving motor brake car had a smaller brake compartment and seven full compartments, rather than six-and-a-half in the later batches.

Several of the cars were destroyed in World War II at various points on the system. Some unit numbers were withdrawn, while others received a single replacement car from the small batch of postwar all-steel 2-HAL units which were built as replacements.

Formations
The first two batches of 2-BIL stock were subject to the EMU renumbering scheme implemented during January and February 1937. The renumbering of these units, and the original formations of all 2-BIL units, are set out in the table below (*Unit 1890 was renumbered 1900 in January 1936):

The first ten 2-BIL units (2001 to 2010) had an earlier form of multiple unit control. They were compatible with the 4-LAV units of the same era, but not with the remainder of the 2-BIL sets. They normally operating from Brighton, where the 4-LAV were also based, on local services. The remaining sets spent their lives on the services for which they were constructed, although they were fully mixed in operation, and it was common for units to be exchanged between areas of operation even within a day's normal work. Commuter services into London Waterloo, Victoria and London Bridge found them typically marshalled up to 8-car units.

An unusual feature of their operation in the 1950s and 1960s was that there were about 30 more diagrams for these units than sets actually existed, while for the subsequent 2-HAL units (Class 402) there were more than 30 spare units, so a significant number of the daily 2-BIL diagrams were operated by the latter units, typically marshalled together as one of the sets in a full 8-car formation.

7TC
In 1963, a 7-coach trailer set was formed by placing five former 4-SUB trailer cars between the two driving cars from unit 2006. The set was intended for use on the Oxted line, where it was hauled by diesel locomotives.

The motors from former DMBS car number 10573 were removed, and the whole set was re-wired to enable the hauling diesel locomotive to provide the electric train heating. Six out of nine compartments of one of the 4-Sub Trailer Second cars (number 11485) were refitted as first class compartments, thereby making it a Trailer Composite.

The set was originally numbered 900 in the old hauled carriage set number series, but this was amended in February 1966 to 701 in the new series for trailer control units. Despite this, and its designation as 7-TC (7-car Trailer Control stock), it was not a real trailer control unit in that a locomotive could not be operated remotely from the unit's driving cars.

The unit was stored from December 1967 and then withdrawn in April 1969. However, while the two driving cars were scrapped the following year, all five trailers were reused in other units. Four returned to 4-SUB formations, but 11485 underwent a further conversion, this time to a 4EPB Trailer Second, and was renumbered 15084. Full details of the 7-TC formation, the origin of the individual cars and their subsequent disposal are set out in the table below:

Accidents and incidents

 * On 1 August 1962, unit No.2088 was derailed at Barnham, West Sussex when a set of points moved under it due to an electrical fault. Thirty-eight people were injured.

Withdrawal
After withdrawal in 1971, various 2-BIL units in company with 2-HAL units were noted at Stratford in east London destined for scrapping by Kings of Norwich, or being hauled west for scrapping in the Newport area.

Preservation
Only one 2-BIL unit has survived into preservation, namely number 2090, formed of carriages 10656 and 12123, which is in the care of the National Railway Museum, York. This unit is also the only pre-war main line EMUs in existence, which is still in original formation. A Class 503, which was kept at the Locomotive Storage Ltd facility in Margate, has 2 carriages slated for scrap [9 ]

title: British Rail Class 401