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Adolescent clique

Adolescent cliques are cliques that develop amongst adolescents. In the social sciences, the word "clique" is used to describe a group of 3 to 12 "who interact with each other more regularly and intensely than others in the same setting". Cliques are distinguished from "crowds" in that their members socially interact with one another more than the typical crowd (e.g. hang out together, go shopping, play sports etc.). Crowds, on the other hand, are defined by reputation. Although the word 'clique' or 'cliquey' is often used in day-to-day conversation to describe relational aggression or snarky, gossipy behaviors of groups of socially dominant teenage girls, that is not always accurate. Interacting with cliques is part of normative social development regardless of gender, ethnicity, or popularity. Although cliques are most commonly studied during adolescence and in educational settings, they can exist in all age groups and settings.

Definition
As children enter adolescence, cultural, biological and cognitive changes cause variation in their daily lives. Adolescents spend far less time with their parents and begin participating in both structured and unstructured peer activities. Without the direct presence of their parents or other adults, their peer network begins to become the primary context for most socialization and activity. There was an explanation given by B. Bradford Brown on the psychological development stages in adolescents, and one of the stages He named "to fit in" stage, which means to find secure affiliations and obtain approval from peers. He said that adolescents spend a lot more time with their peers than younger children, and are more influence by the peer group than younger children. These social "cliques" fundamentally influence adolescent life and development. Perhaps because they are perceived as an external threat to parental authority, undesired changes in adolescent behavior are often attributed to cliques. In these situations, cliques are described as "social grouping[s] of persons that exhibit a great deal of peer pressure on its members and is exclusive, based on superficial differences". Researchers, however, question these assumptions: based on empiric data from both experiments and ethnographies they suggest that clique structure characterizes many friendship networks within any given school, not all of which negatively affect adolescents. A more neutral and scientific definition of clique is "a grouping of persons who interact with each other more regularly and intensely than others in the same setting".

Although cliques can range from two to twelve people, cliques typically consist of five or six people who are homogeneous in age, gender, race, social status, and socioeconomic background. More subtle determinant of group membership, such as shared interests and values, take precedence as adolescents develop more sophisticated, abstract cognitive functions (more here), which allow them to categorize individuals in more subtle ways and better interpret social interactions. Consistent group identities thus allow individuals to cope with the anonymity and intimidation that often accompany the transition into large secondary schools.

Similar cliques may re-emerge in adulthood in specific contexts, characterized by large, undifferentiated, anonymous crowds. Overall, cliques are a transitory social phase. In general, cliques first form in early adolescence with strict gender segregation, but by middle adolescence, some mixed-gender activities within the peer crowds foster close, cross-sex friendships which begin to restructure the clique. During late adolescence, the organized clique structure typically dissolves into associated sets of couples, which then remain the primary social unit into and throughout adulthood.

Cliques are different from other types of peer groups often seen in the average school, which are often reputation-based groups such as jocks or nerds. The major difference is that these reputation-based groups do not necessarily interact with each other, whereas members of a clique do interact with one another and have frequent social interactions. For example, football players are considered jocks, but not all members of a football team always interact with each other.

Common misconceptions
Although the popular media portrays female cliques almost exclusively (see examples in movies, television, and young adult fiction), clique membership is almost equally prevalent in adolescent boys. Girls do, however, tend to form cliques earlier (11 years old as compared with 13 or 14 among boys), which may contribute to the greater popular salience of female cliques. Additionally, the activities central to most female cliques include gossip and emotional sharing; this behavior visibly increases, revealing female cliques to the outside observer. Male cliques, on the other hand, tend to center around activities that have occurred before the formation of the clique (common examples include sports and other shared activities or interests, such as music or reading), and thus may draw less attention to the appearance of male cliques. Male cliques may have also gone largely unnoticed because they often appear less exclusive toward the non-clique peer group members. This last difference may arise because males more frequently reported ambitions related to acceptance and status throughout their crowd, whereas females more often aspired to status and close bonds with only a few peers (i.e. a clique). Males were also more likely to consider actively exclusive behavior unethical, as were younger adolescents. The stereotype of cruel, unwelcoming clique members is well supported in some cases, but other cliques are more open to drifters. Both attitudes appear in some cliques of both sexes and all social groups become more permeable with age. Similarly, although adolescents tend to associate with others of the same ethnicity and socioeconomic status, clique membership is equally common across ethnicity and economic background. The characteristics of the distinct cliques within each demographic group also vary equally, although members of cliques in one crowd or demographic group may not perceive all of the distinctions in others (see also crowds).

Forms of association
A number of recent studies confirm that regardless of gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status, adolescents tend to fall into one of three categories: group members, liaisons, and isolates.
 * 1) Group member: The majority of group members' social interactions occur within the same small group. They comprise less than half of any given school population at a time, with a higher concentration among girls and younger grades.
 * 2) Liaisons: Liaisons associate with a few members of multiple cliques and are generally regarded positively by their peers.
 * 3) Isolates: Characterized by few, if any, close peer relationships, these individuals do not regularly interact with any clique members. Isolated can be further classified by social agency:
 * 4) Volunteer status – these isolates deliberately avoid forming relationships.
 * 5) Forced status – peers actively exclude, mock, or victimize these isolates (see relational aggression and bullying).

Stability over time
Membership type is far more stable over time than membership in an individual clique: isolates generally remain socially disengaged, liaisons remain equally consistent, and "group members" frequently switch from one clique to another, but typically remain group members over time. The objective cliques themselves remain surprisingly stable as well. On average, cliques lose around one third of their members over a given school year, but new members with similar characteristics tend to replace the deserters, maintaining the general identity of the clique. Clique membership becomes more stable across time, as well as more permeable, less exclusive, and less hierarchical. Contrary to popular belief, individual friendships are far less stable across the school year. This is particularly true of high-status cliques and individuals, in which clique members must critically analyse their friendships and socialize only with their most popular peers or risk losing membership and status.

Types of American cliques
Using the definition of a clique, distinctions can be drawn between the many different types of cliques a person is able to be a member of. During adolescent years, students may obtain membership to a certain clique in order to ease the process of secondary school. Since adolescents emulating similar cultural standards are likely to become friends and these friends are likely to encourage these aspects of their attitudes, behaviors, and dress, the types of cliques commonly found in schools can vary significantly. TLC notes, "Some of the more common types of cliques found include: jocks, cheerleaders, mean girls, foreigners, gamers, sluts, hipsters, hippies, arty intellectuals, gangsters, stoners/slackers, scenesters, punks, preps, skaters, goths, emos, skinheads, geeks/nerds, athletic girls, "cool kids" and drifters."

In American popular culture, the jocks, cheerleaders and other athletes are typically depicted at the top of the social pyramid. They are normally portrayed as snooty and ruthless and do whatever it takes to keep the status quo. At the very bottom are nerds and geeks, otherwise known as people who work hard and get good grades while in school. These characters normally wear glasses/suspenders, are often pushed into lockers, and suffer from various types of abuse. In the middle are artsy kids, class clowns, goths, loners and other groups that are not portrayed on such an extreme level as the two previously mentioned.

Middle school cliques
Kardashian's sociologists Patricia and Peter Adler claim that middle school cliques can fall under four specific labels:
 * The Popular Clique – members of this clique are generally known to have the most friends in their school, and are viewed as having the most fun.
 * The Fringe Group – members of this clique follow in the shadow of members of the popular clique—they mimic the popular cliques' actions, structure and guidelines, but are not actually part of it. They are "second in line" to the popular kids.
 * The Loners – members of this group seem to have very few friends, and prefer to work and be alone. Some may be envious of those who belong to a different clique.
 * The Friendship Circles – members of friendship circles tend to be groups of friends who share a common belief, interest, style, appearance, or hobby, or are looking for their own culture separate from the other cliques. The friendship circles can be divided into some categories, such as:
 * The Athletes – members of this group play sports in or outside of school. They tend to have many friends and are sometimes with the popular clique. These kids are usually in a regular relationship.
 * The Nerds/Geeks – members of this group are studious, and care a lot about their schoolwork. Some may be socially impaired, however most have friends in the same group. They prefer video games, studying, and reading instead of playing sports or going to large social events.
 * The Punks/Goths – members of punk or goth cliques tend to have few friends and can be seen as violent or depressed due to their heavy use of makeup and dark clothing. This clique is less common in middle schools than it may be in high schools.
 * The Artists – members of this group are very interested in the arts. Their social activeness varies. For example, thespians may be very social, while people who draw may not be. Artists have many different clothing styles, and like to draw, sing, or perform otherwise.

High school cliques
TLC mentions and describes some typical types of teen cliques observable in most high schools.
 * Geeks – a group of students described as being intellectual, obsessive or socially impaired. They are usually depicted as nerdy and wear glasses and suspenders. "Geeky" interests and hobbies usually include: fantasy movies and shows, role-playing games and computer science. Geeks have a hard time socially, as many teens view them as boring.
 * Jocks – live for athletics, tend to be popular with many of their peers. They usually have a macho attitude and can be bullies.
 * Thespians – the teens who are obsessed with Broadway musicals and more than likely aspire to do theatre professionally. They typically have a very busy and complicated schedule. Their preferred subjects are in the performing arts—drama, singing, dance, acting, and musical theatre. They may also be involved in other performing arts activities, such as choir or dancing.
 * Skaters – skateboarders who came along and borrowed the long hair and slacker trappings of the surf scene, but they have always been more rebellious.
 * Outsiders – Also known as Loners, may be socially challenged and unable to fit in, or they may be independent and feel no need to join any one group exclusively.
 * Hipsters – make a big effort to assemble an effortless-looking wardrobe. They challenge traditional norms and modern trends. All genders wear tight jeans, flannel shirts, Buddy Holly glasses, and vintage clothing.
 * Greasers – This rather uncommon clique started in the late 40s and was popular up until the mid-60s but there are small cliques you can find who are greasers. Hated by lots of kids and are teased but tease back (Give none take none is a motto by the greasers meaning; don't take a crap or create crap). Greasers wear leather jackets, dickies jackets, etc. and jeans cuffed 1-3 inches and grease their hair using pomade or a similar substance. They also can be spotted wearing vintage-looking converse and "buckle boots" otherwise known as engineer boots.
 * Scenesters – Also known as Trendies, they are ever eager to fit in. They are dedicated followers of fashion, devoted to a particular band, club, or style. They dress in tight, fashionable clothing, wear sunglasses, and sport wild but styled hairdos (striped, streaked, or spiked). Social media platforms are totally essential to them. Scenesters sometimes get labeled posers or wannabes.
 * Preps – a subgenre of the popular clique. Preps tend to be good at being social and having fun and usually come from an upper middle class or upper-class family. Sometimes they overlap with jocks, especially when it comes to sports. In most high schools, preps are those most commonly chosen to have important positions for school events such as Class Officers, Extracurricular Activities, Home Coming King/Queen, Prom King/Queen, and Prom Court. Maintaining the right image may even make them vulnerable. Unlike the stereotype of "mean girls", preps often get along with everyone.
 * Nerds – they are obsessed and often have superior knowledge or devotion to something, usually aren't fashion-conscious, maybe introverted, and they often do well in school.
 * Mean girls – the 2004 movie Mean Girls, starring Lindsay Lohan as a girl negotiating the jungles of teenage subcultures, put a new label on this type of teen. They always embrace the latest fashions. They form exclusive cliques and frequently engage in gossip. They crave popularity, often because they feel insecure; yet they have a hard time with genuine relationships.
 * Emo kids – highly emotional. Their emotions are reflected in their appearance: dark clothing, streaked bangs, and tattoos, and piercings. The emo style has its roots in punk culture, which tended to be more rebellious, and goth, which was darker and gloomier. Some emos are described as scene kids because they wear brighter neon clothes. These kids are more vulnerable to depression or bipolar tendencies. They are known for experiments with self-injury and cutting, though not all of them do this. Emo kids tend to be mistaken for goth due to their dark outfits, or sometimes rockers being they often wear band t-shirts and have a lot of musical interests.
 * Rockers – tend to stay away from the crowd and in small groups with similar interests in music. This is a very large clique because of how diverse it is. They tend to wear band T-shirts, lots of jewelry, and baggy or tight jeans and are usually listening to music. Many of them will be in a band or know an instrument. They live according to the Rock and Roll lifestyle: Sex, drugs, and music.
 * Drifters – Also known as Floaters, individuals that are capable of simultaneous interactions with one or more groups non-exclusively, or being independent at their own accord. They don't demand attention, often opting to blend in the background to avoid potential conflict or being labeled as part of a group. However, some usually don't mind being in the know with most gossips or rumors or learning things that no one else is aware of.
 * Hot Cheeto girl – is a clique that emerged from late 2016 to mid 2017 where girls typically acted as a racial stereotype of black women. They'd wear slick back buns, lay on edges, sport unnaturally long fake lashes, hoop earrings, long acrylics, incredibly vocal in the morning and obsessed with eating some spicy chips. They'd also have girls wear oversized hoodies, wear thick pajama pants and wear some feet-exposing shoes. Danielle Bregoli is the first girl to popularize this type of archetype.

Popularity
A powerful, yet unstable social hierarchy structures interactions between group members in any given clique. This hierarchy is always topped by the highest-status member, labeled by psychologists as the "Leader" or "Queen Bee". In her now famous ethnography of adolescent cliques, Queen Bees and Wannabes, author Rosalind Wiseman explains the standard set of roles most frequently adopted by male and female clique members.

Females:
 * Queen Bee – Leader: rules by "charisma, force, money, looks, will, & manipulation".
 * Sidekick – Lieutenant: invariably supports the Queen Bee opinions.
 * Banker – Gossip: collects and employs information for her own gain until part of clique, then works for benefit of Queen Bee and Sidekick.
 * Floater – Similar to a Liaison; closely associated with multiple cliques and will stand up to the Queen Bee.
 * Torn bystander—Groupies of female cliques: respected by adults as good kids. Conflicted and constantly torn between doing the right thing and being loyal to the group and is also in the middle because she apologizes for the Queen Bee and Sidekick behavior even though she knows they're both wrong.
 * Pleaser/Wannabe/Messenger – Can be in or out of clique: immediately adopts all of the Queen Bee and Sidekick opinions, yet never gains their approval and is often treated with indifference by the Queen Bee.
 * Baddie—a bad girl who is always on fleek. The Baddie grew up bullied or lacking confidence. But now she has the confidence by being herself and doing what she always dreamed of doing. The Baddie has self respect and fights for something she believes in like having fun, going to parties and throwing them, and becoming successful and popular.
 * Cyberbully—The use of electronic communication to bully a person and typically by sending a message of an intimidating and humiliation or threatening nature.
 * Target – Outside of the clique; regularly excluded and humiliated.

Males:
 * Leader – Like the Queen Bee: Athletic, tough, rich, & gets the girls.
 * Companion—Like the Sidekick: Invariably will associate with the Leader
 * Flunkie – Like the Pleaser/Wannabe/Messenger, he does anything asked of him, but he also responds to any member. Inadvertently annoys others with his actions regularly.
 * Adviser  – Advises the leader on decisions, often the smartest one.
 * Thug – Like the Baddie, Although often smarter than he lets on, the Thug communicates primarily through nonverbal bullying, such as involving himself into physical altercations. He typically appears popular, but may have had a rough past or childhood.
 * Drifter—Like the Floater: closely moves from clique to clique and will stand up to the Leader.
 * Cyberstalker—Like the Cyberbully: harasses or frightens someone by sending threatening emails, instant messages, phone calls and harassing. He also uses communication modes to stalk people.
 * The Get Wits—Like the Torn bystander – Groupies of male clique: respected by adults as high-achieving "good kids", but only unsought tag-a-longs to the clique.
 * Victim—Like the Target: also Outside of the clique; excluded, humiliated, harmed, injured and tricked.

Although too rigid to be entirely accurate across samples, these basic denominations are useful for discussing general behavior and organization within cliques. The role hierarchies within cliques are significantly more stable than the individual members. Maintaining one's status and power requires constant effort. Queen Bees and Leaders must work the hardest to protect their positions and typically become manipulative and disliked in the process. For example, a Leader or Queen Bee may keep objective attention off of themself by unpredictably alternating praise and criticism of other members (see relational aggression). They may also change the way the clique views activities, values, and opinions of things to keep the other members unsure of where they stand in the group."

The Leader or Queen Bee also maintains power over group membership—exercised through both tacit and explicit rejection of prospective members—as well as the final say in accepting new members, regardless of the opinions of other members. The majority of new memberships results from one of two approaches: invitation or application. The "invitation" approach originates within the clique: a current member of a clique invites a potential member either explicitly or by indirect socialization, which consists of the clique attempting to demonstrate the joys and benefits of membership. Aspiring peers who have not been invited can also "apply" by courting the lowest ranking members and progressing up to the Leader or Queen Bee who will decide whether to accept them.

Elements of popularity
Advanced and adaptable social skills are the best predictors of popularity, but further predictors of popularity are difficult to identify, primarily because the schema of "popularity" represents the interaction between two distinct concepts. Popularity breaks down into sociometric status (sometimes called "likability"), which measures peers' private feelings toward the individual, and perceived popularity, which reflects the individual's status, prestige, and power.

Socio-metric status is determined by fairly universally valuable characteristics including social skills, friendliness, and sense of humor. The foundations of perceived popularity, on the other hand, vary widely. Some popular adolescents are high in both characteristics, but they more often develop in distinct individuals and cliques, all considered "popular" during adolescence.

Regardless of popularity type, highly popular individuals influence local norms and behaviors in similar ways: "adolescents are easily swayed by the opinions of high-status peers to endorse activities they might otherwise reject and to run the other way from activities endorsed by low-status peers, even if they secretly enjoy them". The popular individuals themselves, however, fare differently depending on the root of their status. Several recent studies proved the discriminant validity of the two groups and found that perceived popularity in high school is predictive of alcohol use, sexual activity, and smoking. It may also be associated with a lasting drop in sociometric status. Several recent studies suggest that long-term outcomes are generally more positive for individuals who were neither Isolates nor among the most popular during adolescence.

Personal factors
A status hierarchy much like that within individual cliques organizes the various cliques within each peer crowd. The crowds within a given school are also perceived hierarchically. Crowd ranking can sometimes change but is generally quite stable across time and schools. Part of a clique's popularity status is based on the crowd with which its members associate, thus similarly popular cliques within the same crowd are more likely to move within the hierarchy than are similar crowds within the larger peer context.

Both because students meet and seek friends with others who share their interests ("selection") and because much of clique members time, both free and structured, takes place in the company of the other members ("socialization"), cliques are usually defined by common attitudes and activities. Among the most powerful determinants of clique membership are orientation toward school, orientation toward teen culture, and involvement in antisocial behavior.

Orientation toward school
Because studying time and partying time conflict, most individuals are rarely exposed to individuals from the opposite end of this spectrum during unstructured time. Membership in the same clique with peers whose values are highly distinct is thus uncommon. Individuals with only somewhat different views of school, however, are likely to belong to the same clique, and socialization is likely to decrease their differences over time. For example, girls' decisions about enrollment in advanced math are significantly related to those of their close friends. A study of 78 high schools found that even controlling for past achievement, the GPAs of an individual's close friends reliably help predict grades; in fact "of all the characteristics of friends that influence adolescents' behavior, their friends' school performance has the greatest impact, not only on their own academic achievement, but also on their involvement in problem behavior and drug use."

Orientation toward teen culture
Similar taste in music and clothing signal others with potentially shared interests and values and often suggest the leisure activities and substance use patterns of which they approve. Thus adolescents emulating similar cultural standards are likely to become friends and these friends are likely to encourage these aspects of their attitudes, behaviors, and dress. Participation in subcultures can also reinforce belonging. In many cases, clique members can be easily identified based on dress alone.

Antisocial activity
Research does not support the common belief that troubled adolescents have few or no friends. Instead, such individuals gravitate toward one another and form their own cliques, although these friendships do often differ from the friendships of more socially acceptable children. This general self-sorting trend applies in different ways to specific kinds of antisocial behavior. A few of the most studied are substance use, aggression, and depressive symptoms. Similarity in substance use is one of the most powerful factors in clique development and lasting membership, even serving as the earliest predictor of cross-gender friendships and the most common basis for multi-ethnic cliques. Alcohol and drug use are predicted by the interaction between number of substance using friends, the extent of their substance use, and perceived closeness to those friends; a substance-free adolescent is thus unlikely to seek out or be accepted by a clique characterized by frequent substance use and even more unlikely to remain substance-free long after entering such clique Cliques typically fall into one of four categories and clique membership reliably predicts individual behavior. Members of High Functioning and Engaged cliques demonstrated the best long-term outcomes, whereas Maladjusted clique membership predicted low achievement, chronic substance abuse, and confrontation with authorities and Disengaged clique members and others who abstained completely typically exhibited abnormally high anxiety and inhibition. Gravitation toward similar peer groups can be especially dangerous for adolescents with aggressive tendencies. A recent observational study on antisocial, aggressive boys established that clique members tended to live in the same neighborhood, where they met and bonded through unstructured, unsupervised activities. Since antisocial groups encourage antisocial behavior, aggressive behaviors tend to escalate rapidly within groups of aggressive adolescents. In the case of bullies this effect is so detrimental that those without any friends are actually more likely to improve over time than those with friends and generally experience better long-term outcomes. In the most extreme cases, these groups may become gangs or practice less organized, but equally dangerous, violent delinquency
 * Substance use
 * High Functioning cliques consisted of "a network of high-achieving friends who were involved in school-based extracurricular activities and who reported low use of alcohol and few symptoms of depression."
 * Maladjusted cliques "showed the opposite pattern": uninvolved in school performance and organized activities, used alcohol frequently and to excess, and reported multiple symptoms of depression.
 * Disengaged cliques did not encourage engagement "in much of anything, including drinking."
 * Engaged cliques consisted of friends who "engaged in school, achieved decent grades, and neither abstained from nor abused alcohol."
 * Aggression
 * Depression

Although these maladjusted, detrimental cliques can develop among adolescents of either gender, those based on aggression and delinquency are more often observed in males. In females, adjustment problems are more often manifested as internalizing problems, rather than the externalizing problems common among their male peers. Research shows, however, that both internalizing and externalizing behaviors are negatively related to the subjective sense of strong, reliable group belonging, even controlling for adolescent age, gender, ethnicity, family structure, and parents' educational level.

Because adolescent females, on average, both report stronger feelings of group belonging and place greater importance on this feeling than do their male peers, girls who do not feel accepted may be more susceptible than equally excluded boys to forming and conforming to cliques based on shared maladaptive behavior. If so, differences in internalizing or externalizing behaviors of adolescent boys and girls may be magnified during adolescence, contributing to the significant gender differences observed in adult outcomes such as incarceration and mood disorders. For example, the same cycle of selection and socialization known to exacerbate aggression applies to the internalizing behaviors associated with depression. One study on the emergence of depression in adolescence found that even controlling for the effects of age and pubertal development, gender predicted several small but significant differences: (a) depressive symptoms and negative peer relations predicted increasing levels of reassurance-seeking in female subjects; (b) initial levels of reassurance-seeking predicted deteriorating friendship quality among girls and initial levels of depressive symptoms, which were higher among girls, predicted low friendship stability among all subjects, and (c) "reassurance-seeking combined with poor peer experiences predicted increases in girls' depressive symptoms."

Perhaps related to the role of reassurance-seeking, those who both value and experience social acceptance are far less likely to exhibit problem behavior than those who value group membership equally, but are uncertain of their relationship. This relationships is better predicted by self-esteem than the actual quality of the relationships, although also directly related to discordance in personal and peer ratings of status. This effect likely arises cyclically: troubled children are rejected by their peers for their undesirable behavior, while rejected children receive less normative socialization and behave more problematically.

Demographic factors
Although there are exceptions, demographic factors typically influence adolescent crowd membership even before real cliques begin to form and often influence clique membership more powerfully than personal or behavioral characteristics. Many of the effects on clique composition described below may be largely attributed to crowd segregation.

Age
Because the contemporary school system divides children by age and structures the majority of most adolescents' time and social exposure, age is the most universal common factor among clique members; notable exceptions include friendships formed in neighborhoods or on the internet and those initiated with early-maturing pubertal girls, all of which are often detrimental to the younger friend.

Gender
Gender is perhaps the strongest determinant of clique composition in very early puberty. During childhood and early adolescence social segregation between is almost absolute. However, unlike other factors, gender division is temporary.

Socioeconomic status
Another, less advantageous, powerful determinant of clique formation is socioeconomic class. This trend was first published in the famous "Elmtown's Youth Study", which found that "almost never did adolescents from one social class associate with students from a class that was two ranks higher or lower". A diverse array of follow-up studies have confirmed that class-consciousness steadily increases throughout adolescence, so that by mid-adolescence clique membership across significantly different social backgrounds is highly anomalous.

Ethnicity
In the United States race remains an even stronger determinant of friendship than socioeconomic status. Like socioeconomic status, ethnicity is not a strong determinant of childhood friendships, but becomes increasingly potent with age. By high school, ethnically mixed cliques are rarely observed. This pattern of social segregation is strongest between black students and all other students and most prevalent in schools where students are divided into academic tracks. This is because various factors disadvantage black children, affecting performance in some cases and adult decisions in others so that in many cases black children are disproportionately likely to be placed in lower tracks, regardless of intelligence or performance resulting in uneven distribution between tracks in the majority of American high schools. Researchers suggest that because close friends in adolescence "usually have similar attitudes toward school, similar educational aspirations, and similar school achievement levels", early tracking may both decrease exposure to peers of other racial and socioeconomic backgrounds and decrease perceived similarity with the majority of those peers  Racial divisions are most acute in tracked schools but are fundamental to crowd and clique composition in almost all American schools, and thus cannot be attributed to, nor changed by, any one educational program. More encouragingly, however, longitudinal observations suggest that interventions in early childhood may have the potential to influence social segregation: the more schools foster close cross-racial friendships in childhood the less peer group segregation manifests.

Religion
A well-established factor in clique composition is religious background, affiliation, and participation. This is somewhat confounded by overlap with socioeconomic status, but also relates to behavioral correlates of religion and selection by both individual and their peers.

Reputation determinants and effects
Cliques reputation is often determined by their most noticeable behavioral characteristic that is shared among their members. The characteristic might be so salient that it could dominate the way that members of that clique are perceived and treated by other peers regardless of the individual differences that each member has. For example, a clique group could be perceived as athletic, but say an individual in that group is very smart and gets good grades in school. That individual would be treated based on their athletic characteristics rather than their intellectual abilities. When people are treated based on a single characteristic it changes their self-image, resulting in a change in who they are. This phenomenon is known as the looking glass self; individuals become more like the way they think they are perceived by others. So for the example where the individual was treated based on their athletic abilities rather than their intelligence, that person will likely focus their attention more on sports rather than doing well in school, causing them to become even more like the clique they are a part of. This phenomenon where individuals in a group tend to be more like each other than non-group members is known as group homophily. Children almost always choose to be friends of people who share similarities with themselves, hence why similar characteristics among clique members establish the clique's reputation and allow different cliques to be told apart.

Clique membership and social adjustment in children's same-gender cliques
Most people agree that children are affected by who they associate with, but what is not well understood is the specific characteristics that children of similar types of groups share. The focus of these authors' research was to discover the different emotional and social effects that members of the same cliques share. For their study they divided the 473 fourth and fifth graders into five groups, which were: competent, tough, average, withdrawn, and incompetent/aggressive. The researchers did this by having students rate their classmates on several characteristics; bright, fun, bully, withdrawn, athletic, prosocial, reactive aggression. They then measured differences among groups by asking children questions regarding peers social status and behavioral characteristics. For example, they asked participants to nominate up to three participating classmates who "tries to get what he or she wants by hitting, shoving, pushing or threatening others". In addition, they asked children questions about themselves that regarded to levels of loneliness and children's social dissatisfaction.

The researcher's discovered differences in emotional well-being and social satisfaction between different types of clique groups. They found that competent and average groups showed positive characteristics such as good interpersonal skills, whereas withdrawn, incompetent/aggressive and tough cliques lacked emotional well-being and social satisfaction. Another discovery was that social status levels did not distinguish average, competent and tough cliques from one another. Therefore, if an individual is in one of these three groups they are no more likely to have a high social status than a low social status. Their conclusion to these findings was that even when taking into account individuals social status level, the type of clique people are in has a significant effect on their social and emotional characteristics.

Change and stability in childhood
A recent study done by Witvliet, Van Lier, Cuijpers and Koot shows the differences in behavioral characteristics between clique members and non-clique members in early elementary school, the stability of clique membership and whether the differences in these characteristics are gender oriented. Three hundred first-grade students (151 boys, 149 girls) from eleven different elementary schools in the Netherlands participated. The children were examined by being asked to determine their best friends. This friendship was considered valid if the elected friendship was reciprocated by the other child. The child was considered to be in a clique when the following criteria were met 1) a clique consisted of at least three children 2) each child had to have more connections with members than non-members and 3) a link had to occur between all members of clique. Children were then rated by their peers to determine who was liked the most versus who was liked the least. The children were also asked to determine behavioural characteristics of participants and who best fit the description of characteristics such as aggressive, anxious, etc. The peer study was followed through every spring and children were given a small reward for their involvement. These results were then used to compare between clique members and non-clique members. These results were also used to discuss the children's characteristics while also separating based on gender. In first grade, 29 cliques were found with an average of 5.3 members. In second grade 25 cliques were found with an average of 6.2 members. This study suggests that clique members tend to be more adjusted and that gender may have some form of influence on the results. This study showed that isolated girls would have more behavioural problems than isolated boys.

Effect of cliques on the development of psychopathology in children
Researches have often conducted studies to determine whether membership to a clique produces positive or negative development. In one 4-year study of 451 children from age nine to twelve, Miranda Witvliet along with Pol A. C. van Lier, Mara Brendgen, Hans M. Koot, and Frank Vitaro examined longitudinal associations between clique membership status and internalizing and externalizing problems during late childhood. In this quasi-experiment the researchers aimed to discover if clique membership status was linked to increases in children's psychopathology. Children from five different elementary schools in northwestern Quebec, Canada were the participants of this particular study. In the study, clique membership status was identified through social network analysis, and peer nominations were used to assess internalizing and externalizing problems. The study used the program Kliquefinder to identify clique membership status through social network analysis. Through use of behavioural descriptions on the Pupil Evaluation Inventory (PEI), peer nominations of externalizing and internalizing behaviors were obtained.

Through this study, Witvliet, van Lier, Brendgen, Koot, and Vitaro noted that externalizing problems increased among clique members. They found that clique members compared with isolated children showed, on average, an increase in externalizing problems across that same period. While no sex differences were found in the link between clique membership status and internalizing problems, the association found between clique membership and an increase in externalizing problems was specific to boys only. The researchers claimed that these results support the hypothesis that clique membership protects children against developing internalizing problems.

Decline of cliques
During middle adolescence, the social norms that once enforced sex cleavage shift to encourage mixed-sex socialization. Single-sex cliques begin to seek out the company of opposite-sex cliques, although at first almost all direct interaction remains within the individual cliques despite the presence of the other clique(s). Gradually, intersex relationships and mixed sex cliques develop, closely followed by the first romantic relationships, which typically appear among early-pubertal, high-status, more physically developed adolescents. Over the course of late adolescence romantic relationships replace clique hierarchies as the most potent determinants of social status and networks of dating couples eventually replace more rigidly structured cliques.

The chronological relationship between changing gender dynamics and the dissolution of organized, hierarchical cliques is well-established, but not fully understood. One theory asserts that sex cleavage both arises and wanes because cliques are largely sorted by common interests: girls and boys are generally interested in different activities until dating emerges, after which they share a highly valued activity. (164) This idea is consistent with the direct relationship between pubertal development and the appearance of other-sex friends. One possible explanation for this progression argues that children are socialized from childhood to conform to gender roles and during early adolescence cognitive developments promote active self-presentation and anxiety over peer-perceptions; as a result, early adolescents become more consciously aware of both the benefits of conventional gender identity and the threat of ridicule or rejection in response to unorthodox behavior. According to this framework, gender segregation subsides because the same inculcated gender roles that prompt children to distance themselves from anything associated with the opposite sex also encourage adolescents and adults to demonstrate heterosexual desire and sexual/seductive competence. This argument explains the drastic shift in the targets of ridicule from those who were too androgynous in middle school to those who can not or do not attract sexual attention in high school.

The effects of such social enforcement of gender-roles, may take the form of relational aggression, bullying, and gay bullying.

Implications
Perhaps the most consequential finding from the empirical study of adolescent cliques is that they are not an inherently negative force, but rather part of normative development in our society. Although it is certainly true that certain cliques can negatively influence development, others can actually benefit adolescents. In cases in which clique influence is negative, it is encouraging to note that while most forms of interventions are fairly ineffective and peer group interventions frequently produce iatrogenic effects, interventions with parents have yielded encouraging results.

title: Adolescent clique


text:
Talk:Adolescent clique

Wikipedia Ambassador Program assignment
This article is the subject of an educational assignment at King's University College supported by the Wikipedia Ambassador Program during the 2012 Q3 term. Further details are available on the course page.

Above message substituted from on 15:23, 7 January 2023 (UTC)

Types of Cliques
I moved some of the previous content around to make more sense, and added a section for middle school cliques. Please leave me a comment if there are any problems. Thanks!

Tdb17 (talk) 00:14, 16 February 2013 (UTC)

Removal of See Also and External Link section
I think that these two sections should be removed, because they add little to the article. Instead of See Also section, relevant internal links can and should be used. Is anyone opposed to this? Rebecita.angle 22:15, 2 December 2007 (UTC)

Strange picture
That picture seems really odd: surely there is something better? Turnstep 19:00, Apr 6, 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm removing it. It's illogical. --Sn0wflake 23:07, 18 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Social Groups and World Events
Studying world history spanning the centuries it becomes noticeable that more often than not the wrong people become the leaders. There are exceptions, of course, Ghandi being one of them.
 * Ghandi is not without criticism

If leaders are people who are driven by the need for acceptance, and are willing to exact pain and suffering upon those who do not meet their personal needs, then it is likely that those people should not be leaders.

Rather, those people who excel in a craft, or science, or any given human endeavor, should be taught leadership and allowed to practice it.

Cliques (or gangs in many instances) become a defining force for individuals. The leaders of cliques often become the leaders of countries, transnational corporations, and social institutions worldwide, and because of that cliques are social objects that should be thoroughly studied. The manipulation of clique behavior might better serve societal goals if that behavior is integrated into social systems rather than peripheral to them.

Clique behavior has been integrated to some degree in the more formalized activities and events such as sports programs and debate teams. The observation is that in these activities the team and program goals define the social behavior and social stratification within the group.

It may be interesting to find that less formal activities, such as water cooler discussions and power lunches, assign disproportionate meaning to unstructured behavior, and so allow a greater possibility of unhealthy social outcomes.

Related:

Interpersonal Configurations and Cliques

Populars and other cliques

Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment

Xmo1 12:11, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

Pariahs/outcasts
Not a big issue, but I don't like the inconsistent terminology used for outcast. early in the article the term ``pariah" is used while it is later replaced in favor of ``outcast".

Feminist Bias
This Article dosent say anything about boys cliques or even list common cliques. someone please clean this up.

 * Well first of all, it wouldn't be feminist bias because that would imply that this article is biased for/against feminists, depending on how one looks at it. Anyways, cliques are simply more common in females. Cliques exist in males but not to as much of an extent. --72.226.224.251 17:55, 20 April 2006 (UTC)

''I can assure you that this article is not only feminist biased but also toward the juvenile. Cliques exist in the adult world and can be male, female or mixed. For example, attractive confident queen bee greatly influences male leaders for example. Also I think there are more than two roles - coming from two groups, insiders and outsiders. This article only describes two.'' --Dixx 22:09, 7 May 2006 (UTC)Dixx.
 * I took out the part that mentions that it's thought to be more prominent among women, and politics. Replaced politics with workplace. added nearly to a generalization that said, "...all cliques have some sort of power structure"  Also removed "Thus, it is inaccurate to describe all social groups of teenagers as cliques, as often said groups do not have any particular power structure."  Looked up a defintion of clique in a dictionary, it's simply an exclusive group of friends, often with a common factor, such as purpose or belief.  (ie a bunch of goths, or with a nod to Hunter's little known "Freak Hallway", a bunch of "freaks")

Pronunciation
Is the pronunication written supposed to be read as a homophone of the word "click"? Although I am aware of this pronunication (which I think is particularly common in America), I believe the more classical pronunciation is somewhat like "cleek". (This agrees with its origin as a French loanword.)

I do not know what phonetic standard Wikipedia recommends for writing out pronunciations, but perhaps both should be included at least for the sake of comparison. Could someone else knowledgeable in these matters update the pronunciation?

 * Unfortunately, I don't know how to code IPA (but who does, anyway? Esperanto-speakers?).  I think it would probably be sufficient to say that some Americans say pronounce the word "click" to rhyme with "stick", and everybody else says "cleek", to rhyme with "peek". 32.97.110.142 23:09, 16 August 2006 (UTC)

Bad Article
The person who wrote this watched "Mean Girls" one too many times.

 * thats exactly what I was thinking. Not neccesarily a bad article, but the wrong type of tone. However I don't have the slightest clue how to fix it so I shouldn't complain. Bawolff 07:00, 8 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I have to agree. I think all the "queen bee" stuff needs to be reworked - I don't think real-life cliques are as structured as this article explains.  I just can't figure how to reword it myself.

 * I would like to see more of an evolutionary / psychological definition without any sort of moral standpoint to it. This article seems to want to talk about clique as the preconception of a clique, than to talk about clique as what it actually may be. Cliques seem to be nearly universal in our youth culture so how could they just be chalked up to kids being 'bad'? Phonemic IPA should be in /'s.

 * I agree with the "Mean Girls" statement, immensely. Having glasses and a watch doesn't make a person smart, preps are hated by many people, goths, emos, skaters, and many others are omitted completely(as far as secondary school cliques go), and jocks aren't all powerful.  Also, being a nerd doesn't mean you're lonely, or undesirable in any way, being one myself, I know, I have quite a few friends, of both genders...it's not difficult, or a stretch of the imagination.  Just basic misunderstanding of the entire clique concept is shown in this article, making a simple friendship with similarities(such as rich preps or black clad goths) seem like some kind of fraternity or occult initiation process.

I definitely agree that this article needs to be reworked. One sentence that really jumped out at me was "Cliques may also be a source of distraction from studies, both for clique members and for the outcasts they victimize." Doesn't seem very NPOV to me. Not all cliques "victimize" non-members. This article seems like it was written by someone who had a bad time at high school and is now trying to make cliques seem like a malevolent presence. --Sidhebolg 07:07, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

political cliques
Uh, cliques are also military alliances formed within warlords. Elle vécut heureuse à jamais  (Be eudaimonic!) 01:44, 28 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Yeah...I heard that before. Hmp ;). -- hello, i'm a member  |  talk to me!  06:48, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Is this use of the word only common in Chinese translation? That's the only place I've heard it as such (as a modern example, the "Dalai clique"). 130.85.251.16 (talk) 15:42, 1 April 2008 (UTC)
 * For me this was and is the main meaning of the word, e.g.the Shanghai clique, Guangtung cliques etc, however this wordseems to have been hijacked by the American and teenage centric useof this word. KTo288 (talk) 07:32, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

Problems with this article

 * 1) American centric
 * 2) Youth centric
 * 3) Female centric
 * 4) Human centric (Yes, cliqueish behavior can be seen in animals)
 * 5) Where are the references??? (I didn't see a single one)
 * 6) Reads like it was written by a teenager
 * 7) Pro & Con list

I re-worked the intro, and made the pro & con list look less like a pro & con list, but the article still needs a lot of work. I thought I'd leave a note here so people have my ideas to work with. ~ ONUnicorn (Talk / Contribs) 18:23, 26 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Since this has been tagged for clean-up forever and had so many problems I have now cut about half the content from the article; reducing it to a stub and "see also" section. ~  ONUnicorn (Talk problem solving 17:25, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

A Mess
Decided to lose half the article about the ridiculous game called 'bully' as it is irrelevant. Also, i removed the family clique information as it was ungrounded and technically a clique concerns only unrelated peoples 'with common interests' as the article states. --EvansUK 10:03, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

Ridiculous
Cliques are really a natural and inevitable part of human nature whether manifesting in highschool cafs or high politics.Once you are in a clique it takes time to learn. Yet this article goes out of its way to make them sound ominous and evil, invoking Zhilis, Nazis and (unidentified) people from the Middle East. Get a sense of balance morons! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.252.48.239 (talk) 05:41, 25 September 2007 (UTC) Not only high school, but also primary school, university and workplace!194.141.3.17 (talk) 01:22, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

Does No One Even Care About Content Anymore?
The table of contents doesn't even match the article. 72.0.175.144 (talk) 03:51, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

Umm... This book is Amazing OMG i love the brateniess in the book its like real life plus it keeps the book suspenceful!!! Ita a MUST read!!!1 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.225.245.209 (talk) 23:00, 4 April 2008 (UTC)

Definition should be updated.
A clique (IPA:/'kliːk/, pronounced /'klɪk/ by some Americans) is an exclusive group of people who share interests, views, purposes, patterns of behavior, or ethnicity.[1] A clique as a reference group can be either normative or comparative. Members of a clique will try to exclude others from the group and are often seen as bullies. This is because they tend to outnumber people when arguing.

The final sentence is a non-sequitur and has no relevance to the definition of a clique.

The second to last sentence is biased and should read: Membership in a clique is often, but not necessarily exclusive, and qualifications for membership may be social or essential to the nature of the clique.

According to http://www.thefreedictionary.com/clique - cliques are not always exclusive therefore I believe the definition should be changed to reflect this. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Mouseodoom (talk • contribs) 14:53, 10 April 2009 (UTC)

Planning to update
I am a senior year Psychology major and I plan to update this article as a final project in my Seminar on Adolescent Development. In the upcoming weeks I will be expanding this article a great deal. Below you will see an outline of the new material, which will be accurate, current, and well cited. If no one minds, I will delete and replace most of what's up now. However, if deleting this work would offend any one, I'm willing to incorporate the existing sentences in the new material. I also plan to delete the irrelevant note on graph theory unless any one is opposed. If anyone has any objections to this plan, please let me know.

Intro Definitions Distinction from peer groups [link] Membership misconceptions: apply to both genders and all levels of popularity Types of membership: Group Members, Liasons, Isolates Stability and Change within individuals within cliques

Within Clique Structure Heirarchy within the Clique Studies have identified standard roles for girls and standard roles for boys Status maintenance New membership: Invitation vs. Application Popularity 2 kinds: Sociometic & Percieved Predictors of both Long-term Effects of Popularity Rejection Popularity (by type)

Between Clique Structure Hierarchy of cliques within peer groups much like individuals within a clique Selection & Socialization: Clique members group together because similar and become more similar over time. Major Determinants of shared group identity and status: -Orientation toward school -Orientation toward teen culture, & -Involvement in antisocial Behavior: Broken down into studies on 1. Aggression 2. Substance Use and 3. Depression Demographic Factors -Age -Socioeconomic Status -Ethnicity (effects of academic tracking, effects of sustance use) -Gender

Decline of Clique Behavior Sex cleavage begins in early childhood -Early adolescence - single gender cliques emerge -Middle adolescence - single gender cliques socialize together, but largely interact within own clique. -Late adolescence – couple form, attention shifts, cliques and organized peer groups replaced by loosely associated sets of couples (which will remain the norm).

Discussion -Contrary to popular belief, cliques aren’t inherently bad. They’re part of normative social development in our culture and can even be beneficial in these ways… -However can clearly also be detrimental … so how can we help? -Group Interventions don’t work and often cause Iatrogenic Effects via Deviancy Training. -Families do seem to have more power than previously thought — Preceding unsigned comment added by Chelthom (talk • contribs) 16:14, 4 December 2011 (UTC)

Updated
I rewrote this article to be more accurate, better cited, and include far more information. It is still more America-centric than I would like, but that's what was in the literature. It may also be too long but I'm not sure what to cut. What do you guys think? I'd really love it if anyone else has something to add or cares to help edit! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Chelthom (talk • contribs) 20:14, 1 January 2012 (UTC)

Deceptive titling
This is a good start for an article on adolescent cliques, but hardly an article on clique social structures at large. There are a number of societies and cultural groups that rely on cliques extensively, across age- and gender-limits. Examples include clique structures in organized crime, business, and politics. Somebody who is /not/ specialized in child psych or sociological studies of adolescents (or, rather, getting undergraduate degrees in those fields) needs to retitle this article to "teen cliques" or something and write a reasonable, general article on clique sturctures without the overt disciplinary and cultural bias that currently dominates the article. 156.98.129.16 (talk) 16:15, 1 May 2012 (UTC)
 * This article is both better and worse than my last complaint about it in 2008 (see above), it no longer reads as if it was written by a gaggle of LiLo wannabes, however the professional gloss and credentials given to it by the psych students means that the worrd clique here has further been hijacked to mean adolescent cliques, adult cliques being dismissed with the single line-"Although similar cliques may re-emerge in adulthood in specific contexts characterized by large, undifferentiated, anonymous crowds, overall, cliques are a transitory social phase"- well just because they are harder to study- being better able to resist the intrusions of graduate researchers-doesn't mean they don't exist. This week this appeared in the news {http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/9648949/Camerons-clique-network-bars-women-claims-Dame.html Cameron’s clique network bars women, claims Dame}}, and before Cameron there was Blair's Kitchen Cabinet, groups to which the words "large, undifferentiated, anonymous crowds" do not apply.--KTo288 (talk) 11:49, 2 November 2012 (UTC)

Editing
I have decided to edit this article for Psych 2410A at King’s 2012 Charlesdavybrown (talk) 13:55, 3 October 2012 (UTC)

I will be adding the article "Clique Membership and Social Adjustment in Children's Same-Gender Cliques: The Contribution of the Type of Clique to Children's Self-Reported Adjustment". I will also be adding a more elaborate description of cliques and the effects they have on children's social and emotional well-being.

I have decided to edit this article for Psych 2410A at Kings UWO

I will be making three steps to improve this article 1) including the article "Change and Stability in Childhood Clique Membership, Isolation From Cliques, and Associated Child Characteristics" by Miranda Witvliet, Pol A.C. van Lier, Pim Cuijpers, and Hans M. Koot, 2010 2) fixing and adjusting the section "between Clique structure" by editing the grammar and adding more depth to the subtopics. 3) adding visuals to the page including diagrams and various visual aids with descriptions allowing further understanding

I have decided to edit this article for Psych 2410A at King’s 2012 Tmihalop (talk) 04:49, 20 September 2012 (UTC)

I will be making the following three steps to improve this article:1)describing some of the types of cliques 2)creating a new "cliques in schools" subheading and expanding on the effects of cliques in schools 3)including the article "Longitudinal Associations Between Clique Membership Status and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems During Late Childhood" by Miranda Witvliet, Pol A. C. van Lier, Mara Brendgen, Hans M. Koot, & Frank Vitaro, 2010. Tmihalop (talk) 01:41, 4 October 2012 (UTC)

Doing copy editing for my CSC class here. made some changes on march 3rd https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Carmyd/sandbox2  Open to suggestion on specifics anyone wants me to fix. So far, I've picked up on some punctuation issues  Carmyd (talk) 18:10, 5 March 2014 (UTC)

I am doing copy editing for my CSC104 class on this article. To improve this article i will be focusing most of my time on spelling, grammar, punctuation and capitalization issues. So far, i have found several issues in the area i am looking under. Here is a link to my sandbox: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Lolasoji/sandbox I am open to any suggestions on how to improve this article even more. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Lolasoji (talk • contribs) 03:54, 8 March 2014 (UTC)

removal of content
almost everything within the sections "Types of American cliques" and "Within clique structure" seems to be essentially unfounded (and crucially, uncited) assertions based on flawed and ridiculous tropes. i seriously think it's worth considering removing those sections altogether. Farleigheditor (talk) 21:22, 15 December 2020 (UTC)

 * This entire article reads like a piece of fiction. Should be scrapped and entirely rewritten with evidence. donnellan Donnellan0007 (talk) 09:10, 11 January 2022 (UTC)
 * I agree. The tone and content of these sections suggest that they were written by young adolescents themselves. Bernsteinnn (talk) 22:04, 9 March 2024 (UTC)

Page deletion
I have nominated this page for deletion. Many issues have been raised with this article for the better part of 20 years. It's time that it either was deleted, or a serious and in-depth re-write took place recentlyryan RecentlyRyan 11:21, 18 May 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Adolescent clique


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Philip Emeagwali on the Future of the Internet

Philip_Emeagwali_on_the_Future_of_the_Internet

 * DELETE ... Fan adulation entry, totally not encyclopedic.rturus 00:51, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
Oriental Adventures

Oriental Adventures (abbreviated OA ) is the title shared by two hardback rulebooks published for different versions of the Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) fantasy roleplaying game. Each version of Oriental Adventures provides rules for adapting its respective version of D&D for use in campaign settings based on the Far East, rather than the medieval European setting assumed by most D&D books. Both versions of Oriental Adventures include example campaign settings.

Advanced Dungeons & Dragons
The original Oriental Adventures (ISBN 0-88038-099-3) was written by Gary Gygax, David "Zeb" Cook, and François Marcela-Froideval, and published in 1985 by TSR, Inc. as a 144-page hardcover for use with the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (AD&D) 1st edition rules. The book was edited by Steve Winter, Mike Breault, Anne Gray, and Thad Russell. The book's cover art was by Jeff Easley, with interior illustrations by Roger Raupp, James Holloway, Easley, and Dave Sutherland.

In 1999, a paperback reprint of the first edition was released.

Campaign features
Oriental Adventures contains rules for ten character classes and three races to be used in place of standard AD&D classes and races. The book presents new versions of the barbarian (here a warrior of the steppes, or a dweller of the forest or jungle) and monk, as well as new classes such as the ninja, kensai, wu-jen, and shukenja.

Kensai are weapons masters who "seek to perfect their weapons technique to the exclusion of all else. They are deadly in combat, but cannot use magical weaponry because it detracts from the appreciation of their skill". Wu-jen are spellcasters who must strictly follow their personal taboos to avoid losing all of their spell powers. Shukenja are clerics who become punished if they kill enemies too often. A ninja character must take one of the other classes as well as the ninja class. In keeping with their secret nature, ninja use their normal class as a cover identity; a ninja must be careful to keep his identity secret, as loss of honor (and sudden death) may occur if the PC is unmasked. The other classes introduced in the book are the sohei, the bushi (peasant warriors), the samurai, and the yakuza. The three new character races are the korobokuru (roughly equivalent to dwarves, without their tempers and greediness), the hengeyokai (intelligent animal beings that are able to shape-change into human form), and the spirit folk (humanoids whose life force is linked to the well-being of a specific location). The book draws on the history of China, Korea, and Japan, and includes information on families, clans, caste, and honor.

The original Oriental Adventures introduced two major innovations to the AD&D system. Although previous TSR publications, such as Deities & Demigods, had touched on using non-European settings for the game, Oriental Adventures was the first official supplement devoted entirely to roleplaying in a non-Western setting. Oriental Adventures also introduced a new game mechanic to Dungeons & Dragons; it was the first official supplement to include rules for non-weapon proficiencies. Every character is expected to possess proficiencies in the noncombat arts with skills such as calligraphy, etiquette, animal handling, iaijutsu (fast draw), and bowyer. Both non-weapon proficiencies and non-European settings were explored in more detail in the 2nd edition AD&D rules.

The book includes an honor system, in which honor points are lost when a character behaves poorly or damages the family name; the player must eventually stop playing that character, if such behavior continues. The personal honor of a character affects the honor of the character's family. The character's family background is also determined by a system which generates a character's immediate family and ancestors, determines family honor and status, and also provides characters with their birthrights.

Also included are detailed rules for karate and other martial arts styles, which enable a Dungeon Master to create new styles of martial arts and techniques using a range of available options. All characters may study martial arts, provided they can find masters to teach them; monks and shukenja start their adventuring lives with some martial arts training. Each character class also has its own unique ki powers, which become more effective as characters advance through each level.

The original Oriental Adventures includes a lengthy section of background information for the fantasy setting known as Kara-Tur. Kara-Tur was later made a continent of Abeir-Toril. TSR went on to produce eight adventure modules using the Oriental Adventures rules and the Kara-Tur setting.

Gary Gygax intended to incorporate the material from Oriental Adventures into revised versions of the Players Handbook and Dungeon Masters Guide, but left TSR shortly after announcing the project. Oriental Adventures was TSR's biggest seller in 1985. Little, if any, material from Oriental Adventures was incorporated into the AD&D 2nd Edition core books, and Oriental Adventures itself was never revised for a 2nd Edition.

Reception
In Issue 74 of White Dwarf, Ashley Shepherd felt that this game was "a completely new version of AD&D", adding "The old stand-bys of the AD&D system are still in the rules, but the elements have been intelligently modified to produce something that is far greater than the sum of its parts." Shepherd liked the new character classes, noting that the monk was in its proper Eastern context, and that the ninja was the best version Shepherd had seen. Shepherd also liked the new skill system of proficiency slots, and felt these should be extended to all of AD&D, not just this setting. Shepherd felt that the honor system was a good touch, and that the real strength of the new martial arts system was that the gamemaster was now able to construct any number of new styles of combat. Shepherd compared Oriental Adventures to rival role-playing game Bushido, and felt that Oriental Adventures was a better choice as a game system. Shepherd concluded by giving the game an excellent rating of 9 out of 10, saying, "By remaining compatible with the rest of AD&D, [designer] Dave Cook has written an excellent set of rules which should be very popular. Oriental Adventures has even persuaded me to start playing AD&D again."

In the November 1986 edition of Asimov's Science Fiction, Matthew J. Costello noted that although based on AD&D, this product "aspires to more than supplemental status. It contains a tremendous amount of information about bushi, samurai and ninja, not to mention the cultural and social background of the Orient." Costello concluded "Oriental Adventures can really stand on its own, with specialized game rules." In Issue 30 of the French games magazine  Casus Belli , André Foussat warned "Playing AD&D in this new environment will require a major effort from the JDM (Japanese Dungeon Master) to integrate the entire rulebook (140 rather dense pages). There are a significant number of references from one section of the book to another and everything is very linked." However, Foussat admitted that the book excited him and he had his Japanese weapons ready for play.

In his 1990 book The Complete Guide to Role-Playing Games, game critic Rick Swan admitted that the game was heavily derivative of AD&D but noted that this publication has "a unique design approach that skillfully integrates game mechanics with background material. It's a vivid setting and a fascinating set of rules." Swan enjoyed the character generation process, commenting, "The resulting characters are richly textured, clearly motivated, and a lot of fun to play." Hower, Swan warned that "Oriental Adventures is not for beginners ... a familiarity with AD&D is presumed, and a general understanding of Oriental culture and traditions is helpful." Swan also noted that this product, published in 1985, was based on the first edition of AD&D whereas TSR had published the second edition of AD&D in 1989, "so the referee will have to make a few adjustments when switching between systems." Swan concluded by giving the game an excellent rating of 3.5 out of 4, saying, "For experienced players, Oriental Adventures is a delight. A sophisticated, challenging game, it's the best Eastern-flavored RPG ever published."

Scott Taylor of Black Gate listed the Oriental Adventures as #6 on the list of "Top 10 'Orange Spine' AD&D Hardcovers By Jeff Easley, saying "I'm guessing that if there is one book on this list a lot of folks don't own, it is this one, but that doesn’t mean this kind of epic 'in the clouds' duel between a samurai and a ninja isn't worth every penny!"

Other releases
TSR released several products with the Oriental Adventures logo. This includes a series of modules numbered OA1 to OA7, the first five of which (Swords of the Daimyo, Night of the Seven Swords, Ochimo: The Spirit Warrior, Blood of the Yakuza, and Mad Monkey vs. the Dragon Claw) were released for first edition AD&D. The sixth module (Ronin Challenge) was released for the second edition, as was the seventh module (Test of the Samurai) which did not have the Oriental Adventures logo. The last three of these modules also had the Forgotten Realms logo. The Kara-Tur: The Eastern Realms boxed set, also for Forgotten Realms, was billed as an expansion for Oriental Adventures. Also released for second edition was a volume for the Monstrous Compendium series.

Dungeons & Dragons 3rd edition
In order to make Oriental Adventures compatible with the 3rd edition of D&D published in 2000, a second version of Oriental Adventures (ISBN 0-7869-2015-7) was written by James Wyatt and published by Wizards of the Coast in October 2001. The cover art is by Raven Mimura, with interior art by: Matt Cavotta, Larry Dixon, Cris Dornaus, David Martin, Raven Mimura, Wayne Reynolds, Darrell Riche, Richard Sardinha, Brian Snoddy, and Arnie Swekel.

When WotC published a revision of the 3rd edition D&D rules known as v3.5 in 2004, an official (but not 100% comprehensive) update of Oriental Adventures was published in Dragon #318 (April 2004), pp. 32–48.

Campaign features
The book includes: seven playable new races, including nezumi, vanara, and three different types of spirit folk; five new base classes, including the samurai, sohei, and shugenja; 17 new prestige classes; over one hundred new spells; and seventy-five new monsters, over a dozen of which (including five types of Naga) were given level adjustments for adapting them into playable races. The featured campaign setting of this edition is Rokugan, a campaign setting originally created for the game Legend of the Five Rings.

Reception
The reviewer from Pyramid noted that while the first edition book was a 144-page black and white text, the third edition book was 256 pages and full color.

Awards
The second version of Oriental Adventures won the 2002 Ennie Award for "Best Campaign Setting".

Dungeons & Dragons 4th edition
Wizards of the Coast did not release a new edition of Oriental Adventures for the 4th edition of D&D, but several Oriental Adventures items appeared in 4th edition rules:
 * A number of the monsters such as the oni, were included in the 4th edition Monster Manual.
 * The shaman was featured in the Player's Handbook 2 as a leader based on the primal power source.
 * The monk appeared in Player's Handbook 3.
 * Samurai and sohei were added as character themes in Dragon Issue 404 (October 2011).

title: Oriental Adventures


text:
Helmet camera

A helmet camera, otherwise known as a micro video camera, is an action camera, usually a closed circuit television camera, attached to a helmet allowing someone to make a visual record from their point of view (POV), while keeping their hands and vision free.

History
Archives containing photos of helmet cameras have surfaced over the last decade. One shows Denver Broncos backup quarterback Jacky Lee wearing a helmet camera at football practice in 1965. A mocked-up helmet camera appears in the opening scenes of The Private Afternoons of Pamela Mann, released in 1974, used by a character for voyeurism. Another early and more noble helmet video camera was a 1977 head-mounted camera designed to convert images into tactile sensations for the blind.

Almost a decade later, a Canon CI-10 camera was mounted to the side of Dick Garcia's helmet by Aerial Video Systems (AVS) of Burbank, CA at the Nissan USGP 500 World Championship at Carlsbad Raceway in Carlsbad, CA on June 28, 1986. At this time the helmet camera was used commercially. For the first time, images were transmitted live from this camera by AVS via portable microwave to the ABC broadcast truck, then integrated into their live broadcast. This innovative system showed viewers the rider's Point of View of the race as it unfolded.

Another early innovator of video helmet camera technology was Mark Schulze, who created a system for use while producing The Great Mountain Biking Video in 1987. "Schulze stripped-down a red motorcycle helmet and jury-rigged a mounting for the first consumer color video chip camera. A cable ran from the camera to a padded backpack that contained a Panasonic VHS portable video recorder and a DC-lead-acid battery for power, which made the rig heavy, unwieldy, and hot.

This pioneering technology brought an engaging perspective to live sports television and action sports videos and eventually gave way to button and lipstick cameras. The helmet cam then became a standard piece of equipment, worn by umpires, catchers, goalies and referees for live television as well as BMX riders, surfers, skiers, skydivers, hockey and soccer players and other sports aficionados, to record and share their experiences.

In 1991, the World League of American Football introduced the innovation of a miniature camera mounted on the right side of the VSR-3 Riddell helmet worn by quarterbacks. This rig was developed by USA Network and Aerial Video Systems (AVS). An antenna was placed in the crown of the helmet between an inflatable pad and the shell. Each of these Helmet-Cams cost $20,000 and transmitted live game action. These helmet cams were briefly used to provide live player's-eye-view footage in professional American football. However, their use was discontinued after players complained of the extra weight, and TV networks became concerned about the aggressive behavior the cameras captured.

In 2002, after graduating with a degree in Visual Arts from UCSD, Nick Woodman, a long-time surfer, created the GoPro camera. This was a small, wearable camera with a waterproof housing for people to share their personal experiences in sports and other endeavors with the world.

Today's generation of helmet cameras offer features like on-screen menus, high-definition format, wireless transmitting to an offsite recording device, waterproof enclosures, multiple mounts and 3D capabilities.

Camera types

Helmet cameras generally fall into two main categories; CMOS and CCD type. Although helmet cameras take on a variety of forms, the majority are small cylindrical cameras resembling a tube of lipstick or a bullet. Helmet cameras may be connected to a video recording device with video input capability, such as a handheld camcorder, or purpose built digital video recorder.

CCD helmet cameras are based upon the charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor. They typically operate on 12 VDC power and output an analog type signal. These cameras draw more power than CMOS cameras but offer superior picture quality and better color replication.

CMOS helmet cameras are based upon the complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor. They typically operate on 5 VDC and draw very little power. CMOS cameras are also generally smaller than the CCD type.

Applications

Many sports enthusiasts use helmet cameras to capture the essence of the sports they love. For example, many paraglider pilots carry a bullet camera to record their flights. This can be mounted on the helmet, foot or elsewhere to capture unique camera angles. There are many samples of helmet camera videos available on the net. Wearing helmet cameras is also proving popular with cyclists as a safety aid as it allows cyclists to record their journeys and to record any incidents from their point of view. This recording can be used in a court as evidence.

In 2006, a British cyclist was convicted of abusing traffic wardens, using evidence from a helmet camera. Also in 2006, in the documentary Race To Dakar, Charley Boorman, Matt Hall and Simon Pavey used helmet cams to document their participation the 2006 Dakar rally. Out of the trio, Pavey was the only member of the "Race To Dakar" team wearing the camera to make it to the Senegalese Capital and (the rally's finish).

In 2011, Ben Maher won the Martin Collins Eraser Stakes at London Olympia horse show while wearing a helmet camera. Firefighters have begun to utilize helmet cams as a tool to assess their responses to fires and allow non-firefighters to see the reality of what occurs inside a burning building. One technological improvement that fire departments would employ would be thermal imaging detection of differences in heat.

Helmet cameras are also being used in various militaries, where video footage can be streamed back to a command center or military outpost. A notable instance of this was the U.S. military's killing of Osama bin Laden, where live video footage of the raid is believed to have been streamed to the White House. In 2013, Royal Marine Alexander Blackman was convicted of murder for killing a captive Taliban insurgent; footage from incident, recorded on a helmet camera, was used in Blackman's court-martial. The conviction was overturned in 2017 and reduced to manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility with Blackman being released from jail. The helmet camera, has been the focus of the Discovery Channels latest war series Taking Fire about the 101st Airborne in the Korengal documenting their personal war footage.

In 2012, on the occasion of the 50th birthday of RP FLIP ("Floating Instrument Platform"), several GoPro action cameras were placed on various positions aboard the research vessel to capture it as it flipped and descended into the ocean. In 2016 "a camera recovered from the helmet of a dead fighter offers a contrasting picture of chaos and panic in a battle with Kurdish peshmerga."

title: Helmet camera


text: User talk:4.63.233.232

title: User talk:4.63.233.232


text:
Leucas

Leucas is a genus of plants in the family Lamiaceae, first described by Robert Brown in 1810. It contains over 200 species, widespread over much of Africa, and southern and eastern Asia (Iran, India, China, Japan, Indonesia, etc.) with a few species in Queensland and on various islands in the Indian Ocean.

Species
The Plant List recognises 133 accepted species (including infraspecific names):

A new species, Leucas sahyadriensis Sunojk., has recently been described and is endemic to the Western Ghats of southern India.
 * Leucas abyssinica
 * var. argyrophylla
 * var. brachycalyx
 * Leucas aequistylosa
 * Leucas aggerestris
 * Leucas alba
 * Leucas alluaudii
 * Leucas anandaraoana
 * Leucas angularis
 * Leucas angustissima
 * Leucas argentea
 * var. neumannii
 * Leucas aspera
 * Leucas bakeri
 * Leucas beddomei
 * Leucas biflora
 * Leucas bracteosa
 * Leucas calostachys
 * var. schweinfurthii
 * Leucas capensis
 * Leucas cephalantha
 * Leucas cephalotes
 * Leucas chinensis
 * f. riukiuensis
 * Leucas ciliata
 * Leucas clarkei
 * Leucas collettii
 * Leucas cuneifolia
 * Leucas decemdentata
 * var. angustifolia
 * var. sebastiana
 * Leucas deflexa
 * var. biglomerulata
 * var. deflexa
 * var. kondowensis
 * Leucas densiflora
 * Leucas deodikarii
 * Leucas dhofarensis
 * Leucas diffusa
 * Leucas discolor
 * Leucas ebracteata
 * Leucas ellipticifolia
 * Leucas eriostoma
 * var. lanata
 * Leucas flagellifera
 * Leucas fulvipila
 * Leucas glabrata
 * Leucas grandis
 * Leucas hagghierensis
 * Leucas helferi
 * Leucas helianthemifolia
 * Leucas helicterifolia
 * Leucas hephaestis
 * Leucas hirta
 * Leucas hirundinaris
 * Leucas hyssopifolia
 * Leucas inflata
 * Leucas jamesii
 * Leucas kishenensis
 * Leucas lamiifolia
 * Leucas lanata
 * Leucas lanceifolia
 * Leucas lavandulifolia
 * Leucas longifolia
 * Leucas macrantha
 * Leucas manipurensis
 * Leucas marrubioides
 * Leucas martinicensis
 * Leucas masaiensis
 * var. tricrenata
 * var. venulosa
 * Leucas mathewiana
 * Leucas menthifolia
 * var. fulva
 * var. menthifolia
 * Leucas milanjiana
 * Leucas minimifolia
 * Leucas minutiflora
 * Leucas montana
 * Leucas mukerjiana
 * Leucas mwingensis
 * Leucas nepetifolia
 * Leucas neufliseana
 * Leucas neuflizeana
 * Leucas nubica
 * Leucas nutans
 * Leucas nyassae
 * var. velutina
 * Leucas oligocephala
 * var. bowalensis
 * var. oligocephala
 * Leucas ovata
 * Leucas pearsonii
 * Leucas pechuelii
 * Leucas penduliflora
 * Leucas pilosa
 * Leucas prostrata
 * Leucas pseudoglabrata
 * Leucas pubescens
 * Leucas rosmarinifolia
 * Leucas royleoides
 * Leucas ruspoliana
 * Leucas samhaensis
 * Leucas sebaldiana
 * Leucas sexdentata
 * Leucas sivadasaniana
 * Leucas somalensis
 * Leucas songeana
 * Leucas spiculifera
 * Leucas spiculifolia
 * Leucas stachydiformis
 * Leucas stelligera
 * Leucas stormsii
 * Leucas stricta
 * Leucas subarcuata
 * Leucas suffruticosa
 * Leucas teres
 * Leucas tettensis
 * Leucas tomentosa
 * Leucas tsavoensis
 * Leucas urticifolia
 * Leucas urundensis
 * Leucas usagarensis
 * Leucas vestita
 * var. angustifolia
 * var. oblongifolia
 * var. sericostoma
 * Leucas virgata
 * Leucas volkensii
 * Leucas welwitschii
 * Leucas wightiana
 * Leucas wilsonii
 * Leucas zeylanica
 * var. walkeri

title: Leucas


text:
Night sweats

Night sweats or nocturnal hyperhidrosis is the repeated occurrence of excessive sweating during sleep. The person may or may not also perspire excessively while awake.

One of the most common causes of night sweats in women over 40 is the hormonal changes related to menopause and perimenopause. This is a very common occurrence during the menopausal transition years. Over 80% of women experience hot flashes, which may include excessive sweating, during menopause.

Night sweats range from being relatively harmless to a sign of underlying disease. Night sweats may happen because the sleep environment is too warm, either because the bedroom is unusually hot or because there are too many covers on the bed. Night sweats have been associated with a long list of clinical conditions. However, there is very little evidence that supports clinical recommendations for this condition.

Associated conditions
The condition may be a sign of various disease states, including but not exclusive to the following:

 * Cancers
 * Lymphoma
 * Leukemia
 * Renal cell carcinoma
 * Infections
 * HIV/AIDS
 * Tuberculosis
 * Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection
 * Infectious mononucleosis
 * Fungal infections (histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis)
 * Lung abscess
 * Infective endocarditis
 * Brucellosis
 * Pneumocystis pneumonia (most often – in immunocompromised individuals)
 * Omicron variant of COVID-19
 * Endocrine disorders
 * Premature ovarian failure
 * Hyperthyroidism
 * Diabetes mellitus (nocturnal hypoglycemia)
 * Endocrine tumors (pheochromocytoma, carcinoid)
 * Orchiectomy
 * Rheumatic disorders
 * Takayasu's arteritis
 * Temporal arteritis
 * Other
 * Obstructive sleep apnea
 * Gastroesophageal reflux disease
 * Chronic fatigue syndrome
 * Fibromyalgia
 * Granulomatous disease
 * Chronic eosinophilic pneumonia
 * Lymphoid hyperplasia
 * Diabetes insipidus
 * Prinzmetal's angina
 * Anxiety
 * Pregnancy
 * Menopause
 * Drugs
 * Antipyretics (salicylates, acetaminophen)
 * Antihypertensives
 * Anabolic–androgenic steroids, in particular trenbolone, and the nandrolones
 * Dinitrophenol – a common side effect
 * Phenothiazines
 * Drug withdrawal: ethanol, benzodiazepines, cannabis, heroin (and other opioids),
 * Over-bundling
 * Autonomic over-activity
 * Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) – Crohn's disease/ulcerative colitis

title: Night sweats


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Hollywood poker

Hollywood poker
Advertising. Recent edits by folks other than the originator made it less like spam, but it's still an ad for an online gambling site. Cdc 00:55, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Comment. Both James Woods and Vince Van Patten have had direct links to this site added to them by the same contributor. JRM 01:06, 2004 Dec 12 (UTC)
 * Yeah, the two of them are actively promoting (and being promoted by) the gambling site. Woods sure has an effective PR agent. --jpgordon∇∆∇∆ 02:39, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Mikkalai 02:46, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Is it a real website? If so, then cleanup; if it's a hoax, then delete.
 * Delete. Advertising, and I don't find it a particularly notable site, without further information to convince me otherwise. Katefan0 06:33, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Advertising, and this is an industry that really doesn't need or deserve page rank boosting. (Note: when you VfD one of these website pumps, be sure to nowiki it.)  It's not the industry leader, and Wikipedia is not a web guide. Geogre 14:25, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Speedy delete. Spam. How on earth did it manage to survive this long? [[User:David_Johnson|David Johnson [ T|C ] ]] 23:00, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment. Why would we delete this site? It simply states what it is, but that is just my opinion I guess. 01:06, 2004 Dec 12 (UTC)
 * The above comment is by 199.246.2.159, who then proceeded to change Mikkalai's vote from "delete" to this comment. --jpgordon∇∆∇∆ 15:21, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete, advert, and shenanigans. Tempshill 22:39, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)