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Quartz crystal microbalance

A quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) (also known as quartz microbalance (QMB), sometimes also as quartz crystal nanobalance (QCN)) measures a mass variation per unit area by measuring the change in frequency of a quartz crystal resonator. The resonance is disturbed by the addition or removal of a small mass due to oxide growth/decay or film deposition at the surface of the acoustic resonator. The QCM can be used under vacuum, in gas phase ("gas sensor", first use described by King ) and more recently in liquid environments. It is useful for monitoring the rate of deposition in thin-film deposition systems under vacuum. In liquid, it is highly effective at determining the affinity of molecules (proteins, in particular) to surfaces functionalized with recognition sites. Larger entities such as viruses or polymers are investigated as well. QCM has also been used to investigate interactions between biomolecules. Frequency measurements are easily made to high precision (discussed below); hence, it is easy to measure mass densities down to a level of below 1 μg/cm2. In addition to measuring the frequency, the dissipation factor (equivalent to the resonance bandwidth) is often measured to help analysis. The dissipation factor is the inverse quality factor of the resonance, Q−1 = w/fr (see below); it quantifies the damping in the system and is related to the sample's viscoelastic properties.

General
Quartz is one member of a family of crystals that experience the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric effect has found applications in high power sources, sensors, actuators, frequency standards, motors, etc., and the relationship between applied voltage and mechanical deformation is well known; this allows probing an acoustic resonance by electrical means. Applying alternating current to the quartz crystal will induce oscillations. With an alternating current between the electrodes of a properly cut crystal, a standing shear wave is generated. The Q factor, which is the ratio of frequency and bandwidth, can be as high as 106. Such a narrow resonance leads to highly stable oscillators and a high accuracy in the determination of the resonance frequency. The QCM exploits this ease and precision for sensing. Common equipment allows resolution down to 1 Hz on crystals with a fundamental resonant frequency in the 4 – 6 MHz range. A typical setup for the QCM contains water cooling tubes, the retaining unit, frequency sensing equipment through a microdot feed-through, an oscillation source, and a measurement and recording device.

The frequency of oscillation of the quartz crystal is partially dependent on the thickness of the crystal. During normal operation, all the other influencing variables remain constant; thus a change in thickness correlates directly to a change in frequency. As mass is deposited on the surface of the crystal, the thickness increases; consequently the frequency of oscillation decreases from the initial value. With some simplifying assumptions, this frequency change can be quantified and correlated precisely to the mass change using the Sauerbrey equation. Other techniques for measuring the properties of thin films include ellipsometry, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy, Multi-Parametric Surface Plasmon Resonance and dual polarisation interferometry.

Gravimetric and non-gravimetric QCM
The classical sensing application of quartz crystal resonators is microgravimetry. Many commercial instruments, some of which are called thickness monitors, are available. These devices exploit the Sauerbrey relation. For thin films, the resonance frequency is usually inversely proportional to the total thickness of the plate. The latter increases when a film is deposited onto the crystal surface. Monolayer sensitivity is easily reached. However, when the film thickness increases, viscoelastic effects come into play. In the late 1980s, it was recognized that the QCM can also be operated in liquids, if proper measures are taken to overcome the consequences of the large damping. Again, viscoelastic effects contribute strongly to the resonance properties.

Today, microweighing is one of several uses of the QCM. Measurements of viscosity and more general, viscoelastic properties, are of much importance as well. The "non-gravimetric" QCM is by no means an alternative to the conventional QCM. Many researchers, who use quartz resonators for purposes other than gravimetry, have continued to call the quartz crystal resonator "QCM". Actually, the term "balance" makes sense even for non-gravimetric applications if it is understood in the sense of a force balance. At resonance, the force exerted upon the crystal by the sample is balanced by a force originating from the shear gradient inside the crystal. This is the essence of the small-load approximation.

The QCM measures inertial mass, and therefore by operating at a high resonant frequency it can be made very sensitive to small changes in that inertia as material is added to (or removed from) its surface. The sensitivity of gravitational mass measurements is, by comparison, limited by the Earth's gravitational field strength. We normally think of a balance as a way of measuring (or comparing) gravitational mass, as measured by the force that the earth exerts on the body being weighed. A few experiments have demonstrated a direct link between QCM and the SI system by comparing traceable (gravitational mass) weighings with QCM measurements. Crystalline α–quartz is by far the most important material for thickness-shear resonators. Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14, "LGS") and gallium-orthophosphate (GaPO4) are investigated as alternatives to quartz, mainly (but not only) for use at high temperatures. Such devices are also called "QCM", even though they are not made out of quartz (and may or may not be used for gravimetry).

Surface acoustic wave-based sensors
The QCM is a member of a wider class of sensing instruments based on acoustic waves at surfaces. Instruments sharing similar principles of operation are shear horizontal surface acoustic wave (SH-SAW) devices, Love-wave devices and torsional resonators. Surface acoustic wave-based devices make use of the fact that the reflectivity of an acoustic wave at the crystal surface depends on the impedance (the stress-to-speed ratio) of the adjacent medium. (Some acoustic sensors for temperature or pressure make use of the fact that the speed of sound inside the crystal depends on temperature, pressure, or bending. These sensors do not exploit surface effects.) In the context of surface-acoustic wave based sensing, the QCM is also termed "bulk acoustic wave resonator (BAW-resonator)" or "thickness-shear resonator". The displacement pattern of an unloaded BAW resonator is a standing shear wave with anti-nodes at the crystal surface. This makes the analysis particularly easy and transparent.

Resonator crystals
When the QCM was first developed, natural quartz was harvested, selected for its quality and then cut in the lab. However, most of today's crystals are grown using seed crystals. A seed crystal serves as an anchoring point and template for crystal growth. Grown crystals are subsequently cut and polished into hair-thin discs which support thickness shear resonance in the 1-30 MHz range. The "AT" or "SC" oriented cuts (discussed below) are widely used in applications.

Electromechanical coupling
The QCM consists of a thin piezoelectric plate with electrodes evaporated onto both sides. Due to the piezo-effect, an AC voltage across the electrodes induces a shear deformation and vice versa. The electromechanical coupling provides a simple way to detect an acoustic resonance by electrical means. Otherwise, it is of minor importance. However, electromechanical coupling can have a slight influence on the resonance frequency via piezoelectric stiffening. This effect can be used for sensing, but is usually avoided. It is essential to have the electric and dielectric boundary conditions well under control. Grounding the front electrode (the electrode in contact with the sample) is one option. A π-network sometimes is employed for the same reason. A π-network is an arrangement of resistors, which almost short-circuit the two electrodes. This makes the device less susceptible to electrical perturbations.

Shear waves decay in liquids and gases
Most acoustic-wave-based sensors employ shear (transverse) waves. Shear waves decay rapidly in liquid and gaseous environments. Compressional (longitudinal) waves would be radiated into the bulk and potentially be reflected back to the crystal from the opposing cell wall. Such reflections are avoided with transverse waves. The range of penetration of a 5 MHz-shear wave in water is 250 nm. This finite penetration depth renders the QCM surface-specific. Also, liquids and gases have a rather small shear-acoustic impedance and therefore only weakly damp the oscillation. The exceptionally high Q-factors of acoustic resonators are linked to their weak coupling to the environment.

Modes of operation
Economic ways of driving a QCM make use of oscillator circuits. Oscillator circuits are also widely employed in time and frequency control applications, where the oscillator serves as a clock. Other modes of operation are impedance analysis, QCM-I, and ring-down, QCM-D. In impedance analysis, the electric conductance as a function of driving frequency is determined by means of a network analyzer. By fitting a resonance curve to the conductance curve, one obtains the frequency and bandwidth of the resonance as fit parameters. In ring-down, one measures the voltage between the electrodes after the exciting voltage has suddenly been turned off. The resonator emits a decaying sine wave, where the resonance parameters are extracted from the period of oscillation and the decay rate.

Energy trapping
To avoid dissipation of vibration energy (damping the oscillation) by the crystal holder, which touches the crystal at the rim, the vibration should be confined to the center of the crystal platelet. This is known as energy trapping.

For crystals with high frequencies (10 MHz and higher), the electrodes at the front and the back of the crystal usually are key-hole shaped, thereby making the resonator thicker in the center than at the rim. The mass of the electrodes confines the displacement field to the center of the crystal disk. QCM crystals with vibration frequencies around 5 or 6 MHz usually have a planoconvex shape; at the rim the crystal is too thin for a standing wave with the resonance frequency. Thus, in both cases the thickness-shear vibration amplitude is greatest at the center of the disk. This means that the mass-sensitivity is peaked at the center also, with this sensitivity declining smoothly to zero towards the rim (For high-frequency crystals, the amplitude vanishes already somewhat outside the perimeter of the smallest electrode. ) The mass-sensitivity is therefore very non-uniform across the crystal surface, and this non-uniformity is a function of the mass-distribution of the metal electrodes (or in the case of non-planar resonators, the quartz crystal thickness itself).

Energy trapping slightly distorts the otherwise planar wave fronts. The deviation from the plane thickness-shear mode entails flexural contribution to the displacement pattern. If the crystal is not operated in vacuum, flexural waves emit compressional waves into the adjacent medium, which is a problem when operating the crystal in a liquid environment. Standing compressional waves form in the liquid between the crystals and the container walls (or the liquid surface); these waves modify both the frequency and the damping of the crystal resonator.

Overtones
Planar resonators can be operated at a number of overtones, typically indexed by the number of nodal planes parallel to the crystal surfaces. Only odd harmonics can be excited electrically because only these induce charges of opposite sign at the two crystal surfaces. Overtones are to be distinguished from anharmonic side bands (spurious modes), which have nodal planes perpendicular to the plane of the resonator. The best agreement between theory and experiment is reached with planar, optically polished crystals for overtone orders between n = 5 and n = 13. On low harmonics, energy trapping is insufficient, while on high harmonics, anharmonic side bands interfere with the main resonance.

Amplitude of motion
The amplitude of lateral displacement rarely exceeds a nanometer. More specifically one has

$$u_0=\frac 4{\left( n\pi \right) ^2}dQU_{\mathrm{el}} $$

with u0 the amplitude of lateral displacement, n the overtone order, d the piezoelectric strain coefficient, Q the quality factor, and Uel the amplitude of electrical driving. The piezoelectric strain coefficient is given as d = 3.1·10‑12 m/V for AT-cut quartz crystals. Due to the small amplitude, stress and strain usually are proportional to each other. The QCM operates in the range of linear acoustics.

Effects of temperature and stress
The resonance frequency of acoustic resonators depends on temperature, pressure, and bending stress. Temperature-frequency coupling is minimized by employing special crystal cuts. A widely used temperature-compensated cut of quartz is the AT-cut. Careful control of temperature and stress is essential in the operation of the QCM.

AT-cut crystals are singularly rotated Y-axis cuts in which the top and bottom half of the crystal move in opposite directions (thickness shear vibration) during oscillation. The AT-cut crystal is easily manufactured. However, it has limitations at high and low temperature, as it is easily disrupted by internal stresses caused by temperature gradients in these temperature extremes (relative to room temperature, ~25 °C). These internal stress points produce undesirable frequency shifts in the crystal, decreasing its accuracy. The relationship between temperature and frequency is cubic. The cubic relationship has an inflection point near room temperature. As a consequence the AT-cut quartz crystal is most effective when operating at or near room temperature. For applications which are above room temperature, water cooling is often helpful.

Stress-compensated (SC) crystals are available with a doubly rotated cut that minimizes the frequency changes due to temperature gradients when the system is operating at high temperatures, and reduces the reliance on water cooling. SC-cut crystals have an inflection point of ~92 °C. In addition to their high temperature inflection point, they also have a smoother cubic relationship and are less affected by temperature deviations from the inflection point. However, due to the more difficult manufacturing process, they are more expensive and are not widely commercially available.

Electrochemical QCM
The QCM can be combined with other surface-analytical instruments. The electrochemical QCM (EQCM) is particularly advanced. Using the EQCM, one determines the ratio of mass deposited at the electrode surface during an electrochemical reaction to the total charge passed through the electrode. This ratio is called the current efficiency.

Quantification of dissipative processes
For advanced QCMs, such as QCM-I and QCM-D, both the resonance frequency, fr, and the bandwidth, w, are available for analysis. The latter quantifies processes which withdraw energy from the oscillation. These may include damping by the holder and ohmic losses inside the electrode or the crystal. In the literature some parameters other than w itself are used to quantify bandwidth. The Q-factor (quality factor) is given by Q = fr/w. The “dissipation factor”, D, is the inverse of the Q-factor: D = Q−1 = w/fr. The half-band-half-width, Γ, is Γ = w/2. The use of Γ is motivated by a complex formulation of the equations governing the motion of the crystal. A complex resonance frequency is defined as fr* = fr + iΓ, where the imaginary part, Γ, is half the bandwidth at half maximum. Using a complex notation, one can treat shifts of frequency, Δf, and bandwidth, ΔΓ, within the same set of (complex) equations.

The motional resistance of the resonator, R1, is also used as a measure of dissipation. R1 is an output parameter of some instruments based on advanced oscillator circuits. R1 usually is not strictly proportional to the bandwidth (although it should be according to the BvD circuit; see below). Also, in absolute terms, R1 – being an electrical quantity and not a frequency – is more severely affected by calibration problems than the bandwidth.

Equivalent circuits
Modeling of acoustic resonators often occurs with equivalent electrical circuits. Equivalent circuits are algebraically equivalent to the continuum mechanics description and to a description in terms of acoustic reflectivities. They provide for a graphical representation of the resonator's properties and their shifts upon loading. These representations are not just cartoons. They are tools to predict the shift of the resonance parameters in response to the addition of the load.

Equivalent circuits build on the electromechanical analogy. In the same way as the current through a network of resistors can be predicted from their arrangement and the applied voltage, the displacement of a network of mechanical elements can be predicted from the topology of the network and the applied force. The electro-mechanical analogy maps forces onto voltages and speeds onto currents. The ratio of force and speed is termed "mechanical impedance". Note: Here, speed means the time derivative of a displacement, not the speed of sound. There also is an electro-acoustic analogy, within which stresses (rather than forces) are mapped onto voltages. In acoustics, forces are normalized to area. The ratio of stress and speed should not be called "acoustic impedance" (in analogy to the mechanical impedance) because this term is already in use for the material property Zac = ρc with ρ the density and c the speed of sound). The ratio of stress and speed at the crystal surface is called load impedance, ZL. Synonymous terms are "surface impedance" and "acoustic load." The load impedance is in general not equal to the material constant Zac = ρc = (Gρ)1/2. Only for propagating plane waves are the values of ZL and Zac the same.

The electro-mechanical analogy provides for mechanical equivalents of a resistor, an inductance, and a capacitance, which are the dashpot (quantified by the drag coefficient, ξp), the point mass (quantified by the mass, mp), and the spring (quantified by the spring constant, κp). For a dashpot, the impedance by definition is Zm=F / (du/dt)=ξm with F the force and (du/dt) the speed). For a point mass undergoing oscillatory motion u(t) = u0 exp(iωt) we have Zm = iωmp. The spring obeys Zm =κp/(iω).  Piezoelectric coupling is depicted as a transformer. It is characterized by a parameter φ. While φ is dimensionless for usual transformers (the turns ratio), it has the dimension charge/length in the case of electromechanical coupling. The transformer acts as an impedance converter in the sense that a mechanical impedance, Zm, appears as an electrical impedance, Zel, across the electrical ports.  Zel is given by Zel = φ2 Zm. For planar piezoelectric crystals, φ takes the value φ = Ae/dq, where A is the effective area, e is the piezoelectric stress coefficient (e = 9.65·10−2 C/m2 for AT-cut quartz) and dq is the thickness of the plate. The transformer often is not explicitly depicted. Rather, the mechanical elements are directly depicted as electrical elements (capacitor replaces a spring, etc.).

There is a pitfall with the application of the electro-mechanical analogy, which has to do with how networks are drawn. When a spring pulls onto a dashpot, one would usually draw the two elements in series. However, when applying the electro-mechanical analogy, the two elements have to be placed in parallel. For two parallel electrical elements the currents are additive. Since the speeds (= currents) add when placing a spring behind a dashpot, this assembly has to be represented by a parallel network.

The figure on the right shows the Butterworth-van Dyke (BvD) equivalent circuit. The acoustic properties of the crystal are represented by the motional inductance, L1, the motional capacitance, C1, and the motional resistance R1. ZL is the load impedance. Note that the load, ZL, cannot be determined from a single measurement. It is inferred from the comparison of the loaded and the unloaded state. Some authors use the BvD circuit without the load ZL. This circuit is also called “four element network”. The values of L1, C1, and R1 then change their value in the presence of the load (they do not if the element ZL is explicitly included).

Small-load approximation
The BvD circuit predicts the resonance parameters. One can show that the following simple relation holds as long as the frequency shift is much smaller than the frequency itself:

$$\frac{\Delta f^{*}}{f_f}=\frac i{\pi Z_q}Z_L$$

ff is the frequency of the fundamental. Zq is the acoustic impedance of material. For AT-cut quartz, its value is Zq = 8.8·106 kg m−2 s−1.

The small-load approximation is central to the interpretation of QCM-data. It holds for arbitrary samples and can be applied in an average sense. Assume that the sample is a complex material, such as a cell culture, a sand pile, a froth, an assembly of spheres or vesicles, or a droplet. If the average stress-to-speed ratio of the sample at the crystal surface (the load impedance, ZL) can be calculated in one way or another, a quantitative analysis of the QCM experiment is in reach. Otherwise, the interpretation will have to remain qualitative.

The limits of the small-load approximation are noticed either when the frequency shift is large or when the overtone-dependence of Δf and Δ(w/2) is analyzed in detail in order to derive the viscoelastic properties of the sample. A more general relation is

$$Z_L=-iZ_q\tan \left( \pi \frac{\Delta f}{f_f}\right)$$

This equation is implicit in Δf*, and must be solved numerically. Approximate solutions also exist, which go beyond the small-load approximation. The small-load approximation is the first order solution of a perturbation analysis.

The definition of the load impedance implicitly assumes that stress and speed are proportional and that the ratio therefore is independent of speed. This assumption is justified when the crystal is operated in liquids and in air. The laws of linear acoustics then hold. However, when the crystal is in contact with a rough surface, stress can easily become a nonlinear function of strain (and speed) because the stress is transmitted across a finite number of rather small load-bearing asperities. The stress at the points of contact is high, and phenomena like slip, partial slip, yield, etc. set in. These are part of non-linear acoustics. There is a generalization of the small-load equation dealing with this problem. If the stress, σ(t), is periodic in time and synchronous with the crystal oscillation one has

$$\frac{\Delta f}{f_f}=\frac 1{\pi Z_q}\,\frac 2{\omega u_0}\left\langle \sigma \left( t\right) \cos \left( \omega t\right) \right\rangle _t$$

$$\frac{\Delta (w/2) }{f_f}=\frac 1{\pi Z_q}\,\frac 2{\omega u_0}\left\langle \sigma \left( t\right) \sin \left( \omega t\right) \right\rangle _t$$

Angular brackets denote a time average and σ(t) is the (small) stress exerted by the external surface. The function σ(t) may or may not be harmonic. One can always test for nonlinear behavior by checking for a dependence of the resonance parameters on the driving voltage. If linear acoustics hold, there is no drive level-dependence. Note, however, that quartz crystals have an intrinsic drive level-dependence, which must not be confused with nonlinear interactions between the crystal and the sample.

Assumptions
For a number of experimental configurations, there are explicit expressions relating the shifts of frequency and bandwidth to the sample properties. The assumptions underlying the equations are the following:

 * The resonator and all cover layers are laterally homogeneous and infinite.
 * The distortion of the crystal is given by a transverse plane wave with the wave-vector perpendicular to the surface normal (thickness-shear mode). There are neither compressional waves nor flexural contributions to the displacement pattern. There are no nodal lines in the plane of the resonator.
 * All stresses are proportional to strain. Linear viscoelasticity holds.
 * Piezoelectric stiffening may be ignored.

Semi-infinite viscoelastic medium
For a semi-infinite medium, one has

$$\frac{\Delta f^{*}}{f_f}=\frac i{\pi Z_q}\,\frac \sigma {\dot{u}}=\frac i{\pi Z_q}Z_{\mathrm{ac}}=\frac i{\pi Z_q}\sqrt{\rho i\omega \eta }$$

$$=\frac 1{\pi Z_q}\,\frac{-1+i}{\sqrt{2}}\sqrt{\rho \omega \left( \eta ^{\prime }-i\eta ^{\prime \prime }\right) }=\frac i{\pi Z_q} \sqrt{\rho \left( G^{\prime }+iG^{\prime \prime }\right) }$$

η’ and η’’ are the real and the imaginary part of the viscosity, respectively. Zac = ρc =(G ρ)1/2 is the acoustic impedance of the medium. ρ is the density, c, the speed of sound, and G = i ωη is the shear modulus. For Newtonian liquids (η’ = const, η’’ = 0), Δf and Δ(w/2) are equal and opposite. They scale as the square root of the overtone order, n1/2. For viscoelastic liquids (η’ = η(ω), η’’≠ 0), the complex viscosity can be obtained as

$$\eta ^{\prime }=-\frac{\pi Z_q^2}{\rho _{\mathrm{Liq}}\,f}\,\frac{\Delta f\Delta \left( w/2\right) }{f_f^2}$$

$$\eta ^{\prime \prime }=\frac 12\frac{\pi Z_q^2}{\rho _{\mathrm{Liq}}\,f}\,\frac{\left( \left( \Delta \left( w/2\right) \right) ^2-\Delta f^2\right) }{f_f^2}$$

Importantly, the QCM only probes the region close to the crystal surface. The shear wave evanescently decays into the liquid. In water the penetration depth is about 250 nm at 5 MHz. Surface roughness, nano-bubbles at the surface, slip, and compressional waves can interfere with the measurement of viscosity. Also, the viscosity determined at MHz frequencies sometimes differs from the low-frequency viscosity. In this respect, torsional resonators (with a frequency around 100 kHz) are closer to application than thickness-shear resonators.

Inertial loading (Sauerbrey equation)
The frequency shift induced by a thin sample which is rigidly coupled to the crystal (such as a thin film), is described by the Sauerbrey equation. The stress is governed by inertia, which implies σ = -ω2u0mF, where u0 is the amplitude of oscillation and mF is the (average) mass per unit area. Inserting this result into the small-load-approximation one finds

$$\frac{\Delta f^{*}}{f_f}\approx \frac i{\pi Z_q}\frac{-\omega ^2u_0m_{\mathrm{F}}}{i\omega u_0}=-\frac{2\,f}{Z_q}m_{\mathrm{F}}$$

If the density of the film is known, one can convert from mass per unit area, mF, to thickness, dF. The thickness thus derived is also called the Sauerbrey thickness to show that it was derived by applying the Sauerbrey equation to the frequency shift. The shift in bandwidth is zero if the Sauerbrey equation holds. Checking for the bandwidth therefore amounts to checking the applicability of the Sauerbrey equation.

The Sauerbrey equation was first derived by Günter Sauerbrey in 1959 and correlates changes in the oscillation frequency of a piezoelectric crystal with mass deposited on it. He simultaneously developed a method for measuring the resonance frequency and its changes by using the crystal as the frequency-determining component of an oscillator circuit. His method continues to be used as the primary tool in quartz crystal microbalance experiments for conversion of frequency to mass.

Because the film is treated as an extension of thickness, Sauerbrey’s equation only applies to systems in which (a) the deposited mass has the same acoustic properties as the crystal and (b) the frequency change is small (Δf / f < 0.05).

If the change in frequency is greater than 5%, that is, Δf / f > 0.05, the Z-match method must be used to determine the change in mass. The formula for the Z-match method is:

$$\tan \left( \frac{\pi \Delta f}{f_f}\right) =\frac{-Z_{\mathrm{F}}}{Z_q}\tan \left( k_{\mathrm{F}}d_{\mathrm{F}}\right)$$

kF is the wave vector inside the film and dF its thickness. Inserting kF = 2·π·f /cF = 2·π·f·ρF / ZF as well as dF = mF / ρF yields

$$\Delta f=-\frac{f_f}\pi \left( \arctan \frac{Z_{\mathrm{F}}}{Z_q}\tan \left( \frac{2\pi f}{Z_{\mathrm{F}}}m_{\mathrm{F}}\right) \right)$$

Viscoelastic film
For a viscoelastic film, the frequency shift is

$$\frac{\Delta f^{*}}{f_f}=\frac{-1}{\pi Z_q}Z_{\mathrm{F}}\tan \left( k_{\mathrm{F}}d_{\mathrm{F}}\right)$$

Here ZF is the acoustic impedance of the film (ZF = ρFcF = (ρFGf)1/2)= (ρF/Jf)1/2), kF is the wave vector and dF is the film thickness. Jf is the film's viscoelastic compliance, ρF is the density.

The poles of the tangent (kF dF = π/2) define the film resonances. At the film resonance, one has dF = λ/4. The agreement between experiment and theory is often poor close to the film resonance. Typically, the QCM only works well for film thicknesses much less than a quarter of the wavelength of sound (corresponding to a few micrometres, depending on the softness of the film and the overtone order).

Note that the properties of a film as determined with the QCM are fully specified by two parameters, which are its acoustic impedance, ZF = ρFcF and its mass per unit area, mF = dF/ρF. The wave number kF = ω/cF is not algebraically independent from ZF and mF. Unless the density of the film is known independently, the QCM can only measure mass per unit area, never the geometric thickness itself.

Viscoelastic film in liquid
For a film immersed in a liquid environment, the frequency shift is

$$\frac{\Delta f^{*}}{f_f}=\frac{-Z_{\mathrm{F}}}{\pi Z_q}\frac{Z_{\mathrm{F}}\tan \left( k_{\mathrm{F}}d_{\mathrm{F}}\right) -iZ_{\mathrm{Liq}}}{Z_{\mathrm{F}}+iZ_{\mathrm{Liq}}\tan \left( k_{\mathrm{F}}d_{\mathrm{F}}\right) }$$

The indices F and Liq denote the film and the liquid. Here, the reference state is the crystal immersed in liquid (but not covered with a film). For thin films, one can Taylor-expand the above equation to first order in dF, yielding

$$\frac{\Delta f^{*}}{f_f}=\frac{-\omega m_{\mathrm{F}}}{\pi Z_q}\left( 1-\frac{Z_{ \mathrm{Liq}}^2}{Z_{\mathrm{F}}^2}\right)=\frac{-\omega m_{\mathrm{F}}}{\pi Z_q}\left( 1-J_{\mathrm{F}}\frac{Z_{\mathrm{Liq}}^2}{\rho_{\mathrm{F}}}\right)$$

Apart from the term in brackets, this equation is equivalent to the Sauerbrey equation. The term in brackets is a viscoelastic correction, dealing with the fact that in liquids, soft layers lead to a smaller Sauerbrey thickness than rigid layers.

Derivation of viscoelastic constants
The frequency shift depends on the acoustic impedance of the material; the latter in turn depends on the viscoelastic properties of the material. Therefore, in principle, one can derive the complex shear modulus (or equivalently, the complex viscosity). However, there are certain caveats to be kept in mind:

 * The viscoelastic parameters themselves usually depend on frequency (and therefore on the overtone order).
 * It is often difficult to disentangle effects of inertia and viscoelasticity. Unless the film thickness is known independently, it is difficult to obtain unique fitting results.
 * Electrode effects can be of importance.
 * For films in air, the small-load approximation must be replaced by the corresponding results from perturbation theory unless the films are very soft.

For thin films in liquids, there is an approximate analytical result, relating the elastic compliance of the film, JF’ to the ratio of Δ(w/2); and Δf. The shear compliance is the inverse of the shear modulus, G. In the thin-film limit, the ratio of Δ(w/2) and –Δf is independent of film thickness. It is an intrinsic property of the film. One has

$$\frac{\Delta \left( \omega /2\right) }{-\Delta f}\approx \eta \omega J_F^{\,\prime }$$

For thin films in air an analogous analytical result is

$$\Delta \left( \omega /2\right) =\frac 8{3\rho _{\mathrm{F}}Z_q}f_f^{\,4}m_{ \mathrm{F}}^3n^3\pi ^2J^{\prime \prime }$$

Here J’’ is the viscous shear compliance.

Interpretation of the Sauerbrey thickness
The correct interpretation of the frequency shift from QCM experiments in liquids is a challenge. Practitioners often just apply the Sauerbrey equation to their data and term the resulting areal mass (mass per unit area) the "Sauerbrey mass" and the corresponding thickness "Sauerbrey thickness". Even though the Sauerbrey thickness can certainly serve to compare different experiments, it must not be naively identified with the geometric thickness. Worthwhile considerations are the following:

a) The QCM always measures an areal mass density, never a geometric thickness. The conversion from areal mass density to thickness usually requires the physical density as an independent input. b) It is difficult to infer the viscoelastic correction factor from QCM data. However, if the correction factor differs significantly from unity, it may be expected that it affects the bandwidth Δ(w/2) and also that it depends on overtone order. If, conversely, such effects are absent (Δ(w/2) « Δf, Sauerbrey thickness same on all overtone orders) one may assume that (1-ZLiq2/ZF2)≈1.

c) Complex samples are often laterally heterogeneous.

d) Complex samples often have fuzzy interfaces. A "fluffy" interface will often lead to a viscoelastic correction and, as a consequence, to a non-zero Δ(w/2) as well as an overtone-dependent Sauerbrey mass. In the absence of such effects, one may conclude that the outer interface of film is sharp.

e) When the viscoelastic correction, as discussed in (b), is insignificant, this does by no means imply that the film is not swollen by the solvent. It only means that the (swollen) film is much more rigid than the ambient liquid. QCM data taken on the wet sample alone do not allow inference of the degree of swelling. The amount of swelling can be inferred from the comparison of the wet and the dry thickness. The degree of swelling is also accessible by comparing the acoustic thickness (in the Sauerbrey sense) to the optical thickness as determined by, for example, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectroscopy or ellipsometry. Solvent contained in the film usually does contribute to the acoustic thickness (because it takes part in the movement), whereas it does not contribute to the optic thickness (because the electronic polarizability of a solvent molecule does not change when it is located inside a film). The difference in dry and wet mass is shown with QCM-D and MP-SPR for instance in protein adsorption on nanocellulose and in other soft materials.

Point contacts
The equations concerning viscoelastic properties assume planar layer systems. A frequency shift is also induced when the crystal makes contact with discrete objects across small, load-bearing asperities. Such contacts are often encountered with rough surfaces. It is assumed that the stress–speed ratio may be replaced by an average stress–speed ratio, where the average stress just is the lateral force divided by the active area of the crystal.

Often, the external object is so heavy that it does not take part in the MHz oscillation of the crystal due to inertia. It then rests in place in the laboratory frame. When the crystal surface is laterally displaced, the contact exerts a restoring force upon the crystal surface. The stress is proportional to the number density of the contacts, NS, and their average spring constant, κS. The spring constant may be complex (κS* = κS’ + iκS’’), where the imaginary part quantifies a withdrawal of energy from the crystal oscillation (for instance due to viscoelastic effects). For such a situation, the small-load approximation predicts

$$\frac{\Delta f^{*}}{f_f}=\frac{N_S}{\pi Z_q}\frac{\kappa _S^{*}}\omega$$

The QCM allows for non-destructive testing of the shear stiffness of multi-asperity contacts.

title: Quartz crystal microbalance


text:
Sultanate of Golconda

The Sultanate of Golconda (Persian: Saltanat-e Golconde; Urdu: Saltanat-e Golcunḍa) was an early modern kingdom in southern India,  ruled by the Persianate Shia Islamic Qutb Shahi dynasty of Turkoman origin. After the collapse of the Bahmani Sultanate, the Qutb Shahi dynasty was established in 1512 by Quli Qutb Shah, as one of the five Deccan sultanates.

The kingdom extended from parts of the modern-day states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Telangana. The Golconda sultanate was constantly in conflict with the Adil Shahis and Nizam Shahis, which it shared borders with in the seventeenth century to the west and northwest. In 1636, Mughal emperor Shah Jahan forced the Qutb Shahis to recognize Mughal suzerainty and pay periodic tributes. The dynasty came to an end in 1687 during the reign of its seventh sultan Abul Hasan Qutb Shah, when the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb arrested and jailed Abul Hasan for the rest of his life in Daulatabad, incorporating Golconda into the Mughal empire.

The Qutb Shahis were patrons of Persianate Shia culture. The official and court language of the Golconda sultanate during the first 90 years of its existence (c. 1512 – 1600) was also Persian. In the early 17th century, however, the Telugu language was elevated to the status of the Persian language, while towards the end of the Qut Shahis' rule, it was the primary court language with Persian used occasionally in official documents. According to Indologist Richard Eaton, as Qutb Shahis adopted Telugu, they started seeing their polity as the Telugu-speaking state, with the elites of the sultanate viewing their rulers as "Telugu Sultans".

History
The dynasty's founder, Sultan Quli Khawas Khan Hamdani was born in Hamadan Province, Iran. He belonged to the Qara Qoyunlu, an Iranian Turkmen Muslim tribe and therefore a descendant of Qara Yusuf. In the 16th century, he migrated to Delhi with his uncle, Allah-Quli, some of his relatives and friends. Later he migrated south, to the Deccan and served the Bahmani sultan, Mahmood Shah Bahmani II, who was of Deccani Muslim ethnicity. He declared the independence of Golconda, after the disintegration of the Bahmani Kingdom into the five Deccan sultanates. Soon after, he declared independence from the Bahmani Sultanate, took the title Qutub Shah, and established the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda. He was later assassinated in 1543 by his son, Jamsheed, who assumed the sultanate. Jamsheed died in 1550 from cancer. Jamsheed's young son reigned for a year, at which time the nobility brought back and installed Ibrahim Quli as sultan.

The early Qutb Shahi sultans prohibited Hindus from observing their religious festivals, states Annemarie Schimmel – a scholar of Islamic studies. During the reign of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580–1611), who was a more tolerant ruler, the Hindus were allowed to observe their religious festivals like Diwali and Holi in the open. Later Sultans such as Tana Shah, appointed Brahmin Hindus such as Madanna and Akkanna as ministers in charge of tax collection and exchequer. However, this led to significant factionalism between the Muslim elites and the rising power of the Brahmin Hindus. The Muslim faction reached out to Aurangzeb, who sent a regiment led by his son to attack Golconda. They beheaded Madanna and Akkanna, along with plundering the property and killing many more Hindus in administrative positions of the Qutb Shahi dynasty. Shortly thereafter, the last Sultan of the dynasty was jailed in Daulatabad by Aurangzeb, and the Qutb Shahi dynasty came to an end.

Golconda, and with the construction of the Char Minar, later Hyderabad, served as capitals of the sultanate, and both cities were embellished by the Qutb Shahi sultans. The dynasty ruled Golconda for 171 years, until the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb conquered the Deccan in 1687. The territory of the Golconda Sultanate was made into a Mughal imperial province, Hyderabad Subah.

Economy
The Golconda Sultanate was notoriously wealthy. While its primary source of revenue was a land tax, the sultanate greatly profited from its monopoly on diamond production from mines in the southern districts of the kingdom. The sultanate also had control over the Krishna and Godavari deltas, giving it access to craft production in the villages of the area, where goods like textiles were produced. The town of Masulipatnam served as the Golconda Sultanate's primary seaport for the export of diamonds and textiles. The kingdom reached the peak of its financial prosperity in the 1620s and 1630s.

Diamonds
The Golconda Sultanate was known for its diamonds which were dubbed the Golconda diamonds. These diamonds were sought after diamonds long before the Qutb Shahi dynasty came to power, and they continued to supply this demand through European traders. Diamonds from mines (especially the Kollur Mine presently in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh) were transported to the city of Hyderabad to be cut, polished, evaluated and sold. Golconda established itself as a diamond trading centre and until the end of the 19th century, the Golconda market was the primary source of the finest and largest diamonds in the world.

Cotton-Weaving
During the early seventeenth century, a strong cotton-weaving industry existed in the Deccan region. Large quantities of cotton cloth were produced for domestic and export consumption. High-quality plain and patterned cloth made of muslin and calico was produced. Plain cloth was available in white or brown colour, in bleached or dyed variety. This cloth was exported to Persia and European countries. The patterned cloth was made of prints which were made indigenously with indigo for blue, chay-root for red coloured prints and vegetable yellow. Patterned cloth exports were mainly to Java, Sumatra and other eastern countries. Golconda had a strong trading relationship with Ayutthaya Siam.

Culture
The Qutb Shahis were patrons of Persianate Shia culture. Over the first 90 years of their rule (c. 1512 – 1600), they championed Persian culture. Their official edicts and court language were in Persian only. Quli Qutb Mulk's court became a haven for Persian culture and literature. In early 17th-century, with Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580–1612) a change began. He began to patronize the Telugu language and culture as well. Edicts began to be issued both in Persian and Telugu. Towards the end of the dynasty, these were primarily in Telugu with a summary in Persian. As they adopted Telugu, they saw their territory as the Telugu-speaking region, states Indologist Richard Eaton, with their elites considering the rulers as "Telugu Sultans".

Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580–1612) wrote poems in Dakhini Urdu, Persian and Telugu. Subsequent poets and writers, however, wrote in Urdu, while using vocabulary from Persian, Hindi and Telugu languages. During the reign of Abdullah Qutb Shah in 1634 AD, an ancient Sanskrit text on love and sex Ratirahasya by Kokkoka was translated into Persian and named Lazzat-un-Nisa (Flavors of the Woman).

Architecture
The Qutb Shahi architecture was Indo-Islamic, a culmination of Indian and Persian architectural styles. Their style was very similar to that of the other Deccan Sultanates. The Qutb Shahi rulers built the Char Minar.

Some examples of Qutb Shahi Indo-Islamic architecture are the Golconda Fort, tombs of the Qutb Shahis, Char Minar and the Char Kaman, Mecca Masjid, Khairtabad Mosque, Hayat Bakshi Mosque, Taramati Baradari and the Toli Mosque.

Tombs
The tombs of the Qutb Shahi sultans lie about one kilometre north of Golkonda's outer wall. These structures are made of beautifully carved stonework, and surrounded by landscaped gardens. They are open to the public and receive many visitors.

Administration
The Qutb Shahi Kingdom was a highly centralized state. The sultan enjoyed absolute executive judicial and military powers. When he was away, a regent carried to carry on the administration on behalf of the king. The Peshwa (Prime Minister) was the highest official of the sultanate. He was assisted by a number of ministers, including Mir Jumla (finance minister), Kotwal (police commissioner), and Khazanadar (treasurer).

For most of their reign, the Qutb Shahi sultanate had a system of jagirs, who would provide troops as well as collect taxes. They were allowed to keep a portion of the taxes and give the sultan the rest. Tax collection was through auction farms, and the highest bidder used to get the Governorship. While the Governors enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle, they had to bear the brunt of severe punishments for default, consequently, they were harsh on the people. Tana Shah – the last Sultan, with advice from his Brahmin ministers responsible for tax collection, introduced a reform whereby all taxes were collected by civil professionals for a region. The soldiers, government workers, court officials and all the Muslim elites were paid allowances from the Sultan's treasury. These reforms brought a large increase in revenues.

According to Moreland, in the earlier system, the Persian-origin Muslims were paid the highest, then the other Indian Muslims. In early 17th century, the Persian origin Muslims became rich by lending money on high interest (usury) of 4-5% per mensem much to the despair of Hindus.

The Sultanate had 66 forts, and each fort was administered by a Nayak. In the second half of the 17th century, the Qutb Shahi Sultan hired many Hindu Nayaks. According to Kruijtzer, these were mainly Brahmins. According to another account, these were mainly from the Kamma, Velama, Kapu, and Raju warrior castes. They served as civil revenue officers. After the Mughals dismissed the Qutb Shahi dynasty in 1687, these Hindu Nayaks were also dismissed and replaced with Muslim military commanders.

Administrative divisions
The sultanate in 1670 comprised 21 sarkars (provinces) which in turn were divided into 355 parganas (districts).

Religion
The Qutb Shahi dynasty, like many Deccan Islamic dynasties, was a Shia Muslim dynasty with roots in Persia (modern Iran). Initially, they were very strict and they persecuted the Hindus who constituted the vast majority of the population. Open practice of Hindu festivals was forbidden in the Golconda Sultanate. It was Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah who first reversed this policy, and allowed Hindus to practice their festivals and religion in the open.

In the final decades of their rule, the Qutb Shahi dynasty rulers patronized Shia, Sufi, and Sunni Islamic traditions, as well as Hindu traditions. Before their end, Tana Shah advised by Madanna and Akkanna –his Brahmin ministers, began the tradition of sending pearls to the Bhadrachalam Temple of Rama on Rama Navami.

List of rulers
The eight sultans in the dynasty were:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sultanate of Golconda


text:
Chondoist Chongu Party

The Chondoist Chongu Party is a popular front party in North Korea. The party was founded on 8 February 1946 by a group of followers of the Ch'ŏndogyo. The party increasingly came under the influence of the government over time and is now under the effective control of the ruling Workers' Party of Korea. The founding-leader of the party was Kim Tarhyon.

The party is headquartered in the capital Pyongyang.

History
The Ch'ŏndogyo religious ideology was founded in response to the Christian missionary activities in Korea in the end of the nineteenth century. The Ch'ŏndogyo became a hotbed of Korean nationalism. Ch'ŏndo farmers participated in the Donghak Peasant Revolution in 1894 and the movement played an important role in the March 1st Movement in 1919. The communist parties of the Soviet Union and Korea perceived Ch'ŏndogyo as a "utopian peasant movement". By 1945, Ch'ŏndogyo had become the second largest religion in northern Korea, with 1.5 million believers.

The Chondoist Chongu Party was established on 8 February 1946 with Ch'ŏndogyo activist Kim Tarhyon as its first leader. It assembled 98,000 members after a few months of existence, and was larger (in membership) than the Communist Party of Korea. In December 1946 it had 204,387 members.

On 22 July 1946, the Democratic Front for the Reunification of Korea was formed as a united front. The Chondoist Chongu Party was one of the four parties included in it. Thus the subordination of the party under the leadership of the Communist Party of Korea was formalised.

In the 1946–1947 elections to people's committees, village people's committees and myŏn people's committees, about 5.3 percent of the 70,454 elected deputies belonged to the Chondoist Chongu Party. Kim Tarhyon became one of two deputy chairmen of the People's Assembly (the national parliament). During the first session of the People's Assembly, a Chondoist Chongu Party deputy, Kim Yun'gŏl, held a critical speech against the non-compliance with laws passed by the people's committees during the land reform process. Kim Yun'gŏl was fiercely attacked, and he retracted his statement.

When the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) was constituted in 1948, the Chondoist Chongu Party obtained 16.5 percent of the seats in the Supreme People's Assembly.

However, the situation for the party soon turned difficult. Large sections of the Soviet and North Korean communist leaderships did not trust the party, and saw it as a potential nest for counterrevolutionaries. The most troublesome issue was that the North Korean Ch'ŏndogyo continued to have contacts with the leadership of the religious group in South Korean Seoul. There, the Ch'ŏndogyo leadership was anti-communist and supported the administration of President Syngman Rhee. In January 1948, the Ch'ŏndogyo leadership based in Seoul made a decision that a massive anti-communist demonstration would be held on 1 March in Pyongyang. This put the Chondoist Chongu Party in the North in a precarious situation. Kim Tarhyon refused to follow the orders from Seoul, but others in the party leadership wanted to go ahead with the plans. The result was a massive purge of party members throughout North Korea. In its aftermath, the anti-communist sections of the movement initiated an underground resistance movement and tried to launch guerrilla warfare.

Kim Tarhyon and the people around him reaffirmed their loyalty to the DPRK. In 1950 the Chondoist Chongu Party in the South (but not the religious movement) united with the Northern party under his leadership. During the Korean War the headquarters of the party was shifted to a town near the border with China. The party leadership actively supported the DPRK war efforts, but many party cadres migrated to South Korea during the war. Many sided with Seoul during the war. In the aftermath of the war, the idea of the united front was increasingly unpopular in the North Korean government circles, and many wanted the non-communist parties banned. In the end, the united front was maintained, but the possibility of the Chondoist Chongu Party conducting political activity was severely curtailed.

In 1954, the government cancelled the party's subsidies. By 1956, approximately 1,700–3,000 members were left (out of the 10,000–50,000 remaining Ch'ŏndogyo believers). At the same time, about 200 persons were full-time employees of the party. To finance the party, it ran an iron foundry and a printing house.

In September 1957, Kim Tarhyon became a minister without portfolio.

In 1958, the party was purged again. In November of that year, sources alleged that it had, together with the Korean Social Democratic Party, conspired against the DPRK leadership. Kim Tarhyon and his closest associates were arrested. By February 1958 they had pleaded guilty, and on 16 February 1958 their parliamentary immunity was revoked. Most likely they were executed, but their exact fate is not known.

By this time the party had effectively ceased to function as an independent entity. No provincial organization of the party existed, just a formal central nucleus. Pak Sindok, previously the head of the Organizational Department of the party, took over the party leadership.

The Chondoist Chongu Party is sometimes invoked in North Korean propaganda targeting foreigners, but much less so than the Korean Social Democratic Party. The reason is that Ch'ŏndogyo has fallen into relative obscurity even in South Korea, while social democracy continues to be an accepted political ideology abroad.

In 1986, the former South Korean foreign minister Choe Deok-sin defected to the North, becoming a leader of the Chondoist Chongu Party.

Recent leadership
In 2001 and 2012, the chairwoman of the party's central committee was Ryu Mi-yong. She was also a member of the presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, chairwoman of the Central Guidance Committee of the Chondoist Association of Korea (in 2010 ) and chairwoman of the Council for the Reunification of Tangun's Nation (in 2012 ). Ryu died in November 2016, leaving the post vacant. As of 2019, the vice chairman of the party's central committee was Ri Myong-chol. He was preceded by Yun Jong-ho. Ri is the central committee chairman.

According to the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency in 2006, the party remains under the control of the Workers' Party of Korea.

The party obtained 22 out of 687 seats in the Supreme People's Assembly in the 2014 election.

title: Chondoist Chongu Party


text:
Resistance, Rebellion, and Death

Resistance, Rebellion, and Death (Lettres à un ami allemand, "Letters to a German Friend") is a 1960 collection of essays written by Albert Camus and selected by the author prior to his death. The essays here generally involve conflicts near the Mediterranean, with an emphasis on his home country Algeria, and on the Algerian War of Independence in particular. He also criticizes capital punishment ("Reflections on the Guillotine") and totalitarianism in particular.

Camus proclaims the call to justice and the struggle for freedom also declaimed in the Old Testament, particularly the minor prophets. But he does so in a modern context, where God is silent and man is the master of his own destiny. Although he sees no messianic age, he proclaims the hope that by continuous effort, evil can be diminished and freedom and justice may become more prevalent.

Also collected here, in the essay "The Artist and His Time," is the address Camus gave in December 1957 at the University of Uppsala, entitled "Create Dangerously". The speech is reminiscent of Tolstoy's essay, "What is Art?", in that Camus speaks of the social context of art, concluding that "the only justification [for the artist] ... is to speak up for those ... who cannot do so."

title: Resistance, Rebellion, and Death


text:
Ian Temby

Ian Douglas Temby (born 5 May 1942) is an Australian barrister. He was the first Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions and the first Commissioner of the New South Wales Independent Commission Against Corruption. He conducted the Royal Commission into the Finance Broking Industry in Western Australia in 2001.

Early life and education
Temby was educated at the Perth Modern School and the University of Western Australia, where he earned an LL.B. (Hons.), graduating in 1964.

Career
Temby was admitted to legal practice on 23 December 1966 and joined the Perth law firm Northmore Hale Davey and Leake in the same year. He was called to the Bar in Perth in 1978 and was appointed Queen's Counsel on 16 July 1980. He was the President of the Law Society of Western Australia in 1982–1983 and the President of the Law Council of Australia in 1983–1984.

Temby served on the Subiaco City Council, including as deputy mayor from 1982 to 1983. He was the Australian Labor Party (ALP) candidate at the 1982 Nedlands state by-election, standing against future premier Richard Court.

He served as the inaugural Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions from 1984 to 1989, and as the inaugural Commissioner of the New South Wales Independent Commission Against Corruption from 1989 to 1994.

Temby has been in private practice in Sydney since 1 May 1994. He is the Founding Head of Chambers at 3 St James' Hall Chambers.

In his early days in private practice after the end of his tenure as ICAC Commissioner, Temby was appointed to represent Police Commissioner Tony Lauer at the Wood Royal Commission which looked into police corruption.

However this appointment was vetoed by Premier John Fahey due to concerns of a conflict of interest as Temby as ICAC Commissioner had the police under his investigation.

In 2004, he was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia for service to the law, particularly in developing the role of the independent prosecutor in the Australian criminal justice system.

In 2008, he became a member of the Council of the New South Wales Bar Association. In 2009, he was the Treasurer of the Association.

In 2015, he acted for Archbishop Philip Wilson in relation to a charge of covering up child sexual abuse. In 2017, he appeared in three cases for the New South Wales Crime Commission.

title: Ian Temby


text:
Kirbyville

Kirbyville may refer to:

 * Kirbyville, Texas
 * Kirbyville, Missouri
 * Kirbyville, Pennsylvania

title: Kirbyville


text: Category:Direct marketing

title: Category:Direct marketing


text:
Cribs

Cribs may refer to:
 * The Cribs, a band from the United Kingdom
 * MTV Cribs, a reality television program on MTV

title: Cribs


text:
IBFI

IBFI may stand for:

 * Independent Baptist Fellowship International
 * Internationales Begegnungs- und Forschungszentrum für Informatik

title: IBFI


text:
User talk:Beachy

Windsurfing.jpg
Hi, do you know perchance why your excellent picture was deleted? Windsurfing now stands without a decent picture of blasting. Alga 01:07, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Sandbox Effect
An article that you have been involved in editing, Sandbox Effect, has been listed for deletion. If you are interested in the deletion discussion, please participate by adding your comments at Articles for deletion/. Thank you.
 * note: page is actually at Articles_for_deletion/Sandbox_Effect_%282nd_nomination%29. -- Thin  boy  00  @45, i.e. 00:05, 6 December 2007 (UTC)

Firefox article needs you!
We no longer have noob editors like ian13 or the "admin" Firefox trolling the article. The firefox article is now poorly maintained due to admins alienating editors. I would like to restore confidence in the article. Please come back!  ҭᴙᴇᴡ ӌӌ  00:43, 25 April 2012 (UTC)

CoinTouch
The article CoinTouch has been speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This was done because the article, which appeared to be about a real person, individual animal, organization (band, club, company, etc.), or web content, did not indicate how or why the subject is notable, that is, why an article about that subject should be included in Wikipedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, articles that do not indicate the notability of the subject may be deleted at any time. If you can indicate why the subject is really notable, you are free to re-create the article, making sure to cite any verifiable sources.

Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable, and for specific types of articles, you may want to check out our criteria for biographies, for web sites, for musicians, or for companies. Feel free to leave a note on my talk page if you have any questions about this. NawlinWiki (talk) 15:50, 16 September 2014 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Beachy


text:
User:Christopher Parham

Do me a favor: Contribute to an article on one of the Federalist Papers.

'''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=User_talk:Christopher_Parham&action=edit&section=new New message? Leave it on my talk page.]''' Feel free to use email if you prefer, but be aware you will most likely get a quicker response on my talk page. If you want privacy and a quick response, email me and leave a note on my talk page saying that you did.

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About me
I am an American and former Wikipedia administrator. My main field of interest is political science, especially international relations and Enlightenment political theory. I also enjoy French literature of the 18th and 19th centuries, and I wish I knew enough about it to contribute substantially to articles. I created this username on November 7 2004.

title: User:Christopher Parham


text:
Battle of Kobryń

The Battle of Kobryń was one of the battles of the Invasion of Poland. It was fought between 14 and 18 September 1939, between the German XIX Panzer Corps of General Heinz Guderian and the improvised Polish 60th Infantry Division "Kobryn" of Colonel Adam Epler. It was fought concurrently with the Battle of Brześć Litewski.

Eve of the battle
For a detailed description of the situation prior to the battle see: Battle of Brześć

After breaking through the Polish defences in the Battle of Wizna, the German forces under General Heinz Guderian started to make their way towards Brześć, Kowel and Kobryń. Their aim was to cut the Polish territory in two parts and paralyse the Polish attempts to organise a line of defence east of the Bug River.

Battle
On 14 September 1939, elements of the XIX Panzer Corps reached the area of Brześć and Kobryń. Brześć was defended by a small force under General Konstanty Plisowski, while Kobryń was defended by the improvised 60th Infantry Division of Colonel Adam Epler.

In the early morning of 14 September Colonel Epler received a report of German forces entering the area. Elements of the German XIX Panzer Corps (elements of 3rd Panzer Division and entire 2nd Motorised Infantry Division) were advancing rapidly and Epler suspected that the Germans would advance on the towns of Brześć and Kobryń, as well as toward an important railway node located in the village of Żabinka. To probe the enemy forces, he ordered the 2nd battalion of his 84th Infantry Regiment to commence a delaying action in the area of Żabinka train station and the villages of Tewela and Ogrodniki. At the same time, the 2nd battalion of 83rd Infantry Regiment was ordered to organise a defensive line along the swampy shores of Trościanica river to cover the eastern flank of the Polish forces in the area of Brześć, some 30 kilometres westward.

On 15 September the German 3rd Armoured Division encountered and destroyed a column of the 9th reserve light artillery depot. However, Epler's forces were not spotted until late evening of that day, when they were bombarded by the Luftwaffe. The following day the main force of the German XIX Corps arrived. The 2nd Battalion of the 84th Infantry Regiment together with an armoured train organised an ambush and attacked the Germans who were supported by a battery of artillery. Following six hours of combat, the Germans were forced to retreat with significant casualties. The Polish battalion seized several guns and tanks, but had to burn them due to lack of fuel and then retreated toward the main line of Polish defenses.

At dawn on 17 September 1939 the reconnaissance units of the German 2nd Motorised Infantry Division finally reached the Polish lines. After a short skirmish, the Poles withdrew behind the defensive positions guarded by the 2nd battalion of the 83rd Infantry Regiment. The Germans then tried to outflank the Poles by attacking the cemetery in the village of Chwedkowice, but were repelled with light losses, mostly due to direct fire from the Polish 100mm howitzers. The 2nd Motorised Division lost three or four armoured cars and was forced to retreat. The Polish battalion withdrew towards the village of Piaski, where it organised another ambush. In the afternoon it was again attacked by the elements of German 2nd Motorised Division, but this assault was also repelled.

17 September also marked the beginning of the Soviet invasion of Poland.

Overnight, the Polish forces fighting in the Battle of Brześć were withdrawn to the other side of the Bug River and joined the forces of Independent Operational Group Polesie under General Franciszek Kleeberg. Elements of the Polish forces arrived at Kobryń, but the defense of the area lost much of its strategic significance. Colonel Epler decided to defend the area as long as possible, and then retreat southwards, following the General Kleeberg's forces.

The main battle for Kobryń began on 18 September 1939. Early in the fighting, the Germans managed to capture the Gubernia I and Gubernia II manorial farms, which were protecting the road to Bereza Kartuska and closing the approach to main forces of the Polish division. A counterattack by Polish forces from Kobryń forced the retreat of the Germans from one of the manorial farms, but it was later recaptured. Fierce combat broke out near the Queen Bona Canal. The Germans were unable to seize complete control of Kobryń on September 18 because of Polish army resistance, resulting in an impasse.

During the day, Polish patrols and units of the eastern wing of Independent Operational Group "Polesie" came into contact with advanced units of the Soviet Army 23rd Rifle Corps in the area of Łuniniec.

Faced with the knowledge of the broader Soviet Invasion of Poland pouring in from the frontline and specific reports from units of IOG "Polesie" encountering advanced units of Red Army forces, General Franciszek Kleeberg amalgamated all units of IOG "Polesie" under his command with the improvised 60th Infantry Division and withdrew to the South towards the Pinsk Marshes in the area of Dywin. The headquarters of GO "Polesie" was relocated from Pińsk to Lubieszów, at present Lubeshiv in Ukraine.

With the withdrawal of Polish forces, the battle for Kobryń came to an end.

title: Battle of Kobryń


text:
Prince Philippe, Count of Paris

Prince Philippe of Orléans, Count of Paris (Louis Philippe Albert; 24 August 1838 – 8 September 1894), was disputedly King of the French from 24 to 26 February 1848 as Louis Philippe II, although he was never officially proclaimed as such. He was the grandson of Louis Philippe I, King of the French. He was the Count of Paris as Orléanist claimant to the French throne from 1848 until his death. From 1883, when his cousin Henri, Count of Chambord died, he was often referred to by Orléanists as Philippe VII.

Early life
Prince Philippe became the Prince Royal, heir apparent to the throne, when his father, Prince Ferdinand-Philippe, Duc d'Orléans, died in a carriage accident in 1842. Although there was some effort during the days after the abdication of his grandfather in 1848 to put him on the throne under the name of Louis-Philippe II, with his mother (Helene of Mecklenburg-Schwerin) as Regent, this came to nothing. They fled, and the French Second Republic was proclaimed.

American Civil War

A historian, journalist and outspoken democrat, Philippe volunteered to serve as a Union Army officer in the American Civil War along with his younger brother, Prince Robert, Duke of Chartres. He was appointed as an assistant adjutant general with the rank of captain on 24 September 1861 and served under the name of Philippe d'Orléans, the Count of Paris. He served on the staff of the commander of the Army of the Potomac, Major General George B. McClellan, for nearly a year. He distinguished himself during the unsuccessful Peninsular Campaign. He resigned from the Union Army, along with his brother, on 15 July 1862. Philippe's History of the Civil War in America is considered a standard reference work on the subject.

During their stay in the United States, the princes were accompanied by their uncle, the Prince of Joinville, who painted many watercolours of their stay. On 10 November 1880 Philippe was elected as a companion of the first class (i.e. a veteran officer) of the Pennsylvania Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States – an organization of Union officers who had served during the American Civil War. He was assigned insignia number 2107. His eldest son, Philippe d'Orleans, was elected as a 2nd class member (i.e. an eldest son of a veteran officer) in 1890 and succeeded to first class membership in the Order upon Philippe's death.

Marriage and issue
On 30 May 1864 at St. Raphael's Church in Kingston upon Thames, England he married his paternal first cousin, Princess Marie Isabelle d'Orléans (1848–1919), Infanta of Spain. She was daughter of Infanta Luisa Fernanda of Spain and Prince Antoine, Duke of Montpensier (1824–1890), the youngest son of Louis-Philippe of France and Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily. They had eight children:

 * Princess Amélie d'Orléans (1865–1951); married Carlos I of Portugal in 1886.
 * Prince Louis Philippe Robert d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans (1869–1926); married Archduchess Maria Dorothea of Austria, daughter of Archduke Joseph Karl of Austria in 1896,
 * Princess Hélène of Orléans (1871–1951); married Emmanuel Philibert, 2nd Duke of Aosta in 1895.
 * Prince Charles d'Orléans (1875–1875).
 * Princess Isabelle d'Orléans (1878–1961); married Prince Jean D'Orléans, Duke of Guise in 1899.
 * Prince Jacques d'Orléans (1880–1881).
 * Princess Louise d'Orléans (1882–1958); married Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies in 1907. Through her daughter, Maria Mercedes of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, she was the grandmother of King Juan Carlos I of Spain.
 * Prince Ferdinand d'Orléans, Duke of Montpensier (1884–1924); married Marie Isabelle Gonzales de Olañeta y Ibaretta, Marchioness of Valdeterrazo in 1921.

Restoration of French monarchy
The Orleans family had been in exile in England since the Revolution of 1848 which toppled King Louis Philippe. During their early married life, the Count and Countess of Paris lived at York House, Twickenham. However, in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War and the downfall of Napoleon III, they were allowed to return to France, and many of their properties were restored to them. In 1873, anticipating a restoration of the monarchy by the largely monarchist National Assembly that had been elected following the fall of Napoleon III, the Count of Paris withdrew his claims to the defunct French throne in favour of the legitimist claimant, Henri V, best known as the Comte de Chambord. It was assumed by most that the Count of Paris was Chambord's heir-presumptive, and would thus be able to succeed to the throne upon the childless Chambord's death, reuniting the two claims that had divided French monarchists since 1830. However, Chambord's refusal to recognize the tricolor as the French flag sabotaged hopes of a restoration, and Chambord died in 1883 without ever specifically recognizing his Orléanist rival as his heir-presumptive.

Upon the Count of Chambord's death, the Count of Paris was recognized by most monarchists as Philippe VII of France. This succession was disputed by the Carlist descendants of the Bourbon kings of Spain, who argued that being descended directly from Louis XIV their claim was greater than that of the Orléanists'; however, this argument pointedly ignored Philip V of Spain's renunciation of his and his descendants' claim to the French throne pursuant to the Treaty of Utrecht.

In 1886 the family was exiled again returning to the United Kingdom, where they first lived at Sheen House, near Richmond, where the young Rosa Lewis was a member of their household. In 1890 they moved to the much grander Stowe House, where he died in 1894. He was succeeded as claimant to the defunct French throne by his son Prince Philippe.

Honours

 * Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach: Grand Cross of the Order of the White Falcon, 24 August 1856
 * 🇩🇰 Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant, 22 October 1885
 * Kingdom of Portugal: Grand Cross of the Sash of the Two Orders, 22 May 1886

title: Prince Philippe, Count of Paris


text:
User talk:Pawley

Welcome
Hi, Pawley, welcome to Wikipedia! You should be aware that links in Wikipedia are case-sensitive, meaning that all your links to Paul Kennedy (Historian) do not work. They should be links to Paul Kennedy (historian). I've already fixed the links. Also, please don't edit other people's user pages unless someone specifically gives permission to do so; dropping a note on their user talk page is the preferred way if you think something should be changed on someone's user page. If you have any other questions, don't hesitate to ask, or try the Village pump or the Community Portal. Happy editing! —Lowellian (talk)  01:34, Dec 3, 2004 (UTC)

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Correction: the links are to Paul Kennedy (Rock Musician) not Paul Kennedy (Historian)

Pawley 12:45, 1 April 2007 (UTC)

A tag has been placed on Dean Moynihan, requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under the criteria for speedy deletion, because it is a redirect to a nonexistent page. Also please note that articles must be on notable subjects and should provide references to reliable sources that verify their content.

Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself. If you plan to expand the article, you can request that administrators wait a while for you to add contextual material. To do this, affix the template   to the page and state your intention on the article's talk page. Feel free to leave a note on my talk page if you have any questions about this. SQL(Query Me!) 05:29, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

A tag has been placed on Howie J. Beard, requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under the criteria for speedy deletion, because it is a redirect to a nonexistent page. Also please note that articles must be on notable subjects and should provide references to reliable sources that verify their content.

Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself. If you plan to expand the article, you can request that administrators wait a while for you to add contextual material. To do this, affix the template   to the page and state your intention on the article's talk page. Feel free to leave a note on my talk page if you have any questions about this. SQL(Query Me!) 05:31, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

Replaceable fair use Image:Stiobhartnobodysheroes.png
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File source problem with File:Nobslogo.png
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title: User talk:Pawley


text:
Pipeline (Unix)

In Unix-like computer operating systems, a pipeline is a mechanism for inter-process communication using message passing. A pipeline is a set of processes chained together by their standard streams, so that the output text of each process (stdout) is passed directly as input (stdin) to the next one. The second process is started as the first process is still executing, and they are executed concurrently. The concept of pipelines was championed by Douglas McIlroy at Unix's ancestral home of Bell Labs, during the development of Unix, shaping its toolbox philosophy. It is named by analogy to a physical pipeline. A key feature of these pipelines is their "hiding of internals" (Ritchie & Thompson, 1974). This in turn allows for more clarity and simplicity in the system.

This article is about anonymous pipes, where data written by one process is buffered by the operating system until it is read by the next process, and this uni-directional channel disappears when the processes are completed. This differs from named pipes, where messages are passed to or from a pipe that is named by making it a file, and remains after the processes are completed. The standard shell syntax for anonymous pipes is to list multiple commands, separated by vertical bars ("pipes" in common Unix verbiage):

For example, to list files in the current directory (ls), retain only the lines of ls output containing the string "key" (grep), and view the result in a scrolling page (less), a user types the following into the command line of a terminal:

The command  is executed as a process, the output (stdout) of which is piped to the input (stdin) of the process for  ; and likewise for the process for. Each process takes input from the previous process and produces output for the next process via standard streams. Each  tells the shell to connect the standard output of the command on the left to the standard input of the command on the right by an inter-process communication mechanism called an (anonymous) pipe, implemented in the operating system. Pipes are unidirectional; data flows through the pipeline from left to right.

Example
Below is an example of a pipeline that implements a kind of spell checker for the web resource indicated by a URL. An explanation of what it does follows.

 * 1)   obtains the HTML contents of a web page (could use   on some systems).
 * 2)   replaces all characters (from the web page's content) that are not spaces or letters, with spaces. (Newlines are preserved.)
 * 3)   changes all of the uppercase letters into lowercase and converts the spaces in the lines of text to newlines (each 'word' is now on a separate line).
 * 4)   includes only lines that contain at least one lowercase alphabetical character (removing any blank lines).
 * 5)   sorts the list of 'words' into alphabetical order, and the   switch removes duplicates.
 * 6)   finds lines in common between two files,   suppresses lines unique to the second file, and those that are common to both, leaving only those that are found only in the first file named.  The   in place of a filename causes   to use its standard input (from the pipe line in this case).   sorts the contents of the   file alphabetically, as   expects, and   outputs the results to a temporary file (via process substitution), which   reads. The result is a list of words (lines) that are not found in /usr/share/dict/words.
 * 7)   allows the user to page through the results.

Pipelines in command line interfaces
All widely used Unix shells have a special syntax construct for the creation of pipelines. In all usage one writes the commands in sequence, separated by the ASCII vertical bar character  (which, for this reason, is often called "pipe character"). The shell starts the processes and arranges for the necessary connections between their standard streams (including some amount of buffer storage).

Error stream
By default, the standard error streams ("stderr") of the processes in a pipeline are not passed on through the pipe; instead, they are merged and directed to the console. However, many shells have additional syntax for changing this behavior. In the csh shell, for instance, using  instead of   signifies that the standard error stream should also be merged with the standard output and fed to the next process. The Bash shell can also merge standard error with  since version 4.0 or using , as well as redirect it to a different file.

Pipemill
In the most commonly used simple pipelines the shell connects a series of sub-processes via pipes, and executes external commands within each sub-process. Thus the shell itself is doing no direct processing of the data flowing through the pipeline.

However, it's possible for the shell to perform processing directly, using a so-called mill or pipemill (since a  command is used to "mill" over the results from the initial command). This construct generally looks something like:

Such pipemill may not perform as intended if the body of the loop includes commands, such as  and , that read from  : on the loop's first iteration, such a program (let's call it the drain) will read the remaining output from  , and the loop will then terminate (with results depending on the specifics of the drain). There are a couple of possible ways to avoid this behavior. First, some drains support an option to disable reading from  (e.g.  ).  Alternatively, if the drain does not need to read any input from   to do something useful, it can be given   as input.

As all components of a pipe are run in parallel, a shell typically forks a subprocess (a subshell) to handle its contents, making it impossible to propagate variable changes to the outside shell environment. To remedy this issue, the "pipemill" can instead be fed from a here document containing a command substitution, which waits for the pipeline to finish running before milling through the contents. Alternatively, a named pipe or a process substitution can be used for parallel execution. GNU bash also has a lastpipe option to disable forking for the last pipe component.

Creating pipelines programmatically
Pipelines can be created under program control. The Unix  system call asks the operating system to construct a new anonymous pipe object. This results in two new, opened file descriptors in the process: the read-only end of the pipe, and the write-only end. The pipe ends appear to be normal, anonymous file descriptors, except that they have no ability to seek.

To avoid deadlock and exploit parallelism, the Unix process with one or more new pipes will then, generally, call  to create new processes. Each process will then close the end(s) of the pipe that it will not be using before producing or consuming any data. Alternatively, a process might create new threads and use the pipe to communicate between them.

Named pipes may also be created using  or   and then presented as the input or output file to programs as they are invoked. They allow multi-path pipes to be created, and are especially effective when combined with standard error redirection, or with.

Implementation
In most Unix-like systems, all processes of a pipeline are started at the same time, with their streams appropriately connected, and managed by the scheduler together with all other processes running on the machine. An important aspect of this, setting Unix pipes apart from other pipe implementations, is the concept of buffering: for example a sending program may produce 5000 bytes per second, and a receiving program may only be able to accept 100 bytes per second, but no data is lost. Instead, the output of the sending program is held in the buffer. When the receiving program is ready to read data, the next program in the pipeline reads from the buffer. If the buffer is filled, the sending program is stopped (blocked) until at least some data is removed from the buffer by the receiver. In Linux, the size of the buffer is 65,536 bytes (64KiB). An open source third-party filter called bfr is available to provide larger buffers if required.

Network pipes
Tools like netcat and socat can connect pipes to TCP/IP sockets.

History
The pipeline concept was invented by Douglas McIlroy and first described in the man pages of Version 3 Unix. McIlroy noticed that much of the time command shells passed the output file from one program as input to another.

His ideas were implemented in 1973 when ("in one feverish night", wrote McIlroy) Ken Thompson added the  system call and pipes to the shell and several utilities in Version 3 Unix. "The next day", McIlroy continued, "saw an unforgettable orgy of one-liners as everybody joined in the excitement of plumbing." McIlroy also credits Thompson with the  notation, which greatly simplified the description of pipe syntax in Version 4.

Although developed independently, Unix pipes are related to, and were preceded by, the 'communication files' developed by Ken Lochner in the 1960s for the Dartmouth Time Sharing System.

In Tony Hoare's communicating sequential processes (CSP) McIlroy's pipes are further developed.

The robot in the icon for Apple's Automator, which also uses a pipeline concept to chain repetitive commands together, holds a pipe in homage to the original Unix concept.

Other operating systems
This feature of Unix was borrowed by other operating systems, such as MS-DOS and the CMS Pipelines package on VM/CMS and MVS, and eventually came to be designated the pipes and filters design pattern of software engineering.

title: Pipeline (Unix)


text:
Mike Nazaruk

Mike Nazaruk (October 2, 1921 Newark, New Jersey – May 1, 1955 Langhorne, Pennsylvania) was an American racecar driver. He raced midget cars, sprint cars, and IndyCars. He was nicknamed "Iron Mike."

Nazaruk was of Ukrainian descent. Before racing, he worked as a florist's delivery driver and as an aircraft welder.

Nazaruk served as a U.S. Marine in the Battle of Guam and the Guadalcanal campaign in World War II. He promised himself that if he lived through the war he would become a race driver.

Midget car career
He raced after he returned home. He won the track championships at Staten Island, New York, and Rhinebeck, New York in 1947. He scored over twenty feature wins at Middletown, New York en route to winning the 1948 track championship.

Nazaruk was the 1949 American Racing Drivers Club (ARDC) midget car champion. The series tours the East Coast of the United States.

Nazaruk joined the AAA in 1950. He won 14 national midget tour events, including the 1950 Night Before the 500, and the first midget car event at Terre Haute Action Track in 1953. He finished fifth in the 1954 National Midget car points.

Championship car career

Nazaruk finished second in his first Indianapolis 500 in 1951. He competed in two more Indianapolis 500, including a fifth-place finish in 1954.

Nazaruk was killed in a sprint car race at Langhorne Speedway on May 1, 1955.

Career awards

 * He was inducted in the National Sprint Car Hall of Fame in 1996.
 * He was inducted in the National Midget Auto Racing Hall of Fame in 2003.

World Championship career summary
The Indianapolis 500 was part of the Formula One World Championship of Drivers from 1950 through 1960. Drivers competing at Indy during those years were credited with World Championship points and participation. Mike Nazaruk participated in three World Championship races. He finished second once (formally "on the podium") and accumulated a total of 8 World Championship points.

title: Mike Nazaruk