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Pact of Vilnius and Radom

The Pact of Vilnius and Radom (Unia wileńsko-radomska, Vilniaus-Radomo sutartis) was a set of three acts passed in Vilnius, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and confirmed by the Crown Council in Radom, Kingdom of Poland in 1401. The union amended the earlier act of the Union of Krewo (1385) and confirmed the Ostrów Agreement (1392). Vytautas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, became fully in charge of the Lithuanian affairs, while Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland, reserved the rights of an overlord. After the death of Vytautas, Lithuania was to be ruled by Władysław II Jagiełło or his legal heir. The union is generally seen as strengthening of the Polish–Lithuanian union.

Background
Both Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland, and Vytautas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, sought to renew the Polish–Lithuanian union, which had existed since 1385. In 1399, King (!) Jadwiga of Poland died due to childbirth complications, leaving Władysław II Jagiełło king of a foreign land and without an heir. If Polish nobles forced Władysław II Jagiełło to abdicate the throne, he would return to Lithuania demanding the throne of the Grand Duke. Vytautas would be forced either to return to Duchy of Trakai or launch another civil war. The same year Vytautas suffered a major defeat in the Battle of the Vorskla River against the Golden Horde and faced rebellions in the Principality of Smolensk, Republic of Pskov, and Velikiy Novgorod.

Provisions
Negotiations began in late December 1400 in Hrodna. The union was signed in three separate acts: one by Władysław II Jagiełło (the original of which did not survive), another by Vytautas and the Lithuanian nobles (in Vilnius on 18 January 1401), and the third by the Polish Royal Council (in Radom on 11 March 1401). It is significant that for the first time the Lithuanian nobles issued a political act in their own name, not merely as witnesses to the Grand Duke's treaties.

Vytautas was instituted as the Grand Duke of Lithuania (magnus dux) while his cousin Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland, retained the rights of an overlord (supremus dux). The union legalized Vytautas status as an actual ruler of Lithuania and his right to use title of "grand duke" (what he was doing before but not in correspondence with Poland) However, this independence was to be temporary – after Vytautas' death Lithuania was to be governed by Władysław II Jagiełło or his legal heir and will become part of the kingdom and crown of Poland. The Polish and Lithuanian nobles agreed not to elect a new King of Poland without consulting each other. At the time neither Władysław II Jagiełło nor Vytautas had heirs, but each hoped to sire legitimate sons that would inherit both the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy (eventually it would be Jogaila who would succeed in this). Vytautas also renewed his vows to Jagiełło, to the crown, kingdom, and inhabitants of Poland and promised to aid them when necessary.

Aftermath and evaluations
The renewed alliance stabilized the situation, allowing Vytautas to launch an offensive against the Teutonic Knights and to initiate the first Samogitian uprising. Eventually, the joint Polish–Lithuanian forces achieved a decisive victory against the Knights in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. The treaty has been variously interpreted by Lithuanian and Polish historians. Some argued that it was a diplomatic failure on Vytautas' part, as the union blocked the path to his possible coronation as King of Lithuania. Others saw it as a concession by the Poles when their plan to fully incorporate the Grand Duchy into the Kingdom of Poland failed. A third school of thought considered the union to be a mutual compromise: Lithuania abandoned plans for full independence, while Poland abandoned plans for full incorporation of Lithuania into a unitary state. Some more recent academic works tend not to overestimate the union's importance and see it as mere codification of the actual Polish–Lithuanian relations that had existed since 1392. Other researchers emphasize the fact that Lithuanians were included into election of new Polish monarch. With the death of Jadwiga Poland lost last ruler with a hereditary right to rule, Polish nobles reserved for themselves right to elect new king upon his death, even the rights of his possible son with newly married Anne of Cejle, granddaughter of Kazimierz III, were not guaranteed. Inclusion of Lithuanian nobles into future election can be seen as inclusion of them into "community of the realm" (communitas regni) embodied in Poland by the notion of "the crown of the kingdom of Poland" (corona regni Poloniae).

title: Pact of Vilnius and Radom


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The Kills

The Kills are an English-American rock duo formed by American singer Alison "VV" Mosshart and English guitarist Jamie "Hotel" Hince. They are signed to Domino Records. Their first four albums, Keep On Your Mean Side, No Wow, Midnight Boom, and Blood Pressures, all reached the UK Albums Chart. Their fifth studio album, Ash & Ice, was released in 2016 and reached the top 20 of the UK Albums Chart.

Discount
Mosshart and Hince both played in other bands before they formed The Kills in 2001. Mosshart was previously the vocalist of punk rock band Discount, while Hince featured in rock bands such as Scarfo and Blyth Power. Mosshart encountered Hince when her band was touring England, where Hince was "staying in the flat upstairs from where [she] was staying" in London. Mosshart insisted on forming a band with Hince and "really persisted, and eventually we started writing and he encouraged me". Hince supplied her with a four-track tape recorder and insisted she write music as well as lyrics while on tour with her band. The two continued to exchange music ideas by sending each other tapes.

Discount disbanded in 2000, and Mosshart moved to London in the same year. Before settling on a name, Mosshart and Hince performed as "VV" and "Hotel" respectively, Hince explaining that they "named each other off the top of our heads as a stupid romantic ode to the pop art scene". The duo opted for The Kills as it "sounded like a band that could exist in any decade".

Signing to Domino
Using the ideas on the tapes, Mosshart and Hince began to write minimalist songs with the aid of a drum machine. In 2001 they showcased their new songs on a demo tape; however, the pair shunned approaches from major record labels. Recording as VV and Hotel, they contributed the song "Restaurant Blouse" to the compilation If the Twenty-First Century Did Not Exist, It Would Be Necessary to Invent It. Shortly after that they recorded their debut release, the Black Rooster EP, which saw release on British indie label Domino Records and was picked up for distribution by Dim Mak Records in the United States.

After touring internationally, they went to Toe Rag Studios where The White Stripes had recorded their album Elephant, to record their debut album Keep on Your Mean Side, mostly on 8-track, in just 2 weeks. Distributed in the U.S. and UK by Rough Trade Records, the album was similar in style to the EP, veering from the Velvets-esque stomp of "Wait" to the noisy, dirty garage punk blues of "Fuck the People" and dark psychedelia of "Kissy Kissy". The record was well received by the music press, though the White Stripes comparisons would not go away.

Mosshart chain-smoked while singing, rarely speaking to the audience; at a New York City show following the ban on public smoking, Mosshart went on stage with three bottles of water, lit up a cigarette, and proceeded to smoke constantly from the first song to the last note of the set. In 2004 Mosshart and Hince bought a house together in Dalston, East London. In 2005, "Monkey 23" was used in the film "De battre mon cœur s'est arrêté", where it played over the closing credits. It was also featured in season three of Peaky Blinders. In 2006, "Wait" was used in Children of Men, where it was described in-universe as "a blast from the past all the way back to 2003, that beautiful time when people refused to accept the future is just around the corner".

No Wow and Midnight Boom
Their second album, No Wow, was released by Domino Records on February 21, 2005. Featuring an artier, less "guitar rock" sound, the record embraced post punk influences and sounded even more stripped down than Keep on Your Mean Side. Originally written to be performed on a Moog, the band was forced to change directions and record it primarily using a guitar after Hince's Moog broke and couldn't be repaired before entering the studio. A 40-minute DVD documentary was included with a limited number of copies and features interview, performance and on the road footage shot on tour. The first single, "The Good Ones", from No Wow, was released on February 7, 2005, and reached number 23 in the UK Singles Chart, which is their highest-charting single in that chart to date. Mosshart features in the title track of Placebo's album Meds. She also features on the Primal Scream album Riot City Blues.

Midnight Boom was released in March 2008. Its music was used throughout many American TV shows, including 90210. A big selection of songs from the album were featured in the hit television series Gossip Girl, and also, their track "Sour Cherry" was featured as the soundbed for Season Two's official trailer. "Sour Cherry" was also featured in the Footloose trailer, as well as in the 2008 rom-com The House Bunny. The album also picked up new mainstream success for the band with various TV performances in the UK; appearing on Later... with Jools Holland, Friday Night with Jonathan Ross, T4, The Album Chart Show, Sound, Live From Abbey Road, and From The Basement.

On October 21, 2008, "Cheap and Cheerful" was used on the show House during the opening scene of the episode "Lucky Thirteen". "Cheap and Cheerful" can also be heard on the NHL 09 soundtrack. It was later used in the Fendi's TV commercial for the "Fan di Fendi" perfume (2010). "U.R.A. Fever" was played during a love scene in the 2010 movie The Losers. Only the chorus of the song is played. "U.R.A. Fever" was heard in the 2010 film Welcome to the Rileys, as well as appearing on its soundtrack. It is also heard on the 2011 movie Catch .44 (partially) and the 2012 movie Detention. The bonus song "Night Train" appeared in the 2009 remake of the film Friday The 13th and in the 2012 American drama film What Maisie Knew, along with "Hook and Line". The song "What New York Used to Be" was used in the film Push.

Blood Pressures
On September 11, 2009, the duo announced on their MySpace page that they had begun work on their fourth studio album though no release date had been set. "Black Balloon" from their "Black Balloon EP", released in 2009, was featured in the Season 2 episode of The Good Wife, "Net Worth", on February 15, 2011. The Kills' fourth studio album, Blood Pressures, was released in April 2011. A video for the first single from Blood Pressures, "Satellite", was released on February 9, 2011, followed By Future Starts Slow, Baby Says, The Last Goodbye, and Wild Charms in September 2012. "Future Starts Slow" was also used in a promotion for the episode "The Wait Is Almost Over" of hit TV series True Blood (season 4). The song from the same album "Damned If She Do" was also used in the promotion of The Vampire Diaries third season, and has received positive reviews from the fans. "The Last Goodbye" was used in the 2012 film Just Like A Woman, starring Sienna Miller.

"Future Starts Slow" appears in the trailer for the 2012 action thriller film Contraband, a March 2012 episode of the Vampire Diaries, in a promotion and, beginning with the second episode, was used as the theme music for the 2012 TV series Political Animals (miniseries), was used towards the end of episode 16, season 2 of Person of Interest and featured in the season 1 finale of Altered Carbon. They contributed a cover of "Dreams" to the Fleetwood Mac tribute compilation "Just Tell Me That You Want Me", set for release on August 14, 2012, through Hear Music and Concord Music Group.

In September the duo published the photo book Dream & Drive, created together with photographer Kenneth Capello. It coincided with an exhibition at the Milk Gallery, London. Paris Spleen: The Kills Live at L'Olympia, the film of their show from November 2011 was released on 20 September 2013 in partnership with the French clothing company Equipment. The Kills were set to go on a small American tour with Queens of the Stone Age in December 2013. In the same year, Hince suffered an injury to his left hand when a car door closed on it. He lost the use of his middle finger and had to have a number of operations. As a result he adjusted his playing style and equipment. Shortly after the announcement of the shows, the band's record label, Domino Records confirmed that the duo were working on their next album. In May 2014, Mosshart said that they were looking for a new sound and that this new album will be completely different from the others. She noted that "You never know what's going to happen with a record when you're writing. It could be done all of a sudden in two months, or it could take another year. You get on these tangents, and you find new directions. You kind of follow the scent wherever it's taking you. Sometimes it takes a long time. Sometimes it's fast as hell."

Ash & Ice, hiatus and God Games

The Kills were part of the line-up for Coachella 2016. The Kills fifth studio album, Ash & Ice, was released on 3 June 2016. A new single titled "Doing It to Death" was released in March 2016. The duo embarked on a lengthy world tour, but were forced to cancel European festival dates after Mosshart was diagnosed with pneumonia. In 2017 the group were the support act for Guns N' Roses during the UK leg of their world tour. In 2018, they released a 7-inch single with cover versions of Saul Williams' "List of Demands (Reparations)" and Peter Tosh's "Steppin' Razor", followed by a promotional 7-inch a year later for National Dive Bar Day with the B-sides "Blue Moon" and "Night Train". Mosshart also published her multimedia book Car Ma later that year. The band were largely inactive during 2019, only playing one show that October supporting Social Distortion. At the show, the band played Midnight Boom in its entirety.

In December 2020, the band released the rarities collection Little Bastards, which compiled B-sides and demos from between 2002 and 2009. The band had appeared virtually as a musical guest on The Late Late Show with James Corden the month prior to promote the album, playing "Raise Me" from their home studio. Mosshart also released a handful of solo singles that year: "Rise", "It Ain't Water", and a cover of "State Trooper" by Bruce Springsteen. Sound Wheel, a spoken-word album that served as a companion piece to Car Ma, was released on August 7, 2020 via Third Man Records. Hince, meanwhile, focused on collaborative songwriting; he worked on Deap Vally's Digital Dream EP in February 2021, as well as The Big Pink's single "Love Spins On Its Axis", which he co-wrote with the band and Jamie T.

The band returned in June 2022, playing their first show in almost three years in support of Jack White at the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View, California. In July 2023, the band released their first new original music in seven years: A double A-side single, "New York" and "LA Hex". Both songs served as the lead singles to band's sixth album God Games, which was released on October 27, 2023. A further two singles were released from the album prior to its release: "103" in August, and "Wasterpiece" in October.

Influences
The band has cited Royal Trux, PJ Harvey, the Velvet Underground, Sleater-Kinney, Fugazi, The Clash, The Rolling Stones, Nirvana, Pixies, Bikini Kill, and Sonic Youth as influences.

Discography

 * Keep on Your Mean Side (2003)
 * No Wow (2005)
 * Midnight Boom (2008)
 * Blood Pressures (2011)
 * Ash & Ice (2016)
 * God Games (2023)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Kills


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Academic administration

Academic administration is a branch of university or college employees responsible for the maintenance and supervision of the institution and separate from the faculty or academics, although some personnel may have joint responsibilities. Some type of separate administrative structure exists at almost all academic institutions. Fewer institutions are governed by employees who are also involved in academic or scholarly work. Many senior administrators are academics who have advanced degrees and no longer teach or conduct research.

Key responsibilities
Key broad administrative responsibilities (and thus administrative units) in academic institutions include:
 * Admissions
 * Supervision of academic affairs such as hiring, promotion, tenure, and evaluation (with faculty input where appropriate);
 * Maintenance of official records (typically supervised by a registrar);
 * Maintenance and audit of financial flows and records;
 * Maintenance and construction of campus buildings and grounds (the physical plant);
 * Safety and security of people and property on the campus (often organized as an office of public safety or campus police);
 * Supervision and support of campus computers and network (information technology).
 * Fundraising from private individuals and foundations ("development" or "advancement")
 * Research administration (including grants and contract administration, and institutional compliance with federal and state regulations)
 * Public affairs (including relations with the media, the community, and local, state, and federal governments)
 * Student services such as disability services, career counselling and library staff.

Administrative titles
The chief executive, the administrative and educational head of a university, depending on tradition and location, may be termed the university president, the provost, the chancellor (the United States), the vice-chancellor (many Commonwealth countries), principal (Scotland and Canada), or rector (Europe, Russia, Asia, the Middle East and South America).

An administrative executive in charge of a university department or of some schools, may be termed a dean or some variation. The chief executive of academic establishments other than universities, may be termed headmaster or head teacher (schools), director (used to reflect various positions ranging from the head of an institution to the head of a program), or principal, as used in primary education.

Administrative communication
Like other professional areas, academic administration follows a specialized and often highly abstract terminology. This terminology often depends on that used in military strategy (as in Strategic Planning) and business management (including Public Relations).

Digital era brings a communication overload and intense stresses of the job are threatening administrators mental or physical health. Administrators are operating in an era of multiple continuing crises, unreliable supply chains etc. Prof. David D. Perlmutter dean of the College of Media & Communication at Texas Tech University suggests several questions to ask about the regular meetings which administrators hold:

 * Are these meetings necessary?
 * Do they have to happen as often as they do?
 * What is the best way to distribute information, especially in a governance culture, so people can be aware of it and act upon it without being overwhelmed?
 * Do people understand the steps and goals of the process, or are they just participating out of tradition?
 * Can the number of participants be reduced without hurting governance?
 * Do we need to modify any of our processes because of the lack of face-to-face interactions that have occurred off and on since the pandemic began?

By country
Academic administrations are structured in various ways at different institutions and in different countries.

Australia
Full-time tertiary education administrators emerged as a distinct role in Australia from the mid-1970s, as institutions sought to deal with their increasing size and complexity, along with a broadening of their aspirations. As the professionalism of tertiary administrators has developed, there has been a corresponding push to recognise the uniqueness and validity of their role in the academic environment.

, general staff composed over half the employees at Australian universities. Around 65% of these are female. There has recently been a shift in the preferred nomenclature for non-academic staff at Australian universities, from "general staff" to "professional staff". It has been argued that the changing in role of the professional staff has been due to the changing work that they are performing, as professional staff assist students with technology.

The overarching body for all staff working in administration and management in Australia is the Association for Tertiary Education Management.

Administrative structures
The structures for administration and management in higher education in the United Kingdom vary significantly between institutions. Any description of a general structure will therefore not apply to some or even many institutions, and therefore any general statement of structures may be misleading. Not all UK universities have the post of Registrar.

The Director of Finance may report to the Registrar or directly to the Vice-Chancellor, whilst other senior posts may or may not report to the Registrar. This next tier of senior positions might include Directors of Human Resources, Estates, and Corporate Affairs. The Academic Registrar is often included in this next tier. Their role is mostly to accomplish student-facing administrative processes such as admissions, student records, complaints, and graduation.

Professional associations
The overarching body for all staff working in administration and management in the UK is the Association of University Administrators.

Presidents and chancellors
In the United States, a college or university is typically supervised by a president or chancellor who reports regularly to a board of trustees (made up of individuals from outside the institution) and who serves as chief executive officer. Most large colleges and universities now use an administrative structure with a tier of vice presidents, among whom the provost (or vice president for academic affairs, or academic dean) serves as the chief academic officer.Although the demographic picture of university leadership is changing, the majority of academic administrators remain middle-aged white men.

Remuneration of presidents and chancellors
The ten highest-paid administrators at private colleges earn an average of about $2.5 million per year, while at public colleges the figure is $1.4 million. These figures includes both base pay and other income.

Deans
Deans may supervise various and more specific aspects of the institution, or may be CEOs of entire campuses. They may report directly to the president or chancellor. The division of responsibility among deans varies widely among institutions; some are chiefly responsible for clusters of academic fields (such as the humanities or natural sciences) or whole academic units (such as a graduate school or college), while others are responsible for non-academic but campus-wide concerns such as minority affairs. In some cases a provost supervises the institution's entire academic staff, occupying a position generally superior to any dean. In other instances the Dean of a College may be the equivalent to a Provost or Vice Chancellor or Vice President for Academic Affairs. Below deans in the administrative hierarchy are heads of individual academic departments and of individual administrative departments. These heads (commonly styled "chairs" or "directors") then supervise the faculty and staff of their individual departments.

Departmental Chairs
The Chair of a department is typically a tenured or at least tenure-track faculty member, supported by administrative staff.

Administrative staff
All levels of the university have administrative staff, reporting to Chancellors, Presidents, Provosts, Deans, and Departmental like gollis university who have a number of different schools like school of business, economics and social science school of ICT, school of AGRO-VET, school of Engineering and school of medicine is example of Somaliland universities.

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St. Amant, Louisiana

St. Amant (or Saint Amant) is an unincorporated community in Ascension Parish, in the U.S. state of Louisiana. It is situated about 25 miles south-east of Baton Rouge. and 50 miles north west of New Orleans. It is named after the St. Amant family, some of the early settlers in the region. The area was originally known to the Native Americans and early french settlers as Duckroost, or Cabanocey. The Saint Amant post office has the ZIP code of 70774.

Geography
St. Amant is located near the largest city in Ascension Parish, Gonzales, which is three miles to the north-west.

Education
The following schools are located within the community:

 * St. Amant High School
 * St. Amant Middle School
 * St. Amant Primary School
 * Lake Elementary School

The high school is located on Highway 431. St. Amant middle school, primary school and the post office are located on Highway 429. Lake Elementary School is located on Highway 431.

Notable people

 * Reid Brignac, baseball shortstop
 * Ben Sheets, MLB All-Star pitcher
 * John "Hot Rod" Williams, NBA basketball player
 * Jason Garey, MLS Player

Notable events
St. Amant became the subject of national headlines after the 2016 Louisiana Floods, due to the devastation in the area. The area was visited by then-presidential candidate, Donald J. Trump.

title: St. Amant, Louisiana


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Under Dusken

Under Dusken is the official student newspaper in Trondheim, Norway, with a circulation of 10,000 copies. Founded in 1914, it is Scandinavia's oldest student newspaper, and the second largest student newspaper in Norway after Oslo's Universitas.

About 60 students work pro bono to produce a new edition of Under Dusken every second week.

The newspaper is jointly owned by Studentersamfundet i Trondhjem and Studentsamskipnaden i Trondheim through the media holding company Mediastud, which also is the publisher of Studentradioen i Trondheim (Norway's first student radio) and Student-TV (Scandinavia's oldest student television station).

The editor in chief is elected annually by the board of Mediastud. However, continuity has been ensured by electing candidates nominated by the editorial board of the newspaper.

Software development
Under Dusken has since the mid 90s developed many of their own utilities. The computer department in Under Dusken has developed two content management systems, Aranea and Pegadi.

Pegadi
Pegadi is written in Java and development was started in the beginning of 1999. The system works like a word processor with note field and gives the editors the ability to see how much has been written on each article.

Aranea
Aranea is written in Java and uses technologies like JPA, Spring og Velocity. This is the CMS that serves the newspaper's website underdusken.no.

title: Under Dusken


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Union of Horodło

The Union of Horodło or Pact of Horodło was a set of three acts signed in the town of Horodło on 2 October 1413. The first act was signed by Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland, and Vytautas, Grand Duke of Lithuania. The second and third acts were composed by the Polish nobility (szlachta) and Lithuanian boyars, respectively. The union amended the earlier Polish–Lithuanian unions of Krewo and Vilnius–Radom. Politically, Lithuania received more autonomy as, after the death of Vytautas, the Lithuanian nobles could choose another Grand Duke instead of passing the title to Władysław II Jagiełło or his heir. However, culturally, Lithuania and Poland grew closer. Lithuania adopted Polish institutions of castellans and voivodes. Catholic Lithuanian nobles and church officials were granted equal rights with the Polish nobles and clergy. Forty-seven selected Lithuanian nobles were adopted by Polish families and granted Polish coats of arms. Thus the union signified the beginnings of the Polonization of Lithuanian culture and the rise of the Lithuanian nobility. It was one of the major steps towards the modernization and Europeanization of Lithuania.

Historical background
Poland and Lithuania had been joined in a personal union since the Union of Krewo of 1385. Both countries were ruled by Władysław II Jagiełło. However, after the Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392) and the Ostrów Agreement, Vytautas gained the supreme power in Lithuania. The legal basis for Polish–Lithuanian relations was revisited by the Union of Vilnius and Radom of 1401, which reiterated de facto Lithuanian independence and de jure Polish supremacy. Vytautas was to be known by the title of Grand Duke (magnus dux) and enjoyed vast power in Lithuania, while technically he was subordinate to Władysław II Jagiełło, 'Supreme Duke' (supremus dux) and King of Poland. The union was signed after Vytautas' army was soundly defeated in the Battle of the Vorskla River and weakened Lithuania was looking for Polish support. Taking advantage of the Lithuanian defeat, the Principality of Smolensk, Veliky Novgorod, and Pskov rebelled against Lithuanian rule, drawing Vytautas into a war with the Grand Duchy of Moscow. However, within a few years peace was re-established in the east.

In 1409, the second Samogitian uprising against the Teutonic Knights escalated into the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War. Joint Polish–Lithuanian forces defeated the Knights in the decisive Battle of Grunwald in 1410. However, the war did not resolve all the disputes and by 1413 Poland–Lithuania was preparing for another war with the Knights (see Hunger War). These developments encouraged Poland and Lithuania to review their relationship.

Provisions
The treaty repeated the indissoluble character of the Polish–Lithuanian union while carefully balancing Polish and Lithuanian interests. The Lithuanians gained more autonomy as they received the right to elect a new Grand Duke after the death of Vytautas. The earlier Union of Vilnius and Radom stipulated that Lithuania would pass to Władysław II Jagiełło or his heir. However, the Lithuanian nobles promised to consult the Polish nobles when choosing a successor to Vytautas. The reverse was also true: the Polish nobles promised to consult with the Lithuanians when electing the next Polish King. The pact contained one of the first mentions of the Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Polish and Lithuanian nobles agreed to hold a joint general sejm to discuss all major matters, but such a sejm did not take place until 1564. Nevertheless, it was a recognition of the political powers of the Lithuanian nobles.

The Lithuanian nobles and clergy were granted equal rights with the Polish nobility and clergy. However, this extended only to Catholics; many Ruthenian nobles, who were Eastern Orthodox, were excluded, however, in 1434, Grand Duke Sigismund Kęstutaitis repealed some of the provisions in the Horodło acts that limited the political rights of Orthodox believers. It would take until 1563 till there was full equality between the two confessions. Selected Lithuanian nobles, 47 in total, were adopted into Polish heraldic families and granted Polish coats of arm. This symbolic gesture signified their desire to adopt Western customs and integrate into Western society. Equal rights encouraged cooperation and kinship between Polish and Lithuanian nobles. The influence of Polish culture continued to increase, culminating in the Union of Lublin of 1569.

Another significant resolution was the adoption of Polish administrative divisions and offices like voivode and castellan by Lithuania. The union created the Voivodeship of Trakai and Vilnius, governed by two Lithuanian nobles. Former Slavic principalities and duchies largely preserved their old political, social, and administrative features for another century. Kiev Voivodeship was established in 1471, and another five voivodeships were established between 1504 and 1514. This administrative change signified the modernization of the Grand Duchy and a decline of traditional dynastic politics. Previously major regions of the Grand Duchy were ruled by members of the ruling dynasty (siblings, children, cousins, etc. of the Grand Duke). Such principalities remained semi-independent and their rulers could become powerful rivals of the Grand Duke with their own claims to the throne. The new voivodeships were governed by trustworthy nobles, unrelated to the royal clan, who could be easily replaced. Soon the nobility replaced members of the ruling dynasty as the driving force behind Lithuanian politics.

title: Union of Horodło


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What is there prefered deit? 216.161.123.248 20:40, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)

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Iarley

Pedro Iarley Lima Dantas (born 29 March 1974), simply known as Iarley, is a Brazilian football coach and former player who played as an attacking midfielder or a forward. He is the current head coach of Moto Club.

Club career
Born in Quixeramobim, Ceará, Iarley played for Ferroviário, Ceará, and Paysandu of Brazil, Real Madrid B, AD Ceuta and UD Melilla of Spain, Boca Juniors of Argentina and Dorados de Sinaloa of Mexico. He joined Internacional for the 2005 Campeonato Brasileiro from Dorados de Sinaloa, where he played during the 2004-2005 season. Although Iarley impressed at Dorados in his first season, he also struggled with injuries, appearing in only nine games, registering three assists.

At Internacional, Iarley made a good impression at first, but then lost his place in the team that eventually won the Copa Libertadores in 2006 to wonderboy Rafael Sobis. After Sobis's transfer to Real Betis, he took on the number 10 shirt and helped Inter win the FIFA Club World Cup in the same year.

In 2008, he moved on to Goiás. And in 2009, he scored 12 goals in Série A and his team made a good season despite finishing in 9th.

In the end of 2009, Iarley signed a contract with Corinthians. In the end of 2010, he moved to fellow Série A team Ceará.

Iarley retired from football on August 22, 2014, after leaving his first club Ferroviário.

Honours
Ceará
 * Campeonato Cearense: 2002, 2011

Boca Juniors
 * Primera División: 2003 Apertura
 * Intercontinental Cup: 2003

Internacional
 * Copa Libertadores: 2006
 * Recopa Sudamericana: 2007
 * FIFA Club World Cup: 2006
 * Campeonato Gaúcho: 2008

Goiás
 * Campeonato Brasileiro Série B: 2012
 * Campeonato Goiano: 2009, 2012

Paysandu
 * Campeonato Paraense: 2013

Individual
 * FIFA Club World Cup Silver Ball: 2006

title: Iarley


text:
Canadian Bank Note Company

The Canadian Bank Note Company (CBNC) is a Canadian security printing company. It is best known for holding the contract with the Bank of Canada to supply it with Canada's banknotes since 1935. The company's other clients include private businesses, national and sub-national governments, central banks, and postal services from around the world. In addition to banknotes, the company produces passports, driver's licences, birth certificates, postage stamps, coupons, and many other security-conscious document-related products. It also prints and provides document reading systems for identification cards, lottery tickets, stamps, and banknotes.

From 1897 until 1923, CBN was a unit of the New York–based American Bank Note Company (now known as ABCorp). It was later a privately held company when it was acquired by Ottawa businessman Charles Worthen; beginning in 1976 Douglas Arends slowly acquired control of the company. It has since been based in Ottawa, Ontario.

Since 2014, the Canadian Bank Note Company has been the chief provider for machine-readable passports used within the Caribbean Community bloc of countries. The majority of the new CARICOM passports as they are called serve the union as a centerpiece of promoting easy travel within the Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME).

Gallery
Samples of items printed by Canadian Bank Note Company:

title: Canadian Bank Note Company


text:
British Olympic Association

The British Olympic Association (BOA) is the National Olympic Committee for the United Kingdom. However it is almost unique in that its teams also incorporate representatives from other British dependent territories, who do not have their own separate Olympics teams, but which also excludes some UK citizens from Northern Ireland due to internal governing body territories in sports such as rugby, tennis and field hockey. Founded in 1905, it is responsible for organising and overseeing the participation of athletes from the Great Britain and Northern Ireland Olympic Team, at both the summer and winter Olympic Games, the Youth Olympic Games, the European Youth Olympic Festivals, and at the European Games.

BOA members and sporting bodies
The British Olympic Association – of the United Kingdom comprising its constituent countries, the Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories which do not have their own NOC – competes at all summer, winter and youth Olympics as 🇬🇧 Great Britain ("Team GB").

Members
The association comprises members from the following countries:

 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom
 * 🏴 England
 * Northern Ireland
 * 🏴 Scotland
 * 🏴 Wales

Note – Northern Irish athletes can choose whether to compete for Great Britain and Northern Ireland or for the Republic of Ireland, as they are entitled to citizenship of either nation under the Good Friday Agreement. However in a number of sports, including hockey, tennis and rugby sevens, Northern Irish athletes are de facto disbarred from representing the UK because the designated federation only selects from those players who are from the island of Great Britain.

Crown Dependencies:
 * Bailiwick of Guernsey
 * 🇮🇲 Isle of Man
 * 🇯🇪 Jersey

British Overseas Territories:
 * Akrotiri and Dhekelia
 * 🇦🇮 Anguilla
 * British Antarctic Territory
 * 🇮🇴 British Indian Ocean Territory
 * Falkland Islands
 * 🇬🇮 Gibraltar
 * 🇲🇸 Montserrat
 * Pitcairn Islands
 * 🇸🇭 Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
 * South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
 * 🇹🇨 Turks and Caicos Islands

Note – IOC rules currently do not allow dependent territories to obtain recognition for National Olympic Committees (NOCs). Three British Overseas Territories have their own NOCs predating this rule and are therefore not connected with the BOA: Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands and the Cayman Islands. While the territories of British Antarctic Territory, British Indian Ocean Territory and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are nominally represented by the BOA, these territories have no permanent population and do not send athletes.

Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories athletes for Team GB
Among Crown Dependencies and current-day Overseas Territories, only a few have been represented on Team GB since 1930 (The year of the first Commonwealth Games) while retaining citizenship of, and (if the sport is held) Commonwealth Games eligibility for their territories. These include:
 * Cameron Chalmers (Guernsey)
 * Peter Kennaugh (Guernsey)
 * Alex Coleborn (Jersey)
 * Mark Cavendish (Isle of Man)
 * Peter Kennaugh (Isle of Man)
 * Alexandra Jackson (Isle of Man)
 * Marie Purvis (Isle of Man)
 * Jonathan Bellis (Isle of Man)
 * Georgina Cassar (Gibraltar)

Some more have participated in Team GB after switching eligibility mid-career from their territories to England before the Olympic Games, including:
 * Shara Proctor (represented Anguilla until 2011, entered the Olympic Games in 2016)
 * Delano Williams (represented Turks and Caicos Islands until 2012, entered the Olympic Games in 2016)

British sports bodies associated with the BOA

 * 🇬🇧 UK Sport
 * 🇬🇧 UK Anti-Doping
 * 🏴 Sport England
 * 🏴 English Institute of Sport
 * Sport Northern Ireland
 * 🏴 Sportscotland
 * 🏴 Sport Wales

Role
The BOA is one of 206 National Committees (NOCs) currently recognised by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The IOC leads the promotion of Olympism in accordance with the Olympic Charter.

Working with the national governing bodies of each sport, the BOA selects Team GB's members to compete in all sports at the summer and winter Olympics. The BOA is independent and receives no funding from the government. Its income comes from fundraising and events.

Great Britain & Northern Ireland is one of only five National Olympic Committees (the others being Australia, France, Greece and Switzerland) which have never failed to be represented at the Summer Olympic Games since 1896. Of these countries GB&NI, France and Switzerland are the only countries to have been present at all Olympic Winter Games; thus Great Britain & Northern Ireland is one of three countries that have competed at all Olympic Games. Great Britain is also the only team in the Olympic Games to have won a gold in every Summer games. The United Kingdom has hosted three Olympic Games, all of them in London: in 1908, 1948 and 2012.

Structure
At its formation in 1905 the association consisted of seven national governing body members from the following sports: fencing, life-saving, cycling, skating, rowing, athletics, rugby football, association football, and archery. It now includes as its members the thirty-three national governing bodies of each Olympic sport, both summer and winter.

A representative of each of the Olympic sports makes up the NOC, the BOA's decision and policy-making body. The NOC elects three officers: a President, a Chairman, and a Vice-Chairman, each for a four-year term. Six members of the NOC are elected to the Board, which oversees the work of the BOA and puts forward proposals for decision by the NOC. The present (2022) chief office holders are:

 * President: The Princess Royal
 * Chairman: Sir Hugh Robertson

 * CEO: Andy Anson

 * Vice Chairman: Annamarie Phelps

Former Chairmen

 * Arthur Gold (1984 to 1992)

Founding
The BOA's origins pre-date the International Olympic movement and its governing body, the International Olympic Committee.

It traces its roots back to the National Olympian Association (NOA), which held its inaugural meeting at the Liverpool Gymnasium, Myrtle Street, Liverpool in November 1865. It promoted an annual series of sporting events across Britain, with the aim of encouraging participation in physical education through Olympian festivals. The NOA came about mainly through the efforts of John Hulley of Liverpool (Chairman), Dr William Penny Brookes (of Much Wenlock) and E G Ravenstein (president of the German Gymnastic Society of London). It took the existing Olympian Games of Much Wenlock as its example, thus the NOA Games "were open to all comers" and not just the products of Britain's public schools.

After the NOA closed in 1883 its motto ('Civium virtus civitatis tutamen' meaning 'the power of the citizens is the defence of the state') and ethos were inherited by the National Physical Recreation Society (NPRS) which was founded in 1885. From 1902 the President and Treasurer of the NPRS were members of the Olympic "Comité Britannique" and the NPRS was a founding body of the British Olympic Association in 1905.

title: British Olympic Association


text: Category:950 births

title: Category:950 births


text: Category:968 births

title: Category:968 births


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Murdock River

The Murdock River (French: Rivière Murdock) is a river in Sudbury District in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. It is in the Lake Huron drainage basin and is a right tributary of the French River.

Course
The river begins at Mud Lake in geographic Servos Township in Unorganized North Sudbury District. It flows west through Graham Lake, turns south, and is crossed by the Canadian Pacific Railway main line. It enters Lovering Lake at the community of Paget, flows west under Ontario Highway 69 into Kakakiwaganda Lake, then turns sharply east back under Highway 69 to Round Lake. It heads south southeast, passes briefly through the northeast corner of geographic Cox Township, enters the municipality of French River, is crossed by Ontario Highway 64 and Ontario Highway 607, and reaches its mouth at the French River near the central community of French River.

title: Murdock River


text: Category:980 births

title: Category:980 births


text:
Category talk:Cryptography

Shouldn't this category be called Cryptology? Lapo Luchini 20:47, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * This question pops up from time to time (along with the naming of cryptography, list of cryptography topics etc). The argument is that there are (at least) two ways of describing the subject. The first is to describe the entire field as "cryptology", divided into "cryptanalysis" and "cryptography". The second is to describe the entire field as "cryptography". I think the second style is preferable simply because it's much more commonly used. — Matt Crypto 00:38, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

More Subcategories?
Shouldn't 'Classical ciphers' 'Stream ciphers' and any other categories for ciphers be subcategories of Cryptography? Hugo999 00:59, 14 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Block ciphers, too? There are lots of great categories out there that are not linked to Cryptography. --WiseWoman (talk) 10:02, 19 October 2008 (UTC)

Alice and Bob - the theory
Any chance of a section on the theory of Alice and Bob, where things can go wrong, and how? Maybe a guide to tests one can perform to establish what is going wrong and where? --JeremyJones56789 (talk) 11:39, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

 * We have an article on Alice and Bob. I'm not sure I understand what you mean by "theory"?--agr (talk) 11:53, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

Quicker manual one time pad generation
Perhaps you could suggest using a bingo machine for manual generation of a one time pad? Depending on how secure it needs to be (theory, or a guide would be handy) you can rattle balls out at about 11 seconds per character - much faster than dice or scrabble, untouched by human hand, absolutely unambiguous. Can use original numbers with conversion chart or make your own balls out of, eg: FIMO plastic. See mine on my web site, with example set of balls, sample OTP, and stats: --JeremyJones56789 (talk) 11:39, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

 * A bingo machine as normally used wouldn't be suitable. As I understand how they work, there is a fixed number of marked balls that are extracted one at a time. So if you had, say three of each letter in the ball pool, there could be no more than three consecutive same letters in a string, for example. That is not fully random. You could put each ball back after you recorded it and let them mix, but that would slow things down a lot. Besides, how many people own Bingo machines?--agr (talk) 11:53, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The best way to generate one time pads manually, and fairly quickly, is to roll a handful of 10-sided dice. Say you throw 5 dice, that gives you a 5 number group. With a bit of practice, you can easily do a 5 number group every 5 or 10 seconds. Ten-sided dice are readily available at gaming stores. I've tried a number of different manual ways to generate one time pads, and using 10-sided dice is absolutely the quickest, most convenient, and most secure way. Don't use regular dice, as messages encrypted with pads generated by conventional dice are susceptible to attacks where you 'guess' at a chunk of plaintext, and 'slide' it through the ciphertext looking for places where you get a possible result (ie., ciphertext-plaintext = 1 through 6) and to weed out areas where the plaintext isn't possible (ciphertext-plaintext = 0,7,8, or 9, which can't occur on pads generated by conventional 6-sided dice). Dittybopper (talk) 15:19, 27 April 2011 (UTC)

Hashing
I was looking through the links on Cryptography and was wondering why there are little to no resources regarding Hashes. If someone could tell me why this is so or rectify this that would be great. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.72.161.115 (talk) 01:58, 14 June 2013 (UTC)

title: Category talk:Cryptography


text:
Union of Grodno (1432)

The Union of Grodno was a series of acts of the Polish–Lithuanian union between Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The first acts were signed in 1432 during the Lithuanian Civil War of 1431–1435. The acts confirmed the Union of Vilnius and Radom (1401). The Union established Sigismund Kęstutaitis as the Grand Duke of Lithuania and re-established Władysław II Jagiełło's seniority and dynastic interest in Lithuania.

Background
After death of Vytautas in 1430, the Lithuanian nobles unilaterally selected Švitrigaila as the new Grand Duke. This violated the terms of the Union of Horodło of 1413, where Lithuanians promised not to elect a new Grand Duke without an approval from Poland. The Polish nobles were outraged and demanded that Švitrigaila acknowledged fealty to his brother Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland. Švitrigaila refused and the conflict grew into a civil war. In September 1431, Poland and Lithuania signed a two-year truce; however, on 31 August 1432, a group of nobles deposed Švitrigaila in support of Sigismund Kęstutaitis, brother of Vytautas. Sigismund resumed policy of union with Poland. A Polish delegation, sent to Lithuania by Władysław II Jagiełło and led by Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Bishop of Kraków, pronounced Sigismund as the Grand Duke of Lithuania for life on 30 September 1432. Sigismund swore loyalty to Poland in an act, signed in Grodno (Hrodna) on 25 October 1432. Władysław II Jagiełło confirmed both acts on 3 January 1433. Sigismund had to reconfirm his loyalty to these provisions on 20 January 1433, 27 February 1434, 6 December 1437 and 31 October 1439. Collectively all these acts are known as the Union of Grodno.

Provisions
The Union established a clear lord–vassal relationship between Władysław II Jagiełło (styled dominus nostra and frater seniorus) and Sigismund (styled supremus princeps ad tempora vitae). The act in essence confirmed the Union of Vilnius and Radom (1401) and granted Sigismund the same rights as Vytautas enjoyed during his reign. After Sigismund's death, Lithuania was to return to the King of Poland; thus the Union of Grodno abandoned provisions of the Union of Horodło (1413), which envisioned that the Lithuanian nobility would elect their new Grand Duke with consent of the Polish nobles. Sigismund promised not to seek the Lithuanian crown and his son Michael Žygimantaitis had no dynastic rights to the throne of Lithuania. Thus Jagiełło's dynastic interest in Lithuania was re-established, which is explained by the fact that in 1413 he had no children, while in 1432 he had two sons (Władysław III and Casimir IV). Sigismund also made territorial concessions to Poland, which received contested Podolia and part of Volhynia (except for Lutsk and Volodymyr-Volynskyi). After Sigismund's death entire Volhynia was to unconditionally pass to Poland.

Aftermath
In 1435 Sigismund won the decisive Battle of Wiłkomierz thus ending the Lithuanian Civil War of 1431–1435. He established himself in Lithuania and began distancing from pro-Polish policies. Sigismund took advantage of dynastic struggle between the Jagiellons and the Habsburg dynasty over the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1437–1438 and attempted to form an anti-Polish coalition with the Teutonic Knights. The plan failed and Sigismund was forced to re-confirm the Union of Grodno in 1437 and 1439. Despite the declarations, after Sigismund's murder in 1440, the Lithuanians unilaterally elected Casimir IV Jagiellon as their Grand Duke. The union between Poland and Lithuania was broken until 1447, when Casimir also became King of Poland.

title: Union of Grodno (1432)


text:
User talk:Zorpidus

JFW | T@lk  20:50, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zorpidus


text: User talk:68.252.165.88

title: User talk:68.252.165.88


text:
Union of Mielnik

The Act of Mielnik or Union of Mielnik was an attempt to unite the Kingdom of Poland with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1501. It was not ratified by the Lithuanian Seimas or by the Polish Sejm (see Łaski's Statute). The Act of Mielnik remained just a political project. Despite the failure to unify two countries into a single state, Poland and Lithuania were under a personal union until the Union of Lublin of 1569.

Provisions
After death of John I Albert, King of Poland, his brother Alexander Jagiellon, Grand Duke of Lithuania, became the most suitable candidate for the new king. Such a move would revive the Polish–Lithuanian union, a personal union between the two states. However, Alexander's ambitions went further. The Act of Mielnik was drafted by Polish and Lithuanian diplomats on 3 October 1501 in Piotrków and confirmed on 23 October 1501 by Alexander (who was already elected as the Polish King but not yet crowned) and few members of the Lithuanian Council of Lords. On 30 October, twenty-seven Lithuanian nobles and boyars agreed to abide by the Union of Melnik. The act declared that Poland and Lithuania would be united into a single state with one ruler, one parliament (Great Sejm), one monetary system, and one army. The separate and independent position of the Grand Duke of Lithuania was eliminated, transferring the title to King of Poland. It meant that Alexander gave up his hereditary rights to the throne of the Grand Duchy. Such declaration sharply contrasted with the Union of Kraków and Vilna of 1499, which envisioned the Polish–Lithuanian union as an alliance of two equal partners.

Jagiellon ambitions
Such a declaration reflected changed priorities of the Jagiellon dynasty. In Lithuania, their patrimony, the Jagiellons had hereditary rights, while in Poland they had to be elected by the nobles. Earlier Jagiellons saw Lithuania as their stronghold to ensure their power in Poland and therefore supported Lithuania's independence from Poland. However, as the Kings were educated and lived mostly in Poland, they began to focus on Polish affairs often regarding Lithuanian matters as secondary. As Jagiellons became monarchs of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Bohemia, they became interested in uniting the two countries into one, strengthening their positions for further dynastic expansion in Eastern and Central Europe. However, the Act of Melnik was not supported by Alexander's brother Vladislas II, King of Bohemia and Hungary.

Ratification
The Act attracted only limited support among the Lithuanian nobles, chiefly Voivode of Trakai Jan Jurjewicz Zabrzeziński and Bishop of Vilnius Wojciech Tabor. Some Lithuanians hoped for Polish assistance in the Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars, especially after the defeat in the Battle of Vedrosha. Most nobles, including Grand Chancellor Mikołaj Radziwiłł, Bishop of Samogitia Martynas Lintfaras, regent of Navahrudak Albrecht Goštautas, were against the Act. The Act required that it would be ratified by the Lithuanian Seimas. However, the war with the Grand Duchy of Moscow postponed the Seimas until 1505 and by that time Alexander himself showed much less interest in ratifying the Act. It was hoped that the Act of Melnik could be ratified by the Polish Sejm in Radom in 1505. However, the Lithuanian Seimas in Brest rejected the Act and did not authorize the Lithuanian delegates to the Sejm in Radom to discuss the Act.

title: Union of Mielnik


text:
Polish–Lithuanian union

The Polish–Lithuanian union was a relationship created by a series of acts and alliances between the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that lasted for prolonged periods of time from 1385 and led to the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, or the "Republic of the Two Nations", in 1569 and eventually to the creation of a unitary state in 1791.

History
Important historical events included:
 * 1385 – Union of Krewo, a personal union that brought the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Jogaila, to the Polish throne as a result of his marriage to Jadwiga of Poland in February 1386
 * 1401 – Union of Vilnius and Radom, which strengthened the Polish–Lithuanian union
 * 1413 – Union of Horodło, a treaty requiring Polish and Lithuanian noblemen to organize congresses to resolve issues of common interest. Essentially a heraldic union, the treaty granted many szlachta rights to Lithuanian nobility.
 * 1432 (1432–34) – Union of Grodno, a declarative attempt to renew a closer union
 * 1499 – Union of Kraków and Vilnius in which the personal union became a dynastic union and recognised the sovereignty of Lithuania and described relations between the two states
 * 1501 – Union of Mielnik, a renewal of the personal union
 * July 1, 1569 – Union of Lublin, a real union that resulted in creation of the semi-federal, semi-confederal Republic of the Two Nations (Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth)
 * May 3, 1791 – Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791: abolished the elective monarchy and turned it into a hereditary monarchy and established a common state, the Rzeczpospolita Polska (Polish Commonwealth), in its place. The Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations modified the changes by stressing the continuity of binational status of the state. The changes were reversed completely in 1792 under pressure from the Russian Empire.

title: Polish–Lithuanian union


text: File:M72 LAW rocket.gif

title: File:M72 LAW rocket.gif


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Dharan

Dharan (धरान) is a sub-metropolitan city in Sunsari District of Koshi Province, in eastern Nepal, which was established as a fourth municipality in the Kingdom in 1958. It is the third most populous city in eastern Nepal after Biratnagar and Itahari. The Nepali word "dharan" means a saw pit. The rainforest from which the tree trunks came is still just on the edge of the city. Much later the British Gurkha camp opened in October 1960. The use of the camp by British Gurkhas finished in the mid-1990s. Dharan has an estimated city population of 173,096 living in 34,834 households as per the 2021 Nepal census. It is one of the cities of the Greater Birat Development Area which incorporates the cities of Biratnagar-Itahari-Gothgau-Biratchowk-Dharan primarily located on the Koshi Highway in Eastern Nepal, with an estimated total urban agglomerated population of 804,300 people living in 159,332 households. It is the largest city in the province number one by Area. It covers 192.32 square kilometers while Biratnagar and Itahari is 2nd and 3rd biggest cities by Area

Geography
Dharan is situated on the foothills of the Mahabharat Range in the north with its southern tip touching the edge of the Terai region at an altitude of 1148 ft (349m). Dharan bazaar grew up near Phusre where the old walking route to Dhankuta and a large part of the Eastern hills left the plains with the ascent of Sanghuri Danra. In the days when villagers in the hills made their annual trek to sell and buy goods this was a natural location for a market where hills and Terai met. In 1952 the construction of the Kosi barrage began and a narrow gauge railway was built to take stone from Phusre loaded at a locality now known as "Railway" to the site of the barrage near the Indian Border. The Koshi highway runs through the heart of the city thus connecting it with the provincial capital of Biratnagar as well as the Itahari junction of the east–west Mahendra highway (lying 41 km and 17 km south, respectively), and the Nepal-China border of Kimathanka (lying 115 km north). The road from Biratnagar was originally built and surfaced in connection with the building of Gopher Camp for the British Gurkhas. The road from Dharan to Dhankuta was financed by the UK and largely completed by 1982.

History
Dharan was the capital town of lowland Limbuwan kingdom of Morang. It was ruled by Limbu King Buddhi Karna Raya Khebang. King Buddhikarna Khebang was the descendant of the ruler King Muray Hang Khebang of Phedap Kingdom. Since 1584 AD till 1774 AD, Dharan-Bijaypur was the capital city of Morang Kingdom of Limbuwan. It was also effective capital of the entire Limbuwan region or Ten Limbu Kingdoms  which was also known as Pallo Kirat. Thus, in August 1774, the Gorkha King Prithivi Narayan Shah's representatives Abhiman Singh Basnet, Parath Bhandari, Kirti Singh Khawas and Bali Baniya met the ministers of Morang state and agreed to come to good terms with the Gorkha Kingdom  and accept the Gorkhali king as Maharaja and that in return the kingdom of Gorkha would retain the right of self-government of Limbu rulers in their kingdoms.

City, which is connected with the historical importance of Bijaypur started its development since 1985 BS. Then Prime minister Chandra Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana established Chandra nagar (now purano bazaar) and primeminister Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana established Juddha nagar (now naya bazaar). City abstracted its name after "Dharan" (nepali word) a rectangular hollow dug under the ground and a low platform upon it for sawing logs with a big saw; one person on the platform and other below it. And, after the establishment of Dharan city, logs used to be widely split uphere in "Dharan".It took its present shape when Bijaypur village panchayat and Ghopa village panchayat were merged into Dharan municipality in 2035 BS.

Languages
At the time of the 2011 Census of Nepal, 42.5% of the population in the city spoke Nepali, 10.1% Limbu, 7.4% Newar, 5.9% Rai, 5.9% Tamang, 5.8% Bantawa, and 22.4% spoke other smaller languages as their first language.

Caste and ethnic groups
The largest single caste/ethnic in Dharan is Rai, who make (19.4%) of the population, Limbu comes to second with (12.7%), Newar makes (11.1%) of population Chhetri (10.7%), Tamang (7.3%), Hill Brahmin (7.1%), Kami (6.2%) and other various ethnic groups makes (25.2%) Of the population.

Environment
A study conducted in 2016 to analyze the bacteriological quality of bottled drinking water and that of municipal tap water in Dharan found that one hundred percent of the tap water samples and 87.5% of the bottled water samples were contaminated with heterotrophic bacteria. Of the tap water samples, 55.3% were positive for total coliforms, compared with 25% of the bottled water, but no bottled water samples were positive for fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci, in contrast to 21.1% and 14.5% of the tap water samples being contaminated with fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci, respectively. One hundred percent of the tap water samples and 54.2% of the bottled water samples had pH in the acceptable range.

Tourist attractions

 * Budha Subba: As an important and unique religious site to Nepali people, this temple holds immense cultural significance to the people of Dharan. Budha Subba temple is located a top the Bijaypur hills and the surrounding area is highly scenic.
 * Pindeshwor Baba Dham: Pindeshwor Mahadev Babadham is the most famous Bolbam Mandir In Nepal. Every Monday in the month of Shrawan, a large number of devotees from different places come barefoot to pay tribute and faith to Lord Shiva with holy water from the Koshi River.
 * Gurkha Memorial Park: This park was established "to preserve the legacy of Brigade of Gurkhas in Dharan for posterity before it is forgotten and lost forever", as many Nepalese men, many of whom were residents of Dharan, joined the Brigade of Gurkhas.
 * Dharan Clock Tower

 * Bhatabhungge palace(भताभुङ्गे दरबार)

 * Dantakali temple(दन्तकाली मन्दिर)

 * Osho park(B.P park)

 * Yalambar park(यलम्बर पार्क)

 * Green park(हरियाली पार्क)

 * SDS Rock Garden

 * Labor Culture Park[(श्रम संस्कृति पार्क) (आरा धरान)]

 * Saptarangi Park(सप्तरङ्गी पार्क)

 * Sakela park(साकेला पार्क)

 * Tara subba Children park

 * Langhali park

Media and communication

 * Newspapers: The people of Dharan are served by several daily local newspapers and national newspapers. There are 11 local newspapers in total. These include The Blast Times and The Morning Times. National newspapers are also provided to the people of Dharan on a daily basis. National newspapers include The Kathmandu Post, Kantipur, Annapurna Post, and Himalayan Times. Several monthly neighborhood papers serve the town.
 * Radio: The state-owned Radio Nepal is broadcast on the medium wave on 648 kHz in the city. Five private local FM stations are available. They are Star FM - 95.6 MHz, Vijayapur FM - 98.8 MHz, Dantakali FM - 88.5 MHz, and Radio Dharan FM - 88.8 MHz. Radio Ganatantra FM 95.1 MHz is a community radio station. Likewise, Dharan has a BFBS Radio Relay station. It broadcasts on FM frequencies.
 * Television: Nepal's state-owned television broadcaster, Nepal Television's relay station is present near its border, which provides two free-to-air terrestrial channels. A mix of Nepali, Hindi, English, and other international channels are accessible via cable subscription and direct-broadcast satellite services. Dharan Cable Network broadcasts Kriti Television Channel as a local television channel that covers events in the city.

Notable people

 * Bhola Rijal, Doctor and lyricist
 * Deep Shrestha, Singer and music composer
 * Deepak Limbu, Singer
 * Dhiraj Rai, Singer
 * Govinda Subba, First governor of Koshi Province
 * Hari Nath Bastola, Politician
 * Harka Raj Rai, Current mayor of Dharan, social activist, and leader of public mobilization movement.
 * Krishna Kumar Rai, Politician
 * Malina Joshi, Miss Nepal 2011
 * Malvika Subba, Miss Nepal 2002
 * Minendra Rijal, Politician & MP
 * Namrata Shrestha, Actress
 * Miruna Magar, Actress
 * Raju Kaji Shakya, Former captain of national football team
 * Sabin Rai, Singer
 * Subin Limbu, Miss Nepal 2014

title: Dharan


text: Category:1140 births

title: Category:1140 births


text:
List of numbered highways in Washington, D.C.

District of Columbia Routes are numbered highways maintained by the District of Columbia's District Department of Transportation (DDOT). In addition to these routes, there are several Interstate and United States Numbered highways that pass through Washington, D.C. The metro area is also served by three unnumbered, federally maintained parkways: the Clara Barton Parkway, the Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway, and the George Washington Memorial Parkway (the latter on the west side of the Potomac River, but a portion of it is east of the Boundary Channel).

List of routes
The chart below consists of all District of Columbia Routes, including signed routes that no longer traverse the District of Columbia.


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Neil Cicierega (0th nomination)

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was - kept

Neil Cicierega
"Internet personality and artist, who has at times described his occupation as 'youthful dipwad.'" Looks like nonnotable vanity. —tregoweth 20:54, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Recursive web fame. I don't see notability here, just contributions to web sites, and the article has a bit of advertising in it.  Geogre 05:23, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. I think he's well-known enough in many circles that he deserves his own article.  Animutations are a popular genre of Flash films, and he basically invented the field.  And his presence was acknowledged by the mainstream media back in 2001, even; Salon.com had an article about him.  --Soup of the Gods 20:16, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 *  Strong Keep: He's well known enough to have an article, albinoblacksheep.com once had an entire interview with him. Almost everyone online has encountered his work at least one time or another. Plus, he's one of the youngest internet "celebs" out there known for flash work. Coolgamer 18:53, Dec 14, 2004 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.


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Citibank Canada

Citibank Canada, operating as Citi Canada, is the Canadian subsidiary of the American multinational financial services corporation Citigroup. Citi Canada is headquartered in Toronto, Ontario, with offices in Calgary, London, Ontario, Montreal, Mississauga, and Vancouver.

History
Citi Canada's Schedule 2 (foreign-owned, deposit-taking), under the Bank Act of Canada, subsidiary Citibank Canada is a member of the Canadian Bankers Association (CBA) and a member of the CDIC, a federal Crown corporation that insures deposits to applicable limits and across deposit categories.

Up until the finalization of the sale of its consumer finance subsidiary, CitiFinancial Canada, to affiliates of private equity firms J.C. Flowers & Co. and Värde Partners on April 3, 2017, the company engaged in consumer retail loans principally to sub-prime and near-prime borrowers. Both in the years preceding and after the sale transaction, CitiFinancial Canada, which was renamed Fairstone Financial, Inc. post-close, had 200 branches in Canada.

Products and services
The company provides securities trading, cash management, treasury, trade financing, custodial services, clearing, securities financing, depositary receipt, trust services, corporate banking, investment banking, private banking, and the private-label credit card of The Home Depot Canada. It had previously issued various MasterCard credit cards until Citi Canada sold that division (named Citi Cards Canada, Inc.) to CIBC in a $2.1 billion CAD deal in 2010.

title: Citibank Canada


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Billdal

Billdal is a bimunicipal locality situated in Kungsbacka Municipality, Halland County, and Gothenburg Municipality, Västra Götaland County, in Sweden. It had 10,289 inhabitants in 2010. It mainly consists of villas and terraced houses, grouped along a windling coastline with many islands.

Notable natives

 * Dark Tranquillity
 * In Flames

title: Billdal


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Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

The pre-colonial history of the modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo encompasses the history of the Congo Basin region up to the establishment of European colonial rule in the era of New Imperialism and particularly the creation of the Congo Free State and its expansion into the interior after 1885. As the modern territorial boundaries of the Democratic Republic of the Congo did not exist in this period, it is inseparable from the wider pre-colonial histories of Central Africa, the Great Lakes and Rift Valley as well as the Atlantic World and Swahili coast.

The current territory of the Democratic Republic of Congo was occupied by humans in the Paleolithic at least 80,000 years ago. Waves of Bantu migrations from 2000 BC to 500 AD moved into the basin from the northwest and covered the precolonial states absorbed or overthrown by the colonial powers.

The Bantu migrations added to and displaced the indigenous Pygmy populations in the southern regions of the modern Congo states. The Bantu imported agriculture and iron-working techniques from West Africa into the area, as well as establishing the Bantu language family as the primary set of tongues for the Congolese. Subsequent migrations from the Darfur and Kurdufan regions of Sudan into the north of Congo, as well as East Africans migrating into the eastern Congo, added to the mix of ethnic groups.

Paleolithic
The area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo was populated as early as 90,000 years ago, as shown by the 1988 discovery of the Semliki harpoon at Katanda, one of the oldest barbed harpoons ever found, and which is believed to have been used to catch giant river catfish.

In 1960 the Ishango bone tool was discovered, fashioned from the fibula of a baboon with a sharp piece of quartz affixed to one end, perhaps for engraving. It was first thought to be a tally stick, as it has a series of what has been interpreted as tally marks carved in three columns running the length of the tool, but some scientists have suggested that the groupings of the notches indicate a mathematical understanding that goes beyond counting. It is now believed to be more than 20,000 years old.

Bantu migration
The Bantu expansion is thought to have reached modern day DRC as well as Northern Angola and Zambia possibly as early as 500 BC, and then gradually started to expand southward.

Their propagation was accelerated by the adoption of pastoralism and of Iron Age technology. The people living in the south and southwest were hunter-gatherer groups, whose technology involved only minimal use of metal technologies. The development of metal tools during this time period revolutionized agriculture and animal husbandry. This led to the displacement of the hunter-gatherer groups in the east and southeast.

The 10th century marked the final expansion of the Bantu in West-Central Africa. A rising population soon made intricate local, regional and foreign commercial nets possible, forming networks that traded mostly in salt, iron and copper.

Upemba culture
In the 5th century, a society began to develop in the Upemba depression along the banks of the Lualaba River in Katanga. This culture, known as the Upemba, would eventually evolve into the more significant Luba Empire, as well as the Kingdom of Lunda.

The process in which the primitive original Upemba society transitioned into the Luba kingdom was gradual and complex. This transition ran without interruption, with several distinct societies developing out of the Upemba culture prior to the genesis of the Luba. Each of these societies based the foundation of their society on that of the one which preceded it (much in the way that many aspects of Roman culture were borrowed from the Greeks). The 5th century saw this societal evolution develop in the area around present day Kamilamba at the Kabambasee, which was followed and replaced by a number of other cultures which were based around the cities of Sanga and Katango.

The region in which these cultures appeared is particularly rich in ore and these civilizations began to develop and implement iron and copper technology, in addition to trading in ivory and other goods. The Upemba established a strong commercial demand for their metal technologies and were able to institute a long-range commercial net (the business connections extended over 1500 km, all the way to the Indian Ocean). Additionally, the region was endowed with favorable agricultural conditions and a wealth of fish and game.

Its strong economy and food-base allowed the region to become extremely wealthy. So wealthy, in fact, that cities and centralized government based on a chieftain system developed. The political institution of the chieftain became generally accepted and these rulers became increasingly powerful, especially at the end of the 16th century.

Effects of geography and climate
Additionally, it must be mentioned that, as is this case today, the Congo River and its tributaries, as well as climatic conditions in general, play a powerful role in shaping the lives of the inhabitants of the Congo. The rivers are and were tremendously important to regional trade and provide a vast natural network for such activities, in addition to providing a source of food and water to the population.

It must also be mentioned that the climate is a major force in the Congo, which is made up primarily of tropical rainforest that sees some of the highest annual rainfall in the world. This high amount of rainfall makes it difficult to sustain agriculture, and subsequently a large population because the soil is simply too watered-down and prone to periodic floods to produce large quantities of food. For this reason, the population of the Congo has maintained a low population in addition to an extremely low population density.

Also, much has been made about the large number of hunter-gatherer groups that inhabit the Congo, especially the Pygmy population. The reason for this particular life-style being so prominent in the Congo is geographical and climatic: the area is simply not capable of producing a large amount of food from agriculture, and as a result, a portion of the population has continued to hunt and gather because it is a much more sustainable way of life.

Religion and Spirituality
The Congo region was home to a wide array of ethnicities and communities and therefore differing spiritual and religious practices. Due to the scarcity in precolonial documentation the exact nature and dates of development of some of these practices remain elusive. The religions practised in precolonial Congo were as far as is known animistic in nature. They believed that places, objects and creatures could possess a spiritual essence and practised ancestral worship.

According to the religion practised by the Bakongo people the world is split into the world of the living and the world of the dead. Shamans known as Nganga can mediate between these two worlds. A specific characteristic of the Kongo religion is the so-called cosmogram. It is believed the highest god, next to other high gods, resides at the top of the world, the spirits and other deities living below, followed by the physical realm populated by humans and animals, with water existing in the middle where the two worlds meet.

When people die, their souls leave their bodies to travel to the realm of the dead, but can still be contacted or called upon by means of prayer. The dead talk to the living through dreams, omens or through shamans.

Similar characteristics are seen in the Baluba religion, where priests can also serve as intermediaries between the natural and supernatural world. The traditional religious beliefs of the Luba people included the concept of a Universal Creator, a Leza or the Supreme Being, a natural world and a supernatural world. The supernatural world was where ancestral spirits lived, and what one joined the afterlife if one lived a righteous life.

The Bakuba people from the Kingdom of Kuba believed in a single creator deity, named Bumba or m'Bombo. He is said to have originally existed alone in darkness, in a universe consisting of nothing but primordial water. The creation took place when he vomited the sun, moon, animals and then humanity.

Cannibalism
The attitudes towards cannibalism in the Congo region varied significantly, with certain cultures practicing cannibalism in certain contexts while in other cultures cannibalism was either only practiced by certain individuals or shunned altogether and its practitioners dehumanized.

A personal indigenous first-hand account of ritualistic cannibalism can be found in the life story of Disasi Makulo, as written down by his son Akambu Makulo. Disasi, an indigenous traveller from the Eastern Congo region reported that upon his return to his native village after years of travel the villagers proposed a large feast in celebration of his arrival. They meant to take two slaves and have them slaughtered and served as part of the celebration meal.

The specific practice of sacrificing and consuming slaves could be found among other cultures as well, such as the Azande, Lufembe, Bangala, Basongye, Batetela and Ngombe. The slaves were normally war captives, acquired through inter-communal warfare. These slaves could either be used for labour or human sacrifice, or sold in the Arab slave trade. Another type of cannibalism centered around the (partial) consumption of fallen enemies during conflict. This type of cannibalism was for instance practised by the Manyema, Bukusu and Basimba militias and slaves from Congo, Uganda and Tanzania used by Arab slave traders like Tippu Tipp, who had claimed the Eastern Congo for himself and Sultan Bargash bin Said el Busaidi.

The most infamous militia were the so-called Zappo Zap, a subgroup of the Basongye people. They had a habit of eating their fallen enemies, and were said to consider human meat a delicacy. These warrior cultures were also used by both the Leopoldian forces as well as the Arab slavers during the Congo-Arab war. During the 1892–1894 war between the Congo Free State and the Swahili-Arab city-states of Nyangwe and Kasongo in Eastern Congo, there were reports of widespread cannibalization of the bodies of defeated Arab combatants by the Batetela allies of Belgian commander Francis Dhanis.

After the defeat of the Arab slavers, many militias were incorporated into the colonial army of the Congo Free State, including the Zappo Zap. The African-american missionary William Henry Sheppard wrote an first-hand account of a Zappo Zap attack on a number of villages, including descriptions of cannibalism.

Although cannibalism was indeed practiced in the (eastern) Congo region, some of contemporary accounts were the result of exaggeration and miscommunication. Communities could use the accusation of cannibalism as a tool to dehumanize enemy tribes, and uncritical missionaries may have written down these second-hand accounts as truth. Certain Congolese cultures considered certain internal diseases as a form of cannibalism, as they believed an evil spirit was consuming the victim from the inside. When these people died, their bodies were put down at a safe distance from the village and cut open to examine the internal organs for irregularities. The combination of the word "cannibalism" and the eviscerated remains may have led missionaries with a poor understanding of local languages and racialised bias to prematurely conclude that these communities practised cannibalism.

Kingdom of Kongo (1390–1914)
The dominant political force of the Congo region prior to and during the initial arrival of Europeans was the Kingdom of Kongo. The Kongo was a state located primarily in the southwest portion of the modern Congo, and also occupying portions of northern Angola and Cabinda. At its greatest extent, the kingdom reached from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Kwango River in the east, and from the Point Noire in the north to the Loje River in the south.

The kingdom was headed by a king known as the Manikongo, who exercised his authority over the six provinces that constituted the Kongo kingdom and the Bakongo (Kongo peoples). When the Kongo Kingdom was at its political apex in the 15th and 16th centuries, the King, who had to be a male descendant of Wene, reigned supreme.

He was elected by a group of governors, usually the heads of important families and occasionally including Portuguese officials. The activities of the court were supported by an extensive system of civil servants, and the court itself usually consisted of numerous male relatives of the King.

The villages were often governed by lesser relatives of the King who were responsible to him. All members of government were invested with their power under the auspices of a ritual specialist. The Manikongo personally appointed a kind of governor for each of the six provinces to oversee each from his capital, Mbanza-Kongo. The city is now known by the same name as the capital of an Angolan province, but was for a time renamed by the Manikongo to 'São Salvador' in an effort to adopt Portuguese culture.

In its prime, the Kingdom exacted taxes, forced labor, and collected fines from its citizens in order to prosper. At times, enslaved peoples, ivory, and copper were traded to the Europeans on the coast. The most important harbor was Mpinda (modern Soyo). In addition to the six provinces, the Kongo kingdom also established a sphere of influence in a number of outlying areas from which it was able to extract tribute.

The kingdom was also at the center of an extensive Central African trade network in which it traded and produced large quantities of ivory, as well as manufacturing copperware, raffia cloth, and pottery, along with other natural resources (The eastern region of the Congo [such as the province of Katanga] is particularly rich in mineral resources, especially diamonds). These trade goods would also form, in addition to slaves, the backbone of the Kongo's trade with Europeans (primarily the Portuguese), upon their arrival.

The aforementioned slave trade was to be a significant factor in bringing about the end of Kongo, as the elites of the kingdom allowed European slave traders to eliminate a significant percentage of the population.

When King Álvaro I, came to the throne in an environment of contestation in 1568, he immediately had to fight invaders from the east (who some authorities believe were actually rebels within the country, either peasants or discontented nobles) called the "Jagas". To do this, he had to enlist the aid of the Portuguese based at São Tomé, who sent an expedition under Francisco de Gouveia Sottomaior to assist. At the same time, however, Álvaro had to allow the Portuguese to establish a colony in his province of Luanda in the south of his country. Kongo provided the Portuguese with support in their war against the Kingdom of Ndongo, located in the interior east of Luanda, when Portugal went to war with it in 1579. Eventually the Portuguese would gain control over most of the surrounding territory which led to increasing tensions with the Kongo.

At the Battle of Ambuila in 1665, the Portuguese forces from Angola defeated the forces of king Antonio I of Kongo; Antonio was killed with many of his courtiers and the Luso-African author Manuel Roboredo, who had attempted to prevent this final war. Nevertheless, the country continued to exist, at least in name, for over two centuries, until the realm was divided among Portugal, Belgium, and France at the Conference of Berlin in 1884-1885.

Luba Kingdom (1585-1889)

The Luba Kingdom arose out of the Upemba culture and was founded by King Kongolo around 1585. His nephew and immediate, Kalala Ilunga, expanded into an Empire over neighbouring states on the upper left bank territories of the Lualaba River. At its peak, the empire had about a million people paying tribute to its king.

The Luba Empire's success was due in large part to its development of a form of a government durable enough to withstand the disruptions of succession disputes and flexible enough to incorporate foreign leaders and governments. It was based on the twin principles of sacred kingship and rule by council. The Luba model of governing was so successful, it was adopted by the Lunda Kingdom and spread throughout Katanga and northern Angola as well as northwestern Zambia and its Luapula Province.

Lunda Kingdom (1665-1887)
The birth of the Lunda Kingdom is traced back to Ilunga Tshibinda who left his brother's Luba Kingdom and married a princess from an area in the south of Katanga. Their son, Mwaant Yav or Mwata Yamvo formed the central Lunda Kingdom there with a population of about 175,000 and became its ruler from 1660 to 1665. His title and name was passed to his descendants and successors as rulers of the kingdom.

The Lunda kings became powerful militarily and then politically through marriage with descendants of the Luba kings. The Lunda people were able to settle and colonialize other areas and tribes, thus extending their empire through southwest Katanga into Angola and north-western Zambia, and eastwards across Katanga into what is now the Luapula Province of Zambia. The empire became a confederation of a number of kingdoms or chieftainships which enjoyed a degree of local autonomy (as long as tributes were paid), with Mwata Yamvo as paramount ruler, and a ruling council (following the Luba model) to assist with administration.

In the 18th Century a number of migrations took place from the Lunda Empire as far as the region to the south of Lake Tanganyika. The Bemba people under Chitimukulu migrated from the Lunda Kingdom to Northern Zambia. At the same time, a Lunda chief and warrior called Mwata Kazembe set up an Eastern Lunda kingdom in the valley of the Luapula River.

Yeke Kingdom (1856–1891)

The Yeke Kingdom (or Garanganze Kingdom) in Katanga was short-lived, existing from about 1856 to 1891 under one king, Msiri, a Nyamwezi (also known as 'Yeke') from Tabora in Tanzania who got himself appointed as successor to a Wasanga chief west of the Luapula River by defeating the chief's Lunda enemies.

Once installed he conquered the neighbouring tribes and expanded the chieftainship into a kingdom, taking over the western territory of Mwata Kazembe and subjugating tribes in the southwest, on the trading route to Angola. When King Leopold II of Belgium and British diamond magnate Cecil Rhodes heard that the Yeke Kingdom controlled east-west trade and was rich in copper and possibly gold, they sent competing expeditions to try to negotiate a treaty with the kingdom.

The Stairs Expedition sent by Leopold under the flag of his Congo Free State was the winner of this scramble for Katanga when it met and killed Msiri (putting his head on a pole as a 'lesson' to his people), and installed a successor who would sign Katanga over to Leopold. The chieftainship continues to this day under the title Mwami Mwenda ('Mwenda' was one of Msiri's names).

Kuba Federation
The Kuba Kingdom, or more accurately, the Kuba Federation, was a political entity (one comprising a collection of approximately twenty Bantu ethnic groups) that began to develop out of a number of decentralized, ethnically Bantu states (namely the Luba, the Leele, and the Wongo ethnic groups).

The federation's capital was Nsheng, which is now modern Mushenge. The name “Kuba” is derived from the term used by the Luba (whose kingdom lay to the south of the Kuba) for the civilization.

Because of its relative remoteness in the southern Congo, Kuba was largely spared the turmoil of both Euro-American and Arab slave trades. As a result, the civilization was able to maintain itself until the 19th century. Also due mainly to its location, even after Belgium officially established the Congo Free State in 1885, the Kuba were able to sustain their federation, which comprised some 100,000 square kilometers and had a population of approximately 150,000 inhabitants.

The Belgians began attempting to gain the acceptance of the Kuba in the early 1880s; however, the gifts Belgium attempted to give were always rejected and king aMbweeky aMileng threatened to behead any foreign intruders. As a result of their fear of white foreigners, it was not until the African-American missionary William Sheppard made contact with the Kuba that a foreigner would gain their acceptance. This was mainly due to his African blood and Sheppard was able to live amongst the Kuba for four months.

Eventually, after colonial officials were able to enforce their authority upon the Kuba near the end of the 19th century, the entire region became increasingly unstable. However, the well-organized Kuba fought relentlessly against the regime and the area was one of the main sectors of resistance to Belgium throughout its rule.

Other states
The Kongo and the Kuba were the largest political entities in the precolonial Congo area. However, there were numerous other, much smaller states scattered throughout the territory in the north and northeast, with Pygmies and other primarily hunter-gatherer populations located mostly in the southern portions of the region.

Of particular note is that the populations of the Eastern regions of the precolonial Congo were heavily disrupted by constant slaving, mainly from Zanzibari slave dealers such as the infamous Tippu Tip (though he would come after the Europeans' entrance onto the scene). The slave trade in this portion of Africa was primarily Arab in nature (in contrast to the European or Atlantic Slave Trade, which took place primarily in West Africa, the Arab slave trade was located on the eastern coast of the continent), with captured persons being shipped off to the Middle East or to holdings of Arabian kingdoms for labor.


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Georg Alexander Pick

Georg Alexander Pick (10 August 1859 – 26 July 1942) was an Austrian Jewish mathematician who was murdered during The Holocaust. He was born in Vienna to Josefa Schleisinger and Adolf Josef Pick and died at Theresienstadt concentration camp. Today he is best known for Pick's theorem for determining the area of lattice polygons. He published it in an article in 1899; it was popularized when Hugo Dyonizy Steinhaus included it in the 1969 edition of Mathematical Snapshots.

Pick studied at the University of Vienna and defended his Ph.D. in 1880 under Leo Königsberger and Emil Weyr. After receiving his doctorate he was appointed an assistant to Ernst Mach at the Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague. He became a lecturer there in 1881. He took a leave from the university in 1884 during which he worked with Felix Klein at the University of Leipzig. Other than that year, he remained in Prague until his retirement in 1927 at which time he returned to Vienna.

Pick headed the committee at the (then) German university of Prague, which appointed Albert Einstein to a chair of mathematical physics in 1911. Pick introduced Einstein to the work of Italian mathematicians Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro and Tullio Levi-Civita in the field of absolute differential calculus, which later in 1915 helped Einstein to successfully formulate general relativity.

Charles Loewner was one of his students in Prague. He also directed the doctoral theses of Josef Grünwald, Walter Fröhlich, and Saly Struik. Pick was elected a member of the, but was expelled after Nazis took over Prague.

After retiring in 1927, Pick returned to Vienna, the city where he was born. After the Anschluss when the Nazis marched into Austria on 12 March 1938, Pick returned to Prague. In March 1939 the Nazis invaded Czechoslovakia. Pick was sent to Theresienstadt concentration camp on 13 July 1942. He died there two weeks later.

title: Georg Alexander Pick