text:
British Iron Age

The British Iron Age is a conventional name used in the archaeology of Great Britain, referring to the prehistoric and protohistoric phases of the Iron Age culture of the main island and the smaller islands, typically excluding prehistoric Ireland, which had an independent Iron Age culture of its own. The Iron Age is not an archaeological horizon of common artefacts but is rather a locally-diverse cultural phase.

The British Iron Age followed the British Bronze Age and lasted in theory from the first significant use of iron for tools and weapons in Britain to the Romanisation of the southern half of the island. The Romanised culture is termed Roman Britain and is considered to supplant the British Iron Age.

The tribes living in Britain during this time are often popularly considered to be part of a broadly-Celtic culture, but in recent years, that has been disputed. At a minimum, "Celtic" is a linguistic term without an implication of a lasting cultural unity connecting Gaul with the British Isles throughout the Iron Age. The Brittonic languages, which were widely spoken in Britain at this time (as well as others including the Goidelic and Gaulish languages of neighbouring Ireland and Gaul, respectively), certainly belong to the group known as Celtic languages. However, it cannot be assumed that particular cultural features found in one Celtic-speaking culture can be extrapolated to the others.

Periodisation
At present over 100 large-scale excavations of Iron Age sites have taken place, dating from the 8th century BC to the 1st century AD and overlapping into the Bronze Age in the 8th century BC. Hundreds of radiocarbon dates have been acquired and have been calibrated on four different curves, the most precise being based on tree ring sequences.

The following scheme summarises a comparative chart presented in a 2005 book by Barry Cunliffe, but British artefacts were much later in adopting Continental styles such as the La Tène style of Celtic art:

The Iron Age has been further subdivided with the "Late Iron Age" in Britain showing developments of new types of pottery, possibly influenced by Roman or Gaulish cultures. The clearing of forests for cultivation of agricultural crops intensified and areas with heavier and damper soil were settled. Spelt (Triticum spelta) was planted in these areas like the Tees Lowlands and some parts of Northern England.

The end of the Iron Age extends into the very early Roman Empire under the theory that Romanisation required some time to take effect. In parts of Britain that were not Romanised, such as Scotland, the period is extended a little longer, say to the 5th century. The geographer closest to AD 100 is perhaps Ptolemy. Pliny and Strabo are a bit older and therefore a bit more contemporary, but Ptolemy gives the most detail and the least theory.

Archaeological evidence

Attempts to understand the human behaviour of the period have traditionally focused on the geographic position of the islands and their landscape, along with the channels of influence coming from Continental Europe.

During the later Bronze Age, there are indications of new ideas influencing land use and settlement. Extensive field systems, now called Celtic fields, were being set out, and settlements were becoming more permanent and focused on better exploitation of the land. The central organisation to undertake that had been present since the Neolithic period but became targeted at economic and social goals, such as taming the landscape, rather than the building of large ceremonial structures like Stonehenge. Long ditches, some many miles in length, were dug with enclosures placed at their ends. Those are thought to indicate territorial borders and a desire to increase control over wide areas.

By the 8th century BC, there is increasing evidence of Great Britain becoming closely tied to Continental Europe, especially in Southern and Eastern Britain. New weapon types appeared with clear parallels to those on the Continent, such as the Carp's tongue sword, complex examples of which are found all over Atlantic Europe. Phoenician traders probably began visiting Great Britain in search of minerals around this time and brought with them goods from the Mediterranean. At the same time, Northern European artefact types reached Eastern Great Britain in large quantities from across the North Sea.

Defensive structures dating from this time are often impressive such as the brochs of Northern Scotland and the hill forts that dotted the rest of the islands. Some of the most well-known hill forts include Maiden Castle, Dorset; Cadbury Castle, Somerset; and Danebury, Hampshire. Hill forts first appeared in Wessex in the Late Bronze Age but became common only in the period between 550 and 400 BC. The earliest were of a simple univallate form and often connected with earlier enclosures attached to the long ditch systems. Few hill forts have been substantially excavated in the modern era, Danebury being a notable exception, with 49% of its total surface area studied. However, it appears that the "forts" were also used for domestic purposes, with examples of food storage, industry and occupation being found within their earthworks. On the other hand, they may have been occupied only intermittently, as it is difficult to reconcile permanently-occupied hill forts with the lowland farmsteads and their roundhouses found during the 20th century, such as at Little Woodbury and Rispain Camp. Many hill forts are not in fact "forts" at all and demonstrate little or no evidence of occupation.

The development of hill forts may have occurred from greater tensions that arose between the better-structured and more populous social groups. Alternatively, there are suggestions that in the latter phases of the Iron Age, the structures simply indicate a greater accumulation of wealth and a higher standard of living although any such shift is invisible in the archaeological record for the Middle Iron Age, when hill forts come into their own. In that regard, they may have served as wider centres used for markets and social contact. Either way, during the Roman occupation the evidence suggests that as defensive structures, they proved to be of little use against concerted Roman attack. Suetonius comments that Vespasian captured more than 20 "towns" during a campaign in the West Country in 43 AD, and there is some evidence of violence from the hill forts of Hod Hill and Maiden Castle in Dorset from this period. Some hill forts continued as settlements for the newly-conquered Britons. Some were also reused by later cultures, such as the Saxons in the early medieval period.

People of Iron Age Britain
"Britain, we are told, is inhabited by tribes which are autochthonous and preserve in their ways of living the ancient manner of life. They use chariots, for instance, in their wars, even as tradition tells us the old Greek heroes did in the Trojan War."

- Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica, 60-30 BC

Celtic movement from Continent

The Roman historian Tacitus suggested that the Britons were descended from people who had arrived from the Continent, and he compared the Caledonians (in modern-day Scotland) to Germanic peoples, the Silures of Southern Wales to Iberian settlers and the inhabitants of Southeastern Britannia to Gaulish tribes. That migrationist view long informed later views of the origins of the British Iron Age and the making of the modern nations. Linguistic evidence inferred from the surviving Celtic languages in Northern and Western Great Britain at first appeared to support the idea, and the changes in material culture that archaeologists observed during later prehistory were routinely ascribed to a new wave of invaders.

From the early 20th century, the "invasionist" scenario was juxtaposed to a diffusionist view. By the 1960s, the latter model seemed to have gained mainstream support, but it in turn came under attack in the 1970s.

There was certainly a large migration of people from Central Europe westwards during the early Iron Age. The question whether these movements should be described as "invasions", as "migrations" or as mostly "diffusion" is largely a semantic one.

Examples of events that could be labelled "invasions" include the arrival in Southern Britain of the Belgae from the end of the 2nd century BC, as described in Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War. Such sudden events may be invisible in the archaeological record. In that case, it depends on the interpretation of Aylesford-Swarling pottery. Regardless of the "invasionist" vs. "diffusionist" debate, it is beyond dispute that exchanges with the Continent were a defining aspect of the British Iron Age. According to Caesar, the Britons further inland than the Belgae believed that they were indigenous.

Demography

The population of Britain increased significantly during the Iron Age probably to more than one million, partly due to improved barley and wheat and increased use of peas, beans and flax. Most were concentrated densely in the agricultural lands of the South. Settlement density and a land shortage may have contributed to rising tensions during the period. The average life expectancy at birth would have been around 25, but at the age of five, it would have been around 30. Those figures would be slightly lower for women, and slightly higher for men throughout the Middle Iron Age in most areas, on account of the high mortality rate of young women during childbirth; however, the average age for the two sexes would be roughly equal for the Late Iron Age. That interpretation depends on the view that warfare and social strife increased in the Late Iron Age, which seems to be fairly well attested in the archaeological record for Southern Britain at least.

Early in the Iron Age, the widespread Wessex pottery of Southern Britain, such as the type style from All Cannings Cross, may suggest a consolidated socio-economic group in the region. However, by 600 BC, that appears to have broken down into differing sub-groups with their own pottery styles. Between c. 400 and 100 BC, there is evidence of emerging regional identities and a significant population increase.

Ptolemy's Albion
Claudius Ptolemy described Britain at the beginning of Roman rule but incorporated material from earlier sources. Although the name "Pretanic Isles" had been known since the voyage of Pytheas, and "Britannia" was in use by Strabo and Pliny, Ptolemy used the earlier "Albion", which is known to have been used as early as the Massaliote Periplus.

Iron Age beliefs in Britain

The Romans described a variety of deities worshipped by the people of Northwestern Europe. Barry Cunliffe perceives a division between one group of gods relating to masculinity, the sky and individual tribes and a second group of goddesses relating to associations with fertility, the earth and a universality that transcended tribal differences. Wells and springs had female, divine links exemplified by the goddess Sulis worshipped at Bath. In Tacitus's Agricola (2.21), he notes the similarity between both religious and ritual practices of the pre-Roman British and the Gauls.

Religious practices often involved the ritual slaughter of animals or the deposition of metalwork, especially war booty. Weapons and horse trappings have been found in the bog at Llyn Cerrig Bach on Anglesey and are interpreted as votive offerings cast into a lake. Numerous weapons have also been recovered from rivers, especially the Thames but also the Trent and Tyne. Some buried hoards of jewellery are interpreted as gifts to the earth gods.

Disused grain storage pits and the ends of ditches have also produced what appear to be deliberately-placed deposits, including a preference for burials of horses, dogs and ravens. The bodies were often mutilated, and some human finds at the bottom of pits, such as those found at Danebury, may have had a ritual aspect.

Caesar's texts state that the priests of Britain were Druids, a religious elite with considerable holy and secular powers. Great Britain appears to have been the seat of the Druidic religion, and Tacitus's account of the later raid on Anglesey led by Suetonius Paulinus gives some indication of its nature. No archaeological evidence survives of Druidry, but a number of burials made with ritual trappings and found in Kent may suggest a religious character to the subjects.

Overall, the traditional view is that religion was practiced in natural settings in the open air. Gildas mentions "those diabolical idols of my country, which almost surpassed in number those of Egypt, and of which we still see some mouldering away within or without the deserted temples, with stiff and deformed features as was customary". However, several sites interpreted as Iron Age shrines seem to contradict that view, which may derive from Victorian and later Celtic romanticism. Sites such as at Hayling Island, in Hampshire, and the one found during construction work at Heathrow Airport are interpreted as purpose-built shrines. The Hayling Island example was a circular wooden building set within a rectangular precinct and was rebuilt in stone as a Romano-British temple in the 1st century AD to the same plan. The Heathrow temple was a small cella surrounded by a ring of postholes thought to have formed an ambulatory, which is very similar to Romano-Celtic temples found elsewhere in Europe. A rectangular structure at Danebury and a sequence of six-poster structures overlooking calf burials and culminating in a trench-founded rectangular structure at Cadbury Castle, Somerset, have been similarly interpreted. An example at Sigwells, overlooking Cadbury Castle, was associated with metalwork and whole and partial animal burials to its east. However, evidence of an open-air shrine was found at Hallaton, Leicestershire. Here, a collection of objects known as the Hallaton Treasure were buried in a ditch in the early 1st century AD. The only structural evidence was a wooden palisade built in the ditch.

Death in Iron Age Great Britain seems to have produced different behaviours in different regions. Cremation was a common method of disposing of the dead, but the chariot burials and other inhumations of the Arras culture of East Yorkshire and the cist burials of Cornwall demonstrate that it was not ubiquitous. In Dorset, the Durotriges seem to have had small inhumation cemeteries, sometimes with high status grave goods. In fact, the general dearth of excavated Iron Age burials makes drawing conclusions difficult. Excarnation has been suggested as a reason for the lack of burial evidence, with the remains of the dead being dispersed either naturally or through human agency.

Economy of Iron Age Britain

Trade links developed in the Bronze Age and beforehand provided Great Britain with numerous examples of continental craftsmanship. Swords especially were imported, copied and often improved upon by the natives. Early in the period, Hallstatt slashing swords and daggers were a significant import, but, the volume of goods arriving seems to have declined, possibly from more profitable trade centres appearing in the Mediterranean. La Tène culture items (usually associated with the Celts) appeared in later centuries, and again, they were adopted and adapted with alacrity by the locals.

There also appears to have been a collapse in the bronze trade during the early Iron Age, which can be viewed in three ways:

 * 1) Steady transition: the development of iron parallel to a diminishing bronze system.
 * 2) Rapid abandonment; iron undermines bronze and takes over its social function.
 * 3) Bronze crisis: severe reduction in the supply of bronze allows the iron to replace it.

With regard to animal husbandry, cattle represented a significant investment in pre-Roman Britain, as they could be used as a source of portable wealth and to provide useful domestic by-products such as milk, cheese and leather. In the later Iron Age, an apparent shift is visible, revealing a change in dominance from cattle rearing to that of sheep. Economically, sheep are significantly less labour-intensive, requiring fewer people per animal.

Cattle and sheep dominate the osteo-archaeological record, but evidence for pig, ox, dog and rarely chicken is widely represented. There is generally an absence from environmental remains of hunted game and wild species as well as fresh and sea water species, even in coastal communities.

A key commodity of the Iron Age was salt, used for preservation and the supplementation of diet. Though difficult to find archaeologically, some evidence exists. Salterns, in which sea water was boiled to produce salt, are prevalent in the East Anglia fenlands. Additionally, Morris notes that some salt trading networks spanned over 75 km.

Representing an important political and economic medium, the vast number of Iron Age coins found in Great Britain are of great archaeological value. Some, such as gold staters, were imported from Continental Europe. Others, such as the cast bronze (potin) coins of Southeast England, are clearly influenced by Roman originals. The British tribal kings also adopted the continental habit of putting their names on the coins they had minted, with such examples as Tasciovanus from Verulamium and Cunobelinos from Camulodunum identifying regional differentiation. Hoards of Iron Age coins include the Silsden Hoard in West Yorkshire found in 1998. A large collection of coins, known as the Hallaton Treasure, was found at a Late Iron Age shrine near Hallaton, Leicestershire, in 2000 and consisted of 5,294 coins, mostly attributed to the Corieltavi tribe. These were buried in 14 separate hoards over several decades in the early 1st century AD.

The expansion of the economy throughout the period, but especially in the later Iron Age, is in large part a reflection of key changes in the expression of social and economic status.

Early and Middle Iron Age

The Early Iron Age saw a substantial number of goods belonging to the Hallstatt culture imported from the continent, and they came to have a major effect on Middle Iron Age native art.

Late Iron Age
From the late 2nd century BC onwards, South-Central Britain was indirectly linked into Roman trading networks via Brittany and the Atlantic seaways to south-western Gaul. Hengistbury Head in Dorset was the most important trading site, and large quantities of Italian wine amphorae have been found there. These Atlantic trade networks were heavily disrupted following Julius Caesar's failed conquest of Brittany in the 50s BC. This fact may support a supposition that the Celts of Britain had an economic interest in supporting their Gallic brethren in their resistance to Roman occupation.

In South-eastern Britain, meanwhile, extensive contact with the 'Belgic' tribes of northern Gaul is evidenced by large numbers of imported Gallo-Belgic gold coins between the mid-2nd century BC and Caesar's conquest of Gaul in the 50s BC. Those coins probably did not principally move through trade. In the past, the emigration of Belgic peoples to South-Eastern Britain has been cited as an explanation for their appearance in that region. However, recent work suggests that their presence there may have occurred from a kind of political and social patronage that was paid by the northern Gaulish groups in exchange for obtaining aid from their British counterparts in their warfare with the Romans on the Continent.

After Caesar's conquest of Gaul, a thriving trade developed between South-Eastern Britain and the near Continent. That is archaeologically evidenced by imports of wine and olive oil amphorae and mass-produced Gallo-Belgic pottery. Strabo, writing in the early 1st century AD, lists ivory chains and necklaces, amber gems, glass vessels and other petty wares as articles imported to Britain, and he recorded the island's exports as grain, cattle, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs. That trade probably thrived as a result of political links and client kingship relationships that developed between groups in South-Eastern Britain and the Roman world.

End of Iron Age in Britain
Historically speaking, the Iron Age in Southern Great Britain ended with the Roman invasion. Although the assimilation of Briton culture was far from instantaneous, some relatively-quick change is evident archaeologically. For example, the Romano-Celtic shrine in Hayling Island, Hampshire was constructed in the AD 60 to 70s, and Agricola was then still campaigning in Northern Britain (mostly in what is now Scotland), and on top of an Iron Age ritual site. Rectilinear stone structures, indicative of a change in housing to the Roman style are visible from the mid-to-late 1st century AD at Brixworth and Quinton.

In areas where Roman rule was not strong or non-existent, Iron Age beliefs and practices remained but not without at least marginal levels of Roman or Romano-British influence. The survival of place names, such as Camulodunum (Colchester), which derive from the native language, is evidence of that.

title: British Iron Age


text:
User talk:TransNomad

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! Rdsmith4— Dan | Talk 19:11, 19 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:TransNomad


text: File:Beatlesstoryalbumcover.jpg

title: File:Beatlesstoryalbumcover.jpg


text:
1983 Bermondsey by-election

A by-election was held in the Bermondsey constituency in South London, on 24 February 1983, following the resignation of Labour MP Bob Mellish. Peter Tatchell stood as the candidate for the Labour Party, and Simon Hughes stood for the Liberal Party. Following a bitter campaign, the Liberals made huge gains and took the seat, with a majority of votes cast. Labour's vote fell from 63.6 per cent in May 1979 to 26.1 per cent as Tatchell came a distant second, while the Conservative candidate, Robert Hughes, managed only fourth place, losing his deposit. With a swing of 44.2%, the 1983 Bermondsey by-election remains the largest by-election swing in British political history.

Preliminaries
Bob Mellish had represented the constituency and its predecessors in the House of Commons since 1946. He was the Labour Chief Whip from 1969 until 1976, but had become disenchanted with the left-wing drift of the Labour Party. He resigned from the party in August and his Parliamentary seat in November 1982, amid much acrimony within the party. He had been in dispute with his constituency party for several years and had earlier threatened to resign if Peter Tatchell was selected as the next prospective parliamentary candidate. He was recruited by the Conservative government to the board of the London Docklands Development Corporation; as he did not wish to be disqualified, the post was made non-salaried until such time as Mellish chose to accept payment. This meant that Mellish had a paid job to go to as soon as he wanted.

On 7 November 1981, Bermondsey Labour Party selected Peter Tatchell, its secretary, as prospective Parliamentary candidate. Tatchell was a leading member of the left-wing faction that had taken control of the local party the previous year. He was also a contributor to London Labour Briefing, a magazine that circulated among the London left, and had written an article suggesting the use of extra-Parliamentary direct action by the Labour Party, saying: "We must look to new, more militant forms of extra-parliamentary opposition which involve mass popular participation and challenge the government's right to rule". This call to civil disobedience was considered a call to violent action by some, and was used "as a stick to beat [Tatchell] with" by political opponents. For example, the article came to the attention of James Wellbeloved, a former London Labour MP who had defected to the Social Democratic Party; Wellbeloved then referred to it in a Parliamentary Question to Margaret Thatcher on 3 December.

Labour Party leader Michael Foot responded to Wellbeloved by denouncing Tatchell's article and declared "the individual concerned is not an endorsed member of the Labour Party and as far as I'm concerned never will be". Tony Benn wrote in his diary that many people, including himself, thought that Foot had confused Peter Tatchell with Peter Taaffe, then the leader of the Trotskyist Militant tendency, and Michael Crick in his book on Militant agrees that the fact that Tatchell and Taaffe have similar names contributed to public confusion between the two, despite the fact that Militant opposed Tatchell's candidacy due to anti-gay feeling and political differences between the old left (Militant) and new left (Tatchell) of the party. As to whether Tatchell was a member of the Labour Party itself, Foot later clarified that he meant to say "endorsed candidate" instead of "endorsed member" in his response to Wellbeloved. At the next meeting of the Labour Party National Executive Committee, Tatchell was narrowly rejected as a candidate. Mellish was not reassured about the future direction of the Labour Party and resigned from it on 2 August 1982, a clear preliminary to resigning his seat, which he did by taking the Chiltern Hundreds on 1 November that year. The left wing of the Labour Party agreed Tatchell would be eligible for selection, and Tatchell was duly selected again in January 1983.

Tabloid newspapers had begun researching his background when Foot denounced him, in particular Tatchell's activities with the Gay Liberation Front in the early 1970s. Several stories were published which made it clear that he was gay.

Other candidates
At the 1981 Greater London Council election, the Liberal Party had come second in Bermondsey. They chose their GLC candidate Simon Hughes, a barrister who had moved to the constituency earlier that year, to fight the by-election. The Conservatives chose Robert Hughes (no relation), who was a Greater London Council (GLC) councillor for Croydon Central. He later became the MP for Harrow West. Among those who applied for the Conservative nomination but were not chosen was Sara Keays, then having an as yet unrevealed affair with Cecil Parkinson.

The right-wing former Labour leader of Southwark Borough Council, John O'Grady, who had been a target for the left-wing faction locally, also decided to stand under the banner 'Real Bermondsey Labour' with Bob Mellish's support and encouragement. His campaign was dominated by personal opposition to Tatchell and defence of his leadership of the council. Twelve other candidates stood, including Screaming Lord Sutch, appearing for the first time under the Official Monster Raving Loony Party label, and the Dowager Lady Birdwood.

Esmond Bevan intended to stand as an independent Labour candidate, but erroneously entered his occupation in the section on the nomination papers headed 'description', thus appearing on ballot papers as "Systems Designer".

Start of the campaign
The Labour campaign started disastrously when it was discovered that the first leaflets had been printed at Cambridge Heath Press, owned by the Militant tendency (then practising entryism in the Labour Party; a group whose five key members were expelled two days before polling day). The leaflets were all pulped and reprinted, but the cost of the first printing still counted against the limit for election spending.

Attacks on Tatchell
There was much controversy over Tatchell's homosexuality. The Labour Party persuaded Tatchell to keep quiet about his sexual orientation, although he had previously declared himself 'out'. Various campaigners for opposition candidates, as well as many within the Labour Party, made homophobic comments about Tatchell. Widespread graffiti throughout the constituency referred to him in derogatory terms, while some of those putting up posters in his support found their windows attacked. Tatchell received hate mail, including a live cartridge, and was attacked when out in the street.

Some of the other by-election candidates joined in: John O'Grady (Southwark Council leader, who was promoted as the 'Real Bermondsey' Labour candidacy by the previous MP, Bob Mellish) was filmed touring the constituency on the back of a horse and cart, singing a song which referred to Tatchell "wearing his trousers back to front". On the last weekend of the campaign, an anonymous leaflet was sent round the constituency headed "Which Queen will you vote for?", contrasting the republican Tatchell, who was pictured looking very effeminate, with Queen Elizabeth II. The leaflet gave Tatchell's home address and telephone number.

An alternative analysis of Tatchell's eventual defeat was given by David Sutch, the Official Monster Raving Loony Party candidate, in his 1991 autobiography. When being interviewed on TV at the by-election count, Sutch related to Tatchell how horrified he was at the treatment Tatchell had received, but added that "what I did not tell him was that he had been so bad a candidate that he had largely brought it on himself". Sutch criticised Tatchell's preference for press conferences and press releases rather than traditional meeting-and-greeting, which was generally regarded as the best way to win hearts and minds at a by-election. In a later interview, when the subject of Bermondsey came up, Sutch said that Tatchell "seemed to think all he needed to do to become the MP was turn up at the count".

Homophobia, the Liberal campaign and Labour "sabotage"
During the by-election, members of the Liberal Party were accused of having joined in homophobic attacks on Tatchell. Male Liberal canvassers were seen wearing badges reading "I've been kissed by Peter Tatchell", although this seems to have been a poor taste joke by gay members of the Liberal Party.

While this was criticised by Roy Hattersley at a news conference, elements of the Labour party were also hostile to Tatchell on the grounds both of his politics and his sexuality. He would later recall: "Subjected to 15 months of media smears, anti-gay violence and sabotage by the right of the party, I lost what had been a safe Labour seat."

In an interview with Simon Edge of The Independent published on 17 December 1996, the former Liberal Party Chief Executive, Andy Ellis, was asked whether he approved of the activity undertaken by the Liberal Gay Action Group, and replied "Nothing went on in Bermondsey that we were unhappy with".

During his campaign for leadership of the Liberal Democrats in January 2006, Hughes said he "had both homosexual and heterosexual relationships in the past" and apologised for the actions of Liberals in the Bermondsey campaign, saying that while a lot of the blame for homophobic abuse laid on the press, "I take responsibility" for the actions of his organisers, adding: "I have never been comfortable about the whole of that campaign, as Peter knows, and I said that to him in the past. ... Where there were things that were inappropriate or wrong, I apologise for that." Tatchell, by then a member of the Green Party, said that he had forgiven Hughes, saying "Simon benefited from these dirty tricks, but that was 23 years ago—I don't hold a grudge. It's time to forgive and move on", adding that Hughes should be judged on his 23-year record as an MP.

Opinion polls
Bermondsey was one of the first by-elections to be extensively polled. The polls showed, at first, that the Labour vote was substantially down on the 1979 election figures, but that none of the rival candidates were particularly close. As the campaign went on, the Liberal candidate began to move into a clear second position and the other candidates faded. Later in the campaign, there were rumours which claimed that the right-wing of the Labour Party nationally wished to lose the seat, as it would prove that left-wing Labour candidates were unelectable. By the eve of poll, it was clear that large numbers of previously Labour voters were defecting to other parties, and that non-Labour voters were lining up in support of the Liberal candidate as the one most likely to beat Labour.

Result and votes
The Liberals made huge gains and took the seat, with a majority of votes cast. Labour's vote fell from 63.6 per cent in May 1979 to 26.1 per cent as Tatchell came a distant second, while O'Grady took third. The Conservatives managed only fourth place, for the first time since the 1974 Newham South by-election, and the last in Britain until the 1991 Liverpool Walton by-election. All candidates other than Liberal and Labour lost their deposits.

Hughes would go on to represent Bermondsey and successor constituencies for the next 32 years, making him one of very few examples of MPs who took a formerly safe seat from another party and managed to hold it for a long period of time.

The result for the previous election was:

title: 1983 Bermondsey by-election


text:
Renauld II, Count of Nevers

Renauld II, Count of Nevers and Auxerre (died 1089) was the son of William I of Nevers, Count of Nevers and Ermengarde of Tonnerre.

He married Ida, daughter of Artald V, Count of Forez. They had a child:
 * Ermengarde of Nevers, who married Miles, Sire of Courtenay, son of Joscelin de Courtenay and Isabel, daughter of Guy I of Montlhéry.

Later he married Agnes of Beaugency. They had:
 * William II, Count of Nevers, d.1149
 * Robert

title: Renauld II, Count of Nevers


text:
Talk:Leofric, Earl of Mercia

Untitled
Leofric, Earl of Mercia.

Im new to this subject, but it intrests me to know more about i never heard of lady godiva until i say a picture and after taking survey of art...i liked it and i started to look up more info on it....im mis inform earl is the wife of godiva, not the lover of gods mother???

I don't see where gods mother comes in. Can you be a little clearer? Also, please add your name with four tildes ( ~ ). Auric The Rad 21:07, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)

Hereward
Quote: "but it appears that he was not the father of Hereward the Wake (whose father appears to have been a lesser thegn)." Upon what grounds is this assertion made? (RJP 20:01, 16 April 2006 (UTC))

The novel, Hereward the Wake by Charles Kingsley is based upon Hereward being the son of Leofric and Godiva, but there is nothing to support this assertion. -Streona —Preceding unsigned comment added by Streona (talk • contribs) 14:49, 11 May 2008 (UTC)

Though never directly stated as Leofrics son Herewald is named as both 'Earls son' and of Bourne from which we can only assume that he is connected to leofric and his role in the rebellion would seem to support that claim. Yes, there is no evidence making him Leofric's son but just as equally there no evidence denying it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.150.120.80 (talk) 00:19, 11 November 2008 (UTC)

Cleanup
Mrs Leofric has her own article at Godiva, and any extended discussion of her belongs there, not here. There's no source for Leofric's improbable age; if he was so old, surely it was noteworthy, but I didn't see anything in the ASC. Lots and lots of missing wikilinks. If Hereward the Wake wasn't Leofric's son, why is that information worth including ? Clearly I'm missing something. Why is a genealogy needed ? Normally they aren't put in such articles. Why are the external links the way they are ? soc.genealogy.medieval is not a reliable source and shouldn't be mentioned here. Research for a novel, however extensive, doesn't fall within the bounds of reliable source either (although the materials consulted undoubtedly are). The ASC (I looked at D) includes several mentions of Leofric, none of which are covered here. Given the minimal sources for the period, the omission of that material is odd. To end on an upbeat note, the material on Godiva could be incorporated there. I had never heard of a link to Ranulf. The material on their religiosity is interesting, although it would be helpful to explain that the myth referred to is Godiva's ride at the beginning of the section. I was rather puzzled by the subtitle until I got half way through it. Angus McLellan (Talk) 23:03, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

I'm working on it. Genie 22:40, 23 June 2006.

It's done. --Genie 20:10, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Hurrah ! The result is yet another fine article, a job well done ! Angus McLellan (Talk) 22:04, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

Cnut
What battles took place in 1017? Was not Northman assassinated along with Eadric Streona, Aethelnmaer se Greata, Ceorlacyng and any of Ethelred's sons he could find ? Also it seems that Leofric was given the Earldom of Mercia even though his father, Leofwine did not die until 1023, although Eadric Streona had previously held the title. It appears that Ealdorman of the Hwicce was a separate position.Streona (talk) 15:02, 11 May 2008 (UTC)

Regarding information
At this time the article regarding earl Leofric seems quite bare and out of order, I believe it could be improved in many ways and I have listed them below.
 * 1:Add more relevant information regarding earl Leofric from the many sources available.
 * 2:Cleanup the page (should'nt be to hard).
 * 3:Monitor what is being added to the page and make sure it is factual and relevant.
 * 4:Other things (I dont know?).
 * 4:Excuse my spelling and etc.

23:02, 21 September 2014 (BST) — Preceding unsigned comment added by JoshNEWK1998 (talk • contribs)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Leofric, Earl of Mercia. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added tag to http://www.pase.ac.uk/pase/apps/DisplayPerson.jsp?personKey=15299
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070929065750/http://www.mercianregiment.org.uk/page1.html to http://mercianregiment.org.uk/page1.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 12:42, 20 December 2017 (UTC)

Leofric de Blackwell
According to Williams,Ann (2004). "Leofric de Blackwell,Earl of Mercia (d.1057),magnate Oxford University press & in the book Anglo-Saxon Charters on page 163 Cambridge University press (published December 17th, 2009 by A.J. Robertson. Originally published in 1939. Second edition in 1956 By Land the Oxford History of the Laws of England 871-1216 by the Oxford University press 2601:407:4180:8D80:71C9:5A94:604:A918 (talk) 22:07, 6 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Leofric, Earl of Mercia


text:
Adolescents (album)

Adolescents, also known as The Blue Album due to its cover design, is the debut studio album by American punk rock band the Adolescents, released in April 1981 on Frontier Records. Recorded after guitarist Rikk Agnew and drummer Casey Royer joined the band, it features several songs written for their prior group, the Detours, including "Kids of the Black Hole" and "Amoeba", which became two of the Adolescents' most well-known songs. Adolescents was one of the first hardcore punk albums to be widely distributed throughout the United States, and became one of the best-selling California hardcore albums of its time. The band never toured in support of it, and broke up four months after its release. The Blue Album lineup of Agnew, Royer, guitarist Frank Agnew, bassist Steve Soto and singer Tony Brandenburg reunited several times in subsequent years, but only for brief periods.

Background and recording
The Adolescents formed in Fullerton, California, in January 1980. The original lineup consisted of singer Tony Brandenburg (who used the stage name Tony Cadena), bassist Steve Soto, guitarists Frank Agnew and John O'Donovan, and a drummer who went by the stage name Peter Pan. They began performing locally and recorded their first demo tape that March. A second demo tape, recorded that May, included the songs "I Hate Children", "No Friends", "Who Is Who" and "Wrecking Crew". "I Hate Children" was inspired by a conversation Brandenburg overheard while riding a bus: "It was a snapshot of a man saying to his wife — with his children there crying — that he hated children, can't stand them", he said in 2011. "And this was the same message that my father had given me. When I expressed that, people didn't understand where that was coming from. I wasn't saying this was me. I'm mirroring something that I'm seeing right now. This is what is going on in my life."

O'Donovan and Pan both left the band in June 1980. Frank Agnew's older brother, Rikk Agnew, joined the group, initially on drums, but soon switched to guitar and brought in drummer Casey Royer. Royer and Rikk Agnew brought with them several songs written for their previous band, the Detours, including "Amoeba", "No Way", "Creatures", "Rip It Up", and "Kids of the Black Hole". "Kids of the Black Hole" describes Social Distortion frontman Mike Ness' Fullerton apartment, a graffiti-covered drug den that was a hangout for punks and a site for parties, sex, and violence. "To me, it is one of the greatest punk rock songs of all time", said Soto in 2014, "and of course 'Amoeba' was catchy as fuck, and everybody wants to hear it, but to me, 'Kids of the Black Hole' was like Quadrophenia for us." Said his brother Frank, "Rikk's songwriting was really adventurous for punk rock. He was writing stuff that was punk but had a Beatles-esque quality with the guitar harmonies." He recalled, "With the addition of Rikk and Casey, we'd moved to the next level". They were older and more experienced, so we improved quickly."

KROQ-FM disc jockey Rodney Bingenheimer played the band's second demo tape on his "Rodney on the ROQ" program showcasing local punk acts, giving them the encouragement to record another. They recorded a third demo that July with Chaz Ramirez and Eddie Joseph of local band Eddie and the Subtitles as audio engineers. This demo included "Creatures", "Amoeba" and "Self Destruct". Joseph became the band's manager and began shopping their demo to local record labels. "He even got us an advance check that he promptly cashed and left town...Thanks Eddie", Soto later recalled. The Adolescents continued performing locally and gained in popularity. Bingenheimer approached the band to record a track for his Rodney on the ROQ compilation album (Posh Boy Records, November 1980), which featured other Los Angeles and Orange County bands including Agent Orange, Black Flag and the Circle Jerks. The Adolescents provided a recording of "Amoeba", which became a hit on KROQ that December and drew the attention of Frontier Records founder Lisa Fancher, who signed the band in January 1981. Amoeba' by the Adolescents is the song", she later said. "Definitely was a phenomenon. 'Amoeba' is a masterpiece of a single from any era of rock music."

In March 1981, the Adolescents entered Perspective Sound studios in Sun Valley, Los Angeles to record their debut album. Engineered and mixed by Thom Wilson and produced by Middle Class bassist Mike Patton (not to be confused for the Faith No More vocalist), it was recorded, mixed and mastered in only four days and featured most of the band's oeuvre at the time, including songs from their demos and Royer and Rikk Agnew's Detours songs. "L.A. Girl", a new song, was written by Brandenburg in response to being rejected by a new classmate who had come to Magnolia High School from Los Angeles after her parents divorced. "She made it very clear that I didn't breathe the same atmosphere as her", he recalled 26 years later. "I was trying to tell her we were on the same page, that I was her only ally. But like pretty much all the girls then, she just thought I was a dork, an insect." He wrote the song in response to the slight, later calling it an answer to the Doors' "L.A. Woman". The song's music, written by Frank Agnew, incorporates jarring shifts in tempo between fast, brash punk rock and slower heavy metal, which influenced later California bands. "No one was doing that," Brandenburg recalled, "and the only reason we did is that we were trying to be middle-class punk, but half the band also wanted to be Black Sabbath. Through the years, it seemed to really echo with people. People like NOFX, the Offspring, Rancid, the drummer in No Doubt (Adrian Young) — they have said how much it meant to them."

Album cover
For the album cover, Brandenburg asked Fancher to have someone design a typeface logo similar to Cheap Trick's. Diane Zincavage designed the cover, and its simple composition—a blue field with "Adolescents" in red type—led to it being referred to as The Blue Album.

Release and reception
Adolescents was released in April 1981. One of the first hardcore punk records to be widely distributed throughout the United States, it became one of the best-selling California hardcore albums behind the Dead Kennedys' Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables (1980), selling over 10,000 copies. In a retrospective review, Jack Rabid of AllMusic gave the album 4.5 stars out of 5 and remarked that "the debut from these five Orange County kids established the mid-tempo, punk-pop 'Southern Cal sound', led by the long, great, pummeling, Johnny Thunders-derived solos of the two Agnew brothers, Rikk and Frank.... they're super-catchy, heavy-riffing rock & roll, proving again that punk was the true heir to the likes of Chuck Berry, Larry Williams, Bo Diddley, and Eddie Cochran."

Legacy
Though Rikk Agnew had contributed heavily to the album, tensions between him and the other band members led to him quitting the band just a few months after its release. He was replaced by Pat Smear, formerly of the Germs, and the band planned their first tour to support the album, intending for it to begin in late summer 1981 and last into the fall:. Smear did not want to tour, however, and left the band that June after only three months. He was replaced by Royer's roommate, Steve Roberts, and the new lineup recorded the three-song Welcome to Reality EP in July, but broke up the following month, two months before the EP was released. "Oddly enough, we'd never even made it out of California", Frank Agnew later said.

Greg Graffin, whose band Bad Religion became friends with the Adolescents and played shows with them in 1980–81, became disillusioned with the violence surrounding the Los Angeles punk rock scene of the time and found reassurance in Brandenburg's lyrics to "Rip It Up", which spoke out against fans who used the aggressive music to justify fighting: "Have you had enough violence? / Just to kill boredom, makes no sense / We're not the background for your stupid fights / Get out of the darkness, it's time to unite / Do you think you're tough when you rip it up?"

The Adolescents' Blue Album lineup reunited several times in subsequent years. The first was a reunion show in April 1986 at Fender's Ballroom in Long Beach, California, which led to the band re-forming. They played more shows and began working on material for a new album, but Frank Agnew and Royer left after a few months. With further lineup changes, the Adolescents released two more albums over the next two years, Brats in Battalions (1987) and Balboa Fun*Zone (1988), then broke up again in April 1989. The Blue Album lineup reunited again for a show in December 1989 at the Reseda Country Club, which was recorded and released eight years later as the live album Return to the Black Hole (Amsterdamned Records, 1997). They reunited again in 2001 for more live performances, but Royer soon left, and Rikk Agnew left as well in 2003. Frank Agnew left after the band's reunion album, OC Confidential (2005), and Brandenburg and Soto later continued as the Adolescents with other lineups. Material from Adolescents dominates the band's live albums, accounting for 13 of 21 tracks on Live 1981 & 1986 (1989), 10 of 17 on Return to the Black Hole (1997), and 12 of 19 on Live at the House of Blues (2004).

Writing for the Los Angeles Times in 1998, Mike Boehm included Adolescents first in a list of "Essential Albums, '78–'98" giving an overview of Orange County punk and alternative rock, calling it "an underground classic. The 13 songs defined the O.C. punk experience, back when punk was a beleaguered subculture. 'Amoeba', with lyrics by Royer, is a metaphoric account of a single-celled creature, read punk youth culture, growing in size and self-awareness under the scornful, dismissive eye of adult authority. 'Kids of the Black Hole' was Rikk Agnew's epic tribute to the hedonistic, comradely denizens of a Fullerton crash pad that cradled the fertile North County punk scene during 1979–80. The two songs introduced a massed, harmonized 'octave guitar' blitz—an Orange County rock signature."

Covers
In the decades since its release, several artists have recorded cover versions of songs from Adolescents. In 2005, NOFX covered "No Way" for their 7" of the Month Club while the Dropkick Murphys covered "Who Is Who" for the soundtrack to the video game Tony Hawk's American Wasteland. In 2009, Mark Hoppus and Travis Barker of Blink-182 covered "Amoeba" for the soundtrack to the film Endless Bummer, while Pulley covered "Wrecking Crew" and the Briefs covered "Who Is Who" for Let Them Know: The Story of Youth Brigade and BYO Records.

In popular culture
The song "Amoeba" was featured in the video games Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 3 (2001), Grand Theft Auto V (2013), and Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War (2020). The second collected volume of the comic book series Deadly Class was titled "Kids of the Black Hole", a reference to the song of the same name. The title was used again for the 9th episode of the series' TV adaptation.

Track listing
Writing credits adapted from the album's liner notes.

Personnel
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes.

Adolescents
 * Tony Cadena – lead vocals
 * Frank Agnew – lead guitar
 * Rikk Agnew – rhythm guitar, backing vocals
 * Steve Soto – bass
 * Casey Royer – drums, backing vocals

Backing vocalists
 * Danny Benair
 * Jeff Beans

Production
 * Mike Patton – record producer, backing vocals
 * Thom Wilson – audio engineer, mix engineer
 * Frank DeLuna – audio mastering

Artwork
 * Diane Zincavage – art, design
 * Paul Grant – typesetting
 * Glen E. Friedman – back cover and insert photographs
 * Jeri Liolios – insert photographs
 * Larry Rainwater – insert photographs

title: Adolescents (album)


text:
Template:Taxobox authority

,

title: Template:Taxobox authority


text:
Tripping the Light Fantastic (album)

Tripping the Light Fantastic is the debut studio album by the American rock band Lit. It was released on April 1, 1997, on Malicious Vinyl Records. The band eventually left the record label owning the rights to Tripping The Light Fantastic, and it was reissued on the band's own label, Dirty Martini, with distribution through their then label RCA Records.

Style
Tripping the Light Fantastic is a heavy and aggressive album that incorporates elements of heavy metal, punk rock, power pop, folk and grunge.

Critical reception
The Los Angeles Times called the album a "skillful but uninspired grunge rehash." The Grand Rapids Press noted that "the sublime melodies that permeate Tripping the Light Fantastic, along with the instrumental surprises that dot its sonic landscape, hint at the band's broader musical influences." The Encyclopedia of Popular Music wrote that it "dynamically fused alternative rock and power pop styles to great effect."

Personnel
Lit
 * A. Jay Popoff - lead vocals
 * Jeremy Popoff - guitar, backing vocals
 * Kevin Baldes - bass
 * Allen Shellenberger - drums

Additional musicians
 * Derek Dee – cello (6, 9)
 * Niels "Bye" Nielsen – orchestra (9)
 * Satnam Singh Ramgotra – tabla (5)
 * A.J. Martin – DJ (11)

Production

 * Produced by Lit and Matt Gruber
 * Recorded and mixed by Matt Gruber
 * Recorded in Los Angeles at Grand Master Hollywood Sound
 * Mixed at Scream and Hollywood Sound
 * 2nd engineers: Todd Burke, Bryan Davis, Josh Turner and Ralph Cacciutti
 * 2nd mix engineers: Ryan Boesch and Doug Trantow
 * Mastered by Eddy Schreyer at Oasis
 * Art design and layout: Ng Smimizu for Grip Grafix
 * Tray card collage: Priscila Bara
 * Photography: Jeff Bender
 * All concepts: Lit
 * A&R: Craig McDonald
 * Additional musicians: Satnam Singh Ramgotra (tabla on "Habib"), Derek Dee (cello on "Explode" and "Dozer"), Niels Bye Nielsen (orchestra on "Dozer"), A.J. Martin (D.J. on "Cadillac")

title: Tripping the Light Fantastic (album)


text: Talk:Adolescents (album)

title: Talk:Adolescents (album)


text:
User talk:Kidblue

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 19:23, Dec 19, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kidblue


text:
The Beatles' Story

The Beatles' Story is the sixth album by the English rock band the Beatles in the United States, issued on 23 November 1964 by Capitol Records. It is a documentary double album featuring interviews, press conferences, and snippets of original or orchestral versions of Beatles songs, with voice-over narration. The album's original liner notes described it as a "narrative and musical biography" of Beatlemania. It was produced by Los Angeles–based songwriter and producer Gary Usher and disc jockey and lyricist Roger Christian, and narrated by John Babcock, Al Wiman and Christian.

Capitol issued the album in response to the Vee-Jay Records LP Hear the Beatles Tell All, a compilation of radio interviews with the band carried out by Los Angeles disc jockeys. The company also sought to compete with unauthorised Beatles interview records issued by the Radio Pulse Beat label, which released three such LPs hosted by Ed Rudy. The Beatles' Story peaked at number 7 on the Billboard Top LPs chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. In 2014, Capitol reissued the album as part of the Beatles' The U.S. Albums box set.

Development
Originally, Capitol Records intended to create an album from the group's show at the Hollywood Bowl, which took place on 23 August 1964. A recording was made of the concert, but the Beatles and their producer, George Martin, deemed it of insufficient quality due to the poor sound and the volume of the fans' screaming. The Beatles' Story nevertheless contains a 48-second excerpt of "Twist and Shout" from the Hollywood Bowl performance. It was the first record to include a recording of the Beatles in concert.

Using audio from interviews and press conferences, interspersed with music, The Beatles Story was produced by Gary Usher and Roger Christian. Among the segments were items devoted to each of the four Beatles – John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr – and others on their manager, Brian Epstein, and Martin. The Hollyridge Strings performed the easy listening versions of the Beatles' songs heard on the album. The voice-over commentary was written and narrated by John Babcock and, on behalf of radio station KFWB of Hollywood, Al Wiman and Christian.

Release and reception
Capitol released The Beatles' Story in the US on 23 November 1964, on the same day as the band's "I Feel Fine" single. The front cover of the LP contained individual photos of the band members, taken by photographer Joe Covello, above a Union Jack. The album spent 17 weeks on the Billboard Top LPs chart. It peaked at number 7 on 2 January 1965 and remained in that position for three further weeks while the band's new studio album, Beatles '65, was number 1. The Beatles' Story was certified a gold record by the RIAA on 31 December 1964. It was the Beatles' fifth Capitol album, all of which had been released within a year of the band's commercial breakthrough in the US. Author Barry Miles comments that the documentary record was "blatantly exploitative" but this was insufficient to deter American fans.

The album was also issued in Canada. It was released by Toshiba EMI in Japan on the Apple label (in stereo) in a box set with a deluxe 24-page 12"x12" booklet that contains the entire text of the script in English and Japanese. The album was being prepared for release on digital audio tape in 1996, but when the format failed commercially the plan was scrapped.

In 2014, The Beatles' Story was made available on CD for the first time as part of the Beatles' box set The U.S. Albums. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic describes it as "a tedious neo-documentary record" and "cornball show biz, with radio announcers delivering a spit-shined script designed to bridge segments between canned interviews". In his review for the Toronto Sun, Darryl Sterdan said The Beatles' Story was a "cash-grab" by the record company and a "50-minute mish-mash ... dashed off for early Christmas shoppers". He added: "Amazingly, it went gold. This one is also new on CD. Really, they needn't have bothered."

Songs
Portions of the following songs appear on the album:

 * "I Want to Hold Your Hand"
 * "Slow Down"
 * "This Boy"
 * "You Can't Do That"
 * "Can't Buy Me Love"
 * "If I Fell"
 * "And I Love Her"
 * "A Hard Day's Night"
 * "Twist and Shout" (live)
 * "Things We Said Today"
 * "I'm Happy Just to Dance with You"
 * "Little Child"
 * "Long Tall Sally"
 * "She Loves You"
 * "Boys"

title: The Beatles' Story


text:
Ermengarde of Tonnerre

Ermengarde (c. 1032 – 1083), daughter of Renauld, Count of Tonnerre and Herviz, married William I, Count of Nevers in 1045. She had six children:
 * 1) Ermengarde (born 1050, date of death unknown), married Hubert I, Count of Beaumont
 * 2) Robert (1052 – February 12, 1095), later Bishop of Auxerre
 * 3) William II (1052–1090), inherited grandfather's title as Count of Tonnerre
 * 4) Heloise (born 1056, date of death unknown), married William, Count of Évreux
 * 5) Sibille (1058–1078), married Hugh I, Duke of Burgundy
 * 6) Renauld II (1059–1089), inherited father's title as Count of Nevers.

Her husband William I was the son of Renauld I, Count of Nevers and Hedwig/Advisa of Auxerre, daughter of Robert II of France.

title: Ermengarde of Tonnerre


text:
Boreal Kingdom

The Boreal Kingdom or Holarctic Kingdom (Holarctis) is a floristic kingdom identified by botanist Ronald Good (and later by Armen Takhtajan), which includes the temperate to Arctic portions of North America and Eurasia. Its flora is inherited from the ancient supercontinent of Laurasia. However, parts of the floristic kingdom (and most of its Circumboreal Region) were glaciated during the Pleistocene and as a consequence have a very young flora. Cenozoic relicts found refuge in the southern and mountainous parts of the kingdom, especially in the Eastern Asiatic Region and southern North American Atlantic Region.

Good noted that many plant species of temperate North America and Eurasia were very closely related, despite their separation by the Atlantic Ocean and the Bering Strait.

Millions of years ago, before the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, North America and Eurasia were joined as a single continent, Laurasia. After the opening of the Atlantic, the continents were connected to one another periodically via land bridges linking Alaska and Siberia. Until a few million years ago, the global climate was warmer than at present, especially at higher latitudes, and many temperate climate species were distributed across North America and Eurasia via Alaska and Siberia. The sharply cooler climate of the past few million years eliminated a temperate-zone connection between North America and Eurasia, but common Laurasian origins and a long history of temperate-climate land bridges account for the botanical similarities between the temperate floras on the two continents.

A floristic kingdom is the botanical analogue to an biogeographic realm, which takes into account the distribution of animal as well as plant species. Many biogeographers distinguish the Boreal Kingdom as comprising two realms, the Nearctic (North America) and Palearctic (North Africa and Eurasia). Others, based on the distribution of related plant and animal families, include the Palearctic and Nearctic in a single Holarctic realm, which corresponds to Good's Boreal Kingdom.

Flora
According to Takhtajan (1978), the following families are endemic to this kingdom: Ginkgoaceae, Cephalotaxaceae, Glaucidiaceae, Hydrastidaceae (Hydrastis), Trochodendraceae, Tetracentraceae, Cercidiphyllaceae, Euptelaceae (Euptelea), Platanaceae, Eucommiaceae, Rhoipteleaceae, Leitneriaceae, Paeoniaceae, Crossosomataceae, Stachyuraceae, Fouquieriaceae, Diapensiaceae, Simmondsiaceae, Pterostemonaceae, Penthoraceae, Bretschneideraceae, Limnanthaceae, Davidiaceae (Davidia), Toricelliaceae, Helwingiaceae, Theligonaceae, Dipentodontaceae, Cynomoriaceae, Adoxaceae, Trapellaceae (Trapella), Butomaceae, Scheuchzeriaceae, Aphyllanthaceae.

According to the same author, the following families are well represented: Magnoliaceae, Lauraceae, Ranunculaceae, Berberidaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Fagaceae, Betulaceae, Juglandaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Polygonaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Theaceae, Salicaceae, Brassicaceae, Ericaceae, Primulaceae, Malvaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Thymelaeaceae, Rosaceae, Fabaceae, Cornaceae, Araliaceae, Apiaceae, Rhamnaceae, Gentianaceae, Boraginaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Lamiaceae, Campanulaceae, Asteraceae, Liliaceae, Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, Juncaceae, Cyperaceae, Poaceae, Pinaceae, Cupressaceae, Aspleniaceae, Polypodiaceae.

Subdivisions
The kingdom is subdivided into three floristic subkingdoms and nine floristic regions.

Boreal Subkingdom

 * Circumboreal Region
 * Eastern Asiatic Region
 * North American Atlantic Region
 * Rocky Mountain Region

Tethyan Subkingdom

 * Macaronesian Region
 * Mediterranean Region
 * Saharo-Arabian Region
 * Irano-Turanian Region

Madrean Floristic Region

 * Madrean Region

title: Boreal Kingdom


text:
Category:Pipe organ builders

This category includes articles on people and companies who are builders of pipe organs.

For builders of electronic organs (including digital organs) see Category:Electronic organ manufacturing companies.

title: Category:Pipe organ builders


text: File:Action Comics 1.jpg

title: File:Action Comics 1.jpg


text:
Talk:Python (missile)

Operators
I read somewhere that the South African Air Force (SAAF) acquired a small number of Python 3 and possibly Derby missiles for use with the Atlas/Denel Cheetah and Mirage F-1 models in the mid-1980s. This measure was presumably taken in response to the deployment of MiG-23ML/MF aircraft with AA-7 and AA-8 missiles in Angola, which were capable of all-aspect target acquisition, whereas the SAAF's Matra 550 and V-3 Kukri missiles were only capable of tail-hemisphere attacks on adversary aircraft--a severe handicap, which the Python's all-aspect capability solved to some degree. Can anyone verify whether or when the SAAF acquired the Python 3? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.111.29.1 (talk) 23:12, 5 January 2011 (UTC)

DeepSpace's recent edit
The recent edit by User:DeepSpace reads (to me at least) like advertising copy; I think it has NPOV problems, for example consider this except:

 * The Python 5's head seeker literally sees a clear image of the target and background, giving it an incredible advantage over other missiles by authenticating the target, thus reducing the chance of being mislead by counter measures. Using this technology allows the luxury of locking on a target after the launch. The transition to this unique technology required a development by RAFAEL, which exists in only several countries in the world.

(I've emphasized some of the words which I think may be a breach of the NPOV policy. I would also note that something can hardly be "unique" if it "exists in several countries in the world")

User:DeepSpace has only made two edits, the other one of which was vandalism.

Should this edit just be reverted?

-- Cabalamat 19:32, 19 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Maybe just clean it up a little bit. It did bring a lot more info on this subject, so rv-ing it might not be the best. --Borisborf

 * Just found that he copied word-for-word out of this website which is not public-domain:

http://www.israeli-weapons.com/weapons/missile_systems/air_missiles/python/Python5.html This must be RVed.

I cleaned up the page and added variuos Python-family missile info. -- Adeptitus 19:54, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

there should be seperate article for derby
i thought python-3/4 and 5 are different from each other. And derby is a medium range missile. shouldn't we have seperate article for each missile

True, but this is a general Python Missile page with consolidated info. -- Adeptitus 18:04, 5 July 2006 (UTC)

Python-Shafrir merge idea
I completly disagree with the idea of merging these two articles. The two missile series really share nothing save the fact that they both originated in Israel. The Shafrir 1 was virtually a unlicensed copy of the early-model Sidewinders. The Pythons did grow upon the experience the Israelis had with not only the Shafrir, but also the Sidewinder and other missile series, however, they are a completly independent development from anything else in the world. There is no doubt that both articles need a fair amount of work done to them (they are quite insufficient in several respects and need work). They Pythons and Shafrirs deserve their own articles. An equivalent would be placing the Sparrow and the AIM-120 Slammer in the same article because the latter grew from the former. There is my reasoning. I have noticed that the member who suggested the merger has not expressed his motivations yet. I urge you to do this. —Preceding unsigned comment added by SAWGunner89 (talk • contribs) 02:59, 10 July 2008 (UTC)

Shafrir and Python articles should be either merged or completely separated. There is no reason to list the Shafrir missiles under "Versions" section here, and the same text in Shafrir article. Flayer (talk) 17:39, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

Please do not duplicate discussions, see Talk:Shafrir --Jor70 (talk) 20:38, 17 September 2010 (UTC)

Inconsistensies
The 35 kills during the lebanon war is contradicts the sidewinder article where 51 of 55 kills where with Sidewinders. Also the Pythin 4 is described as having limited Fire and Forget capability??? All IR missiles have full fire and forget capability because of the IR guidance not relying on the launch aircraft after launch. I suspect it's been misstaken for "lock after launch" as a helmet mounted sight is mentioned in conjunction with it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.228.57.204 (talk) 01:59, 27 April 2011 (UTC)

RAFAEL Python
RAFAEL - Armament Development Authority (Hebrew: ''רפא"ל - רשות לפיתוח אמצעי לחימה) changed its name to

Rafael - Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. (Hebrew: רפאל - מערכות לחימה מתקדמות בע"מ). It was an acronym, now it is not. Therfore instead of RAFAEL Python it should be Rafael Python. Flayer (talk) 23:46, 20 March 2012 (UTC)

BVR undefined
Does BVR mean "Beyond Visual Range"? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.43.11.252 (talk) 03:23, 15 July 2014 (UTC)
 * Yes. See Beyond-visual-range missile. I will turn the acronym "BVR" into a blue link and this will eliminate the obvious problem in the article. Thanks for drawing it to our attention. Dolphin  ( t ) 06:40, 20 July 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Python (missile)


text:
CHN

CHN may stand for:

 * China's country code
 * People's Republic of China's ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 and IOC country code
 * Republic of China's IOC country code 1932–1956, now TPE
 * Canadian Health Network
 * Cheshunt railway station, Hertfordshire, National Rail station code
 * CHN analyzer, measuring carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
 * City Hindus Network, London, UK
 * Anglican religious orders
 * Community of the Holy Name, an Anglican religious order for women in England, Lesotho and South Africa
 * Community of the Holy Name (Australia), an Anglican religious order for women in Australia, unrelated to the English order
 * Jeonju Airport, South Korea, IATA airport code
 * Chennai, a megacity in South India.
 * Chemical formula of hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen isocyanide
 * Climate Heritage Network

title: CHN


text:
Disposable Soft Synth Interface

Disposable Soft Synth Interface (DSSI) is a virtual instrument (software synthesizer) plugin architecture for use by music sequencer applications. It was designed for applications running under Linux, although there is nothing specific to Linux in the interface itself. It is distributed under the terms of a combination of LGPL-2.1-or-later and some BSD licenses, all of which are free software licences.

Features
DSSI is sometimes described as Linux Audio Developer's Simple Plugin API (LADSPA) for instruments. LADSPA is an audio effects plugin architecture for filters, reverbs and other sound processing software tools, whereas DSSI was designed specifically for instrument plugins that generate sound from note events. DSSI extends LADSPA by adding note event delivery, but it also adds predefined program selections and a method for plugins to provide their own user interfaces, both of which may also be used by effects plugins. This is partly because DSSI was intended to be a lightweight addition to LADSPA that would require little extra effort from authors of LADSPA hosts and plugins to support, and partly to avoid distracting too much developer effort from the Generalized Music Plug-in Interface (GMPI) plug-in initiative (which has since stalled). Perhaps as a partial consequence of this early offhand approach to publicity, the number of DSSI plugins available remains small. A successor which reunites the two standards LADSPA and DSSI is LV2.

DSSI hosts on Linux can also host some Virtual Studio Technology (VST) instruments (VSTi) for Microsoft Windows using the dssi-vst wrapper plug-in, which in turn makes use of the Wine compatibility layer. The major programs supporting DSSI are Qtractor, Renoise and Rosegarden.

title: Disposable Soft Synth Interface


text:
Cycle of abuse

The cycle of abuse is a social cycle theory developed in 1979 by Lenore E. Walker to explain patterns of behavior in an abusive relationship. The phrase is also used more generally to describe any set of conditions which perpetuate abusive and dysfunctional relationships, such as abusive child rearing practices which tend to get passed down. Walker used the term more narrowly, to describe the cycling patterns of calm, violence, and reconciliation within an abusive relationship. Critics suggest the theory was based on inadequate research criteria, and cannot therefore be generalized upon.

Overview
Lenore E. Walker interviewed 1,500 women who had been subject to domestic violence and found that there was a similar pattern of abuse, called the "cycle of abuse". Initially, Walker proposed that the cycle of abuse described the controlling patriarchal behavior of men who felt entitled to abuse their wives to maintain control over them. She used the terms "the battering cycle" and "battered woman syndrome". Terms like "cycle of abuse" have been used instead for different reasons: to maintain objectivity; because the cycle of abuse doesn't always lead to physical abuse; because symptoms of the syndrome have been observed in men and women, and are not confined to marriage and dating. Similarly, Dutton (1994) writes, "The prevalence of violence in homosexual relationships, which also appear to go through abuse cycles is hard to explain in terms of men dominating women."

The cycle of abuse concept is widely used in domestic violence programs, particularly in the United States. Critics have argued the theory is flawed as it does not apply as universally as Walker suggested, does not accurately or completely describe all abusive relationships, and may emphasize ideological presumptions rather than empirical data.

Phases
The cycle usually goes in the following order, and will repeat until the conflict is stopped, usually by the survivor entirely abandoning the relationship or some form of intervention. The cycle can occur hundreds of times in an abusive relationship, the total cycle taking anywhere from a few hours to a year or more to complete. However, the length of the cycle usually diminishes over time so that the "reconciliation" and "calm" stages may disappear, violence becomes more intense and the cycles become more frequent.

1: Tension building
Stress builds from the pressures of daily life, like conflict over children, marital issues, misunderstandings, or other family conflicts. It also builds as the result of illness, legal or financial problems, unemployment, or catastrophic events, like floods, rape or war. During this period, the abuser feels ignored, threatened, annoyed or wronged. The feeling lasts on average several minutes to hours, although it may last as long as several months.

To prevent violence, the victim may try to reduce the tension by becoming compliant and nurturing. Alternatively, the victim may provoke the abuser to get the abuse over with, prepare for the violence or lessen the degree of injury. However, the abuser is never justified in engaging in violent or abusive behavior.

2: Incident
During this stage, the abuser attempts to dominate their victim. Outbursts of violence and abuse occur which may include verbal abuse and psychological abuse.

In intimate partner violence, children are negatively affected by having witnessed the violence, and the partner's relationship degrades as well. The release of energy reduces the tension, and the abuser may feel or express that the victim "had it coming" to them.

3: Reconciliation
The perpetrator may begin to feel remorse, guilty feelings, or fear that their partner will leave or call the police. The victim feels pain, fear, humiliation, disrespect, confusion, and may mistakenly feel responsible.

Characterized by affection, apology, or, alternatively, ignoring the incident, this phase marks an apparent end of violence, with assurances that it will never happen again, or that the abuser will do their best to change. During this stage the abuser may feel or claim to feel overwhelming remorse and sadness. Some abusers walk away from the situation with little comment, but most will eventually shower the survivor with love and affection. The abuser may use self-harm or threats of suicide to gain sympathy and/or prevent the survivor from leaving the relationship. Abusers are frequently so convincing, and survivors so eager for the relationship to improve, that survivors (who are often worn down and confused by longstanding abuse) stay in the relationship.

4: Calm
During this phase (which is often considered an element of the honeymoon/reconciliation phase), the relationship is relatively calm and peaceful. During this period the abuser may agree to engage in counselling, ask for forgiveness, and create a normal atmosphere. In intimate partner relationships, the perpetrator may buy presents or the couple may engage in passionate sex. Over time, the abuser's apologies and requests for forgiveness become less sincere and are generally stated to prevent separation or intervention. However, interpersonal difficulties will inevitably arise, leading again to the tension building phase. The effect of the continual cycle may include loss of love, contempt, distress, and/or physical disability. Intimate partners may separate, divorce or, at the extreme, someone may be killed.

Critiques
Walker's cycle of abuse theory was regarded as a revolutionary and important concept in the study of abuse and interpersonal violence, which is a useful model, but may be simplistic. For instance, Scott Allen Johnson developed a 14-stage cycle that broke down the tension-building, acting-out and calm stages further. For instance, there are six stages in the "escalation" or tension building stage. These lead up to the assault by acting out the revenge plan, self-destructive behavior, victim grooming and the actual physical and/or sexual assault. This is followed by a sense of relief, fear of consequences, distraction, and rationalization of abuse.

Donald Dutton and Susan Golant agree that Walker's cycle of abuse accurately describes all cyclically abusive relationships they studied. Nonetheless, they also note that her initial research was based almost entirely on anecdotal data from a rather small set of women who were in violent relationships. Walker herself wrote, "These women were not randomly selected and they cannot be considered a legitimate data base from which to make specific generalizations."

Books

 * Engel, Beverly Breaking the Cycle of Abuse: How to Move Beyond Your Past to Create an Abuse-Free Future (2005)
 * Biddix, Brenda FireEagle Inside the Pain: (a survivors guide to breaking the cycles of abuse and domestic violence) (2006)
 * Hameen, Latifah Suffering In Silence: Breaking the Cycle of Abuse (2006)
 * Hegstrom, Paul Angry Men and the Women Who Love Them: Breaking the Cycle of Physical and Emotional Abuse (2004)
 * Herbruck, Christine Comstock Breaking the cycle of child abuse (1979)
 * Marecek, Mary Breaking Free from Partner Abuse: Voices of Battered Women Caught in the Cycle of Domestic Violence (1999)
 * Mills, Linda G. Violent Partners: A Breakthrough Plan for Ending the Cycle of Abuse (2008)
 * Ney, Philip G. & Peters, Anna Ending the Cycle of Abuse: The Stories of Women Abused As Children & the Group Therapy Techniques That Helped Them Heal (1995)
 * Pugh, Roxanne Deliverance from the Vicious Cycle of Abuse  (2007)
 * Quinn, Phil E. Spare the Rod: Breaking the Cycle of Child Abuse (Parenting/Social Concerns and Issues) (1988)
 * Smullens, SaraKay Setting Yourself Free :Breaking the Cycle of Emtional Abuse in Family, Friendships, Work and Love (2002)
 * Waldfogel, Jane The Future of Child Protection: How to Break the Cycle of Abuse and Neglect (2001)
 * Wiehe, Vernon R. What Parents Need to Know About Sibling Abuse: Breaking the Cycle of Violence  (2002)

Academic journals

 * Coxe, R & Holmes, W A study of the cycle of abuse among child molesters. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, v10 n4 p111-18 2001
 * Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E. and Pettit, G. S. (1990) Mechanisms in the cycle of violence. Science, 250: 1678–1681.
 * Egeland, B., Jacobvitz, D., & Sroufe, L. A. (1988). Breaking the cycle of abuse: Relationship predictors. Child Development, 59(4), 1080–1088.
 * Egeland, B & Erickson, M - Rising above the past: Strategies for helping new mothers break the cycle of abuse and neglect. Zero to Three 1990, 11(2):29-35.
 * Egeland, B. (1993) A history of abuse is a major risk factor for abusing the next generation. In: R. J. Gelles and D. R. Loseke (eds) Current controversies on family violence. Newbury Park, Calif.; London: Sage.
 * Furniss, Kathleen K. Ending the cycle of abuse: what behavioral health professionals need to know about domestic violence.: An article from: Behavioral Healthcare (2007)
 * Glasser, M & Campbell, D & Glasser, A & Leitch I & Farrelly S Cycle of child sexual abuse: links between being a victim and becoming a perpetrator The British Journal of Psychiatry (2001) 179: 482-494
 * Kirn, Timothy F. Sexual abuse cycle can be broken, experts assert.(Psychiatry): An article from: Internal Medicine News (2008)
 * Quayle, E Taylor, M - Child pornography and the Internet: Perpetuating a cycle of abuse Deviant Behavior, Volume 23, Issue 4 July 2002, pages 331 - 361
 * Stone, AE & Fialk, RJ Criminalizing the exposure of children to family violence: Breaking the cycle of abuse 20 Harv. Women's L.J. 205, Spring, 1997
 * Woods, J Breaking the cycle of abuse and abusing: Individual psychotherapy for juvenile sex Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 2, No. 3, 379-392 (1997)

title: Cycle of abuse


text:
Five Smokin' Tracks from Lit

Five Smokin' Tracks from Lit is an EP by the rock band Lit. It was released on December 10, 1996 on the Malicious Vinyl label.

Personnel

 * A Jay Popoff – vocals
 * Jeremy Popoff – guitar, backing vocals
 * Kevin Baldes – bass
 * Allen Shellenberger – drums

Production

 * Produced by Lit and Matt Gruber
 * Recorded and mixed by Matt Gruber
 * Recorded at Grand Master and HollywoodSound
 * Mixed at Scream and HollywoodSound
 * 2nd Engineers: Todd Burke, Bruan Davis, and Ralph Cacciaurri
 * 2nd Mix Engineers: Ryan Boesch and Doug Trantow
 * Assisted by Josh Turner
 * Back Cover Photo: Jeff Bender
 * Cadillac Photo: Glen Laferman
 * Design: StudioSee

title: Five Smokin' Tracks from Lit


text:
File:MEADS missile diagram.jpg

MEADS air defense missile system diagram from DOD website

Uploaded 19 December 2004 from DOD public web site.

title: File:MEADS missile diagram.jpg


text:
Wikipedia:School and university projects/Open Source Culture/utopianplagiarism

The Critical Art Ensemble makes the argument that acts of plagiarism need to be re-evaluated in techno-culture, and this in light of the history of recombinant textual reproduction. They argue that the power of "recombination" outweighes the stigma that comes with the notion of "plagiarism," but one might object that the CAE too closely alligns the definition of plagiarism with acts of appropriation in art. Thus, they do not defend plagiarism so much as draw favorable comparisons between artistic appropriation and cultural practices in general.


text:
User talk:King pigeon

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

Here are some tips to help you get started:

 * To sign your posts (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).
 * Try the Tutorial, and feel free to experiment in the test area.
 * If you need help, post a question at the Help Desk
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember Neutral point of view
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and, most importantly, have fun!

Good luck!

[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 19:41, Dec 19, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:King pigeon


text:
Renaud de Courtenay

Renaud de Courtenay, (d. 1190) anglicised to Reginald I de Courtenay, of Sutton, Berkshire, was a French nobleman of the House of Courtenay who took up residence in England and founded the English Courtenay family, who became Earls of Devon in 1335. The title is still held today, by his direct male descendant.

Origins
He was the son of Miles (Milo) de Courtenay, Seigneur (lord of the manor) of Courtenay, in the Kingdom of France, today in the Loiret department in north-central France, by his wife Ermengard de Nevers.

Career
Renaud succeeded his father as Seigneur of Courtenay. He fought in the Second Crusade, with King Louis VII of France. He quarrelled with King Louis VII, who seized Renaud's French possessions and gave them along with Renaud's daughter Elizabeth to his youngest brother, Pierre (Peter) of France, who thenceforth became known as Peter I of Courtenay (died 1183). Renaud became Lord of the Manor of Sutton in 1161.

Marriages

 * (1) Hélène (Hawise) du Donjon, daughter of Frederick du Donjon and Corbeil, sister of Guy du Donjon
 * (2) Maud du Sap, daughter of Robert FitzEdith, lord of Okehampton (d.1172) (illegitimate son of Henry I).

Progeny
By his first marriage:
 * (1) Renaud II de Courtenay, (b. 1125 - d. 27 September 1194) who in 1172, accompanied King Henry II of England on the Irish Expedition to the Wexford. He married Hawise de Curcy (d.1219), heiress of the feudal barony of Okehampton in Devon, and half sister to his father's second wife, Maud du Sap. Through the marriage, he acquired Okehampton Castle, which remained in the Courtenay family for many generations. They had a son, Robert de Courtenay (d. 1242), who was the great-grandfather of Hugh de Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon (d.1340).
 * (2) Elizabeth de Courtenay (b. 1127 - d. September 1205), who was given in marriage by the French King Louis VII (d.1180) to his youngest brother, Peter of France (d.1183), who thenceforth became known as "Peter I of Courtenay".

title: Renaud de Courtenay