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NAVTEX

NAVTEX (NAVigational TEleX), sometimes styled Navtex or NavTex, is an international automated medium frequency direct-printing service for delivery of navigational and meteorological warnings and forecasts, as well as urgent maritime safety information (MSI) to ships.

NAVTEX was developed in the late 1970s in northwestern Europe to provide a low-cost, simple, and automated means of receiving this information aboard ships at sea within approximately 250 nmi off-shore.

There are no user fees associated with receiving NAVTEX broadcasts, as the transmissions are typically transmitted from the National Weather Authority (Italy) or Navy or Coast Guard (as in the US) or national navigation authority (Canada).

Where the messages contain weather forecasts, an abbreviated format very similar to the shipping forecast is used.

NAVTEX is a component of the International Maritime Organization/International Hydrographic Organization Worldwide Navigation Warning Service (WWNWS). NAVTEX is also a major element of the Global Maritime Distress Safety System (GMDSS). SOLAS Convention mandated certain classes of vessels must carry NAVTEX, beginning August 1, 1993.

Technical information
NAVTEX transmissions are also called narrow-band direct printing (NBDP). The transmissions are layered on top of SITOR collective B-mode. SITOR-B is a forward error correcting (FEC) broadcast that uses the CCIR 476 character set. NAVTEX messages are transmitted at 100 baud using FSK modulation with a frequency shift of 170 Hz.

NAVTEX broadcasts are primarily made on the medium frequencies of 518 kHz and 490 kHz. The international NAVTEX frequency is 518 kHz, and these broadcasts should always be in English. National transmission of NAVTEX, where supported, uses 490 kHz specifically for broadcasts in local languages.

NAVTEX Marine Safety Information (MSI) national transmissions also take place on HF at 4209.5 kHz using FEC mode.

NAVTEX message format
NAVTEX messages are transmitted using binary frequency-shift keying (BFSK) at 100 bit/s and a 170 Hz frequency shift. The characters are encoded using the 7-bit CCIR 476 character set which allows for basic error detection. Forward error correction (FEC) is achieved by repeating each character after a 3 character delay, i.e. ...ABCDE... becomes ...A.B.CADBEC.D.E.... This is the same format as the SITOR-B format.

A NAVTEX message is built on SITOR collective B-mode and consists of:
 * a phasing signal of at least ten seconds
 * the four characters "ZCZC" that identify the end of phasing
 * a single space
 * four characters B1, B2, B3 and B4 (see below)
 * a carriage return and a line feed
 * the information
 * the four characters "NNNN" to identify the end of information
 * a carriage return and two line feeds
 * either
 * 5 or more seconds of phasing signal and another message starting with "ZCZC" or
 * an end of emission idle signal α for at least 2 seconds.

B1 is an alpha character identifying the station, and B2 is an alpha character used to identify the subject of the message. Receivers use these characters to reject messages from certain stations or if the message contains subjects of no interest to the user.

B3 and B4 are two-digit numerics identifying individual messages, used by receivers to keep already received messages from being repeated.

For example, a message containing B1B2B3B4 characters of 'FE01' from a U.S. NAVTEX station indicates a weather forecast message from Boston, MA.

NAVTEX message example: (phasing signals >= 10 seconds) ZCZC FE01 (message text ...) NNNN

(end of message phasing signals for >= 2 seconds before next message)

Start of message
ZCZC begins the messages.

Transmitter identity (B1)
This character defines the transmitter identity and its associated coverage area.

Subject indicator character (B2)
The subject indicator character is used by the receiver to identify different classes of messages below. The indicator is also used to reject messages concerning certain optional subjects which are not required by the ship (e.g. LORAN C messages might be rejected in a ship which is not fitted with a LORAN C receiver).

NAVTEX broadcasts use following subject indicator characters:

 * {| class="wikitable"

 * A
 * Navigational warnings 1
 * B
 * Meteorological warnings 1
 * C
 * Ice reports
 * D
 * Search & rescue information, and pirate warnings 1
 * E
 * Meteorological forecasts
 * F
 * Pilot service messages
 * G
 * AIS messages (formerly Decca messages )
 * H
 * LORAN messages
 * I
 * Not used (formerly OMEGA messages )
 * J
 * SATNAV messages (i.e. GPS or GLONASS)
 * K
 * Other electronic navaid messages
 * L
 * Navigational warnings — additional to letter A (Should not be   rejected by the receiver)
 * T
 * Test transmissions (UK only — not official)
 * V
 * Notice to fishermen (U.S. only — currently not used)
 * W
 * Environmental (U.S. only — currently not used)
 * X
 * Special services — allocation by IMO NAVTEX Panel
 * Y
 * Special services — allocation by IMO NAVTEX Panel
 * Z
 * No message on hand
 * }
 * Test transmissions (UK only — not official)
 * V
 * Notice to fishermen (U.S. only — currently not used)
 * W
 * Environmental (U.S. only — currently not used)
 * X
 * Special services — allocation by IMO NAVTEX Panel
 * Y
 * Special services — allocation by IMO NAVTEX Panel
 * Z
 * No message on hand
 * }
 * Special services — allocation by IMO NAVTEX Panel
 * Z
 * No message on hand
 * }
 * }

Note: Receivers use the B2 character to identify messages which, because of their importance, can not be rejected (designated by a 1). The subject indicator characters B, F and G are normally not used in the United States since the National Weather Service normally includes meteorological warnings in forecast messages. Meteorological warnings are broadcast using the subject indicator character E. U.S. Coast Guard District Broadcast Notices to Mariners affecting ships outside the line of demarcation, and inside the line of demarcation in areas where deep draft vessels operate, use the subject indicator character A.

Serial number of message (B3, B4)
These two characters define the serial number of each B2 message type (class). Generally serial numbers start with the numbers '01', however in special circumstances, the numbers begin with '00'. This forces the receiver to print the message.

Time of origin
Time of origin is in the format of "DDHHmm UTC MMM YY" where DD is the date, HH hour, mm minute and MMM three-character abbreviation of month and YY year. The time of the transmission of the message is in UTC.

Message text
The full text of the message follows.

End of message
The end of the message is asserted when the characters "NNNN" are received.

NAVTEX transmission schedule
Each station identifier has a fixed 10-minute time slot, starting with A at 0000UTC. The time slots are repeated at 4 hour intervals. Within each time slot, a mix of navigation warnings, weather forecasts, ice information and other content may be sent, and this is normally according to a structured plan for that specific station. For example, in the first and third time slot they may decide to transmit navigation warnings, and weather forecasts in the others. Normally each NAVAREA or sub-NAVAREA has only one station at each slot.

Details of all transmitting stations and their schedules may be found at

NAVTEX receivers
NAVTEX receivers which are approved for GMDSS contain an internal printer and/or a scrollable display, and cost between $800–$1500. A new generation of NAVTEX receivers intended for non-GMDSS applications such as the recreational community is entering the marketplace. These receivers include features such as LCD screens and RS-232 output and have a purchase price in the $300–$500 range. In the UK they can be purchased for £115. There are also a number of NAVTEX engines available that do not have any user interface, and just output decoded data in RS-232 format, either as a simple ASCII data stream, or using the NMEA NAVTEX sentences, or their own proprietary protocol.

There are also a number of software packages available, such as SeaTTY, Mscan, JNX, Fldigi or JVComm32, allowing messages to be decoded by a PC with a suitable receiver connected to the computer's soundcard. Any general communications receiver capable of audio reception at 518 kHz or 490 kHz single sideband can be used.

Proposed termination of U.S. NAVTEX
In September 2019, the U.S. Coast Guard proposed shutting down its MF NAVTEX services and relying on satellite communications.

title: NAVTEX


text:
User talk:SteveChadsey

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! -- Graham ☺ | Talk 14:26, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)
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Taj Mahal RFC

 * I've filed an RFC relating to the Taj Mahal at Talk:Taj Mahal. Your comments would be most welcome. --Joopercoopers 14:01, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:SteveChadsey


text:
Talk:Bog body

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 26 January 2021 and 19 May 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Leilakinson. Peer reviewers: Anthro Lover, Jessemerodio.

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Bog people?
I'd like peoples' opinion as to whether Bog body or Bog people is a better name for this article. Presently there are articles at both names. Peregrine981 14:26, Dec 15, 2004 (UTC)
 * My sense is that Bog body is preferable, with Bog people as a redirect. "Bog body" seems to be prevalent in the literature I've seen and is more descriptive and broad.  "Bog people", to me, misleadingly suggests some kind of living tribe.  A cursory Google search suggests that "Bog body" is prevalent in scientific contexts whereas "bog people" appears mostly in lay articles. --Pontifex 19:19, Dec 15, 2004 (UTC)

 * Allright, seems like a good idea. Bog body does seem a bit less misleading than bog people, which has a vaguely "B" movie sound to it, though it is a commonly used term in the popular media. I note that Britannica seems to list it under bog body. I will make bog people a redirect. Peregrine981 11:34, Dec 16, 2004 (UTC)

Copyright
Barbara Shack 16:24, 17 February 2006 (UTC)The page for the photograpy of Tollund man says, "This image is copyrighted, and used with permission. The terms of the permission do not include third party use. It is not licensed under the GFDL."   The Image greatly improves the article. I hope Wikipedians who understand copyright better than I do will agree to keep it. I don't know if it can stay.

Pictures?
We need some pictures please...what does a 500-year old person look like?

 * There's some on Danish wiki at da:Grauballemanden with gfdl licenses, if someone wants to upload them onto commons - MPF 00:57, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

sphagnum bogs
Peat bogs are not the same as sphagnum bogs. "Peat" is a general term and peat can be formed from sphagnum moss, other mosses, sedges or various other kinds of plant material alone or in combination. I'm not certain what kinds of bogs are predominant in Europe and the British Isles so I hope somebody will check this and make the appropriate corrections. MrDarwin 19:55, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Northern European bogs (north of about 53°N where summers are fairly cool) are overwhelmingly Sphagnum bogs, and this applies to all of the bogs that bodies have been found in, as they are the only bogs acidic enough to preserve the corpses. A body in less acidic fen peat (derived from sedges) would not persist. - MPF 00:49, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

Number of bodies?
This article says more than a thousand, Haraldskaer Woman article says around 700 to date, which is correct? Khukri ( talk  .  contribs ) 20:28, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

Koelberg Woman
| This site give her age as 8000 B.C. but the article says 5500 years old. I was wondering what the source for that was. Storeye 07:03, 2 May 2007 (UTC)
 * In the scientific literature there are several datings ranging from 9000 - 6000 B.C. probably by mis understandings. The Danish National Museum sets her age to 9000 years, Kulturarv.dk writes 9000-6401 B.C. and mentiones a 14C-Dating to Maglemosian culture . I am still loocking for the original publication of the 14C-dating results. --Bullenwächter (talk) 08:00, 20 June 2011 (UTC)

Mentioned in Sagas?
I've read several norse sagas and a fair amount of viking poetry, but I've never come across anything that mentioned people getting killed, executed or otherwise dying in a bog. They did have laws against outlawry and such, so it's very possible that criminals were put to death, but for the life of me I can find no mention of any such events. Most subject material mentioned in the older sagas can be orally dated back to BC times, which is the time that it appears most "bog people" were killed, but again, there are no references in the sagas. Would anyone care to elaborate? - myrddin_wyllt, 1/2/09  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 63.64.39.28 (talk) 17:25, 2 January 2009 (UTC)
 * I am unclear as to what you are questioning, because this article doesn't make any assertion about bog bodies in the Norse sagas. However, when writing the Haraldskær Woman article, I did include the following sentence: According to the Jomsvikinga Saga, Queen Gunnhild was drowned in a bog on the orders of the Danish king Harald Bluetooth. . So there are some references to bog executions to be found in the sagas. — Cactus Writer |   needles  21:21, 2 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Well, a fair number of these bog bodies have been discovered in lands populated by Norse and other Germanic peoples, and they were apparently "put to death" during times that said people were there. I was just wondering of any of the sagas mentioned this sort of practice. - myrddin_wyllt 1/5/09

I'm Trying To Help!
I'm merging Stubs into this page!! --水の男の子 (talk) 22:16, 26 June 2009 (UTC)

Motive
I just heard Olly Steeds quote some line of bull about these people all having been Sacrificed To The Gods. I'm not an expert, but I think that "ritual" is a catch-all for unimaginative archaeologists; I have no doubt that one researching modern America would say (coming uncommonly close to the truth) that the gas chamber and the electric chair were also elaborate religious rituals. But it would be interesting to hear more about whether anything is known here. My bet would be that if you wanted to kill someone, you'd drop him in the bog, and these people are just murder victims... I wonder if there's any way anyone will ever know more than that. Wnt (talk) 03:38, 25 February 2010 (UTC)
 * I don't think Steeds or other TV hosts qualify as a solid source for an anthropological debate -- and those types of programs will certainly use the most sensational explanations in order to boost ratings. This article does mention that the cause of death is ill-defined and debatable. That debate probably should be explained more here, so if you want to have it, please jump in -- otherwise I'll try to get to it in the next month or so. (This article is in need of a thorough cleaning). This 1998 paper from the Oxford Journal of Archaeology provides a good overview. — Cactus Writer |   needles  19:38, 25 February 2010 (UTC)
 * That paper is interesting... it sure isn't easy to summarize for Wikipedia, though. Wnt (talk) 23:50, 26 February 2010 (UTC)

In Cornelius Tacitus' work, Germania, written in the 1st century CE, and contemporary with the practice of bogging, wrote that the Germans had to forms of capital punishment, the latter and worse of which was bogging. He even spoke of the German rationale as being to the effect so as to be removed from sight and forgotten. He also mentions that such legal punishments could only be carried out under the aegis of the priest-king, and so had certain sacral assocaitions.

The notion that any death that was bound up with or hedged off by sacral associations and/or practices is consequently a case of "sacrifice" is indeed bad archeology, and antiquated anthropology. And generally just bad thinking, when we have written testimony of why people were bogged, coming from the very age in which these people were bogged. No? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.68.65.229 (talk) 01:24, 1 April 2012 (UTC)

 * Most bog bodies are most likely accidents. That is, people who didn't watch their step and drowned in a bog. I live in Gothenburg, Sweden, and around my city there are plenty of bogs. The official estimate by the police is that in the surrounding area of my city about two people per year drown in a bog. It is an estimate since most of these bodies are not found. The estimate is based on the number of people disappearing while walking in the forest (they don't count all disappearances as bog drowning), and the number of bodies of varying ages they find when they dig up a bog.
 * Compare this to about four people per year drowning while swimming, 2.5 people falling of small boats (mostly middle aged men without life vests and have been drinking alcohol), and 1.5 people going through the ice in the winter. Making it a total of 10 people per year drowning in those four ways.
 * I believe the police estimate since I live next to several bogs and I and my friends every now and then have to rescue someone who is stuck in a bog. Twice the person was definitely going to die and disappear had we not been there when it happened, since in one case only the face was above the surface, and in the other case only the hand was still above (head completely under the surface).
 * I don't have any references for this data, sorry. I might be remembering some of the numbers a bit wrong, since I read them long ago. But I am sure about the two people per year drowning in the bogs, and ten people in total drowning. Least sure about the boat and ice drowning numbers.
 * I find it a shame that bog drowning is a taboo subject in my country. They talk about and teach swimming safety, boating safety (wear a life vest and don't drink alcohol when boating) and ice safety. With a little knowledge and training most bog drownings could be avoided.
 * If you are walking in a varied terrain in a northern forest: If you find a nice opening in the forest with flat land, some grass and perhaps some small bushes: Then watch out, it might be a trap. It might not be a meadow, but instead might be a bog. So watch your step. A single step can take you from firm ground to deep bog.
 * If you are sinking, spread out and lie down flat on the surface. If you are down to your knees, bend your knees and lie on the back. If you are down to your thighs, bend forward at your hips and lie on your stomach. From those positions you can slowly work yourself free. (From the hip position it depends on your skill and stamina...) If you are down to your stomach or chest, spread out your arms and you will usually stop sinking. From this position you can't free yourself and you will have to wait for help. Reaching for your phone in your pocket might kill you since then you start sinking again. So yelling for help should probably be your first option. Only reach for the phone if you have given up on the yelling.
 * --David Göthberg (talk) 18:51, 14 June 2021 (UTC)

 * On the other hand, a good number of the ancient ones have clearly been executed/murdered, which even in Scandi noir country doesn't count as an accident. Johnbod (talk) 21:36, 14 June 2021 (UTC)

 * Hahaha. Not even "in Scandi noir country"! Thanks for giving me the weeks best laugh. --David Göthberg (talk) 05:47, 12 March 2023 (UTC)

Lead image
I think this article should probably have a lead image. In my opinion it doesn't particularly matter whose body is shown, but I went for one of Lindow Man as it's one of the better known bog bodies, the image shows the whole of the remains, and the article on Lindow Man himself is of good quality (it's a Featured Article; I thought if there's going to be a linked image in the lead it may as well be to an article of decent quality). As I worked on the Lindow Man article and don't want to seem biased, I am quite happy for someone to replace the image of Lindow Man with something else, although I do think a lead image of some sort is necessary. Nev1 (talk) 23:59, 23 July 2010 (UTC)
 * The addition of a lead photo is a good idea. And the thought of linking it to an FA article was appropriate. However, the Lindow Man photo isn't particularly good. It is difficult to distinguish the human features -- appearing mostly like a flat piece of leather on dirt. I suggest using a photo which better portrays and elucidates the mummification to the reader -- such as File:Tollundmannen.jpg, File:Grauballemannen1.jpg or one of the clearer full body photos at Commons:Bog Body such as File:Tollundmanden i Silkeborgmuseet.JPG. —  Cactus Writer (talk) 22:28, 27 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Admittedly, it's not the best image. A full body photo would be preferable, however the ones on commons either aren't great or the dimensions aren't ideal. For example I think File:Grauballemanden2.jpg is a very interesting picture and the remains are in good condition, but even at 300px wide I don't think it's detailed enough as the image isn't very tall. It's still in the article though. But both of the head shots you suggest are rather good, so I think either would make a good lead picture. Nev1 (talk) 22:40, 27 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Agreed. We'll have to wait for a quality full-body shot. I find the Tollund Man head shot a slightly better image only because the dirt mound in the Grauballe Man image tends to draw focus away from the face. However, the Grauballe Man shows the coloration. Take your pick of the two head shots -- either will be fine. — Cactus Writer (talk) 22:58, 27 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Not an easy choice for the reasons you've given, but I've gone for Tollund Man. Nev1 (talk) 23:03, 27 July 2010 (UTC)
 * I've been wondering maybe we could change the lead image from the Tollund man to a head shot of the Grauballe man such as File:Grauballemannen1.jpg from the commons. I can understand about the Tollund man being the lead image because he is probably the most famous, but maybe we could use the Grauballe man's picture because it is in color and in better quality. This is just an idea. Thanks, --  Para sect  (Formerly Platyfishkeeper) 13:18, 28 October 2010 (UTC)
 * The image wasn't chosen because of fame, but rather clarity of the subject. As stated in the above discussion, I think the Tollund pic provides better focus of the topic and the Grauballe pic provides better illustration of the coloration. I am fine with either choice. — Cactus Writer (talk) 17:19, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

List of Bog bodies
I think a list of bog bodies would be very helpful to researchers like there is on the German Page. I would like this to be done, but I might not have enough time to do so. Thanks, -- Para sect  (Formerly Platyfishkeeper) 14:16, 22 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Given there are nearly known 2,000 bog bodies in Europe you couldn't fit a comprehensive list in this article. Therefore, the best you can do is include links to some of the most significant ones. At the moment, several are mentioned in the article and there's a section called Notable bog bodies, but I'm not sure how these have been selected. Nev1 (talk) 14:20, 22 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Alright, thank you for the tips! --  Para sect  (Formerly Platyfishkeeper) 13:14, 28 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Actually, I think there should be a short list of several bog bodies like on the German page, because I believe that that is helpful info. Let me know if I'm doing the wrong thing, but this is how I think it should be done. -- Your's Truly,

 Para sect    (Discuss) 18:27, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
 * If you've got something in mind other than the current notable bog bodies section why not have a go? Seeing it in practice may get things moving. Unfortunately Wikipedia doesn't have a comprehensive (or even partial) list of bog bodies which would no doubt be useful to someone researching the subject. Nev1 (talk) 18:52, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Alright I finished it. -- Para sect    (Discuss) 17:21, 12 January 2011 (UTC)

Two sections for "notable" bog bodies are unnecessary -- and somewhat oddly written here. The most notable finds, e.g. Tollund Man or Haraldskaer Woman, only have links because they have large expansive Wikipedia articles. (This is one of the reasons they can be definitively called notable -- there is enough written scholarship about them to create those large articles) On the other hand, the lesser notable or non-notable bog bodies have been stuck in this article because there has not been enough significant coverage to build separate articles. This results in the most notable bodies given little space here while less significant finds are treated expansively. That's backwards. And makes this article too cluttered and unfocused. The solution is to use this article as a generalized description of the topic while maintaining List of bog bodies as a comprehensive list of bog bodies. (Any bog body which has enough scholarship to build a description greater than its list entry, may require its own article.) Towards this end, I've have copied the descriptive text on the other bodies to the List and removed the entire "other bodies" section form this article. — Cactus Writer (talk) 23:02, 17 June 2011 (UTC)

Bare URLs
I tried to do my best to fix the bare urls with citations via Knight Cite.com. I hope this would help on this article. -- Gourami Watcher    (Gulp) 21:47, 9 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Should the tag on the top of the article be removed? I am hesitant to do so because I'm not soure if that is what I'm supposed to do.-- Gourami Watcher    (Gulp) 19:04, 1 November 2011 (UTC)
 * I removed the tag. Please notify me if this was wrong. -- Gourami Watcher    (Gulp) 23:53, 4 December 2011 (UTC)

National Geographic...
Gourami Watcher, I've left a query at Reliable sources/Noticeboard. My concern is that without details of the original academic journal, authors etc., we lack a decent reliable archaeological source for the assertion. For example, regardless of whether it's true or not, who's actually claiming that the results were fabricated? Hchc2009 (talk) 22:13, 6 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Alright, I do see your point there. Keep me posted. --  Gourami Watcher    (Gulp) 23:52, 6 July 2012 (UTC)

 * And we now have the original source of the info, it was

 * The source in question seems to be this one: VAN DER SANDEN, Wijnand A. B.; EISENBEISS, Sabine: Imaginary people - Alfred Dieck and the bog bodies of northwest Europe. Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt, ISSN 0342-734X, 2006, vol. 36, no1, pp. 111-122
 * If you're happy, I'll tweak the wording to refer to the original article, and keep the citation to Nat Geo in as well? Hchc2009 (talk) 05:05, 7 July 2012 (UTC)

Date Consistency
Some instances in this page are in the BC/AD format, and others are BCE/CE. Per the WP:ERA guideline, neither is encouraged over the other, but a page should be consistent within itself. I'm recommending that we get a consensus, and have the page follow that consensus.

As to what that consensus is, I see no advantage one has over the other, so I'd recommend we go with the first convention placed. Thoughts?198.70.166.253 (talk) 19:20, 21 September 2012 (UTC)

Restore title from Bog bodies of Northern Europe to Bog body
In my opinion the title Bog bodies of Northern Europe is a wrong description based on an old fashioned scientific of art mainly based on B.V. Glob's book Moosefolket dated to 1965 having a strong focus on danish bog finds. Actually real bog body finds are also known and confirmed from Bavaria, there are evidence for bog body finds from Austrian and other South German states but not clearly scientifically confirmed which are definitively not belonging to the region known as Northern Europe. Actually according to the article Northern Europe the affilliation of Germany and the Netherlands to Northern Europe is an old fashioned fact, but the majority of confirmed bog body finds are originating from the Netherlands, from Schleswig-Holstein and Lower Saxony which are not belonging to the region actually defined as Northern Europe. According to the actual scientific state of knowledge bog bodies can be a world wide phenomen, where ever bogs are present and wherever copres were found preserved by the bogs chemistry they would be defined as bog bodies. For the articles title I would prefer to use the previous term Bog body. The specification "Bog bodies of Northern Europe" should be used when clearing the specific historical, cultural and possible spiritual backgrounds of the reasons why people were put into the wet bogs. --Bullenwächter (talk) 07:34, 30 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Any contrary comments? If not, I will move back the article to its original name --Bullenwächter (talk) 08:35, 22 February 2013 (UTC)

 * The move has my support. As the redirect will be need to be deleted I think an admin is required, would you like me to make the move? Nev1 (talk) 17:20, 22 February 2013 (UTC)

 * Seems sensible to me. Hchc2009 (talk) 18:24, 22 February 2013 (UTC)

 * Bog bodies are found throughout the world; including in North America and Eastern Europe, in socio-cultural settings entirely distinct from those discussed in this article. For this reason the term "Bog bodies" – implying global coverage – is totally innapropriate, although I can appreciate that "Bog Bodies of Northern Europe" also has problems. How about "Bog bodies in Western Europe" ? Midnightblueowl (talk) 10:59, 25 February 2013 (UTC)

Support, per WP:TITLE, returning the title (and the subsequently changed text in the introduction) to Bog body. The term is precise enough to define the scope of this article -- which allows its expansion with any general information about bog bodies, regardless of a geographic limitation. At this point, the only reason to create a longer title would be if it distinguished this article from other existing articles, such as "Bog Bodies of Southern Europe" or "Bog Bodies of North America", as well as a generalized "Bog Body" article. However, those specific titles don't exist. Until this article expands so much that it requires splitting it into more specific titles, it remains the generalized Bog Body article. The current overly specific title actually prevents expansion -- disallowing readers from adding any information outside the geographic scope. — Cactus Writer (talk) 16:59, 25 February 2013 (UTC)

 * I strongly support the restoration of the previous title as well, as bog bodies are also found in places like the USA. It appears to me that there is enough support to move the page back to Bog body, but nothing has been done about it for a few months. Best, -- Gourami Watcher  (Gulp) 17:43, 25 April 2013 (UTC)

✅ Given the consensus of participants in this discussion for restoring the article title from Bog bodies of Northern Europe to Bog body, I have moved the article. I've also done a slight copy-edit on the text to remove the narrower scope. For the time being I've left a redirect at Bog bodies of Northern Europe until all the links to that title in other articles can be restored to direct links. — Cactus Writer (talk) 16:42, 26 April 2013 (UTC)

Delete/move Dieck speal
It says he was de-verified, why is this at the very beginning of the article?

Orchastrattor (talk) 01:07, 27 February 2019 (UTC)

 * Along these lines, the summary of the Fischer chapter in citation 1 says: "Dieck (1965) noted that there were more than 1400 reported bog finds worldwide, a large percentage of them only body parts, varying in date from 9000 BC to World War II, but his data are now considered unreliable." Can anyone get through the paywall to see if the dates here are correct? Elsewhere I saw that the oldest bog body is only from 8000 BC and I'm skeptical about the WWII bodies. Would love to have a better source/ confirmation from the Fischer chapter on that! 12.13.22.66 (talk) 19:30, 19 January 2024 (UTC)

Era
This article has been written per sources using Common Era (BCE and CE) dating. Per MOS:ERA, the article's established era style should not be changed without reasons specific to its content. Please do not change without obtaining a consensus. — Cactus Writer (talk) 02:33, 29 June 2024 (UTC)
 * WP:ERA you mean - actually it used BC/AD for many years - see the history. Can you confirm if & when a change was discussed? Johnbod (talk) 04:02, 29 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Oh I see Talk:Bog_body - it should go back to BC, pending a decision. Johnbod (talk) 04:05, 29 June 2024 (UTC)
 * The question was raised 11 years ago (section Date consistency) and ignored. I will propose that BCE-CE be adopted as the ERA style for the article, as that had been the style used for years. Can we do this with an informal discussion, or do I need to start an RfC? Donald Albury 13:34, 29 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Please, no Rfc - not needed. At that time there were mixed styles - don't know how long that lasted. As far as I know, the article (from 2004 I think) was originally all-BC, so "used for years" isn't a compelling argument for BCE. I would support BC, as the first-established style, & generally what we use for British/Irish related archaeology articles (as do eg the national museums). Either way, the article gives the era rather more often than is needed. Johnbod (talk) 16:12, 29 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks for finding that link, Johnbod. I was wrong that there had been any consensus discussion for common era dating -- I must be remembering a discussion from a different article. The first use of dating in this article was BC/AD with this edit.
 * Johnbod is correct that there is a mixed history of using BC/AD and BCE/CE in articles. I certainly find this among scholarly works. According to this opinion article BC/AD or BCE/CE? Archaeodeath Perspectives by an archaeology professor, BC/AD is used more by Northwestern European scholars while BCE/CE is used more by scholars in North America and outside Northwest Europe. It also notes that news sources usually use BC/AD dating. (He switched to BCE/CE for his latest book simply based on a small twitter survey which was hardly overwhelming.) Here is an article on why the World History Encyclopedia uses BCE/CE -- for accuracy and it encompasses a broader world view. I see that the Encyclopedia Britannica also uses BCE/CE for articles about bog bodies but I think their use of dating systems in other areas are also a mixed bag. I prefer that BCE/CE be used because this represents the broader view and its use has been growing in academic circles -- certainly since this article was created. — Cactus Writer (talk) 18:47, 29 June 2024 (UTC)
 * It is worth reading the Common era sections on current use, especially: "In 2013, the Canadian Museum of Civilization (now the Canadian Museum of History) in Gatineau (opposite Ottawa), which had previously switched to BCE/CE, decided to change back to BC/AD in material intended for the public while retaining BCE/CE in academic content. "

- the British Museum (after a lot of thought) still uses BC also, & I think remembering what WP is and what it is not, we should follow such institutions addressing a wider public, especially on European topics. We are not an academic journal. The use of CE has certainly been "growing in academic circles", though I don't know this has especially accelerated in this century, but it is still clear that many readers don't understand it, especially our many Indian readers. I used to use BCE on Indian topics, but now use BC as more familiar (and used in Indian media and textbooks). In what way does BCE "represent the broader view"? Johnbod (talk) 03:53, 30 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bog body


text:
Ștefan Golescu

Ștefan Golescu (1809 – 1874) was a Wallachian Romanian politician who served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs for two terms from 1 March 1867 to 5 August 1867 and from 13 November 1867 to 30 April 1868, and as Prime Minister of Romania between 26 November 1867 and 12 May 1868.

Biography
Ștefan Golescu was the son of writer, educationist and pioneer Romanian nationalist, Dinicu Golescu. Born in a boyar family of the Golești, he studied with his brothers (Nicolae and Radu) in Switzerland. After he returned, he joined the Wallachian Army and became a major in 1836. With his brother he also joined the Philharmonic Society, a society similar to the Freemasonry.

Ștefan was involved in the triggering of the 1848 Wallachian revolution, participating in the Islaz gathering of 9 June 1848, when he became a member of the Provisional Government, serving as Minister of Justice.

During the writing of the new constitution, Ștefan Golescu supported Nicolae Bălcescu's idea of universal suffrage, while his brother, Nicolae, favoured less expansive participation. Ștefan was part of the delegation sent by the revolutionaries to Istanbul to negotiate the new constitution with the Ottoman Empire, Wallachia's overlord.

Ștefan Golescu was a member of the Wallachian assembly that elected Alexandru Ioan Cuza as prince of both Wallachia and Moldavia (1859). Afterwards, he was a member of the Liberal Party of Ion Brătianu and served for about half a year as Prime Minister of Romania in a Liberal government.

title: Ștefan Golescu


text:
Orangeburg Massacre

The Orangeburg Massacre was a shooting of student protesters that took place on February 8, 1968, on the campus of South Carolina State College in Orangeburg, South Carolina, United States. Nine highway patrolmen and one city police officer opened fire on a crowd of African American students, killing three and injuring twenty-eight. The shootings were the culmination of a series of protests against racial segregation at a local bowling alley, marking the first instance of police killing student protestors at an American university.

Two days before the shootings, student activists had been arrested for a sit-in at the segregated All-Star Bowling Lane. When a crowd of several hundred Claflin and South Carolina State College (State College) students gathered outside the bowling alley to protest the arrests, police dispersed the crowd with billy clubs. Students requested permission to hold a march downtown and submitted a list of demands to city officials. The request for a march was denied, but city officials agreed to review the demands.

As tensions in Orangeburg mounted over the next few days, Governor Robert McNair ordered hundreds of National Guardsmen and highway patrol officers to the city to keep the peace. On the night of February 8, students from both colleges and Wilkinson High School started a bonfire at the front of the State College campus. When police moved to put out the fire, students threw debris at them, including a piece of a wooden banister that injured an officer.

Several minutes later, at least nine patrolmen and one city police officer opened fire on the crowd of students. Dozens of fleeing students were wounded: Sam Hammond, Henry Smith, and Delano Middleton were later pronounced dead at the Orangeburg Regional Hospital.

In the aftermath of the killings, the bowling alley and most remaining whites-only establishments in Orangeburg were desegregated. Federal prosecutors charged nine patrolmen with deprivation of rights under color of law by firing on the demonstrators, but they were acquitted in the subsequent trial. The state of South Carolina charged one of the protestors, Cleveland Sellers, with several riot charges. He was convicted on charges relating to events two days before the massacre. Sellers received a full pardon in 1993. In 2001, Jim Hodges became the first governor to make a formal apology for the massacre.

Background
The South Carolina State College (State College) entered the 1968–1969 school year having just undergone a major change in administration. For a decade, students had engaged in sporadic protests against college president Brenner Turner. Turner was a conservative on civil rights and had maintained good relations with the white state government by taking a hard line against student participation in the civil rights movement. But when a prolonged boycott of classes provoked an intervention from the governor, Turner eventually resigned in the spring of 1968. State College was placed under an interim president who had lifted many of the restrictions on student activism, including allowing political clubs to operate on campus. The two most important of these were a chapter of the NAACP and the Black Awareness Coordinating Committee (BACC). The NAACP chapter took a moderate stance and had over 300 members. The BACC was much smaller—its membership hovered around twenty students—and represented students who embraced black pride and were interested in black power. To the white community and black middle class, the creation of the BACC was ominous. They associated black power with the radical rhetoric of the new Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) leaders such as Stokely Carmichael and H. Rap Brown. This view was reinforced when a SNCC organizer, Cleveland Sellers, arrived in Orangeburg in October. In his autobiography, Sellers wrote that he had returned to his home state because "I believed I could develop a movement by focusing attention on the problems of the poor blacks in South Carolina." The Orangeburg elites viewed Sellers as an outside agitator who was there to stir up trouble.

There were several ongoing sources of racial tension at State College and in the surrounding city. An independent committee had been set up after Turner's resignation to investigate how conditions at the college could be improved, but the board of trustees had still not formally accepted their findings. Despite a wide disparity in funding between State College and white colleges in South Carolina, in January, Governor McNair announced that he was rejecting State College's request for a budget increase. Orangeburg had not yet seen the same civil rights reforms as most areas in the south. Many institutions remained segregated, including doctors' offices, entertainment venues, and the Orangeburg Regional Hospital. Political offices remained beyond the reach of black citizens, in part because the city boundaries were gerrymandered to exclude blacks.

Integration campaign at All-Star Bowling Lane
In the summer and fall of 1967, a whites-only bowling alley near campus, All-Star Bowling Lane, became a focus of student protests. Owner Harry K. Floyd repeatedly refused students' requests to desegregate. Instead, he followed the trend of replacing his "Whites Only" sign with one saying "Privately Owned" (saying that only "club members" would be allowed in). In October, the college's NAACP chapter invited a lawyer to discuss how they could mount a legal challenge. The lawyer explained that while the legal status of segregated bowling alleys was unclear, the fact that All-Star had a lunch counter meant that it was required to desegregate under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Eventually, student activist John Stroman decided to prove that Floyd's club-members-only strategy was a cover for refusing black patrons by sending in a white student to bowl without a club membership. On Monday, February 5, 1968, the white student arrived and began bowling without a problem. A little while later, Stroman and a group of black students arrived and asked to bowl. When the staff refused to let them, the students tried sitting at the lunch counter and were refused service there as well. The staff threw away anything they touched. Stroman pointed out to Floyd that the white student had been allowed to bowl without ever showing that he was a member, but Floyd just called the police. City Police Chief Roger Poston arrived and ordered the alley closed for the night. Chief Poston then met with Stroman and told him that he would have to arrest him for trespassing if he returned to the bowling alley. Stroman responded that getting arrested was his plan so that he could challenge the policy in court.

Stroman and a group of about 40 students returned to the bowling alley on Tuesday evening. They were met by 20 officers led by Chief Poston and South Carolina Law Enforcement Division (SLED) Chief J. P. Strom. Chief Poston told Stroman that 40 was probably more than needed to start the court case, so Stroman asked the women and any men who did not want to be arrested to leave. The fifteen remaining staged a brief sit-in and were arrested for trespassing. To this point, everything had proceeded as planned. But as the police were leading the arrestees outside, another student was arrested for cursing at an officer. One student later recalled that this was a turning point, saying "[e]verything was cool until the cops rushed into the crowd of students outside in the parking lot and arrested some cat." As the arrestees were driven downtown, one student returned to campus and shared news of the arrests with a crowd leaving a movie theater. The crowd, without knowing the arrests were planned, arrived at the bowling alley to make sure the arrestees were not being mistreated. When the police saw the new crowd gathering, they offered to release Stroman and his classmates on the condition that they help defuse the situation at the bowling alley. This worked at first; Stroman and the others returned and were able to explain that the arrests were pre-planned. Students began to return to campus.

The mood of the crowd changed when a fire truck arrived. Fire hoses had been used in Orangeburg as a form of crowd control and had a reputation for brutality. Chief Poston was unaware of this and had called the truck as backup. The students interpreted the move as an act of aggression, and they began to shout insults at the firefighters. The police moved away from the alley to protect the fire truck from the students. A student then broke one of the alley's windows. The police arrested the suspect, but the crowd blocked them from leaving. Police and students began yelling abuse at each other. Although it is not clear which happened first, police began beating students with billy clubs and one student sprayed something in an officer's eyes. The beatings continued for several minutes. Witnesses described seeing an officer grab and restrain a female student while another beat her with his club. Others reported seeing "a young woman begging not to be hit again, even as a policeman swung his club". Cecil Williams recalled seeing two officers beating a female student who fell while fleeing. Eight students and one officer were sent to the hospital. The rest of the students fled back to campus, some smashing the windows of cars and businesses on their way. Although the Associated Press ran a story the following day claiming that cars had been overturned; in fact, the students had not overturned any cars and had caused less than $5000 in damages.

As soon as students arrived back on campus, they held an impromptu mass meeting. Sellers was present at the meeting, and, when asked for his advice, suggested that the students immediately occupy the intersections in front of campus and demand to speak to the chamber of commerce about the bowling alley issue. This proposal was rejected. Eventually, the students agreed to ask permission to hold a protest march the following day and drew up a list of ten demands. The demands included desegregating the bowling alley, the hospital, and doctors' offices as well as an end to police brutality.

Escalation of tensions

Tensions escalated rapidly over the next few days. On Wednesday morning, the student leaders submitted their request to hold a march, but were rebuffed. Instead, Mayor E. O. Pandarvis, City Manager Bob Stevenson, and several Orangeburg business leaders came to the State College campus in an attempt to placate the students. City leaders were unprepared for the students' questions and had no response to the demands read off by the students. The head of the chamber of commerce was slightly more conciliatory and offered to read the demands at the chamber's next meeting. There was no local media coverage of the students' grievances: The Times and Democrat (Orangeburg's local newspaper) did not publish the students' list of demands until several days later (when they reported that the city council had rejected them). In a journal article published a few months after the shooting, Washington Post reporter Jim Hoagland argued that this media silence may have contributed to the students' frustration and anger.

There were several outbreaks of violence on Wednesday. With no protest planned, frustrated students gathered in informal groups to discuss the police "whipping our girls". Several crowds of angry students threw rocks and bricks at cars driving on U.S. Route 601 that contained white passengers. Police responded by setting up roadblocks to block traffic. Two blocks from campus, a homeowner shot and injured three Claflin College students whom he said had been trespassing. Late that night, two white men drove a car onto campus and shot at students before being chased off with rocks and bottles.

On Wednesday evening Governor McNair decided to activate the National Guard. His main concern, shared by the police chiefs, was based on the unfounded rumor that the "plan of the black power people" was to attack utilities and burn down the city. Therefore, 250 Orangeburg-area National Guards took up positions protecting utilities across the city, joined by hundreds of highway patrol officers. On Thursday, McNair ordered an additional 110 National Guardsmen to Orangeburg. They were joined by FBI agents, officers from SLED, and Governor McNair's representatives. Journalist Jack Shuler argued that the arrival of these outside officials "disrupted any kind of communication among white leaders, the college campuses, and the African American community". Shuler cites Sellers as saying that while negotiations had been slow before the arrival of state officials, afterwards they broke down.

Shooting
By the evening of Thursday, February 8, tensions were high and the police had set up a command post (nicknamed "Checkpoint Charlie") at the intersection of Russell Street and US Highway 601 to monitor the State College campus. Around 7:00 p.m., about 50 State College students gathered at the front of campus to start a bonfire. Police intervened to stop them and called up additional highway patrolmen to Checkpoint Charlie and to a warehouse and freight depot across from Claflin College (see map). Students began to shout insults at the police. A .22 caliber pistol was fired from a dormitory over their heads of the police stationed near the warehouse and freight depot. About 9:30 p.m., a larger group of students led by State College student Henry Smith made a second attempt at building a bonfire. This time they were successful, using wood from a nearby abandoned house. About 200 students from State College, Claflin, and Wilkinson High School spent the next hour gathered around the bonfire in good spirits. They told reporters that they would stay as long as the police did.

More than 130 police from at least five agencies were positioned near the front of State College's campus. They were under the overall command of SLED Chief Strom, and under orders from Governor McNair not to let the students leave campus. Through journalist intermediaries, Strom attempted to get the students to move away from the front of campus, a request that they refused unless the police would leave first. At about 10:30 p.m., Strom and the other leading officers decided to call a firetruck to put out the bonfire. When the truck arrived, it advanced slowly up U.S. 601 with a police escort. On the truck's left, between the highway and railroad tracks were the National Guard. On the truck's right, a squad of highway patrol officers under Lieutenant Jesse Spell advanced up Watson Street. The students retreated towards Lowman Hall, throwing rocks and bottles. The fire was quickly extinguished but continued to smolder. As Spell's squad turned to scale the embankment at the end of Watson Street, someone threw two white banister posts at patrolmen Donald Crosby and David Shealy. Crosby ducked, but Shealy was struck in the mouth and injured. The other patrolmen thought that Shealy had been shot, and several rushed to his aid.

About five minutes later (around 10:38 p.m.), many of the students began to walk back towards the embankment, unaware that the patrolmen believed Shealy had been shot. Most of the sixty-six patrolmen in front of them had taken up positions behind the embankment or in the surrounding vegetation and were invisible to the students. When the first students reached about 100 feet from the officers, some witnesses recalled hearing a patrolman fire a shot into the air, possibly as a warning. Other witnesses would later recall hearing a whistle, as if signalling to fire. In either case, the noise caused the students to turn and run, some holding their hands in the air or dropping to the ground. Lieutenant Spell then shouted "now"; he and at least eight other patrolmen opened fire on the students. City police officer John Cook joined in as well, and four additional patrolmen fired over the students' heads. The shooting lasted eight seconds. Most patrolmen fired from Remington Model 870 shotguns, while a few used carbines and one fired a pistol. After expending several rounds, Lieutenant Spell gave the order to cease fire.

Victims
Thirty-one victims are known to have been hit by police fire. The victims' ages ranged between 15 and 23. They included seven students from Claflin, nineteen from State College, and three from Wilkinson High School. Two others were not students: Joseph Hampton, a recent State College graduate and Cleveland Sellers, a SNCC community organizer. Most victims sustained injuries from behind while fleeing or on the soles of the feet while lying on the ground. The most serious non-fatal wounds included those to Bobby Burton, whose left arm was paralyzed, and to Ernest Raymond Carson, who was hit by eight buckshot slugs. Three of those injured would later die of their wounds at the Orangeburg Regional Hospital: Samuel Ephesians Hammond, Delano Herman Middleton, and Henry Ezekial Smith. Smith and Hammond were both State College students, while Middleton was a senior at Wilkinson High School. Hammond was killed by a shot to his back. Middleton received seven bullet wounds: three to his arm and one each to his hip, thigh, and heart. Smith was killed by shots from both sides, leaving five bullet wounds. Many of the student witnesses believed that the patrolmen had mistaken Smith for Sellers and had aimed their fire at him. The patrolmen testified that they had not aimed at any specific target.

Immediate aftermath
The injured students were taken to the segregated waiting room at Orangeburg Regional Hospital. Reporters overheard one of the patrolmen gloating over police radio, saying "You should have been here, ol' buddy; got a couple of 'em tonight." Over the next few hours the police arrested and heavily beat several more people. Louise Kelly Crawley would suffer a miscarriage after she was arrested and beaten while taking injured students to the hospital. John Carson approached several officers in the waiting room and demanded to know why they had shot his younger brother, Ernest Raymond, eight times. The patrolmen refused to answer, and when Caron continued to repeat his question, they placed him under arrest and beat him in the head with their rifle butts. Cleveland Sellers was arrested while awaiting hospital treatment; he would later be charged with inciting a riot, arson, assault and battery with intent to kill, property damage, housebreaking, and grand larceny. Some of the hospital staff insulted and demeaned the students. Oscar Butler recalled overhearing a staff member say "they asked for it".

Half an hour after the shooting, a group of students broke into the ROTC building and stole a handful of training rifles. The rifles lacked firing pins and, after other students spoke to the group that had stolen the rifles, they were returned within about twenty minutes.

Public reactions and media coverage
The reaction of the mainstream media was mainly indifference or support for the actions of the police. Civil rights demonstrations had come to be seen as violent after major riots in Detroit and Newark the previous summer. According to journalist and later historian Dave Nolan, "most whites seemed to feel that it was justified to put them down as brutally as possible." This predisposition was reinforced by inaccurate reporting on the ground. The Associated Press reported that there had been a "heavy exchange of gunfire" and never issued a correction. Newspapers across the country ran the AP story with headlines such as "Three Die in Riot", "Trio Slain after Opening Fire on Police", or "Three Killed as Negroes, Police Exchange Shots". Governor McNair gave a speech about the massacre the following day. He called it "...one of the saddest days in the history of South Carolina", but said that the shootings had taken place off campus, that the officers were reacting to being fired upon, and that the shootings had been necessary "to protect life and property." He accused "black power advocates" of having "sparked" the incident, and mentioned the theft of ROTC rifles as having helped escalate the situation. The Governor's office blamed Cleveland Sellers in particular. McNair's spokesman told reporters that Sellers was "the main man. He's the biggest nigger in the crowd" and said that he was the one who had thrown the banister at Officer Shealy. The Governor's account of events was widely accepted by the mainstream media in the weeks following the event. Most of the white reporters in Orangeburg failed to investigate official claims, interview key witnesses, or ask the police probing questions. According to Washington Post reporter Jim Hoagland, they "covered the story largely from the Holiday Inn."

Martin Luther King Jr. blamed the massacre on SLED Chief J. P. Strom, and called for an investigation by the US Attorney General. The NAACP's executive director Roy Wilkins echoed King's call for an investigation. John Lewis accused the white press of conspiring to obscure the true nature of events. SNCC chairman Rap Brown issued the most radical statement, calling for black people to take up arms in self-defense and to "die like men". In the State College newspaper The Collegian, students decried the inaccurate reporting in the mainstream press and argued for why the anti-segregation protests were justified. Black students staged demonstrations across the country. In Greenville, South Carolina, black and white students (mostly from Furman) protested together against the killings.

Despite the fact that the Orangeburg Massacre was the first time police shot and killed students on a United States university campus, they received much less media coverage than the later police shootings at Kent State and Jackson State. For example, the week's issue of Time did not mention the event. Dave Nolan argues that the subject of the protests may have played a role: by 1968, the white public was no longer supportive of demonstrations against segregation, whereas at the time the Kent and Jackson State students were killed, the Vietnam War was a highly charged national issue. Jack Bass and civil rights lawyer Eva Paterson argue that race was a key factor; the most famous of the three incidents (Kent State) was the one where the victims were white. Bass also suggests that the fact that Orangeburg happened at night, meaning there were fewer videos or photographs, had an impact on public reactions. Survivor Thomas Kennerly blamed the lack of attention on the reactions of state officials. He also recalled that the Orangeburg Massacre was followed by the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy, which quickly took over the news cycle. In contrast, Kent State and Jackson State happened in close succession, keeping the issue of how campus unrest was handled by law enforcement and university administrations in the public eye.

Subsequent protests
Orangeburg remained in a state of high tension in the weeks after the shootings. Both colleges closed and let their students return home. McNair placed Orangeburg under a curfew. Hundreds of National guards and highway patrolmen remained in the city despite a petition by 800 black residents to have them withdrawn. The NAACP launched a boycott of all of Orangeburg's white businesses starting on February 11.

On March 7, BACC organized a protest of 200 Orangeburg students at the South Carolina State House. A group led by Steve Moore attempted to read a petition to the South Carolina Senate from the gallery, but was stopped and six students were arrested. On March 13, BACC led a second protest of 1000 students to Columbia and were met by police in riot gear. After some resistance, McNair eventually agreed to meet with a delegation of students.

Court cases
On February 10, the Department of Justice filed a suit against Harry Floyd (who insisted that he had a right to refuse business to black patrons). The Department also filed against the Orangeburg Regional Hospital, which remained segregated despite having promised to integrate in 1965. On February 22, federal Judge Robert Martin ordered All-Star Bowling Lane to desegregate. John Stroman became one of the first group of black students to bowl there on the day classes resumed, February 26. Most businesses in Orangeburg followed suit and desegregated.

Federal prosecutors filed an information against the nine state patrolmen who had admitted to firing on the crowd, including Lt. Spell. They were charged with carrying out summary justice, thereby depriving the students of their civil rights. It was the first federal trial of police officers for using excessive force at a campus protest. The state patrol officers' defense was that they felt they were in danger, and protesters had shot at the officers first. All nine defendants were acquitted, although 36 witnesses stated they did not hear gunfire from the protesters on the campus before the shooting, and no students were found to be carrying guns. In 2007, the FBI reopened the case as part of its re-examination of civil rights-era crimes, but it declined to bring charges because the nine officers had already been acquitted. In 2008, the Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act made it possible to reopen cold cases from before 1970, and starting in 2010, the deaths of Smith, Middleton, and Hammond have been on the Department of Justice's list of unsolved civil rights cases.

In 1970, the State of South Carolina charged Cleveland Sellers with riot on the night of February 8. However, after the prosecution failed to present sufficient evidence of Seller's involvement in the events that day, the judge directed a verdict of not guilty on that charge. Instead, the judge asked the jury to consider whether Sellers was guilty of riot on February 6. The jury convicted him and he was sentenced to a fine and one year in prison. He served seven months, getting time off for good behavior. In 1993, Sellers applied for and was granted a full pardon from the South Carolina Board of Paroles and Pardons. During a conference at The Citadel on the 35th anniversary of massacre, Sellers shared his perspective on the trial and its significance:

Legacy
Soon after the event, students and activists dubbed it the "Orangeburg Massacre". According to Cleveland Sellers, the name was chosen to be reminiscent of the Sharpeville massacre. In Sharpeville, South African police had open fired on and killed dozens of unarmed anti-apartheid activists. Robert McNair strongly disliked the name because he thought it suggested the shootings had been pre-planned. Nevertheless, "Orangeburg Massacre" gradually became the accepted name in the decades after the event.

South Carolina State College (now South Carolina State University) has multiple memorials dedicated to the victims. The gymnasium that opened later in the same year as the massacre was named the Smith–Hammond–Middleton Memorial Center in their honor. The college built a granite monument with the names of the victims at the center of campus in 1969. In 2000, the university erected a South Carolina Historical Marker explaining the history of the massacre near the entrance to campus. In 2022, bronze busts of the three men killed were installed behind the granite memorial. Memorial services are held every year. From 1969 to 1983 they were held at the SHM Memorial Center and since then they have been held at the monument. In 2001, on the 33rd anniversary of the killings, Governor Jim Hodges became the first governor to attend the annual memorial. He issued a formal apology for the massacre. That same year, an oral history project recorded interviews with eight of the survivors.

A joint resolution was introduced in the South Carolina state general assembly in 2003 and re-introduced in each of the next three sessions of the legislature to establish an official investigation of the events of February 8, 1968, and to establish February 8 as a day of remembrance for the students killed and wounded in the protest. However, the legislature never voted on the resolution.

Several works of media have also been produced about the event. It was the subject of two films released after its 40th anniversary in April 2008: Scarred Justice: The Orangeburg Massacre, 1968 by documentary filmmakers Bestor Cram and Judy Richardson; and Black Magic by Dan Klores. In 2009, the SC State Henderson Players (an acting troop of SC State students) put on a play about the events called Take a Stand.

In 2019 Cecil J. Williams, a graduate of Claflin, opened a civil rights museum that includes a collection of photographs he took of the days before and after the shooting. It is South Carolina's first—and as of August 2022, only—civil rights museum.

title: Orangeburg Massacre


text:
Ain Zaatout

 { "type": "FeatureCollection", "features": [ {     "type": "Feature", "properties": {}, "geometry": { "type": "Point", "coordinates": [ 5.8385467424523085,         35.152028137913895        ]      }    }  ] } Ain Zaatout (عين زعطوط) is the administrative name of a mountainous village in north east Algeria, called Ah Frah in the local Shawi dialect, and Beni Farah (sometimes spelled Beni Ferah) (بني فرح) in Arabic.

It is located at 35.14° North, 5.83° East, at the southern edge of the Saharan Atlas between the provinces of Batna and Biskra. The region is largely rocky with an average altitude of more than 900 metres (2,953 feet) above sea level.

Aïn Zaatout has an estimated population of around 5,000 composed of Farhi people, Muslim Berbers speaking a distinctive variant of the Shawi dialect used in the Aurès.

title: Ain Zaatout


text:
1892 in rail transport

January events

 * January 28 – California Southern Railroad abandons the section of railroad through Temecula Canyon connecting to Fallbrook.

February events

 * February 4 – Strahan–Zeehan Railway in Tasmania opens.

March events

 * March 1 – Japan's Mito Railway is consolidated into the Japanese National Railways.

April events

 * April 17 – Canada Atlantic Railway leases the Central Counties Railway, which connected Glen Robertson and Hawkesbury, Ontario.
 * April 25 – Mount Dundas – Zeehan Railway in Tasmania opens.

May events

 * May 20 – The last broad gauge train runs on the Great Western Railway main line out of London Paddington station. Over the following two days 177 route miles (285 km) of its line are converted to standard gauge.

June events

 * June 6 – The Chicago 'L' begins operations. The South Side Elevated Railroad opens for service between Old Congress terminal in downtown Chicago and 39th Street (Pershing Road), a distance of 3.6 miles. Originally, this pioneering "High Line" used 46 small 0-4-4T Forney steam locomotives built by Baldwin Locomotive Works of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania hauling 180 wooden trailers built by Jackson and Sharp Company of Wilmington, Delaware.
 * June 7 – Homer Plessy is arrested when he refuses to move from a seat reserved for whites on a train in New Orleans. The case will lead to the U.S. Supreme Court's landmark "separate but equal" decision in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896.
 * June 9 – Two trains collide at Esholt Junction in West Yorkshire, England, on what is now the Wharfedale Line. Five passengers are killed, twenty-six more and three crew are injured. The cause is unsafe procedures and a signal obscured by vegetation.
 * June 17 – Brienz Rothorn Bahn, in Switzerland, opens.

July events

 * July 2 – the Chemin de fer Glion-Rochers-de-Naye opens the first section of the Montreux–Glion–Rochers-de-Naye railway line in Switzerland.
 * July 18 – The Pine Bluff, Monroe and New Orleans Railroad is reorganized as the Pine Bluff and Eastern Railroad (a Cotton Belt predecessor).
 * July 25 – Tramway de Pithiviers à Toury opened in France.

August events

 * August 4 – Narrow gauge funicular Otis Elevating Railway opens to carry passengers from Catskill Mountain Railway trains connecting with Hudson River steamboats to the Catskill Mountain House destination resort and the Catskill and Tannersville Railway.
 * August 29 – The South Side Elevated Railroad in Chicago is extended south of 39th Street and reaches Garfield Boulevard in Washington Park.

September events

 * September – Hotchkiss Bicycle Railroad opens from Mount Holly to Smithville, New Jersey.
 * September 12 – Western Maryland Railroad's line from Hagerstown, Maryland, over the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and the Potomac River to Cherry Run, West Virginia, opens.
 * September 26 – Jaffa–Jerusalem railway opened in the Ottoman Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem.

November events

 * November 24 – First section of Philippine National Railways opens.
 * November 27 – The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway inaugurates the California Limited passenger train between Chicago, Illinois, and Los Angeles, with the first departure from Chicago.

December events

 * December 1 – The first California Limited passenger train arrives in Chicago, Illinois, after a round trip to Los Angeles.
 * December 30 – Canadian Pacific Railway opens the line between Payne and Eganville, Ontario; the first trains on the line are excursions from Renfrew.

Unknown date events

 * Charles L. Heisler receives a patent for the Heisler locomotive.
 * Klien-Lindner axle patented.
 * Construction of first petrol-engined locomotive, designed by Gottlieb Daimler and built in Esslingen, Germany.
 * Oliver Robert Hawke Bury is appointed as chief mechanical engineer of the Great Western Railway of Brazil.
 * Michigan-Peninsular Car Company, later to become part of American Car and Foundry, is founded in Detroit, Michigan.
 * Muroran Main Line on Hokkaido begins life as a colliery railway.
 * The Lake Superior & Ishpeming Railway Company, later to become the Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad, is founded.
 * The Richmond and Danville Railroad enters receivership.
 * Rebuilt stations opened
 * Madrid Atocha railway station, Spain, designed by Alberto Palacio with Gustave Eiffel.
 * Ramses Station, Cairo, Egypt.

October births

 * October 26 – André Chapelon, French steam locomotive designer (d. 1978).

July deaths

 * July 24 – Thomas Nickerson, president of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway 1874–1880 (b. 1810).

September deaths

 * September 7 – Joseph R. Anderson, owner of American steam locomotive manufacturing company Tredegar Iron Works (b. 1813).

December deaths

 * December 2 – Jay Gould, American financier who, with Jim Fisk, took control of the Erie Railroad (b. 1836).
 * December 28 – Isaac Dripps, mechanical engineer for the Camden and Amboy Railroad who assembled the John Bull (b. 1810).

title: 1892 in rail transport


text:
User:Rahul gupta

Rahul Gupta is from Bhopal Madhya Pradesh. He has done his Bachelor of Engineering from RGPV Bhopal in Computer Science department in honors division. In childhood days he has interested in playing games like cricket, football, badminton, chess etc. But as time passes his interest line has changed from childhood games to innovation. He tried something in electronics but didn't successful much. He has done his schooling in his hometown. As a person, he is always dedicated and determined in his job. For this he got appreciation so many times from his mentor.

—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————— Profession

After doing his Engineering he went to Bangalore for doing job, currently he is working as a software engineering in IT company Bangalore.

—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————— Strength

His Strength is ° Optimistic behavior - Ready to take challenges ° Smart Worker - He always tries to do the work in a smart way rather then hard way. ° Believe in best - He always believe to give the best our self.

—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————— Interest

His area of interest is in ° Playing Chess ° Listening music ° Helping peoples ° Reading books of business men

title: User:Rahul gupta


text:
Oxford Blood

Oxford Blood is a crime novel by Antonia Fraser first published in 1985.

The novel begins with reporter Jemima Shore making a television documentary at Oxford University. Most prominent among the undergraduates is Lord Saffron, a wealthy, twenty-year-old heir to a former (British) Foreign Secretary. Soon she discovers that there is a mystery about Lord Saffron's birth and bloodline, based on the confession of a dying midwife. Later another undergraduate is murdered, and a series of attempts are made to kill Saffron, including a night-time attack while punting on the River Thames.

title: Oxford Blood


text:
List of Cathay Pacific destinations

, Cathay Pacific serves 81 destinations including seasonal and cargo services, in 29 countries across Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania.

title: List of Cathay Pacific destinations


text:
2002 in rail transport

January events

 * January – The Muskingum Electric Railroad, one of only six heavy freight electric railroads in the United States, closes.
 * January 1 – The Bodensee–Toggenburg railway in Switzerland merges into the Südostbahn.
 * January 2 – The Iowa Interstate Railroad operates its first unit coal train over the former Milwaukee Road mainline through Amana, Iowa.
 * January 14 – The Strategic Rail Authority unveils its 10-year strategic plan for the British national railway network, including a £4.5bn investment in new trains, improved station facilities, track repair and signalling work.
 * January 27 – St Albans railway line block signalling and electrification extended to Sydenham in Melbourne, Australia.

February events

 * February – Australia’s National Rail Corporation's freight operations and assets are combined with the Government of New South Wales' FreightCorp and sold to Toll Holdings and Patrick Corporation as Pacific National.
 * February 8 – Changi Airport MRT station on the Singapore MRT System is opened, giving Singapore Changi Airport its first rail link in 21 years.

April events

 * April – David L. Gunn is appointed to head Amtrak by President of the United States George W. Bush, and David Laney joins the Amtrak Board of Directors.
 * April 4 – General Motors Electro-Motive Division and Porterbrook are awarded a contract to build new diesel locomotives for the first open access rail freight carrier in Belgium.
 * April 14 – Opening of KLIA Ekspres from Kuala Lumpur Sentral railway station to Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Malaysia.
 * April 17 – Robert Krebs resigns as chairman of the board of directors of BNSF, and is replaced by company CEO Matthew K. Rose.
 * April 29 – The first Class 390 Pendolino, operated by Virgin Trains West Coast in the UK, arrives at Euston station in London.

May events

 * May – The Metrolink 91 Line (now the 91/Perris Valley Line) opens for service between Los Angeles and Riverside, California.

June events

 * June - The NSW 86 class electric locomotives are retired from regular service.
 * June 12 – The Talgo XXI trainset sets the land speed record for railed vehicles with diesel power at 256.38 km/h (159.3 mph).

July events

 * July 1
 * Norges Statsbaner is privatised under the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications.
 * The railroad dining car catering services of Mitropa, which was founded in 1916, are handed over to DB Reise & Touristik, a subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn.
 * July 4 – General Motors Electro-Motive Division announces that it will build new locomotives for HSBC Rail; the locomotives will be leased by CargoNet for use in Norway north of the Arctic Circle and are expected to enter service after February 2003.
 * July 26 – The German manufacturer of rail equipment, Vossloh, announces the acquisition of the French company Cogifer.
 * July 30 – The Iowa, Chicago & Eastern Railroad takes over operations from the defunct I&M Rail Link in the north central United States.

August events

 * August 1 – Deutsche Bahn opens the high-speed line between Frankfurt and Cologne, Germany.

October events

 * October 11 – The prototype AVE Class 102 train (later used by track authority ADIF as test train Class 330) reaches speeds of 362 km/h during test runs.
 * October 31 – BC Rail operates the last run of the Cariboo Prospector passenger train between Prince George and North Vancouver (city), British Columbia.

November events

 * November 22 – The Toronto Transit Commission opens the Sheppard Subway, connecting the Sheppard-Yonge and Don Mills stations.
 * November 23 – Expansion opens at Fremont-Centerville (Amtrak station).

December events

 * December
 * National Express hands back its M>Train, M>Tram and V/Line public transport franchises in Victoria, Australia to the Government of Victoria due to financial instability.
 * The Tōhoku Shinkansen in Japan is extended from Morioka to Hachinohe.
 * December 1 – Final 4.4 km section of the Rinkai Line between Tennozu Isle and Osaki Stations opens for service in Tokyo, Japan.
 * December 7 – First section of Porto Metro opens in Portugal.
 * December 10 – Inauguration of Belgian High Speed Line 2 (HSL 2 – Leuven<>Ans) by Prince Philippe, Duke of Brabant.
 * December 15 – All first-class cars on the TGV become non-smoking cars.
 * December 24 – First line of the Delhi Metro is inaugurated in India.
 * December 27 – The first X'Trapolis train enters service with Connex Melbourne, Australia.

Unknown date events

 * Completion of 360 km of dual gauge track on Bangladesh Railway, improving connections between the previously isolated east and west networks and giving 1676 mm gauge access to Dhaka, the capital.

Accidents

 * January 18 – The Minot train derailment occurred in Minot, North Dakota on when a Canadian Pacific freight train derailed, spilling hazardous materials.
 * February 6 – Charlotte's Dale train crash: collision of a commuter and a freight train near Durban in South Africa kills 24 people.
 * February 20 – Al Ayyat train disaster at Reqa Al-Gharbiya in Egypt: a fire on a train running from Cairo to Luxor kills at least 383 and injures over 65.
 * February 27 – Godhra train burning: 59 Hindu pilgrims die aboard the Sabarmati Express train burned by Muslim extremists at Godhra in the Indian state of Gujarat.
 * May 2 – An eastbound Canadian National train collides with a trailer near Firmdale, Manitoba, Canada; about 20 cars carrying plastic pellets, benzene, glycol and hexane catch fire, forcing the evacuation of nearly 200 local residents.
 * May 10 – The Potters Bar rail crash occurs at Potters Bar railway station, north of London, England, when a northbound West Anglia Great Northern Class 365 passenger train derails at high speed, killing seven and seriously injuring another eleven.
 * May 13 – Jaunpur train crash: the Shramjivi Express, travelling from New Delhi to Patna, India, strikes a sabotaged section of rail and derails at Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh, killing 12 people.
 * May 25 – The Tenga rail disaster of May 2002 occurred at Tenga 40 km north-west from Maputo, Mozambique; there were 192 deaths with 167 injured.
 * May 28 – Two BNSF Railway trains collide near Clarendon, Texas, killing one person and seriously injuring 3 others from jumping from the locomotives. The cause was repeated phone use by one of the engineers.
 * June 4 – The Kasganj level crossing disaster happened near the town of Kasganj in Uttar Pradesh, India. An express train collided with a bus, killing 49 people.
 * June 24 – In the Igandu train disaster, a large passenger train in Tanzania with over 1,200 people on board rolls backwards down a hill into a stationary goods train, killing 281 people.
 * September 10 – At least 130 people are killed in the Rafiganj train disaster in India, where a passenger train derails on a bridge and falls into a river. Naxalite sabotage is suspected.
 * September 15 - A Norfolk Southern freight train derails in Farragut, Tennessee resulting in a hazardous materials release of fuming Sulfuric acid and evacuation of more than 2,600 nearby residents for nearly three days. Damage was estimated at just over one million USD.
 * December 21 – The Kurnool train crash happened in Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh, India, when a passenger train derailed, killing 20 people.

Japan

 * Awards presented by Japan Railfan Club
 * 2002 Blue Ribbon Award: JR East E257 series Azusa / Kaiji EMU
 * 2002 Laurel Prize: JR West KiHa 187 series DMU

North America

 * 2002 E. H. Harriman Awards

 * Awards presented by Railway Age magazine
 * 2002 Railroader of the Year: E. Hunter Harrison (BN, IC, CN)
 * 2002 Regional Railroad of the Year: Reading Blue Mountain & Northern Railroad
 * 2002 Short Line Railroad of the Year: Winchester & Western Railroad

title: 2002 in rail transport


text:
User talk:146.103.254.11

Your cross-wiki link additions
Please, could you discuss your edits. We are writing an encyclopedia here, NOT a linkfarm. Your edits are discussed here: m:User:SpamReportBot/cw/indymedia.org.

The way you are adding these links (though the links are fine) is inappropriate, please stop! --Dirk Beetstra T C 10:51, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

This is the only warning you will receive for your disruptive edits. The next time you insert a spam link, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. Spammers may have their websites blacklisted as well, preventing their websites from appearing on Wikipedia. -- Herby talk thyme 18:19, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

November 2008
Welcome to Wikipedia. Although everyone is welcome to contribute constructively to the encyclopedia, your addition of one or more external links to the page Alfresco (software) has been reverted. Your edit here was reverted by an automated bot that attempts to remove unwanted links and spam from Wikipedia. The external link you added or changed is on my list of links to remove and probably shouldn't be included in Wikipedia. The external links I reverted were matching the following regex rule(s): rule: '\bwordpress\.com'. If the external link you inserted or changed was to a blog, forum, free web hosting service, or similar site, then please check the information on the external site thoroughly. Note that such sites should probably not be linked to if they contain information that is in violation of the creator's copyright (see Linking to copyrighted works), or they are not written by a recognised, reliable source. Linking to sites that you are involved with is also strongly discouraged (see conflict of interest).

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July 2011
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March 2020
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You may be blocked from editing without further warning the next time you remove or blank page content or templates from Wikipedia, as you did at Scale relativity. –Deacon Vorbis (carbon • videos) 15:11, 31 March 2020 (UTC)
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title: User talk:146.103.254.11


text:
Talk:Monty Norman

Untitled
About the "Dum de-de-dum-dum, dum dum dum, dum de-de dum dum, dum dum dum" in the article - would someone please do this up on a musical staff and post the image? That would make it easier to recognize. - Brian Kendig 14:35, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * FWIW, that is how Monty Norman describes it on his website - . -- ALoan (Talk) 15:43, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * It doesn't matter; It doesn't help the uninitiated and distracts from the article. --Alexwcovington 01:16, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Musical musical??
I've appended a clarify template to the last sentence of the "Biography" section, which makes the claim:
 * "As of 2004, Norman is working on an autobiography, to be entitled A Walking Stick Full of Bagels, and musical versions of the 1954 Kingsley Amis novel, Lucky Jim, and his 1970s musical, Quick Quick Slow."

As written, it is stating in no uncertain terms that he "is working on... [a] musical version... of... his 1970s musical." This does not make sense. Can someone with knowledge of Norman's current activities please clarify this statement? If Quick Quick Slow is already a musical, how can he possibly be working on a "musical version" of it? The statement requires clearer phrasing or more careful word choices. 71.200.89.119 (talk) 13:55, 31 January 2011 (UTC)

James Bond Theme section
I separated all of Norman's involvement with the James Bond theme to its own section, since that is what Norman is primarily known for. Primogen (talk) 16:16, 1 February 2013 (UTC)

Antiques Roadshow
Norman appeared on the Series 40: 6. Entertainment Special of Antiques Roadshow on 31 December 2017, with his original handwritten manuscript for the Bond theme: Martinevans123 (talk) 20:44, 31 December 2017 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
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title: Talk:Monty Norman


text: User talk:61.145.200.25

title: User talk:61.145.200.25


text:
1990 in rail transport

January

 * January 4 – Sukkur rail disaster in Pakistan kills 307 people
 * January 15 – Via Rail discontinues Super Continental service and shifts The Canadian from its Canadian Pacific Railway to a Canadian National Railway route between Toronto and Vancouver, ending service to many cities and towns along the CP line, including Calgary and Regina.

February

 * February 4 – The last Edmondson railway tickets are issued for regular travel on British Rail, by the agent for Pembrey station in Wales.

March

 * March 7 – An accident on the Philadelphia subway near 30th Street Station, kills three and injures 150 people.
 * March 12 – The PNR North Main Line reopens to Malolos after almost three years of closure. It is part of the Metrotren program.
 * March 30 – Keio Sagamihara Line, Chōfu to Hashimoto of Sagamihara route officially completed, and Moto-Yawata of Ichikawa・Shinjuku of Tokyo to Hashimoto of Sagamihara route direct commuter train service to start in Japan.
 * March 31 – Opening of the first phase of the Osaka Rapid Electric Tramway Line No. 7 (高速電気軌道第7号線) (Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line) between Kyōbashi and Tsurumi-ryokuchi.

May

 * May – Zürcher Verkehrsverbund formed as a coordinated public transport network in the Swiss canton of Zürich.
 * May 6 – Cowan rail accident: A heritage steam train hauled by 3801 is rammed at Brooklyn, New South Wales, by a regular CityRail passenger train; six people lose their lives in the accident.
 * May 28 – An Alaska Railroad train derails 19 tank cars near Dunbar. Approximately 170,000 USgal of diesel and jet fuel are spilled; the cleanup efforts last nearly three weeks.
 * May 29 – Shore Line East commuter rail service in Connecticut inaugurated.

June

 * June 13 – The first section of the Genova, Italy, light metro system, the Metropolitana di Genova, is opened.

July

 * July 2 – First direct Berlin S-Bahn service on the elevated Stadtbahn line between Alexanderplatz and Zoologischer Garten via Friedrichstraße station since erection of the Berlin Wall following its dismantling.
 * July 6 – Completion of the first MRT system in Singapore consisting of the North South line and East West line.
 * July 14 – The first light rail line in Los Angeles, the Blue Line, is opened.

August

 * August 18 – Gråkallbanen, part of the Trondheim Tramway in Trondheim, Norway is reopened after the city council permanently closed the tramway in 1988.

September

 * September 16 – Construction of the Northern Xinjiang Railway is completed between Ürümqi and Alashankou, linking the railway lines of China and Kazakhstan, and adding 500 km to the Eurasian Land Bridge.

December

 * December 1 – Construction crews on the Channel Tunnel from both England and France break through the last amount of rock separating the two tunnels, forming the first land link between the two countries for around 8,000 years.
 * December 31 – Minsk Metro's Avtozavodskaya Line opens between Traktornyi Zavod and Frunzenskaya.

Unknown date

 * David L. Gunn steps down from leadership of the New York City Transit Authority.
 * Robert J. Ritchie succeeds William W. Stinson as president of Canadian Pacific Railway.
 * The Gateway Western Railway begins operations over former Chicago and Alton Railroad tracks between Kansas City and St. Louis, Missouri.
 * The 66 series begins service on the Sakaisuji Line in Osaka, Japan.

title: 1990 in rail transport


text:
Free, White and 21

Free, White and 21 is a 1963 movie by self-proclaimed "schlockmeister" director Larry Buchanan. It was based on the true story of the controversial trial of a black man accused of raping a white woman in Dallas, Texas in the 1960s. The title is a version of the archaic American idiomatic phrase "free, white, and twenty-one", which means "beholden to no one".

Plot
The central conflict in this film is whether African-American businessman Ernie Jones (played by Frederick O'Neal) raped Swedish immigrant and civil rights Freedom Rider Greta Mae Hansen (played by Annalena Lund). Jones was the proprietor of the hotel at which Hansen decided to stay during her time in Dallas. The movie is primarily a courtroom drama, with many of the key events portrayed in flashback sequences as Jones and Hansen testify.

Production
The movie was based on a true story about an English girl who stayed at a motel owned by Tony Davis, a black disc jockey. She later claimed Davis raped her and he was arrested. Davis was a friend of Buchanan, and agreed to work with him on the film even before the trial concluded. Before the film was completed, Buchanan showed an assembly cut to James H. Nicholson and Samuel Z. Arkoff of American International Pictures (AIP), who agreed to distribute it.

Release
The film was released with the gimmick of having the audiences act as a jury and be given ballot papers to mark deciding whether the accused was innocent or guilty. The movie was successful at the box office and led to a series of collaborations between Buchanan and AIP. Samuel Z. Arkoff encouraged the filmmakers to produce a similar film specifically targeted at younger audiences. The resultant picture, Under Age, was released in 1964 and featured several of the same actors reprising their roles from Free, White and 21.

Critical response
A contemporary review in The New York Times described the film as a "low-budget courtroom drama" in which "both protagonists emerge as unpleasant and unsympathetic characters," and that "some socially conscious spectators will find the subject matter significant enough to overlook the film's unconvincing dialogue, awkward acting and total absence of cinematic technique."

title: Free, White and 21