text:
1940 in rail transport

January events

 * January 9 – The Østfold Line in Norway takes electric traction into use between Ås and Dilling.
 * January 14 – Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway discontinues the San Francisco-Los Angeles-Chicago Navajo.
 * January 27 – The Boston, Revere Beach and Lynn Railroad ceases operations in Massachusetts in preparation for abandonment.
 * January 29 – Three gasoline-powered trains carrying factory workers crash and explode while approaching Ajikawaguchi Station, Yumesaki Line (Nishinari Line), Osaka, Japan, killing at least 181 people and injuring at least 92.

February events

 * February – Electro-Motive Corporation introduces the E5.

March events

 * March 29 – Southern Pacific Railroad runs its last passenger train to Fremont-Centerville, California.

May events

 * May 1 – The Østfold Line in Norway takes electric traction into use between Dilling and Fredrikstad.
 * May 20 – Sixty-six railroads in the United States, in cooperation with the Travelers' Credit Corporation, begin selling railroad tickets, Pullman accommodations and all-expense tours on an installment basis, known as the Travel Credit Plan. Purchases over $50 can be charged.

June events

 * June 21 – East Wind begins summer service over the Pennsylvania, New Haven, Boston & Maine and Maine Central railroads between Washington, D.C., and Maine.
 * June 29 – Syracuse Transit Corporation closes the South Salina and Nedrow lines in Syracuse, New York.
 * June 30 – Last day archbar freight trucks can legally operate in U.S. Interchange service (and then only on empty cars returning to their home roads).
 * June – Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad takes delivery of the unique EMC AB6 locomotives.

July events

 * July 1 – Portions of the SNCF in Alsace-Lorraine are incorporated into the Deutsche Reichsbahn.
 * July 15 – The Østfold Line in Norway takes electric traction into use between Fredrikstad and Sarpsborg.
 * July 17 – The last section of the Baghdad Railway's mainline linking Istanbul and Baghdad is completed between El Yaroubieh and Baiji and the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits' Taurus Express begins to run throughout between Haydarpaşa Terminal, Istanbul, and Baghdad Central Station.
 * July 29 – Rail traffic is suspended in France between French-retained and German-occupied territories.
 * July 30 – The Pennsylvania Railroad orders its first 4-4-4-4 T1 duplex-drive steam locomotives. They are expected to be serious competition for diesel power.

August events

 * August 1 – Norwegian State Railways runs first through train on the Flåm Line.

September events

 * September 2 – Kansas City Southern Railway inaugurates the Southern Belle passenger train service between Kansas City, Missouri, and New Orleans, Louisiana.
 * September 13 – The Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad is formed by the merger of the Gulf, Mobile and Northern and Mobile and Ohio Railroads.

October events

 * October 1 – The Pennsylvania Turnpike opens, constructed using tunnels and grades originally built for the never-completed South Pennsylvania Railroad.

November events

 * November 4 – Norton Fitzwarren, England: a train driver on the Great Western Railway misreads the signals on a four track line, and drives his train off the end of the track.
 * November 11
 * The Østfold Line in Norway takes electric traction into use between Sarpsborg and Halden.
 * Syracuse Transit Corporation closes the Elm Street line in Syracuse, New York.
 * November 22 – The Newark City Subway in New Jersey opens an extension from Heller Parkway to Grove Street.

December

 * December 15 – The IND Sixth Avenue Line of the New York City Subway is completed and opened throughout.
 * December 17 – The Florida East Coast Railway introduces the Dixie Flagler passenger train between Chicago, Illinois and Miami, Florida, replacing the Henry M. Flagler.

September deaths

 * September 23 – Hale Holden, president of Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad 1914–1918 and 1920–1929, chairman of the board of directors for Southern Pacific Railroad 1932–1939, dies (b. 1869).

October deaths

 * October 24 – William Benson Storey, president of Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway 1920–1933 (born 1857).

November deaths

 * November 9 – Charles Langbridge Morgan, chief engineer for London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, dies (b. 1855).

Unknown date deaths

 * Leonor F. Loree, president of Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 1901–1903, Delaware and Hudson Railway 1907–1938 and Kansas City Southern Railway 1918–1920 (born 1858).

title: 1940 in rail transport


text: User:Tkinias/Taxo test genus Lepomis

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Tkinias/Taxo test genus Lepomis


text:
Young Americans (disambiguation)

Young Americans is an album by David Bowie.

Young Americans or The Young Americans may also refer to:

 * "Young Americans" (song), the title track from the album
 * The Young Americans, a show choir

Film and TV

 * Young Americans (TV series), an American television drama
 * Young Americans (1967 film), a documentary about the choir
 * Take Me Home Tonight, originally titled Young Americans
 * The Young Americans (film), a 1993 crime drama
 * The Young Americans, a forthcoming documentary about the Iraq War by Patrick Dollard

title: Young Americans (disambiguation)


text: User talk:64.231.40.111

title: User talk:64.231.40.111


text:
Basuto Gun War

The Basuto Gun War, also known as the Basutoland Rebellion, was a conflict between the Basuto and the British Cape Colony. It lasted from 13 September 1880 to 29 April 1881 and ended in a Basuto victory.

Following Basutoland's transformation into a British royal dominion on 12 March 1868, it became the target of rapid westernization efforts by the Cape Colony administration. In 1879, the Cape Parliament extended the Peace Preservation Act to Basutoland, with the aim of disarming the Basuto people. The immense significance of guns in Basuto society, compounded with past grievances, resulted in a rebellion led by chiefs Lerotholi and Masopha, which erupted on 13 September 1880. Heavily outnumbered and stretched thin by the simultaneous outbreak of other revolts, the Cape Colonial Forces failed to achieve a decisive military victory.

The ensuing military stalemate and the high cost of conducting the war in made it increasingly unpopular among Cape politicians. On 29 April 1881, High Commissioner for Southern Africa, Sir Hercules Robinson announced the peaceful settlement of the conflict. The Cape's subsequent efforts to enforce disarmament and re-establish the rule of law in Basutoland met with stiff resistance from Masopha and his supporters. Unable to control the Basuto, the Cape Parliament passed the Disannexation Act in September 1883. The Basuto Gun War represents a rare example of an African nation's military victory against a colonial power, whereby the Basuto were able to retain their guns. Under the terms of the Disannexation Act, Basutoland was transformed into a British High Commission Territory, and thus not later incorporated into the Union of South Africa.

Background
During the early 19th century, a diverse group of Sotho-, Nguni- and Tswana-speaking tribes settled in the Caledon River region. The latter two, which formed the minority of the population, were gradually assimilated by the culturally dominant Sotho. King Moshoeshoe I united the various Sotho-speaking chieftainships into a single nation during a period of political turbulence known as Lifaqane. He transformed the denigratory exonym of Sotho into the name of the nascent Basuto nation. In 1833, missionaries from the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society began setting their outposts in Basuto lands following Moshoeshoe's invitation. They promoted a combination of Christianity, Western civilization, and commerce. They saw Basuto customs linked to obligatory labor and the dependence of the population on their chiefs as evil. They sought to undermine them by promoting private property, the commodization of production and closer economic ties with European settlers.

In the 1820s, the Basuto faced cattle raids from the Koranna and first encountered horses and guns in a combat setting. They obtained horses and guns of their own, and began stockpiling gunpowder. By 1843, Moshoeshoe had accumulated more horses and guns than any other chieftain in South Africa, but the guns were outdated flintlocks, which had flooded the South African market after the introduction of percussion lock muskets. In 1852, the British signed the Sand River Convention with the Boers, banning the sale of guns to Africans, while continuing to trade between themselves under the terms of the 1854 Bloemfontein Convention. The Boer Orange Free State was able to procure modern breech-loading rifles and a small amount of artillery. The Basuto were forced to rely on smuggled and locally-produced gunpowder, which was of inferior quality.

In 1858, hostilities broke out between the Basuto and the Orange Free State. Inferior in both marksmanship and materiel, the Basuto suffered a series of defeats in wars that lasted until 1868. In 1866, the two sides signed the Treaty of Thaba Bosiu, whereby Moshoeshoe ceded most of his kingdom's arable land to the Boers. Hostilities resumed soon afterwards, and the Boers began employing a scorched earth policy, leading to starvation among the Basuto. The Basuto appealed to British High Commissioner for Southern Africa Sir Philip Wodehouse and the Colony of Natal for protection. Although, initially reluctant to intervene, on 12 March 1868 Wodehouse proclaimed Basutoland to be a royal dominion.

The Basuto, who became part of the British Empire out of necessity, viewed any kind of colonial administration as “a snake in the house”. While the British, saw it as their responsibility to westernize their new subjects. Wodehouse therefore supported a gradual introduction of colonial laws, so as not to provoke backlash from the Basuto. Basutoland's legal status remained unclear, with the Colonial Office at various times calling it a crown colony and a protectorate. Letsie I, who succeeded Moshoeshoe in 1870, viewed the annexation as merely a treaty of alliance and protection. Basuto chiefs therefore actively challenged the efforts of British authorities to enact major reforms without prior consultations. On 31 December 1870, Sir Henry Barkly was appointed as the new High Commissioner for Southern Africa. The British had long entertained the idea of incorporating Basutoland into the Cape Colony, and Barkly immediately pushed for annexation on the premise of the financial costs incurred by the colony's policing of Basutoland. The bill confirming the annexation was approved by the Cape Parliament on 11 August 1871.

Morosi's Revolt
The Cape government immediately began to undermine the traditional power structures of the Basuto. Under the terms of the Mercantile Law of 1871, trade was restricted to those in possession of a government license. In 1872, it implemented the responsible government system, under which the governor's legislative powers were transferred to the Cape Parliament. The Basuto were neither consulted nor formally informed. They were also barred from participating in the parliament unless they accepted to completely abandon their traditional laws and customs, a condition they deemed unacceptable. From that point on, Letsie I and the Governor's Agent in Basutoland, Colonel Griffith, became embroiled in a power struggle. The Cape-appointed magistrates were given autonomy in enforcing colonial legislation as they saw fit. The magistrates interfered with land disputes, when the Basuto previously held exclusive rights on land allocation. Authority over marriage disputes and disputes between the Basuto and white residents were likewise transferred to magistrates' courts. Basuto prophetesses claimed to have communicated in their dreams with the spirit of Moshoeshoe, who had become increasingly angry with the white man's interference in Basuto affairs.

The southern corner of Basutoland was settled by the Baphuthi people. Their chief Morosi was once a tributary ruler of Moshoeshoe who had reluctantly merged his territory with British Basutoland in 1869. In 1877, the colonial authorities created the Quthing District and appointed Hamilton Hope as the magistrate to oversee the Baputhi, a move opposed by Morosi. In April 1878, the colonial authorities dispatched 80 African policemen and 700 Basuto warriors to apprehend Morosi's son Doda; the dispute was resolved peacefully. Hope was replaced by the more experienced John Austen, who was likewise distrusted by Morosi. Doda was finally imprisoned after being implicated in horse theft, his subsequent escape from captivity and Morosi's refusal to hand him over impelled Cape Colony prime minister Sir Gordon Sprigg to authorize the forced disarmament of the Baphuthi. Austen ordered Letsie I to assist the Cape in the campaign, threatening to hand over parts of Quthing to white settlers and establish garrisons of colonial troops in Basutoland. Letsie I reluctantly agreed. The fighting lasted for several months, as the Baphuthi had entrenched themselves in the isolated Mount Moorosi. On 28 November 1879, the colonial troops managed to reach the summit with ladders, killing Morosi in the final confrontation. Morosi's severed head was paraded in King William's Town, an act that shocked Letsie I.

Opposition to the Peace Preservation Act
In 1878, the Cape Parliament had passed the Peace Preservation Act, which allowed for the confiscation of the firearms of the African population in exchange for a monetary compensation. Sprigg decided that its implementation should extend to the Basuto, after witnessing 7,000 Basuto cavalrymen perform maneuvers during the course of Morosi's uprising. This was announced during a pitso (formal assembly) attended by some 6,000 to 10,000 Basuto. Soon afterwards he also declared that the Quthing region would be confiscated by the Cape for white settlement. At the time almost half of all Basuto men owned a firearm. Many had worked in railway construction and the diamond mines in Griqualand West with the express purpose of purchasing modern breech-loading and smoothbore rifles. As a result, the Basuto became the best-armed tribe in southern Africa. For the Basuto gun confiscation was unacceptable, not only due to their high value, but also due to the necessity to defend their land and cattle in an environment where there was no guarantee of protection from the colonial authorities. For the Basuto, guns were a symbol of manhood, and to be disarmed was seen as being reduced to the status of a child. In April 1879, the Cape Colony doubled the hut tax in Basutoland to one £ per hut.

In June 1880, Letsie I dispatched a three-man delegation to the Cape Parliament as it was deliberating the annexation of Quthing and the question of Basuto disarmament. The delegation argued that the annexation was a violation of prior agreements between Moshoeshoe and Wodehouse, while disarmament was unnecessary since the Basuto remained loyal to the Cape. The delegation was not allowed to present its case in the parliament. Petitions from the Basuto and their sympathizers from among the Paris Evangelical Society missionaries followed, all of which failed to produce a favorable result. Letsie I, now old and in declining health, was unwilling to lead an armed revolt, believing it to be futile. Cape Governor Sir Henry Bartle Frere became impatient at the deliberations and ordered Letsie I to enact disarmament immediately, even before the Basuto delegation had returned from Cape Town.

Few Basuto complied with the order and handed over their arms. This catalyzed the Cape Parliament to vote in favor of disarmament. The delegation announced their failure to prevent the enactment of the Peace Preservation Act at a pitso convened on 3 July. The heir to the Basuto throne, Lerotholi, spoke against disarmament, while Letsie's brother chief Masopha and his nephew chief Joel Molapo openly challenged the order and advocated for armed resistance. Masopha began to fortify the stronghold of Thaba Bosiu, while the supporters of the rebel chiefs began ignoring orders from the local magistrates. White traders abandoned Basutoland, and Basuto loyalists fled to the magistracies for protection as armed bands roamed freely in the region.

Sprigg urged Letsie I to negotiate Masopha's unconditional surrender, until a force of Cape Mounted Riflemen (CMR) could arrive to assist him. Letsie I replied that this was unrealistic, as most of the Basuto, including his sons, had rallied behind Masopha. Letsie and his armed retinue, returned to their village on 19 August after several days of negotiations, fearing that they would be ambushed if they remained outside Thaba Bosiu any longer. In a last ditch effort to prevent an uprising, Sprigg visited Letsie I in person. Letsie I then held another pitso—under Sprigg's new terms the rebel chiefs were to appear in court where they would receive a token fine, pledge to compensate those whose property they had seized, and comply with the gun regulations. Masopha remained defiant and held an assembly of his own, where he and Lerotholi began to prepare for war. Masopha believed that the Cape's troops had proved themselves to be incompetent during the suppression of Morosi's revolt. He was further encouraged by rumors that the British would refuse to reinforce the Cape, and by the British defeat at the Battle of Isandlwana a year prior.

September 1880
On 13 September 1880, a 212-man unit of Cape Mounted Riflemen under Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Carrington crossed into Basutoland in the vicinity of Wepener in order to reinforce the isolated magistracy at Mafeteng. Upon hearing of Carrington's advance, the Mafeteng District magistrate Arthur Barkly set off with 20 policemen to scout ahead. Some 2 miles from the magistracy, he encountered 300 Basuto warriors commanded by Lerotholi on a hill range overlooking the road. The two parleyed, and Barkly informed Lerotholi of the column's imminent approach and advised him to surrender his arms and withdraw. Lerotholi refused and rode back to his men, after seeing the CMR appear on the rear of the police force. The Basuto then charged down from the hill, and a short skirmish ensued whereby the Basuto suffered light casualties. Carrington's troops then garrisoned Mafeteng, where they were besieged by Lerotholi. On 17 September, a CMR unit was attacked by 700 Basuto outside Mafeteng. Following this attack Sprigg ordered the mobilization of the Cape's armed forces.

The army mustered by the Cape government for the conflict, consisting entirely of Cape Colonial Forces troops, was commanded by Brigadier General Charles Clarke, who visited the frontlines only twice during the war, relegating his responsibilities to Adjutant General Major W. F. D. Cochrane and Carrington. Carrington was appointed as the Commandant of the Mafeteng Region and entrusted with a force of approximately 2,000 men. Its cavalry included 400 men from the Cape Mounted Riflemen, 600 men from the Cape Mounted Yeomanry (CMY), 200 riders from Kimberley Horse, as well as small units of scouts and African levies. Its infantry consisted of the Prince Alfred Volunteer Guards, Duke of Edinburgh's Volunteer Guards and First City Volunteer Rifles, each numbering 100 to 200 soldiers. The force also included three RML 7-pounder Mountain Guns and two 5.5-inch mortars. A total of 3,000 white and 1,000 African troops were involved in the campaign.

The Basuto vastly outnumbered their adversaries, Lerotholi commanded 23,000 cavalry, of which 9,000 were concentrated in the Mafeteng District where most of the fighting took place. A part of the Basuto army was tasked with guarding Letsie's ancestral village of Morija. Masopha blockaded the garrison of 200 CMR soldiers at Maseru. He burned Maseru's main buildings in his first assault on the town, but further attacks proved less successful. In the north, Joel Molapo's attack on Hlotse was likewise repulsed and he initiated a siege. The magistracies at Mohale's Hoek and Quthing were abandoned by the Cape troops. The rebellion continued to spread across Basutoland, with clashes taking place across seven different fronts. The heavy casualties suffered by the Basuto during their frontal assaults caused them to increasingly adopt the tactics of the Boer Commando; employing ambushes and defending fortified positions. Their high mobility allowed them to engage their opponents only when they believed that conditions favored them and to quickly withdraw after firing. While the Basuto remained inferior marksmen in comparison to their opponents, the quality and the quantity of the arms at their disposal had increased considerably since the Boer wars.

October 1880
The outbreak of the Gun War (also known as Basutoland Rebellion) prompted other tribes to rise up in revolt. In Griqualand East, Charles Brownlee reported that the Basuto clans residing south of Drakensberg had been incited to revolt by the rebels in Basutoland on 4 October. Brownlee initially attempted to quell the uprising through negotiations, however this plan had to be abandoned when the learnt that the rebels were planning to assassinate him and the members of his administration. He then evacuated his district's white population to Kokstad, while the rebels massacred members of the loyalist Hlubi and Bhaca tribes. Members of the Griqua and Mpondomise tribes rose up in the Qumbu and Tsolo Districts. The Qwati and some of the Thembu clans launched their own revolts in Thembuland. While Basuto incitement did play a role, the causes of those rebellions varied. Some tribes feared disarmament, others opposed the continuous erosion of traditional power structures, while others believed that merely by killing the local white population, colonial rule would disappear. The revolts in Transkei lasted until February 1881 and forced the already outnumbered Cape army to divert troops to other fronts.

Frere was recalled to Britain and Major General Henry Hugh Clifford, who had temporarily succeeded him, opposed both the war and Sprigg's policies. Under the terms of the responsible government system, the Cape was responsible for its own internal security, with two British regiments being stationed in the region for the War Office's own purposes. Clifford insisted that no British troops should be committed for the suppression of the rebellion. In October, Clarke arrived at Wepener at the head of a force of 1,000 cavalry, 600 infantry, five artillery pieces, and 40 wagons. Clarke was aiming to relieve Mafeteng, whose garrison was forced to exchange messages written in Greek, since some Basuto chiefs spoke both English and French. Clarke's advance was slowed by deep mud, and the Basuto cavalry regularly harried the column with rifle fire before withdrawing. On 19 October, the Cape army reached Qalabane, an isolated kop halfway between Wepener and Mafeteng. Lerotholi had positioned 3,000 of his warriors behind a ridge that overlooked a nearby road. The advanced guard of the Cape Mounted Yeomanry came under rifle fire from the kop. Clarke ordered the artillery to fire upon the kop and dispatched 200 men from the 1st Cape Mounted Yeomanry to flank the kop from the left. CMY commander Captain Dalgety ordered his soldiers to dismount and assume an open order formation. Chief Seiso's led an charge of 300 axe-wielding Basuto cavalrymen on Dalgety's unit before the latter was able to reach the crest. The 2nd CMY reinforced Dalgety soon afterwards and captured a nearby village. The Cape army lost 32 killed and seven injured, while the Basuto lost 40 killed. The yeomanry was almost defenseless in hand-to-hand combat, as it was not yet issued bayonets or swords. The battle at Qalabane demoralized the Cape Mounted Yeomanry, which had previously successfully repulsed much larger bodies of enemy troops, but the Basuto hailed the clash as a great victory. Clarke reached Mafeteng, engaging in counter-insurgency operations in its vicinity until the end of the month before returning to the Cape.

November 1880 – January 1881
In November, Carrington destroyed villages adjacent to his line of communication and advanced towards Morija. In early December, he set up camp at Tsita's Nek, engaging in multiple clashes with the Basuto on the road to Morija. On 14 January 1881, Colonel Brabant led a force of 380 cavalry, 180 infantry, 400 armed burghers, and two 7-pounder guns towards Thaba Tsueu. Brabant sent the burghers ahead to capture the Radiamari village. After burning Radiamari, the burghers disregarded their orders and pushed further into Sepechele village, which was held by 8,000 men under Lerotholi. Chief Maama charged the burghers with 3,000 of his warriors, and the latter began to withdraw towards the rest of the Cape force. The Basuto managed to close in on the burghers but were eventually beaten off with carbine and artillery fire. As Maama retired, Lerotholi's warriors opened heavy fire from the surrounding ridges. Surgeon John Frederick McCrea of the 1st CMY won the Victoria Cross for attending injured burghers while being wounded himself. Brabant sent 140 riders from the Yeomanry in pursuit of Maama. The initial counter-attack failed after it was outflanked from the right. The Cape troops then dismounted and cleared the plateau and surrounding ridges. The Basuto suffered heavy casualties, while the Cape lost 16 killed and 21 wounded. Brabant then returned to his camp at Tsita's Nek.

For most of the war the Cape's troops and administration remained isolated in the Hlotse, Maseru, and Mafeteng Districts. The lack of offensive action reduced the Cape troops’ morale still further. Letsie I officially remained loyal to the Cape, while tacitly supporting the rebellion by confiscating land from Basuto loyalists and accepting Austen's severed head as a peace offering from Transkeian chief Tlokwa. According to Basuto oral tradition, Letsie I purposefully cultivated the image of a weak and unintelligent leader, while covertly communicating with the rebel leaders and encouraging the continuation of the rebellion. Basuto loyalist leaders like Jonathan Molapo surrendered their weapons on Letsie's orders so as to maintain control of the country in case the rebels were defeated. During the course of the war, Griffith continued to believe in Letsie's loyalty, blaming his inability to control his chiefs for the war.

In January the outbreak of the First Boer War put further pressure on the Cape's already limited resources. By that time, the Cape war expenditure had reached £3 million. Fearing that Free State burghers might defect to the South African Republic, Cape authorities refused to allow new Boer volunteers to join the Basutoland campaign. The same month, the Basuto sued for peace with the assistance of opposition parliamentarian Jacobus Wilhelmus Sauer. As the maize harvest season neared, the Basuto began to fear that further fighting would lead to starvation in the following year. Under the terms put forward by the Basuto, they would retain their guns and autonomous rule. The deal was rejected by the Cape government, which demanded the surrender of all guns, the submission of the Basuto to Cape laws, and the leaders of the rebellion to stand trial with the guarantee that they would not be sentenced to death. Negotiations broke down, but the seven-day armistice allowed the Basuto to harvest their crops. The newly appointed High Commissioner for Southern Africa, Sir Hercules Robinson, continued to insist on a peaceful settlement of the conflict.

February–April 1881
On 14 February Carrington captured Ramakhoatsi, which overlooked the main road to Morija. The following day, a force of 370 cavalry, 100 infantry, 50 native levies, and three artillery pieces under Brabant was sent out in search of a new camping ground. Upon crossing a spruit in the Ramibidikwa area, a CMR scout reported a massed formation of Basuto horsemen. Brabant ordered his soldiers to form a square; soon afterwards the Basuto commenced an attack on its front and two flanks. A combination of rifle and case shot fire kept the Basuto at bay in the center and the right flank. On the left, the Basuto managed to almost reach melee range before being likewise driven off. The artillery continued to fire on the retreating Basuto, who suffered 138 casualties in the engagement. One month later Clarke assumed personal command of the force, moving the camp to Ramibidikwa, 20 miles from Morija. On 22 March, Carrington was heavily wounded in the vicinity of the new camp.

By early April, Sprigg's conduct of the war was being heavily criticized in the Cape Parliament, whose opposition members were pushing for a vote of no confidence. Using Letsie as an intermediary, Robinson organized a meeting between Griffith and Lerotholi outside Maseru on 17 April. The two sides signed an armistice, although Lerotholi was unwilling to surrender his weapons, as the motion would be too unpopular among his tribesmen. On 29 April, Robinson announced the peace settlement, known as the Award. Under its terms the Basuto would be allowed to keep their guns, provided they officially register them and pay an annual fee of one pound per weapon. The Cape pledged to provide an amnesty for the rebels and allow for Quthing to remain a part of Basutoland. The Basuto agreed to pay a collective fine of 5,000 cattle and compensate Basuto loyalists and white traders. The Award marked the end of the conflict. The Cape's casualties during the war totaled 94 killed and 112 wounded.

Opposition to the Award
Basuto chiefs—including Lerotholi—welcomed the Award, and 3,000 heads of cattle were paid almost immediately as a gesture of goodwill. On 9 May 1881, Thomas Charles Scanlen replaced Sprigg as prime minister, while Basutophile Jacobus Wilhelmus Sauer was appointed as the new Secretary for Native Affairs. Scanlen encountered challenges in fully enforcing the Award, such as the erosion of the colonial administration's prestige. Masopha demanded to be granted almost arbitrary power, refusing to pay his share of the hut tax and forbidding the return of the local magistrate. Joseph Orpen, who replaced Griffith, was seen as too sympathetic to the former rebels. His handling of cattle and land compensation led to the alienation of Basuto loyalists and the departure of nearly all pre-war magistrates from Basutoland. In January 1882, Letsie I assembled an army in order to enforce the Award on Masopha, yet the expedition was cancelled as it was judged that Masopha retained considerable popular support. The Colonial Office refused to allow the Cape to abandon Basutoland and cancel the Award. Robinson then set 15 March as the new deadline for the enforcement of the Award, threatening to confiscate land from the chiefs failing to abide to it and to redistribute Quthing District to white volunteers who fought in the war. Following pleas by Letsie I and Orpen, Robinson cancelled the Award on 15 March and pledged not to confiscate land. This was followed by the repeal of the Peace Preservation Act on 6 April.

The Basuto’s lack of cooperation gave rise to calls for Basutoland's disannexation within the Cape Parliament. Eager to restore pre-war order, Scanlen invited Major General Charles George Gordon to Basutoland. Gordon had built a reputation as a capable administrator and an expert negotiator. He proposed replacing the magisterial system, granting the Basuto chiefs de facto autonomous rule. The proposal was rejected by John X. Merriman as unenforceable, citing the absence of unity among the Basuto. Merriman persuaded Gordon to stay in the Cape for an additional year. Sauer and Gordon then traveled to Basutoland in September 1882, Gordon was convinced that he could resolve the conflict if he were to enter negotiations with Masopha. On 16 September, Sauer held a private meeting with Letsie I and Lerotholi, and consented to the Basuto chiefs' proposal to assemble a force against Masopha. On 25 September, Gordon departed for a meeting with Masopha at Thaba Bosiu, at the same time Lerotholi had completed preparations to launch an assault on the stronghold. During his meeting with Masopha, Gordon disobeyed written instructions given to him by Sauer. Furthermore, Masopha intentionally prolonged the negotiations, thus thwarting Lerotholi's assault on the mountain. Gordon departed Thaba Bosiu without having achieved his objective and resigned soon afterwards. Lerotholi felt humiliated by the incident, which developed into a long-lasting rivalry between him and his uncle.

Disannexation
In the northern Leribe District, rebel chief Joel Molapo and loyalist chief Jonathan Molapo continued to clash sporadically over the Leribe chieftaincy. Joel continuously attacked local loyalists in an effort to seize power, complicating the settlement of the Gun War. The fighting resulted in a wave of refugees fleeing towards the Orange Free State. A month later, a number of Basuto chiefs including Masopha, failed to appear at a pitso called by Orpen's successor Matt Blyth, thus rejecting Scanlen's new proposal for semi-autonomous rule. Aided by Masopha, Joel Molapo continued to massacre and destroy the properties of his opponents. During one of his raids, his warriors burnt the stone house of his deceased father, which shifted popular opinion against him. In May, Letsie I officially granted Jonathan the Leribe chieftaincy, but despite Letsie's declaration, violence in Leribe did not subside until the end of the year. Facing continued diplomatic protests from the Free State and unable to enforce the law in Basutoland, the Cape Parliament passed the Disannexation Act in September 1883.

A pitso held at Maseru on 29 November resulted in most chiefs voting in favor of remaining British subjects. Masopha did not attend the Maseru pitso, holding one of his own; where he demanded complete independence. The British Secretary of State issued an Order-in-Council granting the queen's support to the Disannexation Act, which came into force on 18 March 1884. Under its terms the newly-created High Commission Territory of Basutoland was to be indirectly ruled by the Basutoland High Commissioner Marshal Clarke. The Basuto retained their guns, prevented the alienation of their land to white settlement and thwarted the absorption of their country by the Free State, which would have inevitably occurred had they gained complete independence. The Basuto chiefs retained most of their past authority, while unrest in Masopha's district was only brought to an end after his defeat in the 1898 Basuto Civil War. The Basuto Gun War represents a rare example of an African nation's military victory against a colonial power in the 19th century. Its status as a High Commission Territory meant that Basutoland was not incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910.

title: Basuto Gun War


text: User talk:66.41.208.153

title: User talk:66.41.208.153


text:
Cam Lyman

Cam Lyman (born Camilla Lowell Lyman; September 4, 1932 – c. 1987) was a multimillionaire breeder of champion Clumber spaniels and Bernese mountain dogs, who notably died under mysterious circumstances. Lyman's father was Arthur T. Lyman, a prominent Bostonian and scion of the wealthy Lyman family who made their money in the China trade and later in cotton mills and the cotton trade.

Lyman was a trans man. The Independent reported that, as a middle-aged adult, Lyman was "known to acquaintances as a man" and cultivated "a male identity". Lyman disappeared in 1987 and was declared dead in 1995.

Biography
Lyman bred and trained Clumber spaniels and Bernese mountain dogs, and was well known for being talented but rather reclusive. After the death of his father from lung cancer in 1968, Lyman began to withdraw from his remaining family, moving from the family estate "Ricefields" on Thacher Street in Westwood, Massachusetts, to a home in Rhode Island, wearing men's clothing, and reportedly taking steroids prescribed for his dogs to grow a mustache, as well as wearing his hair in a traditionally masculine hairstyle. By 1985, he had the typical appearance of a male (according to some, he looked startlingly similar to his deceased father by this time) and went by the name Cam. It was during this time that Lyman began to associate with a man named George O'Neil. O'Neil became caretaker of Lyman's estate, and fed, showed, and took care of his dogs.

In 1987, Lyman's relatives failed to receive the customary Christmas card from him. They investigated his disappearance and discovered that no one had seen or heard from Lyman in months. Police questioned O'Neil, who claimed that in the summer of 1987, he and Lyman had a fight over the phone about the dogs, and Lyman hung up on him. The next day, O'Neil went over to Lyman's house and found the phone ripped out of the wall and the doors wide open. O'Neil claimed that he believed Lyman had gone to Europe to undergo sexual reassignment surgery. However, O'Neil failed to provide police any proof that Lyman had gone to Europe. O'Neil also failed to explain why he had not informed anyone of Lyman's disappearance for nearly six months.

On September 24, 1997, Lyman's body was found in a septic tank on his estate in Hopkinton, Rhode Island, by owners who had recently purchased the house. His final will named the American Kennel Club's Museum of the Dog as the sole beneficiary. The story was featured on Unsolved Mysteries, but as of 2011 no one has ever been charged in the case.

In 2003, George O'Neil was indicted for embezzling $15,000 from Cam Lyman's estate. He was sentenced to one year of probation and ordered to pay $450 in court costs. He died in 2011 without giving any more information on Cam Lyman's death.

title: Cam Lyman


text:
Virtual finite-state machine

A virtual finite-state machine (VFSM) is a finite-state machine (FSM) defined in a virtual environment. The VFSM concept provides a software specification method to describe the behaviour of a control system using assigned names of input control properties and output actions.

The VFSM method introduces an execution model and facilitates the idea of an executable specification. This technology is mainly used in complex machine control, instrumentation, and telecommunication applications.

Why
Implementing a state machine necessitates the generation of logical conditions (state transition conditions and action conditions). In the hardware environment, where state machines found their original use, this is trivial: all signals are Boolean. In contrast state machines specified and implemented in software require logical conditions that are per se multivalued:
 * Temperature could be Low, OK, High
 * Commands may have several values: Init, Start, Stop, Break, Continue
 * In a hierarchical control system the subordinate state machines can have many states that are used as conditions of the superior state machine

In addition input signals can be unknown due to errors or malfunctions, meaning even digital input signals (considered as classical Boolean values) are in fact 3 values: Low, High, Unknown.

A Positive Logical Algebra solves this problem via virtualization, by creating a Virtual Environment which allows specification of state machines for software using multivalued variables.

Control properties
A state variable in the VFSM environment may have one or more values which are relevant for the Control—in such a case it is an input variable. Those values are the control properties of this variable. Control properties are not necessarily specific data values but are rather certain states of the variable. For instance, a digital variable could provide three control properties: TRUE, FALSE and UNKNOWN according to its possible boolean values. A numerical (analog) input variable has control properties such as: LOW, HIGH, OK, BAD, UNKNOWN according to its range of desired values. A timer can have its OVER state (time-out occurred) as its most significant control value; other values could be STOPPED or RUNNING.

Actions
Other state variables in the VFSM environment may be activated by actions—in such a case it is an output variable. For instance, a digital output has two actions: True and False. A numerical (analog) output variable has an action: Set. A timer which is both: an input and output variable can be triggered by actions like: Start, Stop or Reset.

Virtual environment
The virtual environment characterises the runtime environment in which a virtual machine operates. It is defined by three sets of names: The input names build virtual conditions to perform state transitions or input actions. The virtual conditions are built using the positive logic algebra. The output names trigger actions; entry actions, exit actions, input actions or transition actions.
 * input names represent the control properties of all available variables
 * output names represent the available actions on the variables
 * state names, as defined for each of the states of the FSM.

Positive logic algebra
The rules to build a virtual condition are as follows:

Input names and virtual input
A state of an input is described by Input Names which create a set: etc.
 * input A:
 * input B:
 * input C:

Virtual input  is a set of mutually exclusive elements of input names. A  always contains the element  : VI = {always} VI = {always, A1} VI = {always, A1, B2, C4}

Logical operations on input names
  (AND) operation is a set of input names:

A1 & B3 & C2 =>

  (OR) operation is a table of sets of input names:

A1 | B3 | C2 => $$\begin{bmatrix} \{ & A1 & \} \\ \{ & B3 & \} \\ \{ & C2 & \} \\ \end{bmatrix}$$

  (Complement) is a complement of a set of input names:

~A2 =

Logical expression
A logical expression is an OR-table of AND-sets (a disjunctive normal form):

A1 & B3 | A1 & B2 & C4 | C2 => $$\begin{bmatrix} \{ & A1 & B3 & \} \\ \{ & A1 & B2 & C4 & \} \\ \{ & C2 & \} \\ \end{bmatrix}$$

Logical expressions are used to express any logical function.

Evaluation of a logical expression
The logical value (true, false) of a logical expression is calculated by testing whether any of the AND-sets in the OR-table is a subset of.

Output names and virtual output
A state of an output is described by Output Names which create a set: Virtual output  is a set of mutually exclusive elements of output names.
 * output X:
 * output Y:

Virtual environment
The Virtual Name and Virtual Output completed by State Names create the Virtual Environment  where the behaviour is specified.

VFSM execution model
A subset of all defined input names, which can exist only in a certain situation, is called virtual input or. For instance temperature can be either "too low", "good" or "too high". Although there are three input names defined, only one of them can exist in a real situation. This one builds the.

A subset of all defined output names, which can exist only in a certain situation is called virtual output or. This is built by the current action(s) of the VFSM.

The behavior specification is built by a state table which describes all details of all states of the VFSM.

The VFSM executor is triggered by  and the current state of the VFSM. In consideration of the behavior specification of the current state, the  is set.

Figure 2 shows one possible implementation of a VFSM executor. Based on this implementation a typical behavior characteristics must be considered.

State table
A state table defines all details of the behavior of a state of a VFSM. It consists of three columns; the first column names the state, the second lists virtual conditions built out of input names using the positive logic algebra, and the third column contains the output names:

Read the table as following: the first two lines define the entry and exit actions of the current state. The following lines which do not provide the next state represent the input actions. Finally the lines providing the next state represent the state transition conditions and transition actions. All fields are optional. A pure combinatorial VFSM is possible in cases only where input actions are used, but no state transitions are defined. The transition action can be replaced by the proper use of other actions.

Tools

 * StateWORKS: an implementation of the VFSM concept
 * PlayMaker: implements the VFSM concept as a method of "visual scripting" the Unity game engine

title: Virtual finite-state machine


text:
Acrorchis

Acrorchis is a monotypic genus from the orchid family (Orchidaceae), subfamily Epidendroideae, tribe Epidendreae, subtribe Laeliinae.

The only species, Acrorchis roseola, is an epiphytic orchid that occurs in Costa Rica and Panama at heights between 900 and 2,500 m. It is clump-forming, magenta orchid, reaching a height of 15 cm. The sepals and petals of its small flowers have distinct lengths and shapes. The base of the lip has a white color on the margins.

This orchid is very rare in cultivation.

title: Acrorchis


text:
Nicky Oppenheimer

Nicholas F. Oppenheimer (born 8 June 1945) is a South African billionaire businessman. He was formerly the chairman of De Beers diamond mining company and of its subsidiary, the Diamond Trading Company, and former deputy chairman of Anglo American. He is the third richest man in Africa.

Early life
Oppenheimer is the son of Bridget (née McCall) and Harry Oppenheimer, and grandson of Anglo American founder Ernest Oppenheimer (the first generation to chair De Beers, from 1929). His father was of German Jewish descent. He was educated at Ludgrove School, Harrow School and Christ Church, Oxford, where he read Philosophy, Politics and Economics, earning an Oxford MA.

Business career
Oppenheimer joined Anglo American in 1968, was appointed a director in 1974, then became deputy chairman in 1983. He resigned in 2001, remaining a non-executive director until 2011.

He was appointed deputy chairman of the then Central Selling Organisation (now Diamond Trading Company) in 1984, and deputy chairman of De Beers Consolidated Mines in 1985. He was also appointed chairman of the Diamond Trading Company in 1985. Chairman of the De Beers Group from 1998 to 2012, he retired when the family stake was sold to Anglo American.

Oppenheimer appeared on the Sunday Times Rich List 2018 as the 23rd richest person in the United Kingdom, with a reported fortune of £5.5 billion. He was ranked as the richest person in South Africa on Forbes list of The World's Billionaires for 2019, with a fortune reported as US$7.3 billion and, again, on its 2020 list, with a reported fortune of US$7.6 billion in August 2020.

Philanthropy
The Oppenheimer family has directed much of its philanthropic efforts towards preserving the heritage and cultural importance of the Southern African region, as well as to broader community upliftment in the areas of education, health, nature conservation and the arts. Nicky Oppenheimer and his son Jonathan Oppenheimer established the Brenthurst Foundation in 2005 as a way to contribute to the debate around strategies and policies for strengthening Africa's economic performance and enabling inclusive and sustainable development.

The family has also long been involved in environmental and conservation issues. The Oppenheimer family partnered with De Beers to establish the Diamond Route in 2006 to maximise the potential of their properties for conservation, research and environmental awareness purposes. The Diamond Route links 8 sites across northern South Africa, stretching from Namaqualand on the west coast, to Kimberley, north to Tswalu in the Kalahari, and to the Brenthurst Gardens in Johannesburg, eastwards to Ezemvelo Nature Reserve and northwards to the Venetia Limpopo Nature Reserve in Limpopo Province. Since 2015 Oppenheimer is also a Rhodes Trustee.

Awards
In 2003, the Technikon Witwatersrand awarded Oppenheimer an honorary doctorate. He received the Presidential Order of Honour (2004) from the former President of Botswana, Festus Mogae, and an honorary fellowship (2009) from the London Business School.

Personal life
In 1968, he married Orcillia "Strilli" Lasch, daughter of industrial tycoon Helli Lasch; both are Anglican. His father was born Jewish and converted to Anglicanism.

title: Nicky Oppenheimer


text:
Armenian rock

Armenian rock describes a wide variety of forms of rock music made in Armenia or by artists of Armenian descent.

Among the most recognized groups of Soviet era were Arthur Meschian's "Arakyalner", "1+2", "Kaleidoscope", and "Bliki". Following the loosening of state control in the early 1980s, a number of Armenian rock bands gained followers in Western Europe, such as Asparez and Ayas. Asparez was the only Armenian rock act to release an LP on the iconic Soviet label Melodiya. The bands Tarerk, Tessilk, 36.6 and Maximum had strong followings at home.

Soviet Era
Rock was greatly restricted for most of the period Armenia was under Soviet rule, being viewed by the CPSU as a Western anti-socialist influence. Yet, by the early 1970s, there were a range of popular bands in the capital city of Yerevan strong enough to compete with their Soviet counterparts - Arthur Meschian's "Arakyalner", "1+2", "Kaleidoscope" and "Bliki".

By the eighties, combining Armenian folk music with rock, the Armenian folk-rock groups were founded with notable, and popular even in 2000's, representatives - Bambir, founded 1978 in Leninakan and Vostan Hayots, founded in 1986 in Yerevan. In 1982 Bambir won the "Folk Music Award" at the International Festival in Lida, Belarus. Other more obscure groups were also founded in the same time period like Zartong a short-lived Armenian folk group from France.

As the Soviet rock scene grew larger in the late 1980s, bands like Asparez and Ayas attracted international audiences due to the new popularity of oriental rock these two bands were among original contributors, that was described first time in Melodie und Rhythmus magazine. Ayas was formed in 1986 by a conservatory graduate Artur Mitinyan, and a year later won Best Song of the Year award at Yerevan's "Rock, Rock, Rock Festival". Later they won the "Sisian Rock Festival" award as well. Elips was another important band of the era formed in 1986. In summer 1986 “Elips” went on tour to Latvia, where they played together with a Riga-based group “Pilligrim”. Simultaneously with the fame, the group gained the hatred of the Soviet Communist party nomenclature and was prohibited as an anti-Soviet group. Their most popular song - "Patkeratsrek" (Imagine) remains as one of the hymns of Armenian rock.

Post-Soviet Era
In the early 1990s, an Armenian progressive rock scene developed. Dumbarton Oaks was one of the first bands trying to combine rock with classical music, an example of this is "Once Upon a Time There Lived a Cadence". The psychedelic side of prog-rock was represented in the much heavier works of MDP. Though only in the 2000s Artsruni and Oaksenham released their albums with the leading French label, Musea, being the pioneers among local bands releasing albums beyond sentimental market. Both bands boast presence of their albums on iTunes and Allmusic.com. Other popular Armenian rock bands of this era included Breeze, Ambehr, The Kings' Cross, Alter Ego, IF by Hayk F. Gyolchanyan, Lav Eli and Empyray. Beerdingungs Lauten was the only representative of grindcore style. Former "Lav Eli" guitarist Gor Mkhitarian is currently involved with the folk rock scene in the United States regularly releasing his albums there.

A notable example is Deti Picaso a Russia-based folk prog-band consisted of mostly Armenians was noticed and appreciated in Armenia and revived interest towards folk music.

In the same early 1990s the Armenian rock bands got to have a fanzine - Mark's Gazette, self-published by Arman Padaryan (aka Mark) for the next 10 years.

Expatriate Armenian rock
Expatriate Armenian rock musicians in the US during the 1990s were few, with fewer venues for them to perform. Tigran Mousoian, president of The Armenian Musicians & Artists Center, had organized two festivals in Yerevan, and then planned Armenian Rock Festival in Glendale, California.

Audience in Armenia
The audience in Armenia remains exceedingly small for local rock groups, playing in local clubs in Yerevan and Gyumri. Although "SARD", "Bambir 2", "Vordan Karmir", "Reincarnation" and speed-metal band Aramazd started to receive media attention, especially after their videos were televised nationally. "Roxygeen" was heading the scene of cover-bands, while STRYFE and Sworn are prog-metal bands. The revived MDP and Oaksenham in addition to Bambir 2, Blood Covenant, STRYFE, Sworn and Empyray led the vanguard of quality made native rock in the new millennium. Arthur Meschian had sold-out concerts in Yerevan Opera Theatre and Complex Sports and Concerts Complex. Also the most popular alternative rock band in the world from Armenia is The Beautified Project. The band has played concerts in Armenia, UK, Austria, Germany, France, Russia and Georgia.

Music awards
Since 2004 International Armenian Music Award announces winners in various rock categories. Among laureates and nominees there were Bambir 2, Empyray, Oaksenham, Hexen, Gor Mkhitaryan, Red Snow and others. In 2009 Lebanese Armenian, Eileen Khatchadourian's album Midan received the award of the Best Rock Album of the year. Another ceremony is Armenia's National Music Awards showcase of the Armenian Television 1st Channel, which claims best performers of the year in Armenia. At the 6th ceremony, which took place on March 27, 2010, the best rock group was announced Dorians, a group featuring a singer Gor Sujyan.

Unfortunately both awards has not gained authority, and are often boycotted by more intransigent Armenian rock musicians.

Rock festivals
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, festivals organized by the ACCEA (Armenian Center for Contemporary Experimental Art) signaled a rebirth of the Armenian rock music scene, with many new bands and musicians coming from the heartland region of Vanadzor. Among the most popular bands at that time there were "Vostan Hayots", "Angels", and punk rockers "Ass Kissers". There was a splash of interest in very heavy acts such as "Beerdigungs Läuten" playing quality grindcore metal.

In September 2007 Rock4Peace festival concerts organized with participation of Germans from Kultur Aktiv e.V. and Vibrographus were held in Yerevan, Gyumri and Stepanakert. The reunion of Ayas took place after the meeting of the band's core musicians in Moscow, whilst Vostan Hayots continued irregularly appear with club concerts in Yerevan. Armenian rock started to live another wave of revival and yet local rock music does not have an industrial sense, though Armenian rock musicians started to participate in the commercially and politically biased projects such as two "Rock-and-Dram" festivals were held, on April 13 and November 23, 2007.

Tigran Mousoian, president of The Armenian Musicians & Artists Center, organized two festivals in Yerevan, and planned Armenian Rock Festival in Glendale, California.

Concerts by outside groups
A range of top-class concerts featuring legendary rock groups has been organized in Armenia by Vibrgraphus in 2009 and 2010 including visits of Jethro Tull, Uriah Heep, John McLaughlin and Deep Purple.

Other activity
Harutyun Ayvazyan  (Artyom) was the first Armenian journalist, who published a rock encyclopedia in St. Petersburg in Russian language at Avgust Publishing House. The rock group Vara features an Armenian lead singer.

title: Armenian rock


text:
Oleni

Oleni (Ωλένη) is a village and a former municipality in Elis, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Pyrgos, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 152.231 km2. The seat of the municipality was in Karatoula. The municipal unit was named after the ruined medieval town Olena, which also gave its name to the Bishopric of Olena. It consists of a wide valley around Karatoula and Magoula, and the hills west and east of the valley. It is located about 10 km northeast of Pyrgos, 13 km northwest of Olympia and 20 km southeast of Amaliada. The largest community is Goumero. The ancient town Amphidolis was located near present Karatoula.

Subdivisions
The municipal unit Oleni is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):
 * Agia Anna
 * Arvaniti
 * Charia
 * Cheimadio
 * Goumero
 * Karatoula (Karatoula, Kleidereika, Marmara)
 * Karya (Karya, Varvarina, Sitochori)
 * Klindia
 * Koutsochera
 * Lanthi (Lanthi, Moni Kremastis)
 * Latzoi (Latzoi, Agios Georgios, Almyriki, Grammatikos)
 * Magoula (Magoula, Katsomaliareika)
 * Mouzaki
 * Oleni
 * Pefki
 * Sopi

Sources and external links

 * Municipality Of Oleni Web Site
 * Panoleniakos Karatoula Football Club

title: Oleni


text: User:Tkinias/Taxo test familia Centrarchidae


text: User:Tkinias/Taxo test ordo Perciformes

title: User:Tkinias/Taxo test ordo Perciformes


text: User:Tkinias/Taxo test classis Actinopterygii


text: User:Tkinias/Taxo test phylum Chordata

title: User:Tkinias/Taxo test phylum Chordata


text:
Rada

Rada is the term for "parliament" or "assembly" or some other "council" in several Slavic languages. Normally it is translated as "council". Sometimes it corresponds to "parliament", or in Soviet Union contexts, to "soviet". It also carries a meaning of advice, as in the English word "counsel".

Etymology
Old High German rāt (from Proto-Germanic *rēdaz) passed (possibly through Polish) into the Czech, Slovak, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian languages. Although some researches like K. P. Stanley et al. argued that contrary to the above stated hypothesis that the Germanic languages borrowed the words for council and related terms from Slavic languages.

Alternately the source was the Gothic language radan - 𐍂𐌰𐌳𐌰𐌽 - to council, to deliberate, that passed to West Slavic in the Iron Age during the Wielbark and Chernyakhov cultures presence along Vistula river and in Western Ukraine, as the term "rada" may be present in such first millennium CE names as Slavic Radogoszcz, Radgoszcz, Radhošť, Radegost, Radagast, Ardagast - Radogost,  and Gothic Radagaisus. The dispersal to East Slavic Languages, could have happened later, possibly through Polish.

Råd in Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish, Rat in German, neuvosto or raati in Finnish and nõukogu or raad in Estonia/Dutch mean "council" or "assembly", but also "advice", as it does in East Slavic (except Russian) and West Slavic, but not South Slavic, languages.

In Swedish the verb råda (to counsel) is based on the substantive råd. This is similar to Danish råd (noun) and råde (verb).

Examples
In Belarus
 * Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic, provisional parliament of the Belarusian Democratic Republic (now in exile)
 * Belarusian Central Rada, the government of Belarus from 1943–44, which was established as a puppet by Nazi Germany

In the Czech Republic
 * Česká národní rada, parliament of the Czech Socialist Republic (1969–1990) and the Czech Republic (1990–1992)

In Poland In Russia
 * Rada Główna Opiekuńcza (Central Welfare Council)
 * Rada Jedności Narodowej (Council of National Unity)
 * Rada Polityki Pieniężnej (Monetary Policy Council)
 * Rada Trzech (Council of Three)

 * Kuban Rada, supreme council of the Kuban Cossack host (1917-1920)

In Slovakia
 * Slovenská národná rada (1848–1849)
 * Slovenská národná rada (1941)
 * Slovenská národná rada (1918)
 * Slovenská národná rada (1920)
 * Slovenská národná rada (1932)
 * Slovenská národná rada (1939–1940)
 * Slovenská národná rada (1943–1960)
 * Slovenská národná rada (1943–1992)
 * Národná rada Slovenskej republiky, the parliament of the Slovak Republic (since 1992)

In Ukraine
 * Cossack Rada
 * Sich Rada, Council of Zaporizhian Sich
 * Pereiaslavska rada, the Pereiaslav Agreement of 1654
 * Chorna rada of 1663
 * Tsentralna Rada ("Central Council"), parliament of the Ukrainian People's Republic
 * Verkhovna Rada Ukrainskoi RSR, the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
 * Verkhovna Rada ("Supreme Council"), the parliament of Ukraine
 * Verkhovna Rada building
 * Rada TV
 * Verkhovna Rada of Crimea
 * Kyivska miska rada, Kyiv City Council

Historically, the Verkhovna Rada was also the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Українська Радянська Соціалістична Республіка [УРСР], Ukrayins'ka Radyans'ka Sotsialistychna Respublika [URSR]), which was itself part of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Союз Радянських Соціалістичних Республік, [СРСР]), the word rada replacing the Russian word soviet in both cases. See official names of the Soviet Union.

title: Rada


text:
Sich Rada

The Sich Council (, Sichova Rada) was the highest branch of government of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, and based at their center, the Zaporizhian Sich. It was also called Viyskova Rada (Military Council). The Rada, a type of governing committee but with participation from the cossack members, was involved in legislative, executive and judicial matters.

Functions
As an institution, the Sich Rada was a form of direct democracy where rights of individual cossacks were preserved through participation in the Rada.

It was able to decide when to go to war and when to conclude a peace treaty. It elected the officer staff (starshyna), with the Kosh otaman at its head. It received foreign diplomats and determined the course of diplomatic relations.

The Sich Rada also fulfilled certain economic functions, such as the distribution of the communal agricultural and fishing districts among the kurins of the Sich.

title: Sich Rada


text:
Secretum Secretorum

The Secretum Secretorum or Secreta Secretorum (Latin for "secret of secrets"), also known as the Sirr al-Asrar (كتاب سر الأسرار), is a treatise which purports to be a letter from Aristotle to his student Alexander the Great on an encyclopedic range of topics, including statecraft, ethics, physiognomy, astrology, alchemy, magic, and medicine. The earliest extant editions claim to be based on a 9th-century Arabic translation of a Syriac translation of the lost Greek original. It is a pseudo-Aristotelian work. Modern scholarship finds it likely to have been written in the 10th century in Arabic. Translated into Latin in the mid-12th century, it was influential among European intellectuals during the High Middle Ages.

Origin
The origin of the treatise remains uncertain. The Arabic edition claims to be a translation from Greek by 9th-century scholar Abu Yahya ibn al-Batriq (died 806 CE), and one of the main translators of Greek-language philosophical works for al-Ma'mun, working from a Syriac edition which was itself translated from a Greek original. It contains supposed letters from Aristotle to his pupil Alexander the Great. No such texts have been discovered and it appears the work was actually composed in Arabic. The letters may thus derive from the Islamic and Persian legends surrounding Alexander. The Arabic treatise is preserved in two versions: a longer 10-book version and a shorter version of 7 or 8 books, the latter is preserved in about 50 copies.

Modern scholarship considers that the text must date to after the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity and before the work of Ibn Juljul in the late 10th century. The section on physiognomy may have been circulating as early as AD 940. The Arabic version was translated into Persian (at least twice), Ottoman Turkish (twice), Hebrew, Spanish, and twice into Latin. (The Hebrew edition was also the basis for a translation into Russian.) The first Latin translation of a part of the work was made for the Portuguese queen c. 1120 by the converso John of Seville; it is now preserved in about 150 copies under the title Epistola Aristotelis ad Alexandrum de regimine sanitatis ("Aristotle's letter to Alexander on good health"). The second translation, this time of the whole work, was done at Antioch c. 1232 by the canon Philip of Tripoli for Bishop Guy of Tripoli; it is preserved in more than 350 copies. Some 13th-century editions include additional sections.

Contents
The Secretum Secretorum claims to be a treatise written by Aristotle to Alexander during his conquest of Achaemenid Persia. Its topics range from ethical questions that face a ruler to astrology to the medical and magical properties of plants, gems, and numbers to an account of a unified science that is accessible only to a scholar with the proper moral and intellectual background. Copland's English translation is divided into sections on the work's introduction, the Manner of Kings, Health, the Four Seasons of the Year, Natural Heat, Food, Justice, Physiognomy, and Comportment.

The enlarged 13th-century edition includes alchemical references and an early version of the Emerald Tablet.

Legacy
It was one of the most widely read texts of the High Middle Ages or even the most-read. Amid the 12th-century Renaissance's Recovery of Aristotle, medieval readers took the ascription to Aristotle at face value and treated this work among Aristotle's genuine works. It is particularly connected with the 13th-century English scholar Roger Bacon, who cited it more often than his contemporaries and even produced an edited manuscript with his own introduction and notes, an unusual honor. This led mid-20th century scholars like Steele to claim that Bacon's contact with the Secretum Secretorum was the key event pushing him towards experimental science; more recent scholarship is less sweeping in its claims but still accords it an important place in the research of his later works.

The Latin Secretum Secretorum was eventually translated into Czech, Russian, Croatian, Dutch, German, Icelandic, English, Aragonese, Catalan, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, and Welsh. The 1528 English translation by Robert Copland was based on Philip of Tripoli's Latin edition.

Scholarly attention to the Secretum Secretorum waned around 1550 but lay interest has continued to this day among students of the occult. Scholars today see it as a window onto medieval intellectual life: it was used in a variety of scholarly contexts and had some part to play in the scholarly controversies of the day.

title: Secretum Secretorum


text:
Philadelphia Association of Black Journalists

The Philadelphia Association of Black Journalists (PABJ) is an organization formed in June 1974 to advocate for a fair representation of Black journalists in the city’s mainstream media. It was composed of journalists and television and radio stations.

Formation
Black journalists formed the Association of Black Journalists (ABJ), as it was originally named, several months before publicizing its existence in a press release in October 1974. A spokesman told the Philadelphia Daily News that it was founded in June 1974 and its stated purpose was to “encourage more Blacks to enter the media, sensitize the white media for more balanced coverage of Black events and develop closer ties with other Black professional groups.”

The organization had identified 76 Black newspeople in the Greater Philadelphia area, and it had about 50 members. ABJ met monthly at the Institute of Black Ministries in North Philadelphia.

The press release named the officers and executive board:

 * Chuck Stone (Philadelphia Daily News), president
 * Pam Haynes (Philadelphia Tribune), vice president
 * Sam Pressley (Philadelphia Evening Bulletin), secretary
 * George Strait (WPVI-TV), treasurer
 * James C. Johnson (Philadelphia Evening Bulletin), assistant treasurer

The Executive Board:

 * Claude Lewis (Philadelphia Evening Bulletin), chairman of the Executive Board
 * Francine Cheeks (WCAU-TV)
 * Joe Donovan (KYW radio)
 * Artis Hall (WCAU-TV)
 * Carole Norris (WHYY-TV)

On December 15, 1975, member J. Whyatt “Jerry” Mondesire of the Philadelphia Inquirer filed Articles of Incorporation papers for the ABJ as a non-profit, three days after the founding of the National Association of Black Journalists (NABJ). The request was approved by the state of Pennsylvania in January 1976. The document changed its name to the Association of Black Journalists of Philadelphia.

Its early membership was restricted to working journalists, photographers and students, and was eventually expanded to include media professionals. Prior to the founding of the ABJ, an organization of media professionals was organized as Black Communicators Inc. in 1971.

NABJ
Several PABJ members were among the 44 Black journalists from across the country who met in Washington, DC, to form NABJ on December 12, 1975. They included Reginald "Reggie" Bryant, Chuck Stone, Acel Moore, Claude Lewis, Joe Davidson, Sandra Dawson (Long Weaver). Stone was elected president, and he served a dual presidency of both the NABJ and ABJ. In a news story in 1995, Stone described the NABJ as a “direct descendant” of ABJ and ABJ’s constitution and bylaws as a model for the NABJ’s.

Three of PABJ’s 25 presidents have become presidents of NABJ: Stone, Vanessa Williams and Sarah Glover.

First project
ABJ held a meeting in September 1974 between PABJ member Moore and representatives of the Temple University School of Communications and Theater to discuss the hiring of Black newspeople. Temple accepted ABJ’s assistance. ABJ offered to visit nearby colleges, including Lincoln University and Cheyney State College, and local high schools.

According to Stone, the ABJ group decided to approach Temple for its 20 percent Black student population. Stone accused the university of having no Black faculty members, but a former Temple journalism department dean pushed back.

In 1970, a professor in Temple’s communications school found in two surveys of newspapers across the country that the number of Blacks was under two percent.

Early programming
ABJ and Temple cooperated in a journalism-training session for high school students in 1977. The organization held annual awards banquets to raise money for scholarships and operations. Another of its programs was "Artists Among Us," begun in 2002, which brought together journalists to show off their talents beyond journalism. Among the presenters was cartoonist Robb Armstrong, who created the Black comic strip "Jump Start." The organization later offered candidate forums and other events.

The first awards banquet was held on February 28, 1976, with Benjamin C. Hooks, commissioner of the Federal Communications Commission, as speaker. Then Sen. Hubert H. Humphrey dropped by and gave a short speech. The ABJ logo designed by member Earl E. Davis and a banner sewn by Violet B. Johnson, wife of member Tyree Johnson (who would become the third president), were unveiled.

ABJ presented the Orrin Evans/Art Peters Journalism Award to Black New York photographer James Van Der Zee and the ABJ Award for Continuing Excellence to attorney Charles W. Bowser. During the 1930s and 1940s, Evans was one of the first Black reporters to work for white-owned newspapers and was considered the dean of Black journalists. In the early 1970s, Peters wrote a column in The Philadelphia Inquirer.

The second banquet was held on February 26, 1977, and Vernon Jordan, president of the National Urban League, was the guest speaker.

ABJ presented awards to CBS correspondent Ed Bradley and the Rev. Paul Washington, an activist rector at the Church of the Advocate.

Atlanta Mayor Maynard Jackson was the speaker at the February 25, 1978, banquet. Operation Push leader Jesse Jackson, Congressman Walter Fauntroy and actor Oscar Brown Jr. made an appearance. Percy Qoboza, an anti-apartheid editor at South Africa’s largest Black newspaper, received the Orrin Evans-Art Peters Journalism Award. Housing advocate Shirley Dennis was presented the ABJ Award for Continuing Excellence.

The organization held its first career conference in 1979.

“Black Perspective on the News”
In 1973, Moore and Bryant began hosting and co-producing “Black Perspective on the News” on WHYY-TV as a local news-analysis program. In August 1974, it went national on PBS. ABJ members were among those who participated in the interviews. "The fact that there are two societies, two lifestyles,… Black and white, and the unique position of the Black journalist as participant in both, is probably the most exciting concept behind the program,” Moore said in a newspaper article in 1973. “This program affords the journalists on the panel the opportunity to ask questions from their own unique positions, from ‘two sides’ as it were, and this broad basis is what makes the program important to Black and white audiences."The program was created as a local show in 1968 by Lionel J. Monagas, who was the first Black professional hired at WHYY-TV. In the early 1970s, it was hosted by Jimmy McDonald, who was among the 1961 Freedom Riders. The show was seen in 32 cities.

Before becoming a part of “Black Perspective,” Moore and Lewis, along with Haynes, had appeared as contributing reporters on a local-news analysis program at KYW-TV in 1971 called “Black Edition.” Its hosts were Malcolm Poindexter, Jesse Brown and Trudy Haynes.


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Canberra Cannons

The Canberra Cannons are a defunct basketball team that competed in Australia's National Basketball League (NBL). They went into financial administration in 2003 and were relocated to Newcastle, where they became the Hunter Pirates. After this venture also folded the team was relocated to Singapore and played as the Singapore Slingers for the 2006/07 season.

The Cannons were runners-up in the inaugural 1979 competition and then won three championships in 1983, 1984 and 1988. They were also runners-up in 1989.

History
The Cannons were one of the original ten NBL clubs, competing in the league's very first season in 1979. They reached the championship game with a 13–5 record, but fell at the final hurdle, losing to the St Kilda Saints 94–93 in the final.

Canberra failed to make the playoffs over the next few seasons, but in 1983 they won their first NBL championship, downing the defending champions the West Adelaide Bearcats 75–73 in the Grand Final. Adelaide born Guard Phil Smyth joined the team in 1983 and led the NBL in steals and assists as well as being selected at Point guard in the All-NBL Team.

In 1983, the Cannons' trio of Wade Kirchmeyer, Dave Nelson and Garry Ball were dubbed the "Bruise Brothers". Following the league's import reduction from three to two, Kirchmeyer was not re-signed for 1984.

The Cannons repeated as champions in 1984, this time beating the Brisbane Bullets 84–82 in the big game. Smyth again had a big season, being named to the All-NBL Team.

Canberra made the playoffs for the next three seasons but would fall to the Bullets in the semi-finals each time. Championship glory eluded the Cannons until 1988, when swept the minor premiers the Adelaide 36ers in the semi-finals then beat the North Melbourne Giants 2–1 in a best-of-three championship series. Smyth again was named to the All-NBL Team after leading the league in three-point percentage, free-throw percentage and steals, and was also named Best Defensive Player. Smyth also won the Grand Final MVP after averaging 23.3 points, 3.6 rebounds and 5.6 assists over the series. 7'0" (213 cm) import centre Willie Simmons also led the league in blocks, averaging 3.6 per game.

North Melbourne exacted their revenge in 1989, beating the Cannons 2–0 in the championship series. It would prove to be the last time the Cannons played in the NBL Grand Final.

The Cannons failed to make the playoffs again until 1992, when they were eliminated in the first round by the eventual champions, the South East Melbourne Magic. They reached the playoffs in 1996 making the semi-finals before being eliminated by the Melbourne Tigers 2–1. They again made the finals in 1997 but were eliminated in the first round 2-1 by North Melbourne.

Financial problems dogged the club in the late 1990s, and the team finally succumbed to its money woes in December 2002. The club managed to play all its remaining games from the 2002–03 NBL season, but were unable to hold on to their star players, including C. J. Bruton, the son of then-coach Cal Bruton, or any imports. Canberra finished with an 11–19 record, and the team was bought by a consortium that moved the team to Newcastle.

During the 2002 off-season, the Cannons embarked on a short tour of the United States playing various college teams. On one occasion they played against the Michigan State Spartans at the Breslin Center in Lansing. For that game, the Cannons featured former Michigan State player, NBA legend with the Los Angeles Lakers and one of the most decorated players in basketball history, Earvin "Magic" Johnson. The game, a celebration of Johnson's induction into the Hall of Fame in 2002, saw the Cannons defeat the Spartans (who featured future NBL player Adam Ballinger) 104–85 with Magic contributing 12 points, 10 assists and 10 rebounds.

In April 2022, NBL owner Larry Kestelman flagged Canberra as a potential 11th team. Kestelman says "Canberra could be next in line for a league license, following the same model as the Tasmania JackJumpers".

title: Canberra Cannons


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Salvatore Accardo

Salvatore Accardo (Knight Grand Cross born 26 September 1941 in Turin, northern Italy) is an Italian violinist and conductor, who is known for his interpretations of the works of Niccolò Paganini.

Accardo owns one Stradivarius violin, the "Hart ex Francescatti" (1727) and had the "Firebird ex Saint-Exupéry" (1718).

Biography
Accardo studied violin in the southern Italian city of Naples in the 1950s. He gave his first professional recital at the age of 13 performing Paganini's Capricci. In 1958 Accardo became the first prize winner of the Paganini Competition in Genoa.

In the 1970s he was a leader of the celebrated Italian chamber orchestra "I Musici" (1972-1977).

After he was a student in Accademia Musicale Chigiana in Siena, he taught there from 1973 to 1980.

Accardo founded the Accardo Quartet in 1992 and he was one of the founders of the Walter Stauffer Academy in 1986.

He founded the Settimane Musicali Internazionali in Naples and the Cremona String Festival in 1971, and in 1996, he re-founded the Orchestra da Camera Italiana (O.C.I.), whose members are the best pupils of the Walter Stauffer Academy. The most famous pupils are Alessio Bidoli, Franco Mezzena and Anastasiya Petryshak.

He performed the music of Paganini for the soundtrack of the 1989 film Kinski Paganini.

In 2004, he came back to Siena, and now he teaches in Accademia Musicale Chigiana.

Honours

 * 🇮🇹 Italy: Grande Ufficiale dell'Ordine al merito della Repubblica italiana (June 1965)
 * 🇮🇹 Italy: Cavaliere di Gran Croce dell'Ordine al merito della Repubblica italiana (Oct 1982)
 * 🇲🇨 Monaco: Commander of the Order of Cultural Merit (November 1999)

Discography
He has recorded Paganini's 24 Caprices (re-recorded in 1999) for solo violin and was the first violinist to record all six of the violin concerti by Paganini. He has an extensive discography of almost 50 recordings on Philips, DG, EMI, Sony Classical, Foné, Dynamic, and Warner-Fonit. He recorded Rossini String Sonatas, a cherished 1981 issue 6769 024, and an album of classical and contemporary works in 1995 on Paganini's Guarneri del Gesù 1742 violin, Il Cannone. He also recorded with the pianist Bruno Canino the complete sonatas for violin and piano of Mozart.

 * Diabolus in Musica, Accardo interpreta Paganini 1996

title: Salvatore Accardo


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Amanullah

Amanullah or Amanallah is a male Muslim given name (أمان الله) meaning the trust or protection of God. It may refer to:

 * Amānullāh Khān (1892–1960), ruler of Afghanistan from 1919 to 1929
 * Amanullah Khan (disambiguation), several other people called Amanullah Khan
 * Amanullah Jahanbani (1895–1974), Iranian senior general of Reza Shah Pahlavi
 * Amanullah Sailaab Sapi (1933–1979), Afghan poet and writer
 * Amanullah Asaduzzaman (1942–1969), Bengali student activist killed by police
 * Amanallah Alimoradi, Iranian Cleric
 * Azzedine Amanallah (born 1956), Moroccan footballer
 * Amanullah (Bagram detainee), Afghan, captured in early 2004, and held in extrajudicial detention in the United States Bagram detention facility
 * Amanullah Zadran, former Taliban leader, Pashtun, Afghan government minister
 * Amanullah Khan Niazi, the deputy superintendent of Central Prison Karachi

title: Amanullah