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Gettysburg (1993 film)

Gettysburg is a 1993 American epic war film about the Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War. Written and directed by Ronald F. Maxwell, the film was adapted from the 1974 historical novel The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara. It features an ensemble cast, including Tom Berenger as James Longstreet, Jeff Daniels as Joshua Chamberlain, Martin Sheen as Robert E. Lee, Stephen Lang as George Pickett, and Sam Elliott as John Buford.

Originally filmed as a miniseries for TNT, Gettysburg received a limited theatrical release from New Line Cinema under the direction of Ted Turner, who owned both entities. At 254 minutes (4 hours and 14 minutes), it is the longest film released theatrically by a major film studio in the United States. It received positive reviews from critics, but grossed only $12.7 million on a $20 million budget. It was however considered a hit regardless, due to its immediate TNT premiere ratings success, and subsequent home video sales. A prequel entitled Gods and Generals was released in 2003, also directed by Maxwell and featuring many returning cast members.

Plot
The film begins with a narrated map showing the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, commanded by Robert E. Lee, crossing the Potomac River to invade the North in June 1863, marching across Maryland and into Pennsylvania. On June 30, Confederate spy Henry Thomas Harrison reports to Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, commander of the First Corps, that the Union Army of the Potomac is moving in their direction, and that Union commander Joseph Hooker has been replaced by George Meade. Longstreet reports the information to General Lee, who is concerned that the army is moving "on the word of an actor", as opposed to that of his cavalry chief, J. E. B. Stuart. Nonetheless, Lee orders the army to concentrate near the town of Gettysburg. At the Union encampments near Union Mills, Maryland, Col. Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain of the 20th Maine is ordered to take in 120 men from the disbanded 2nd Maine who had resigned in protest, with permission to shoot any man who refuses to fight. Chamberlain speaks to the men, and is able to persuade all but six to take up arms.

In Gettysburg, Brig. Gen. John Buford and his cavalry division spot elements of Henry Heth's division of A. P. Hill's Third Corps approaching the town and recognizes that the main body of the Confederate army is approaching. Buford recognizes that, with precedent from previous battles, the Confederates will arrive at Gettysburg first and entrench in strong positions, forcing the Union to charge them and suffer heavy casualties. To prevent this, he opts to stand and fight where he is, judging the terrain to be "lovely ground" for slowing the Confederate advance. Buford sends word to I Corps commander Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds to bring up reinforcements. Heth's troops engage Buford's cavalry the following morning, July 1, with Richard S. Ewell's Second Corps moving in to flank them. Reynolds brings his corps forward, but is killed by a Confederate sharpshooter. The Union army is pushed out of Gettysburg to Cemetery Ridge, and Lee—rejecting Longstreet's suggestion to redeploy south of Gettysburg and go on the defensive—orders Ewell to take the Union position "if practicable". However, Ewell hesitates and does not engage. The armies concentrate at their chosen positions for the remainder of the first day. At Confederate headquarters at Seminary Ridge, Maj. Gen. Isaac R. Trimble angrily denounces Ewell's inaction to Lee, and requests another assignment.

On the second day, July 2, Col. Strong Vincent's brigade from the Union V Corps is deployed to Little Round Top, and Vincent places the 20th Maine at the end of the line, warning Chamberlain that he and his regiment are the flank, and that if they retreat, the Confederate army can swing around behind them and rout the Union forces. Chamberlain speaks to the six remaining men of the 2nd Maine, and three of them decide to fight. Lee orders Longstreet to deploy his two available divisions to take Little Round Top and the neighboring Big Round Top. As Longstreet's corps deploys, Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood, commanding one of the divisions, protests to Longstreet; with the Union holding the high ground, he would lose half his forces if he attacked as ordered. Longstreet, despite his own protests to Lee, orders Hood to attack; Hood is later wounded fighting at Devil's Den. At the summit of Little Round Top, Chamberlain and the 20th Maine fight off wave after wave of advancing Confederates, and begin running out of ammunition. Colonel Vincent is mortally wounded, and none of the other three regiments in his brigade are able to provide support. Chamberlain orders his men to fix bayonets, and charge in a right wheel down the slope against the attacking Confederates, which Chamberlain describes as "we'll swing it down; we swing like a door." The attack successfully drives the Confederate assault back, and the Union flank holds. That evening, Stuart finally arrives, and Lee reprimands him for his being out of contact. At the same time, Longstreet's remaining division, under Maj. Gen. George Pickett, arrives on the field.

For the third day, July 3, Lee decides to send three divisions—Pickett's, Trimble's, and J. Johnston Pettigrew's—to attack the center of the Union line at Cemetery Ridge. Longstreet expresses his belief to Lee that the attack will fail, as the movement is a mile over open ground, and that the Union II Corps under Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock is deployed behind a stone wall, just as Longstreet's men had been at Fredericksburg. Lee nonetheless orders the attack to proceed. Longstreet then meets with the three division commanders and details the plan, beginning first with Colonel Edward Porter Alexander's artillery clearing the Union guns off the ridge, before deploying the men forward. Despite heavy Confederate fire, Alexander is unable to make an impact upon the Union guns. When Pickett asks to move forward, Longstreet simply nods. The Confederate divisions march across the open field, and Hancock is wounded as he commands from the front line. One of Pickett's brigades, commanded by Brig. Gen. Lewis Armistead, makes it over the stone wall, but Armistead is wounded and captured by Union troops. The Confederates retreat due to high casualties. Seeing a despondent General Pickett, General Lee implores him to "look to your division," to which Pickett replies "General Lee, I have no division." Pickett's Charge ultimately fails. Meeting with Longstreet that evening, Lee finally decides that they will withdraw. The film ends with the fates of the major figures of the battle.

Confederate

 * Tom Berenger as Lieutenant General James Longstreet
 * Martin Sheen as General Robert E. Lee
 * Stephen Lang as Major General George Pickett
 * Richard Jordan as Brigadier General Lewis Armistead
 * Andrew Prine as Brigadier General Richard B. Garnett
 * Cooper Huckabee as Henry Thomas Harrison
 * Patrick Gorman as Major General John Bell Hood
 * Bo Brinkman as Major Walter H. Taylor
 * James Lancaster as Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Fremantle
 * W. Morgan Sheppard as Major General Isaac R. Trimble
 * Kieran Mulroney as Major Moxley Sorrel
 * James Patrick Stuart as Colonel Edward Porter Alexander
 * Tim Ruddy as Major Charles Marshall
 * Royce D. Applegate as Brigadier General James L. Kemper
 * Ivan Kane as Captain T. J. Goree
 * Warren Burton as Major General Henry Heth
 * MacIntyre Dixon as Major General Jubal Early
 * Joseph Fuqua as Major General J. E. B. Stuart
 * Tim Scott as Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell
 * George Lazenby as Brigadier General J. Johnston Pettigrew
 * Graham Winton as Major General Robert E. Rodes

Ted Turner, the owner of the film's production company Turner Pictures, has an uncredited appearance as Colonel Waller T. Patton.

Union

 * Jeff Daniels as Colonel Joshua Chamberlain
 * Sam Elliott as Brigadier General John Buford
 * C. Thomas Howell as Lieutenant Thomas Chamberlain
 * Kevin Conway as Sergeant Buster Kilrain
 * Brian Mallon as Major General Winfield Scott Hancock
 * Buck Taylor as Colonel William Gamble
 * John Diehl as Private Joseph Bucklin
 * Joshua D. Maurer as Colonel James Clay Rice
 * John Rothman as Major General John F. Reynolds
 * Richard Anderson as Major General George Meade
 * Billy Campbell as Lieutenant Andrew Lewis Pitzer
 * David Carpenter as Colonel Thomas C. Devin
 * Maxwell Caulfield as Colonel Strong Vincent
 * Donal Logue as Captain Ellis Spear
 * Dwier Brown as Captain Brewer
 * Herb Mitchell as Sergeant Andrew J. Tozier
 * Emile O. Schmidt as Brigadier General John Gibbon

Ken Burns, who wrote and directed the 1990 documentary The Civil War, portrays an aide to Hancock. Civil War historian Brian Pohanka makes an uncredited appearance as Brigadier General Alexander S. Webb. The character Sergeant Owen is portrayed by Mark Moses. Matt Letscher, who would later appear in the 2003 prequel Gods and Generals as Colonel Adelbert Ames, makes his film debut as a 2nd Maine soldier.

Production
Reeves Teletape Studios first acquired the rights for an adaptation of The Killer Angels in 1978. In 1981, Ronald F. Maxwell acquired the rights to the property and hired Michael Sharaa to write a screenplay adaptation. Although Sharaa died in 1988, Maxwell completed the 400-page screenplay. PolyGram Pictures agreed to produce the project as a film starring Robert Duvall and William Hurt but went bankrupt shortly afterwards. Maxwell was unable to sell the project to any other studio because of the failures of recent historical epics such as Heaven's Gate and Revolution. Kevin Costner was interested in adapting the film but chose instead to direct Dances with Wolves.

Although Maxwell was displeased with American Civil War television series such as North and South and The Blue and the Gray, he reluctantly decided to try to release the project as a television series. The producers originally pitched the project to ABC in 1991, as a TV miniseries. ABC initially agreed to back the project, but when a miniseries about George Armstrong Custer, Son of the Morning Star (1991), got low ratings and after the Gulf War started, ABC pulled out. Maxwell, with help from documentarian Ken Burns, finally secured funding for the film from Ted Turner at the 3rd Golden Laurel Awards in 1991. Originally it was planned as a miniseries for Turner Network Television, but it was released as a film instead.

Duvall decided against starring as Robert E. Lee in order to appear in Stalin, while Albert Finney and George C. Scott declined the role.

For the first time, the National Park Service allowed the motion picture industry to recreate and film battle scenes directly on the Gettysburg Battlefield, including scenes of Devil's Den and Little Round Top. However, much of the movie was shot at a nearby Adams County farm. Thousands of Civil War reenactors from across the country volunteered their time to come to Gettysburg to participate in the massive battle scenes.

The score was composed by Randy Edelman.

During filming of the battle scenes on Little Round Top, Bradley Egen, an extra playing a Union soldier, was unintentionally struck in the head by the butt of a musket and suffered a mild concussion, however Bradley was able to resume light duties the following day.

Soundtrack
The soundtrack was composed by Randy Edelman and issued on Milan Records.

Two more soundtracks, More Songs and Music From Gettysburg and a Deluxe Commemorative Edition, were released as well. The first one included popular songs from the time period and a recitation of the Gettysburg Address by Jeff Daniels, while the second featured the original soundtrack album (above) and a second disc several previously unreleased tracks from the score and the aforementioned recitation. Another score "Armistead is hit" which played when Armistead rallies the division was never released in the soundtrack.

Release
The miniseries was set to air on TNT, but when Ted Turner saw part of the film during post-production, he realized it was much bigger than a miniseries and decided to release the film theatrically. The film was distributed by New Line Cinema which Turner had just acquired. Only released to 248 theaters at its widest release and limited to just one or two showings per day because of its length, the film still managed to gross $12,769,960 at the box office. It would go on to become an all-time high seller on the VHS and DVD market, and has become a staple of classroom history lessons. Its June 1994 broadcast TV premiere, on TNT, garnered over 34 million viewers, a record for cable TV.

One of the longest films ever released by a Hollywood studio, Gettysburg runs 254 minutes (4 hours, 14 minutes) on VHS and DVD. A "Director's Cut", 271-minute (4 hours, 31 minutes), with several extended or added scenes, was produced and sold as a part of a special "Collector's Edition" released on DVD and Blu-ray in 2011, to coincide with 150th commemoration of beginning of the Civil War in April 1861. It was also released in the UK by the Premium Collection as a DVD and Blu-ray combo which includes the Directors extended version and is number 21 in the collection.

Reception
Gettysburg received a 77% "Fresh" score with an average rating of 7.3/10 on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 22 reviews. The site's consensus states: "Gettysburg's reverent approach to history is balanced with the committed work of a talented cast - and the hard-hitting dramatization of a bloody turning point in the Civil War."

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three out of four stars, stating, "This is a film that Civil War buffs will find indispensable, even if others might find it interminable." Ebert said that despite his initial indifference, he left the film with a new understanding of the Civil War, and that he felt Jeff Daniels deserved an Oscar nomination for his performance. Ebert also gave the film a "thumbs-up" on Siskel & Ebert, while Gene Siskel gave it a "thumbs-down", saying the film was "bloated Southern propaganda". He, however, also praised Daniels's performance and recommended his nomination for an Oscar.

Prequel
Gods and Generals, a prequel based on the 1996 novel of the same name by Jeff Shaara (Michael Shaara's son), was released in 2003. It was also written and directed by Ronald F. Maxwell and featured many returning cast members, including Jeff Daniels as Joshua Chamberlain, Kevin Conway as Buster Kilrain, and C. Thomas Howell as Thomas Chamberlain. Stephen Lang, who portrayed George Pickett in the first film, also returned, but in the role of Stonewall Jackson after scheduling conflicts prevented Russell Crowe from taking the part. Billy Campbell, who portrayed Andrew Lewis Pitzer in Gettysburg, replaced Lang as Pickett. New cast members included Robert Duvall as Robert E. Lee, replacing Martin Sheen.

The film received negative reviews from critics and was a commercial failure, grossing $12.8 million on a $56 million budget.

Unproduced sequel
Originally intended to form part of a trilogy, a third film to be titled The Last Full Measure presenting the end of the American Civil War was proposed, but it never went beyond the planning stage.

title: Gettysburg (1993 film)


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User:Consul~enwiki

New registered user to Wikipedia, but longtime lurker.

Creations
Battlestar - The show Battlestar Galactica had its own article, but I thought the individual ship deserved one, too.

Twelve Colonies - A page intended to describe the Twelve Colonies of Man, also from Battlestar Galactica.

The Destruction of the Twelve Colonies - Hopefully the beginning of a chain of articles detailing the major battles in Battlestar Galactica.

President Adar - A lame little bit on the ill-fated President of the Twelve Colonies. I'll put in a picture from my DVDs someday.

Basestar - My first Cylon article.

Edits
Saugus - I added a little about the Saugus Iron Works, a very important historical site. I also added some information on the Theatre Company of Saugus.

Cylon (Battlestar Galactica) - Fixed up the Cylon model list.

Battlestar Galactica - Fixed some accuracy errors.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Leonard Huxley (physicist)

Sir Leonard George Holden Huxley  (29 May 1902 – 4 September 1988) was an Australian physicist.

Huxley was born in London, the eldest son of George Hamborough and Lilian Huxley. He was a second-cousin once removed of Thomas Huxley. His family migrated from England to Australia in 1905 when he was three, and settled in Tasmania, where Huxley showed great academic and sporting promise while attending The Hutchins School. He won a Rhodes Scholarship to New College, Oxford while in his second year at the University of Tasmania and obtained a D.Phil. from Oxford in 1928. On 5 October 1929 he married Ella Mary Child 'Molly' Copeland who was reading history at Somerville College.

Huxley was a physicist at the Australian Radio Research Board, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research 1929 to 1931; Lecturer in Physics, University College, Leicester 1932 to 1940; Principal Scientific Officer, Ministry of Aircraft Production, UK 1940 to 1946; Reader in Electromagnetism, University of Birmingham 1946 to 1949; Professor of Physics, University of Adelaide 1949 to 1960; and Vice-Chancellor, Australian National University 1960 to 1967.

Huxley was president of the Australian Branch of the Institute of Physics (UK) 1954 to 1955; and president of the Australian Institute of Physics 1962 to 1965.

He was elected a Foundation Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science in 1953, and knighted in 1964.

Huxley died in London at the age of 86.

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Ken Watson

James Kenneth Watson, (August 12, 1904 – July 26, 1986) was a Canadian curler.

Biography
Watson was born in Minnedosa, Manitoba and moved to Winnipeg later. He was the first man to skip his rink to three Brier championships in 1936, 1942 and 1949.

After his career as a curler ended, he became a sports broadcaster, co-hosting CBC Championship Curling with Alex Trebek in 1966. He died in St. Boniface, Manitoba.

Honours

 * 1969 – inducted into the national Sports Hall of Fame
 * 1973 – elected to the Canadian Curling Hall of Fame
 * 1975 – made a Member of the Order of Canada
 * 1978 – Elmer Freytag Award
 * 1980 - inducted into the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum
 * 2016 - designated a National Historic Person

Books

 * Ken Watson on Curling, 1950

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Talk:Operation Spit Break

Instead of deleting this article, why not merge (not sure if thats the right word) it with the Cosmic Era page? TomStar81 01:38, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Operation Spit Break


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Magi-Nation Duel

Magi-Nation Duel, sometimes abbreviated "MND" or simply Magi-Nation, is an out-of-print collectible card game (CCG) published by Interactive Imagination Corp (2i) in October 2000. It was previewed at Gen Con 2000 and was released in October 2000. Lead Designer and Co-Founder of 2i Phillip Tavel created a game with mechanics which resembled and were partially based on Magic: The Gathering, while much of the flavor of the game was based on the anime-style artwork of Matt Holmberg. Greg Richardson Von Oy (the other original Co-Founder of 2i) and Josh Lytle (a former professional gamer) helped to playtest and finalize the original design of the game. Several manga-style American artists led by Art Director: Thomas Cook include Matt Holmberg, Rich Werner (Main character designer for Kybar's Teeth, Weave, Paradwyn, Bograth, Nar and The Sands of Dresh), Tim Gillette, Chana Goodman, and Ryan Shreve helped to expand the universe of art based on the original creations of Matt Holmberg. The game was originally designed as a bridge between Pokémon and Magic: The Gathering. The idea was that younger players whose first game was Pokémon would eventually seek out a new game to play and that Magic: The Gathering might be too complex for some players, leaving a void in the market between the two massively popular card games. The game is now out of print. A new version of the game, licensed by Cookie Jar, was to be released in 2008, but no relaunch ever surfaced.

The game had an active following which later released a number of cards 2i had in development, as well as a number of fan cards. These cards were previously found at CCGWorkshop, however as of January 2008, they no longer available as 2i had requested their removal.

Expansions
The first card set, which is also known as Limited, contained 190 cards and introduced five "regions" of the larger world called the "Moonlands": Arderial, Cald, Naroom, Orothe, and Underneath. A reprint of the base set, known as Unlimited, was released in February 2001. This set contained a full parallel set of "foil" premium cards, whereas the base set only had foil versions of selected cards.

Four additional sets were created as expansions to the game, designed by Dan Tibbles and Stephen McLaughlin:

 * Awakening (142 cards, released May 2001): This set introduced a new region, the Core, and provided preview cards (one "Hyren" creature each) for the regions of Weave and Kybar's Teeth. This set also featured a Shadow Magi for d'Resh, a region not released until Voice of the Storms.
 * Dream's End (185 cards, released November 2001): This set officially introduced the Weave and Kybar's Teeth regions, and included two preview cards for Bograth and Paradwyn. This set also saw the introduction of dual-region cards.
 * Nightmare's Dawn (300 cards, released April 2002): The regions of Bograth and Paradwyn were officially introduced in this set, which also included seven d'Resh cards and two Nar cards.
 * Voice of the Storms (300 cards, released November 2002): The last two regions, d'Resh and Nar, were fully introduced in this set.

Each region specializes in particular gameplay tactics, be they defensive, offensive, manipulation or denial. A fifth expansion, named Traitor's Reach, was developed but never printed. 2i has announced a future expansion entitled Daybreak, which is supposed to be a 150-card set with no new regions. They have also announced plans for a new base set called Second Order, which will likely feature previously released cards with revised texts and possible alternate artwork.

2i supplied prize support for organized tournaments and leagues as well, including promotional cards that were only available for completing each league "season" and cards that could only be obtained by defeating a representative of Interactive Imagination. Seven league seasons were published, based on the regions of Naroom, Underneath, Cald, Orothe, Arderial, Core, and Kybar's Teeth, in that order.

MND Japan
A release of the base set (Unlimited) in Japan followed the US release of Dream's End. Alongside the CCG release ran a manga series in a shōnen digest, and a GBA remake of the original Magi-Nation video game. The main character of the game, Tony, was replaced with Dan, a character of a more Asian-friendly appearance. Several promotional cards were released that were only available with the manga series, and the Awakening set was published as well, but no further development is forthcoming.

Other card games
Magi-Nation and the 2i art team were featured in the first edition of The Origins Metagame produced by Flying Buffalo Games.

Newsletter
A newsletter, named The Book of Ages, was released to fans sporadically, each issue containing promotional cards, articles, artwork and fiction. Five issues were printed, and a sixth was available online.

Handhelds
In an attempt to popularize the brand, 2i also developed a Game Boy Color role-playing video game cartridge, titled Magi Nation, which met with some success. A sequel, Magi Nation: Invasion, was in development for the Game Boy Advance (GBA), but production ceased for an undisclosed reason.

Magi Nation: Keeper's Quest is a puzzle game, produced originally for the Game Boy Color, but due to bad timing, it was never released on that platform. Instead, it was released for Palm PDAs and Verizon and Handango cell phones.

Animation
The licensing agreement to produce the Magi-Nation animated series was finalized in September 2005 with a multinational studio. In October 2006, Cookie Jar Entertainment confirmed production of its animated adaptation of the Magi-Nation series. A MIPCOM Jr. newsletter gave a brief synopsis of the show:

In February 2007, it was officially announced that Cookie Jar Entertainment's Magi-Nation had been picked up by Kids WB! in the United States and by CBC in Canada. There has been an initial production run of 26 episodes. In addition, the series is a Canada-Korea co-production.

On September 8, it premiered in Canada at 10:30 am EST. Three weeks later, on September 22, 2007, at 7:30 am EST, the Magi-Nation tv series premiered on Kids WB.

Massive multiplayer online
"Magi-Nation: Battle for the Moonlands" developed by Frima Studio, entered open Beta in February 2008, and could be found on their website at www.magi-nation.com or directly on www.magi-nation.net. The game has since been shut down.

Reviews

 * Family Games: The 100 Best

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Stanley Morison

Stanley Arthur Morison (6 May 1889 – 11 October 1967) was a British typographer, printing executive and historian of printing. Largely self-educated, he promoted higher standards in printing and an awareness of the best printing and typefaces of the past.

From the 1920s Morison became an influential adviser to the British Monotype Corporation, advising them on type design. His strong aesthetic sense was a force within the company, which starting shortly before his joining became increasingly known for commissioning popular, historically influenced designs that revived some of the best typefaces of the past, with particular attention to the middle period of printing from the Renaissance to the late eighteenth century, and creating and licensing several new type designs that would become popular. Original typefaces commissioned under Morison's involvement included Times New Roman, Gill Sans and Perpetua, while revivals of older designs included Bembo, Ehrhardt and Bell. Times New Roman, the development of which Morison led to the point that he felt he could consider it his own design, has become one of the most used typefaces of all time. Becoming closely connected to The Times newspaper as an advisor on printing, he became part of its management and the editor of the Times Literary Supplement after the war, and late in life joined the editorial board of Encyclopædia Britannica.

Early life and career
Stanley Morison was born on 6 May 1889, at Wanstead, Essex, but spent most of his childhood and early adult years (1896–1912) in London at the family home in Fairfax Road, Harringay. He was self-taught, having left school after his father abandoned his family.

In 1913 Morison became an editorial assistant on The Imprint magazine.

Morison was one of the founders of The Guild of the Pope's Peace, an organization created to promote Pope Benedict XV's calls for peace in the face of the First World War.

On the imposition of conscription in 1916 during First World War, he was a conscientious objector, and was imprisoned. Like his friend Eric Gill, Morison was a convert to Catholicism, distancing him from many of his later colleagues. Morison married Mabel Williamson, a teacher, in 1916; the marriage was an unhappy one and Morison rapidly separated from his wife.

In 1918 he became design supervisor at the Pelican Press, which published material critical of the war. He moved on to a similar position at the Cloister Press. In 1922, he was a founder-member of the Fleuron Society dedicated to typographic matters (a fleuron being a typographic flower or ornament). He edited the society's journal, The Fleuron, from 1925 to 1930. The quality of the publication's artwork and printing was considered exceptional. From 1923 to 1925, he was also a staff editor/writer for the Penrose Annual, a graphic arts journal.

With the Monotype Corporation
From 1923 to 1967, Morison was a typographic consultant for the Monotype Corporation. In the 1920s and 1930s, his work at Monotype included research and adaptation of historical typefaces, including the revival of the Bembo and Bell types. He pioneered the great expansion of the company's range of typefaces, and hugely influenced the field of typography to the present day. At Monotype, Morison obtained rights to typefaces by leading artists of the time including Bruce Rogers, Jan van Krimpen and Berthold Wolpe. Aesthetically, Morison disliked the excessive historicity of Victorian romantic fine printing, with its interest in reviving blackletter and the appearance of medieval manuscripts, but preferred a more restrained style of printing that nonetheless also rejected the harshly industrial appearance of the "batteries of bold, bad faces" of the nineteenth century.

In 1927, the British Monotype Corporation hired Beatrice Warde – quickly named the company's Publicity Manager – and has been credited with spreading Morison's typographic influences through her own writings. Morison and Warde helped edit Monotype's newsletter, the Monotype Recorder, which promoted Monotype equipment and provided tips for users, showcased examples of high-quality printing and included articles on printing history, several by Morison's collaborator Alfred F. Johnson, a curator at the British Museum. Through Daniel Berkeley Updike, the leading figure in American printing of the time with whom he carried an extensive correspondence, he became aware of an obscure late-eighteenth century type known as Bell in the archives of Sheffield type foundry Stephenson Blake, and arranged for Monotype to license and recreate it. While not all his projects at Monotype were successful and his position was insecure at the start of his tenure, his commission of Gill Sans and even more so Times New Roman both proved extremely financially successful for Monotype. Both remain among the most-used typefaces of all time.

Morison became friends with Brooke Crutchley, printer to the University of Cambridge, one of Monotype's best customers, and his archives went to Cambridge after his death. Late in life, for Crutchley he wrote the book A Tally of Types, an assessment of the typefaces created by Monotype that were used in Cambridge. Despite its limited scope and some oversights, it is considered one of the landmark books on twentieth-century printing.

As a writer for the Fleuron he was known for promoting the radical idea that italics in book printing were too disruptive to the flow of text, and should be phased out. While this influenced some contemporary type designers such as van Krimpen and Dwiggins at Linotype, Morison rapidly came to concede that the idea was misguided, and late in life commented that Times New Roman included an italic that "owed more to Didot than dogma."

Morison wrote prolifically on the history of printing. Philip Gaskell however cautioned that "his books and papers were always stimulating, and frequently sound in their general conclusions, but at the same time he was inaccurate".

Times New Roman
Morison was also typographical consultant to The Times newspaper from 1929 to 1960; and in 1931, having criticised the paper for the poor quality of its printing, he was commissioned by the newspaper to produce a new, easy-to-read typeface for the publication. Times New Roman, the typeface which Morison developed with graphic artist Victor Lardent, was first used by the newspaper in 1932 and was issued commercially by Monotype in 1933. Morison edited the History of the Times from 1935 to 1952, and was editor of The Times Literary Supplement between 1945 and 1948.

Later career
Morison was Lyell Lecturer in Bibliography at the University of Oxford in 1956-1957 and lectured on "Aspects of Authority and Freedom in Relation to Greco–Latin Script, Inscription, and Type."

In 1960, Morison was elected a Royal Designer for Industry. He was a member of the editorial board of Encyclopædia Britannica from 1961 until his death in 1967. He was offered a knighthood in 1953 and the CBE in 1962, but declined both.

He was instrumental in development of the exhibition of the contribution printing had made to the enlargement of human knowledge: Printing and the Mind of Man. It coincided with the 1963 International Printing Machinery and Allied Trades Exhibition (IPEX).

Morison died in London on 11 October 1967.

Selected publications

 * On Type Faces, Examples of the use of type for the printing of books: with an introductory essay & notes by Stanley Morison, The Medici Society of Seven, Grafton St, London, & The Fleuron, Westminster, 1923
 * Four centuries of Fine Printing; Two Hundred and Seventy-two Examples of the Work of Presses Established Between 1465 and 1924, 1924
 * Type Designs of the Past and Present, 1926
 * English newspaper: Some account of the physical development of journals printed in London between 1622 & the present day, 1932
 * First Principles of Typography, 1936
 * A List of Type Specimens, with: Harry Carter, Ellic Howe, Alfred F. Johnson and Graham Pollard, 1942
 * English Prayer Books, 1943; revised edition 1945; revised and enlarged edition 1949; digital reprint 2009
 * A Tally of Types, 1953
 * Calligraphy 1535–1885: A collection of seventy-two writing-books and specimens from the Italian, French, Low Countries and Spanish schools, 1962
 * On Type Designs Past and Present: A Brief Introduction, 1962
 * The Typographic Book, 1450–1935: A Study of Fine Typography Through Five Centuries, 1963
 * Letter Forms, typographic and scriptorial: Two essays on their classification, history and bibliography, 1968
 * Politics and Script, 1972
 * Selected Essays on the History of Letter-Forms in Manuscript and Print, Vol. 1 & 2, 1980.

General references

 * James Moran, Stanley Morison: His Typographic Achievement
 * Nicolas Barker, Stanley Morison (authorised biography) (Note: Barker had to write the biography rapidly, resulting in a release with numerous misprints and errors, listed in an errata section of the Times Literary Supplement shortly afterwards. )

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Mauri Rose

Maurice Rose (May 26, 1906 – January 1, 1981) was an American racing driver. He won the Indianapolis 500 in 1941, 1947, and 1948, becoming the race's third three-time winner. He also won the AAA National Championship in 1936.

Indianapolis 500 career

Although Rose had driven in every Indianapolis 500 since 1933, he earned his first pole position when he put his Maserati on the pole for the 1941 Indianapolis 500; but spark plug problems sidelined his car after sixty laps. He then took over the Wetteroth/Offenhauser car being driven by Floyd Davis that had started in 17th place. Rose went on to win. In 1947 and 1948, Rose captured back-to-back Indianapolis 500s driving one of the Diedt/Offenhauser Blue Crown Spark Plug Specials, owned and prepared by veteran driver/car owner Lou Moore.

Late in the 1947 race, Rose found himself lying second to his rookie teammate, Bill Holland, when both were given a sign reading "EZY" from pit lane. Holland reduced speed, but Rose ignored the sign and continued on. Rose closed on Holland and to his amazement, Holland gave way without a battle and even gave Rose a friendly wave as he went past on his way to victory. But Holland thought he had more than a lap lead on Rose, instead of just a few seconds. Holland was furious afterward.

In 1949, with Holland leading and Rose again running second late in the race, Rose set out to overtake his now-veteran teammate. Rose again ignored car owner Lou Moore's "EZ" signs from the pits and continued to push in pursuit of Holland. This time, Rose's car broke while Holland cruised home to victory—and Moore fired Rose on the spot after the race for disobeying team orders.

Rose made his fifteenth and final Indianapolis 500 start in the 1951 race. Knocked out from an accident after 126 laps, the forty-five-year-old Rose retired to a home in California. For the 1967 race, officials of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway invited him to drive the pace car.

World Drivers' Championship career
The AAA/USAC-sanctioned Indianapolis 500 was included in the FIA World Drivers' Championship from 1950 through 1960. Drivers competing at Indianapolis during those years were credited with World Drivers' Championship participation, and were eligible to score WDC points alongside those which they may have scored towards the AAA/USAC National Championship.

Rose participated in two World Drivers' Championship races at Indianapolis. He finished in the top three once, and scored four World Drivers' Championship points.

Post-racing career and life
Rose worked for General Motors both during and after his racing career. He was heavily involved in the development of the Chevrolet Corvette into a competitive racing machine.

Both of Rose's children were disabled by polio. While his career in racing was filled with success, he considered his most important accomplishment to be his invention of a device that made it possible for those without the use of their legs to drive an automobile.

Awards and honors
Rose has been inducted into the following halls of fame:
 * Auto Racing Hall of Fame (1967)
 * Michigan Sports Hall of Fame (1972)
 * Michigan Motor Sports Hall of Fame (1982)
 * Eastern Motorsports Press Association Hall of Fame (1989)
 * International Motorsports Hall of Fame (1994)
 * Motorsports Hall of Fame of America (1996)
 * International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame (2007)

Rose has been awarded the following honors:
 * Automotive Hall of Fame Distinguished Service Citation (1966)

AAA Championship Car results

 * 1946 table only includes results of the six races run to "championship car" specifications. Points total includes the 71 races run to "big car" specifications.

FIA World Drivers' Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap)

title: Mauri Rose


text:
David Elphinstone

David Elphinstone (15 January 1846– 9 May 1916) was an Australian architect and builder. Elphinstone built many buildings in Glebe, New South Wales and Ashfield, New South Wales at the end of the 19th century.

Biography
A member of a family of architects and builders, David Elphinstone was the son of William and Janet (nee Leckie) Elphinstone.

Elphinstone joined the building industry in 1868 as a carpenter under the tutelage of his father. He was first listed as a builder in Glebe in 1873 and served as a local alderman from 1881 to 1886.

By 1879, he had become an architect and builder. His development of the Saint Philip's Church lands in Glebe made him Glebe's largest building contractor.

His son, David Bruce Elphinstone (born 1880), also became an architect.

title: David Elphinstone


text:
User talk:Chichin0

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title: User talk:Chichin0


text:
Operation Althea

Operation Althea, formally the European Union Force Bosnia and Herzegovina (EUFOR), is a military deployment in Bosnia and Herzegovina to oversee the military implementation of the Dayton Agreement. It is the successor to NATO's SFOR and IFOR. The transition from SFOR to EUFOR was largely a change of name and commanders: 80% of the troops remained in place. It replaced SFOR on 2 December 2004.

General aspects
Civilian implementation of the Dayton Agreement is enforced by the Office of the High Representative.

EUFOR's commander is Major General László Sticz of Hungary. For this mission, the European Union Military Staff is using NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) as the EU's Operational Headquarters (OHQ) and is working through the Deputy to the Supreme Allied Commander Europe, a European officer.

EUFOR assumed all the missions of SFOR, except for the hunt for individuals indicted by the war crimes tribunal, notably Radovan Karadžić, former leader of Republika Srpska, and Ratko Mladić, their former military leader, which remained a mission for NATO through NATO Headquarters Sarajevo. EUFOR does have police duties against organised crime, which is believed to be linked to suspected war criminals. It worked with the European Union Police Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (EUPM) and with the Bosnian Police. The European Union Special Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina provides political guidance on military issues with a local political dimension to the EUFOR.

, the total force of EUFOR is approximately 1,000 troops from 22 countries, including EU member states and non-EU "Troop Contributing Countries" (TCC) are present within EUFOR (Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Chile, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, North Macedonia, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, and Turkey).

On 18 December 2020, the United Kingdom marked the end of its 16-year contribution to EUFOR, following Brexit.

As of early 2021, EUFOR personnel bases include:
 * Multinational Battalion is EUFOR's military maneuver unit for BiH, located at Camp Butmir, Sarajevo, and comprises troops from Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Turkey.
 * 19 LOT Houses located throughout BiH to connect EUFOR to local communities and authorities. Houses are located in Cazin, Banja Luka (Romania) and Banja Luka (Chile), Brčko, Doboj, Tuzla, Zavidovići, Travnik, Bratunac, Zenica, Vlasenica, Sarajevo, Livno, Jablanica, Višegrad, Foča, Mostar, Čapljina and Trebinje.

Contributing states
List of countries EUFOR Althea:

title: Operation Althea


text:
Alternating knot

In knot theory, a knot or link diagram is alternating if the crossings alternate under, over, under, over, as one travels along each component of the link. A link is alternating if it has an alternating diagram.

Many of the knots with crossing number less than 10 are alternating. This fact and useful properties of alternating knots, such as the Tait conjectures, was what enabled early knot tabulators, such as Tait, to construct tables with relatively few mistakes or omissions. The simplest non-alternating prime knots have 8 crossings (and there are three such: 819, 820, 821).

It is conjectured that as the crossing number increases, the percentage of knots that are alternating goes to 0 exponentially quickly.

Alternating links end up having an important role in knot theory and 3-manifold theory, due to their complements having useful and interesting geometric and topological properties. This led Ralph Fox to ask, "What is an alternating knot?" By this he was asking what non-diagrammatic properties of the knot complement would characterize alternating knots.

In November 2015, Joshua Evan Greene published a preprint that established a characterization of alternating links in terms of definite spanning surfaces, i.e. a definition of alternating links (of which alternating knots are a special case) without using the concept of a link diagram.

Various geometric and topological information is revealed in an alternating diagram. Primeness and splittability of a link is easily seen from the diagram. The crossing number of a reduced, alternating diagram is the crossing number of the knot. This last is one of the celebrated Tait conjectures.

An alternating knot diagram is in one-to-one correspondence with a planar graph. Each crossing is associated with an edge and half of the connected components of the complement of the diagram are associated with vertices in a checker board manner.

Tait conjectures
The Tait conjectures are: Morwen Thistlethwaite, Louis Kauffman and K. Murasugi proved the first two Tait conjectures in 1987 and Morwen Thistlethwaite and William Menasco proved the Tait flyping conjecture in 1991.
 * 1) Any reduced diagram of an alternating link has the fewest possible crossings.
 * 2) Any two reduced diagrams of the same alternating knot have the same writhe.
 * 3) Given any two reduced alternating diagrams D1 and D2 of an oriented, prime alternating link: D1 may be transformed to D2 by means of a sequence of certain simple moves called flypes. Also known as the Tait flyping conjecture.

Hyperbolic volume
Menasco, applying Thurston's hyperbolization theorem for Haken manifolds, showed that any prime, non-split alternating link is hyperbolic, i.e. the link complement has a hyperbolic geometry, unless the link is a torus link.

Thus hyperbolic volume is an invariant of many alternating links. Marc Lackenby has shown that the volume has upper and lower linear bounds as functions of the number of twist regions of a reduced, alternating diagram.

title: Alternating knot


text:
Reassortment

Reassortment is the mixing of the genetic material of a species into new combinations in different individuals. Several different processes contribute to reassortment, including assortment of chromosomes, and chromosomal crossover. It is particularly used when two similar viruses that are infecting the same cell exchange genetic material. In particular, reassortment occurs among influenza viruses, whose genomes consist of eight distinct segments of RNA. These segments act like mini-chromosomes, and each time a flu virus is assembled, it requires one copy of each segment.

If a single host (a human, a chicken, or other animal) is infected by two different strains of the influenza virus, then it is possible that new assembled viral particles will be created from segments whose origin is mixed, some coming from one strain and some coming from another. The new reassortant strain will share properties of both of its parental lineages.

Reassortment is responsible for some of the major genetic shifts in the history of the influenza virus. In the 1957 "Asian flu" and 1968 "Hong Kong flu" pandemics, flu strains were caused by reassortment between an avian virus and a human virus. In addition, the H1N1 virus responsible for the 2009 swine flu pandemic has an unusual mix of swine, avian and human influenza genetic sequences.

The reptarenavirus family, responsible for inclusion body disease in snakes, shows a very high degree of genetic diversity due to reassortment of genetic material from multiple strains in the same infected animal.

Multiplicity reactivation
When influenza viruses are inactivated by UV irradiation or ionizing radiation, they remain capable of multiplicity reactivation in infected host cells. If any of a virus's genome segments is damaged in such a way as to prevent replication or expression of an essential gene, the virus is inviable when it, alone, infects a host cell (single infection). However, when two or more damaged viruses infect the same cell (multiple infection), the infection can often succeed (multiplicity reactivation) due to reassortment of segments, provided that each of the eight genome segments is present in at least one undamaged copy.

title: Reassortment


text:
User talk:Aerdil

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SFSU Class Project: A personal welcome from Anna
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Prole Lit Article?
Time to create the prole lit/poetry page and get editing. Profhanley (talk) 18:25, 24 October 2011 (UTC)

Proletarian poetry
I'm just making sure you see the continuing discussion on Talk:Proletarian_poetry. And remember to ask about anything in the GA review you don't understand or don't understand how to fix. Not fixing even one of the things Piotrus commented on could make the article fail the review. The editor who is doing the GA review has said he or she isn't actively watching the article, so you need to ask them any questions over at User_talk:Piotrus. Cloveapple (talk) 09:06, 13 December 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Aerdil


text:
Apple Pascal

Apple Pascal is an implementation of Pascal for the Apple II and Apple III computer series. It is based on UCSD Pascal. Just like other UCSD Pascal implementations, it ran on its own operating system (Apple Pascal Operating System, a derivative of UCSD p-System with graphical extensions).

Originally released for the Apple II in August 1979, just after Apple DOS 3.2, Apple Pascal pioneered a number of features that would later be incorporated into DOS 3.3, as well as others that would not be seen again until the introduction of ProDOS.

The Apple Pascal software package also included disk maintenance utilities, and an assembler meant to complement Apple's built-in "monitor" assembler. A FORTRAN compiler (written by Silicon Valley Software, Sunnyvale, California) compiling to the same p-code as Pascal was also available.

Comparison of Pascal OS with DOS 3.2
Apple Pascal Operating System introduced a new disk format. Instead of dividing the disk into 256-byte sectors as in DOS 3.2, Apple Pascal divides it into "blocks" of 512 bytes each. The p-System also introduced a different method for saving and retrieving files. Under Apple DOS, files were saved to any available sector that the OS could find, regardless of location. Over time, this could lead to file system fragmentation, slowing access to the disk. Apple Pascal attempted to rectify this by saving only to consecutive blocks on the disk.

Other innovations introduced in the file system included the introduction of a timestamp feature. Previously only a file's name, basic type, and size would be shown. Disks could also be named for the first time.

Limitations of the p-System included new restrictions on the naming of files. Writing files only on consecutive blocks also created problems, because over time free space tended to become too fragmented to store new files. A utility called Krunch was included in the package to consolidate free space.

The biggest problem with the Apple Pascal system was that it was too big to fit on one floppy disk. This meant that on a system with only one floppy disk drive, frequent disk swapping was needed. A system needed at least two disk drives in order to use the operating system properly.

title: Apple Pascal


text:
Talk:Pea soup

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 12:45, 3 July 2008 (UTC)

Pea Soup Tasty
The article previously said that pea soup is tasty (which was marked as citation needed). While I do indeed think it's tasty, and looking at this article made me want to sit down with a big bowl of it, that's entirely subjective and not at all encyclopedic, so I've removed it. The section was specifically talking about use in Poland, especially in military settings, so if someone finds a source stating that it's popularly liked in that setting, and wants to re-add it in that specific sense, feel free. Arathald (talk) 07:10, 16 July 2012 (UTC)

"In the United States, pea soup is merely one of many familiar kinds of soup." Adds no meaning, replace United States with any country and it's still true. — Preceding unsigned comment added by KSiimson (talk • contribs) 12:01, 19 January 2014 (UTC)

Title photo grinds my gears
I am afraid this photo was not made the title photo with good faith in mind. Keep in mind soup is normally made with several additional ingredients and the title photo features a plain pea dish. 2A00:1FA0:46B3:ECF4:0:57:6A15:D101 (talk) 14:34, 23 December 2023 (UTC)

Smoky food's recipe
Recently, a Wikipeditor added this link: https://smokyrecipe.com/split-pea-soup-instant-pot/

I think this recipe is kinda decent to add... somewhere. Cheers. 2A00:1FA0:46B3:ECF4:0:57:6A15:D101 (talk) 17:16, 23 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pea soup


text:
User talk:Aranae

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Bos priscus
Hey! You recently added this redirect, and I can't figure out if it's an alternative scientific name (vs Bison priscus) or how it otherwise relates to the article. If it is an alternative name, could you add it to the article with an explanation? Thanks! Rusalkii (talk) 02:11, 7 December 2022 (UTC)
 * The genus Bos is paraphyletic with respect to bison. The modern bison themselves are not even sister taxa.  Most modern references (see https://www.mammaldiversity.org/explore.html#genus=Bos&species=bison&id=1006256 for example) now treat the genus Bison as a junior synonym of Bos or at least as a subgenus. Wikipedia is well behind all of that and needs work more broadly, but we should at least have redirects coming from that usage.  --Aranae (talk) 12:54, 7 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Can you explain that in the article, or add the name to the infobox as an alternative name (with citations)? As someone who doesn't know anything about the species, it confusing not to find the redirect mentioned in the article. Rusalkii  (talk) 16:21, 7 December 2022 (UTC)
 * I'm sorry. I don't have the time to edit on wikipedia like I once did. If I did, there are other higher priorities I would work on first.  --Aranae (talk) 16:37, 7 December 2022 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Aranae


text:
Talk:Bowl

Layout
This page has very ugly layout with the image on the left hand side of the page and needs to be repaired.—Trevor Caira 01:50, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * "Fixed." More work needed, obviously, but at least it's less atrocious. --Dante Alighieri | Talk 01:53, Dec 3, 2004 (UTC)

Spotty Bowl
The spotty bowl is one of the main bowl types - surely there's a free image somewhere? 217.205.94.62 (talk) 07:23, 14 April 2009 (UTC)SBowlio

interwikis (interlanguage links) apart from Wikidata, for the (es:) one
You can see there was one here that linked to tazón. there's such an article, but at wikidata's you can see that links to another, this one : cuenco. When it is here, we cannot see the one from wikidata. I'm hiding it like a commentary, but you may remove it, if better. --PLA y Grande Covián (talk) 21:59, 27 April 2015 (UTC)

Nepali
There was a line at the end of the introductory paragraph, saying "In Nepali a bowl is also called Kachaura." Took it out. It was not connected to anything else, and seemed to contribute nothing besides the Nepali word for "bowl". If it was appropriate then we'd be mentioning the other 200 words for bowl in other languages... and Wikipedia is not a dictionary.

If there was some unique significance to Nepalese bowls, it should be rewritten to explain it.

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Etymology
I'm new to editing Wikipedia, so I had a noob question. Would it be appropriate to include a short snippet about the etymology of the word "bowl" on this page? I saw there was a an etymology section for the bowl entry on Wiktionary, but I wasn't sure about including it in Wikipedia. Is there a general policy on this? Thatwhichendureth (talk) 02:48, 19 December 2017 (UTC)

Defects stylistic and logical
In the opening section I found:

 * A bowl is an open-top container used in many cultures to serve hot and cold food. Bowls are normally round but can be any shape including square or rectangular. Bowls are also used for drinking, as in the case of caffè latte. Bowls used for storing non-food items range from small bowls used for holding tips at a coffee shop to large bowls used for storing DVDs or CDs. Bowls are typically small and shallow, as in the case of bowls used for single servings of soup or cereal. Some bowls, such as punch bowls, serving bowls, fruit bowls and salad serving bowls, are larger and often intended to serve many people.

There are six sentences and each one begins with the word "bowl" or "bowls"; this is stylistically abominable: the repetitions make for dullness, and the information could be placed in fewer sentences with varied openings.

Bowls are round, or better, semi-spherical, period. If a container is square or rectangular, it is not—I repeat, NOT—a bowl. Women keep their jewelry in a jewelry box; you cook a meatloaf in a casserole dish. Bowls are semi-spherical to make it possible to move the food or liquid in certain ways, e.g., to stir or whip or whisk them; you cannot—I repeat, CANNOT—stir, whip, or whisk solids or liquids in a square or rectangular container. Square and rectangular containers are NOT BOWLS!

I will edit to remove the stylistic and logical defects.

Washing up bowl

 * As the name suggests, this item is considered to be a type of bowl. I understand that some may feel it to be an abomination to call it a "bowl", especially as many washing up bowls are not round but are as rectangular as the sinks that they dwell in. Nevertheless, should this type of bowl (and any other abominations, lol) be mentioned, if only as an exception? 92.25.47.124 (talk) 00:20, 21 February 2020 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 21:22, 14 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Parthian net-patterned bowl with golden Swastika and Lotus flower design.jpg

 * Ohalo II bowl is 23000 years old. Are these finds disputed or is this article just not updated? 2A04:4540:AA04:3000:31BA:C246:3915:BDAB (talk) 20:12, 3 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bowl


text:
User talk:Luvis~enwiki

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! --Flockmeal 01:50, Dec 3, 2004 (UTC)
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Your account will be renamed
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Renamed
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title: User talk:Luvis~enwiki


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Polish State Railways

The Polish State Railways (Polish: Polskie Koleje Państwowe, abbr.: PKP S.A. ) was the dominant railway operator in Poland. The company was founded when the former Polish State Railways state-owned enterprise was divided into several units based on the need for separation between infrastructure management and transport operations. Polish State Railways is the dominant company in PKP Group collective that resulted from the split, and maintains in 100% share control, being fully responsible for the assets of all of the other PKP Group component companies. The group's organisations are dependent upon Polish State Railways, but proposals for privatisation have been made.

PKP today
PKP is currently the parent company of the PKP Group, passenger operators PKP Intercity and PKP Szybka Kolej Miejska w Trójmieście and also freight carriers PKP Cargo and PKP Linia Hutnicza Szerokotorowa are parts of the group. PKP is also one of the largest real estate managers in Poland.

World War 1 and interwar years
Regaining independence on 11 November 1918 allowed Poland to reclaim the former Russian and Austrian sectors from military railways. The Railway Department in the Ministry of Communication was created and the Polish railways were officially named Polskie Koleje Państwowe.

In December 1918, the Greater Poland Uprising started. The rebels took over the former Prussian sector of railways. One year later, the fights for Lwów were over and the former Austrian railway directorate was taken over by Poland. Taking over the railways from Prussians lasted until 1921.

After the victory over the Red Army in the Polish-Bolshevik War (1920), a great deal of damage in railway structure was discovered on the route along which the communists were retreating. At the same time, the tense relations with Lithuania led the railways around Vilnius and Minsk to a partial disintegration and stagnation. The Libau–Romny Railway was not recovered.

Polish railways administration finally took over the railways in Upper Silesia in 1922. That same year, a decision was made to divide railways in Poland into nine administrative districts.

An economic crisis in the 1930s forced the state to cut back its budget for railway investment. Profit decreased by 50% compared to 1929. The next year, over 23,000 PKP employees had been dismissed and protests and strikes causes authorities to try to find a solution. The end of the crisis and an increase in cargo transport and income came in 1937.

World War 2
Following the German invasion on 1 September 1939 and the Soviet invasion of eastern Poland on 17 September 1939, most Polish rolling stock fell into Soviet hands.

The Polish railways in Silesia, Greater Poland and Pomerania were adopted by German railways Deutsche Reichsbahn on 25 September. The Polish railways in Generalgouvernement became Ostbahn.

Until the last moment before the German attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, cargo trains transported goods from the Soviet Union to Germany. The beginning of German attacks on the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 resulted in the possession of railway and rolling stock by the Ostbahn and the possession of PKP rolling stock with broad gauge track and reconstruction to standard gauge. The beginning of organized sabotage by the Polish resistance movement on railways took place about the same time.

In 1942, production of simple military-use DR Kriegslok BR52 (PKP class Ty2) steam locomotives began in Poznań and Chrzanów; the steam boilers for these locomotives were produced in Sosnowiec.

The Warsaw Uprising caused widespread damage of Warsaw rolling stock, network and electric traction; both bridges over the Vistula River and the tunnel on the Warsaw Cross-City Line were destroyed. At the beginning of 1945, the Ministry of Transport was created, as well as the Regional Directorate of National Railways. Many pre-war locomotives were sent to the Soviet Union. Poland received many German locomotives as a compensation for war losses. In June, the rail connection with Warsaw was opened, using a temporary railway station made of warehouses. On 15 September 1945, PKP took over management of all railway lines on new Polish territory from the Soviet Union. Most of these lines were either destroyed or inaccessible. The railways in the country were divided into ten districts.

Post-war years
During the mid-to-late communist era, the state of the Polish railways deteriorated to a large extent. Once a large and profitable network, the systemic lack of funding and failure to acquire new rolling stock left PKP far behind the railway operators of Western Europe in terms of technical advances and passenger comfort. In addition to this, the poor state of many rail lines throughout the country led to ever-increasing journey times for passengers, and as a result left the railways far less able to compete with intercity bus and air services. During the entire communist period, only one major infrastructural project relating to the railways was completed. This, the Central Trunk Line, was a prestige project completed in 1976, intended both for heavy coal transport and fast passenger services. This line for the first time allowed passengers to travel in comfort and at relatively high speed from Kraków and Katowice to Warsaw; however, high-speed services have never started, although test runs reached 250 km/h in 1994. Moreover, despite the successful completion of the section from southern to central Poland, the planned extension to Gdańsk and the country's Baltic ports was never realised, and this significantly curtailed both the usefulness and potential of the line.

1990 to today
Since Poland's return to the sovereignty in the early 1990s, the Polish State Railways have faced ever-increasing competition from private automotive transport and the country's rapidly expanding network of motorways and express roads. However, ever-decreasing journey times, better schedules which allow for well-coordinated connections, the rise of private operators and large-scale investment in infrastructure, in many cases aided by European Union funding, as well as new rolling stock is slowly enticing people back onto the railways.

On 14 December 2014 PKP Intercity Pendolino trains began operating on the CMK line (224 km line from Kraków and Katowice to Warsaw) with trains reaching 200 km/h (124 mph) as a regularly scheduled operation. There is a plan by PKP Polskie Linie Kolejowe (infrastructure manager) to increase speed to 250 km/h on whole line soon. In the day of 13 December 2020 the speed limit was raised to 200 km/h also on the line from Warsaw to seaport Gdynia by New Pendolino train.

Tourism
The PKP has been a tourist attraction for British trainspotters since at least the mid-twentieth century. The late withdrawal of steam power on the PKP system meant that Poland was an attractive destination for rail enthusiasts long after steam had ended on Britain’s railways. The last PKP steam shed in Wolsztyn has remained in operation as a result of this tourism and continues to operate regular steam hauled services.

PKP Intercity

PKP Intercity is a semi-independent division of PKP that operates long-distance passenger trains in Poland. It was founded in 2001 when, in preparation for separation between infrastructure management and transport operations, the Polish State Railways were reorganized into a number of independent operating companies under the unified direction of the PKP Group.

PKP Intercity operates all InterCity trains in Poland as well as most of the country's EuroCity services throughout Europe. Although competition is rising in the long-distance rail travel market in Poland, PKP Intercity still holds a de facto monopoly in the industry, as its current market share represents almost 100% of the segment.

PKP Intercity's trains currently (2015) operate under the following brands:

 * Express InterCity Premium (EIP) - Pendolino high-speed trains
 * EuroCity (EC): International trains which operate major routes and require a reservation
 * Express InterCity (EIC) - introduced in 2009, as a result, the train category EX was phased out
 * InterCity (IC) - Intercity trains
 * Twoje Linie Kolejowe (TLK) - Low cost, intercity trains
 * InterCityBus (ICBUS)- Intercity coach services

PKP Cargo

PKP Cargo (wse: PKP PLPKPCR00011), founded in 2001 so as to satisfy a European Court ruling on the required restructuring of the Polish State Railways prior to joining the EU, is the PKP group company responsible for freight transport operations. It is currently the largest railway cargo carrier in Poland, and second-largest in the European Union. The company was founded after dividing Polskie Koleje Państwowe (all-national rail operator) into several dozens of companies to meet European Union Standards.

PKP Cargo is owned by the PKP S.A. (50% + 1 share) and private investors.

PKP Szybka Kolej Miejska
It is a railway transportation service that originally functioned in Poland's Tricity area (Gdynia, Sopot and Gdańsk). The system has since grown to cover a longer route, reaching towns like Słupsk, Lębork and Wejherowo.

It is serviced by electric multiple unit cars at a frequency of 6 minutes to half an hour between trains (depending on the time of day). It is comparable to subway service or light rail in other European cities. The Tricity area is uniquely suited for this mode of transport, as it's shaped in a relatively narrow north–south corridor between the Gdańsk Bay and the Tricity Landscape Park.

PKP Linia Hutnicza Szerokotorowa
PKP LHS is a company of the PKP Group responsible for infrastructure operation and freight transport on the Broad Gauge Metallurgy Line. The line runs for about 400 km from the Polish-Ukrainian border in Izow-Hrubieszów to Sławków Południowy (near Katowice).

The line was opened in 1979 and was used to import iron ore from the USSR, as well as to export coal and sulphur from Poland. After the fall of communism and the economic changes of 1989 traffic on the line has much diminished. At present various schemes are being tried to increase its profitability. This line runs as a single-track line for almost 400 km, from the Polish-Ukrainian border crossing just east of Hrubieszów to Sławków Południowy (near Katowice). It is used only for freight traffic, mainly iron ore and coal. It is the westernmost broad gauge railway line in Europe that is connected to the broad gauge rail system of the countries which before 1991 constituted the Soviet Union.

Power supply
Electric train traction of Polish State Railway started in 1936 in Warsaw area and is performed since the beginning with 3 kV DC. As of 1 January 2011, 11481 kilometres were electrified by a total length of 19276 kilometres.

All used power is taken from the public grid and rectified in substations. Most substations are fed with voltages between 15 and 30 kV. Where lines have heavy traffic and higher speed, the substations are fed from the 110 kV grid.

The switchyard of substations fed from voltages below 30 kV is indoors, outdoor switchgear is used at 110 kV. The distance between substations is between 15 and 28 kilometres. For reliability of supply, substations are usually fed by at least two powerlines. Each substation normally feeds two segments of the overhead wire, which are separated by a switch. As is common with DC systems, the negative pole is grounded. Halfway between two substations, there is a switch, which can be used to connect the overhead wires together. At some lines, a three-phase AC line operated with 6 kV, 15 kV or 20 kV runs parallel to the railway line, either on the poles of the overhead wire or on separate poles. It is used for power supply of signals, level crossing equipment and other devices requiring electric power used for the rail. This line can be also used for emergency power supply of substations.

PKP Przewozy Regionalne
Until 22 December 2008 Przewozy Regionalne was a wholly owned subsidiary of the PKP Group; after that date, all of its shares have been transferred to Poland's 16 regional governments. Thus, the company is no longer part of the PKP Group and on interregional routes its InterRegio trains compete with PKP Intercity TLK trains. This was done in order to increase competition amongst operators on the Polish rail network. The company finally changed its name from PKP Przewozy Regionalne to Przewozy Regionalne on 8 December 2009.

Polskie Linie Kolejowe
A company responsible for maintenance of rail tracks, conducting trains across the country, scheduling train timetables, and management of railway property, such as lines and stations. In 2024 PKP owns 16.54% of this company's shares.

PKP Energetyka
A company responsible for supplying Polish railroad operators with electric energy. PKP Energetyka was founded after dividing PKP into a group of several dozen independent companies to meet European Union Standards.

PKP Group sold PKP Energetyka to CVC Capital Partners in 2015, which in turn sold it to PGE Polska Grupa Energetyczna in 2022.

title: Polish State Railways


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Battle of Tippermuir

The Battle of Tippermuir (also known as the Battle of Tibbermuir) (1 September 1644) was the first battle James Graham, 1st Marquis of Montrose, fought for King Charles I in the Scottish theatre of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. During the battle, Montrose's Royalist forces routed an army of the Covenanter-dominated Scottish government under John Wemyss, Lord Elcho. The government side took heavy losses.

The battlefield is presently inventoried and protected by Historic Environment Scotland under the Scottish Historical Environment Policy of 2009.

Background
Under the terms of the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant, the Scottish Parliament, dominated by a hardline Presbyterian faction known as the Covenanters, had agreed to intervene on the Parliamentarian side in the First English Civil War. At the invitation of the English Parliament, a large Scottish army under Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven entered England in January 1644. The Royalist party, fearing that the Scots intervention would prove decisive, sought to find ways of tying down troops in Scotland to prevent them assisting the English Parliamentarians.

King Charles I had already designated Montrose, a disaffected former signatory of the Covenant, as Captain-General in Scotland. An initial attempt by George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Huntly and Montrose to begin a Royalist uprising misfired badly, but the Royalist plans were advanced when Confederate Ireland, at the instigation of the Earl of Antrim, aided the Royalists by sending 2000 professional soldiers to Scotland led by Antrim's kinsman Alasdair Mac Colla. The Irish landed at Ardnamurchan on the west coast in early July 1644, and initially made to link up with Huntly, but the latter had by then effectively gone into hiding. Montrose was, however, able to meet Mac Colla at Blair Atholl late in August. Mac Colla had already been joined by a contingent from Clan MacDonald of Keppoch and had effectively compelled 4-500 men from Badenoch to join his force by pressuring local lairds. Their army was further increased by the addition of a small regiment of Athollmen raised for Montrose by Patrick Graham of Inchbrackie.

From Blair Atholl, Montrose made a rapid march south-eastwards towards the strategically sited town of Perth. With the majority of its best troops with Leslie in England, the Scottish government hastily assembled an army to defend the town under the overall command of John Wemyss, Lord Elcho and James Murray, Earl of Tullibardine. While Tullibardine and Elcho had two small regiments of relatively inexperienced regular troops, most of their men were untrained levies: the order to assemble at Perth only went out four days before the battle. A group of Perthshire levies from Clan Stewart, Clan Robertson and Clan Graham, led by Lord Kilpont, James Stewart of Ardvorlich and Montrose's brother-in-law the Master of Madertie, were amongst those called out by the government but promptly deserted to the Royalists.

Order of battle and deployments
Montrose's Highlanders and the Irish regiments together possibly made up no more than 2000 men, perhaps rising to 3,000 through further recruitment on the march from Blair Atholl. The Irish troops were likely experienced soldiers, although the remaining Royalists were either levies or 'irregulars'. The traditional historiography of the battle suggests that Elcho had up to 7,000 infantry and 800 cavalry, the latter being considered the "cream of the army", along with local militia and a number of small frame guns. However, these figures are based largely on Royalist accounts, and a figure of 2,000 foot – mainly untrained militia – and 400 horse may be more accurate for the Covenanter side. Indeed, some modern historians such as Stuart Reid have suggested that the Royalist forces outnumbered the government troops.

 * Royalist (James Graham, Lord Montrose)
 * Patrick Graham of Inchbrakie's Regiment
 * Irish Brigade (Alasdair Mac Colla)
 * Thomas Laghtnan's Regiment
 * Manus O'Cahan's Regiment
 * James Macdonnell's Regiment
 * Badenoch levies
 * Perthshire levies (Lord Kilpont)
 * MacDonalds of Keppoch
 * Covenanter (John Wemyss, Lord Elcho)
 * Earl of Tullibardine's Regiment
 * Lord Elcho's Regiment
 * Dundee and Forfarshire levies
 * Perth Trained Bands (Captain David Grant)
 * Sir James Scott of Rossie's Regiment of Horse
 * Lord Drummond's Regiment of Horse

The two armies deployed on the relatively flat ground at Tippermuir, three miles outside of Perth. On the Covenanters' side, Lord Elcho commanded the right wing of cavalry, Tullibardine commanded the centre, made up of infantry, and the left flank of cavalry was given over to Sir James Scott of Rossie, the only veteran soldier present in the Covenant army that day. Montrose put Lord Kilpont and his 400 levies on the left, directly in front of Elcho, along with the Keppoch MacDonalds. Montrose commanded the right wing, made up of Inchbrackie's Athollmen, himself: in the centre he placed the Irish under Mac Colla, backed with the Badenoch men. According to Ruthven, Montrose drew up his troops in a line only three deep, outflanking Elcho's front, though it seems likely the Royalist centre was kept a more conventional six lines deep.

Again according to the traditional historiography of the battle, the battle cry of Elcho's force was said to have been "Jesus and no quarter!" Montrose's Irish troops were said to have been reduced to a single round of ammunition each, and Montrose is supposed to have delivered a speech saying: "Gentlemen: it is true you have no arms; your enemy, however, to all appearance, have plenty. My advice to you therefore is that as there happens to be a great abundance of stones upon this moor, every man should provide himself, in the first place, with as stout a one as he can manage, rush up to the first Covenanter he meets, beat out his brains, take his sword, and then I believe he will be at no loss how to proceed!" Another version of the speech runs "Be sparing of your powder, we have none to throw away. Let not a musket be fired except in the very face of the enemy. Give but a single discharge, and then at them with the claymore, in the name of God and the King".

The actions
Tullibardine first sent forward a group of cavalry and foot in skirmish to engage the Irish, possibly to take advantage of the latter's shortage of ammunition. However, the Irish skirmishers drove back their opponents, causing a degree of confusion in the government centre. Montrose then gave an order to charge, and Mac Colla's experienced troops moved forward, clashing violently with the largely untrained militia making up Tullibardine's infantry: the first and second ranks rapidly lost their composure and began to fall back.

Scott of Rossie attempted to hold the left flank, but Montrose led his Athollmen in a charge that placed them in front of Scott's men, and pushed them back into the main body of the Covenanters. While there was an attempt by some of the Covenanters to rally and regroup, most of their troops quickly broke and were routed. As was common in fighting of the era, the majority of casualties occurred in the rout as the battle now turned into a bloodbath. A group of townspeople had come to view the battle, believing Montrose's army would be quickly subdued. Now they were caught up in the slaughter, and in the confusion many died. It was reported that a man could walk from Tippermuir to Perth on the bodies of the slain.

Elcho is reported, in some accounts, to have lost up to 2,000 men and Montrose only one, plus another man who died afterwards. Others suggest that only twelve men in total were killed on the field, but the bodies of a further 400 were found between Tippermuir and Perth where they had been cut down in the rout. The dead included several prominent gentry: Captain David Grant, who had led the Perth militia, William Forbes the Laird of Reires, Patrick Oliphant of Bachilton, and George Haliburton of Kelior. However, there are no independent estimates of casualties and as with the relative size of the two armies, the largest figures may likely represent Royalist propaganda.

Aftermath

Perth was surrounded by Montrose's forces later that day, and surrendered almost immediately. Although the town did not suffer major damage, it was sacked for two days by the victorious Royalist troops, with cloth to the value of £1,300 stolen from local merchants. However, Montrose vacated Perth on 4 September, partly to seek more recruits in Angus and partly as a stronger government force under the Marquess of Argyll was approaching the town from the west.

One of the Royalist commanders, Lord Kilpont, was murdered in a quarrel by fellow Royalist James Stewart of Ardvorlich shortly after the battle. Stewart escaped and was later to join with the Covenanters, being given the rank of Major in Argyll's regiment. The battle effectively revived the Royalist cause in Scotland, and Montrose would confront, and rout, government troops again at Aberdeen later in the month.

Events leading up to the battle and the Royalist campaign of 1644–1645 are the centre piece of the 1937 novel And No Quarter by the Irish writer Maurice Walsh.

title: Battle of Tippermuir


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Manny Ayulo

Manuel Leaonedas Ayulo (October 20, 1921 – May 17, 1955 ) was an American racecar driver. His efforts, along with those of friend and teammate Jack McGrath, helped establish track roadsters as viable race cars. Ayulo was killed in practice for the 1955 Indianapolis 500 when his car crashed straight into a concrete wall. He was found to have not been wearing a seat belt and his pockets "were filled with wrenches".

Indianapolis 500 results
* shared drive with Jack McGrath

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key)
 * '' * Indicates shared drive with Jack McGrath.

title: Manny Ayulo


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User talk:Rrenaud

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title: User talk:Rrenaud