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Northern Transylvania

Northern Transylvania (Transilvania de Nord, Észak-Erdély) was the region of the Kingdom of Romania that during World War II, as a consequence of the August 1940 territorial agreement known as the Second Vienna Award, became part of the Kingdom of Hungary. With an area of 43104 km2, the population was largely composed of both ethnic Romanians and Hungarians.

In October 1944, Soviet and Romanian forces gained control of the territory, and by March 1945 Northern Transylvania returned to Romanian administration. After the war, this was confirmed by the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947.

Background
The region has a varied history. It was once the nucleus of the Kingdom of Dacia (82 BC–106 AD). In 106 AD, the Roman Empire conquered the territory, systematically exploiting its resources. After the Roman legions withdrew in 271 AD, it was overrun by a succession of various tribes, bringing it under the control of the Carpi, Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars, and Slavs. During the 9th century, Transylvania came under the rule of the First Bulgarian Empire.

The Magyars conquered much of Central Europe at the end of the 9th century and for almost six hundred years, Transylvania was a voivodeship in the Kingdom of Hungary. After the Battle of Mohács in 1526 and the Hungarian defeat by the Ottomans, Transylvania became a semi-independent principality under the rule of the local Hungarian nobility, but owing suzerainty to the Ottoman Empire. It then became a province of the Habsburg monarchy as the Lands of the Hungarian Crown, and after 1848, and again from 1867 to 1918 it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The dual monarchy dissolved after World War I.

The ethnic Romanians, who formed the majority population of Transylvania, elected representatives who proclaimed the Union with Romania on 1 December 1918. The Proclamation of Union at Alba Iulia was adopted by the Deputies of the Romanians from Transylvania during the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia, supported one month later by the vote of the Deputies of the Transylvanian Saxons during the Mediaș Assembly. By spring 1919, during the Hungarian–Romanian War, Transylvania came under administrative control of Romania. Eventually in June 1920 the Treaty of Trianon assigned Transylvania to the Kingdom of Romania.

The text of the Second Vienna Award

 * 1)  The final route of the border line, which separates Romania from Hungary, will correspond to the one marked on the geographical map attached here. A Romanian-Hungarian commission will determine the details of the route on the spot.
 * 2)  The Romanian territory assigned to Hungary will be evacuated by Romanian troops within 15 days and handed over in good order. The different phases of the evacuation and the occupation, as well as their modalities will be fixed within a Romanian-Hungarian commission. The Hungarian and Romanian governments will ensure that the evacuation and occupation are carried out in full order.
 * 3)  All Romanian subjects, settled on this day on the territory to be ceded by Romania, acquire Hungarian nationality without any formalities. They will be allowed to opt in favor of the Romanian nationality within 6 months. Those people who will exercise this right, will leave the Hungarian territory within an additional period of 1 year and will be allowed to move into Romania. They will be able to take, without any hindrance, their movable property, to liquidate their immovable property, until the moment of their departure, and to take with them the resulting product. If the liquidation fails, these people will be compensated by Hungary. Hungary will resolve all issues related to the transplantation of optants in a broad and accommodating manner.
 * 4)  Romanian subjects of Hungarian race, established in the territory ceded in 1919 by Hungary to Romania and which remained under the sovereignty of the state, receive the right to opt for Hungarian nationality, within a period of 6 months. The principles set out in paragraph 3 shall also apply to people exercising this right.
 * 5)  The Hungarian government solemnly undertakes to fully assimilate the Romanian people with other Hungarian subjects, who, on the basis of the above arbitration, will acquire Hungarian nationality. On the other hand, the Romanian government takes the same solemn commitment regarding its Hungarian subjects, who will remain on the Romanian territory.
 * 6)  The details resulting from the transfer of sovereignty will be regulated by a direct agreement between the Romanian and Hungarian governments.
 * 7)  Should any difficulties or doubts arise during the application of this arbitration, the Romanian and Hungarian governments will seek to reach an agreement directly. If no agreement is reached, the dispute will be submitted to the governments of the Reich and Italy, which will adopt a final solution.

Second Vienna Award
In June 1940, Romania was forced (as a consequence of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) to submit to a Soviet ultimatum and accept the annexation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Subsequently, Hungary attempted to regain Transylvania, which it had lost in the immediate aftermath of World War I. Germany and Italy pressured both Hungary and Romania to resolve the situation in a bilateral agreement. The two delegations met in Turnu Severin on 16 August, but the negotiations failed due to a demand for a 60000 km2 territory from the Hungarian side and only an offer of population exchange from the Romanian side. To impede a Hungarian-Romanian war in their "hinterland", the Axis powers pressured both governments to accept their arbitration: the Second Vienna Award, signed on 30 August 1940.

Historian Keith Hitchins summarizes the situation created by the award:
 * Far from settling matters, the Vienna Award had exacerbated relations between Romania and Hungary. It did not solve the nationality problem by separating all Magyars from all Romanians. Some 1,150,000 to 1,300,000 Romanians, or 48 percent to over 50 percent of the population of the ceded territory, depending upon whose statistics are used, remained north of the new frontier, while about 500,000 Magyars (other Hungarian estimates go as high as 800,000, Romanian as low as 363,000) continued to reside in the south.

The Hungarian population was in the unusual situation of being an overwhelming majority in an area of southeastern Transylvania, deep within Romania and far from the Hungarian border (the area, known as Székely Land, is today mainly in Harghita, Covasna, and Mureș counties), and not simply only in certain areas next to the Hungarian border (as in the case of Czechoslovakia and Bačka or Baranya). The solution decided upon was to gouge a claw-shaped corridor through northwestern Romania, including a large Romanian-populated area, in order to incorporate this Hungarian-majority area within Hungary.

Population of Northern Transylvania, as per 1930 Romanian census:

According to Romanian estimates of the region before the arbitration in 1940, there were 1,304,903 Romanians (50.2%) and 978,074 (37.1%) Hungarians. One year later, the Hungarian census counted the population as 53.5% Hungarians and 39.1% Romanians.

The dissimilar ratios were caused by a combination of complex factors such as migration, the assimilation of Jews, and bilingual speakers. According to Hungarian registrations, 100,000 Hungarian refugees had arrived in Hungary from South Transylvania by January 1941. By then, there were a total of 109,532 Romanian refugees from Northern Transylvania. A fall in the total population suggests that a further 40,000 to 50,000 Romanians moved from North Transylvania to South Transylvania, including refugees who were omitted from the official registration for various reasons. Additionally, Hungarian gains by assimilation were balanced by losses for other groups of native speakers, such as Jews. In the counties of Máramaros and Szatmár, dozens of settlements had many people who had declared themselves as Romanian but now identified themselves as Hungarian, although they had not spoken any Hungarian even in 1910.

Massacres
After the occupation of Northern Transylvania in the autumn of 1940, the Romanian population was targeted for reprisal actions by Hungarian nationalists. Military abuses, illegal arrests, torture, lynchings, summary executions, and the aggressive arrogance of the representatives of the new administrative structures occurred.

Romanian statistics on abuses committed by Hungarian authorities
In a statistical report of the State Secretariat for Nationalities, from Bucharest, on the situation in Northern Transylvania from 30 August 1940 to 1 November 1941, 919 murders, 1,126 maimings, 4,126 beatings, 15,893 arrests, 124 desecrations, 78 and 447 collective and individual devastations are mentioned. A few days after the installation, the occupation authorities started deporting the Romanians to the camps. According to a report by the camp commander in the town of Püspökladány, it turns out that 1,315 Romanians were interned in that camp alone in September 1940, well above its maximum capacity. Consequently, that same month, other camps were established at Someșeni and Florești, near Cluj.

There were also mass expulsions of ethnic Romanians across the new border imposed by the Second Vienna Award, especially of those considered dangerous or presumably hostile to the new regime. Beginning in 1940, the expulsions were practiced until 1944, when, in September and October, the Hungarian authorities were expelled by the Soviet and Romanian military units. Until 1 January 1941, there were a total of 109,532 Romanian refugees, of which 11,957 were Transylvanians expelled by the Hungarian authorities (including cases of ethnic Hungarians not recognized as Hungarians).

A statistical covering the period from 1 September 1940 to 1 December 1943 indicates a total of 218,919 expelled persons. This included numerous refugees who left their localities of residence out of fear of the new Hungarian administration. On 23 August 1944, when King Michael's Coup turned Romania against the Axis and the struggle for the liberation of Northern Transylvania began, there were over 500,000 people from the ceded territory based on the Second Vienna Award in Romania.

During this period, Romanian schools and churches also suffered. On the territory of the ceded part of Transylvania, there were (on 30 August 1940) 1,666 Romanian-language elementary schools and 67 high school, vocational and higher education units. At the beginning of the 1941/1942 school year, the number of primary schools decreased by 792 units, and in 1940/1941 there was only one high school with Romanian as the language of instruction – the one in Năsăud – and only "seven" Romanian sections within high schools with another language of instruction.

The reactions of the Hungarians to the atrocities committed under the Hungarian occupation
The Hungarians of Transylvania welcomed the decisions of the Second Vienna Award, because they considered it a remedy for the Trianon injustice, hoping that at the end of the war, Adolf Hitler would return the whole of Transylvania to Miklós Horthy, however Romania was an allied country at that time. Along with the military, numerous ethnic Hungarians participated in the massacres against the Romanian population. They devastated, desecrated, and demolished the foundations of Romanian churches, especially in the lands inhabited by Székelys. In addition, they robbed and set fire to the homes of Romanians, or tortured and killed Romanians. However, in a few cases, there were also Hungarian locals who were involved in rescuing Romanian families. Among them is the case of Iosif Gáll, who saved several Romanians from death during the Treznea Massacre. A testimony in this regard is that of Gavril Butcovan, one of the survivors of the drama in Ip commune, Sălaj: "I have to tell you the truth to the end. Not all my countrymen made a deal with the Horthyist criminals. There were also Hungarians who came to defend Romanian families, putting their lives in danger through this gesture. Thus, at least three Romanian families were saved from the murderous hands of the Horthyists. Certainly, if the criminal action had taken place during the day, there would have been many more who would have come to our aid (the Romanians), and certainly the number of those killed would be much smaller."

There were cases in which Hungarian locals fell victim trying to help the Romanians. Among them was the maid Sarolta Juhász from Mureșenii de Câmpie, who was killed along with the entire family of the town's priest Bujor.

List of massacres in Northern Transylvania (1940–1944)

 * Nușfalău massacre
 * Treznea massacre
 * Sărmașu massacre
 * Ip massacre
 * Moisei massacre
 * Turda massacre
 * Band, Grebeniș, Oroiu massacre
 * Brețcu massacre
 * Cerișa massacre
 * Ciumărna massacre
 * Marca massacre
 * Mureșenii de Câmpie massacre
 * Prundu Bârgăului massacre
 * Răchitiș massacre
 * Tărian massacre
 * Zalău massacre

Hungarian rule
Hungary held Northern Transylvania from September 1940 to October 1944. In 1940, ethnic disturbances between Hungarians and Romanians continued after some incidents following the entrance of the Hungarian Army, culminating in massacres at Treznea and Ip in the first two weeks approximately 1000 Romanians perished.

On 5 September 1940, five days after the Second Vienna Award, the first Hungarian military unit crossed the border at Sighetul Marmației. Two Hungarian armies entered the territory of annexed Transylvania: the first army (with a force of 208,000 soldiers) operated in the northeastern part of Transylvania, while the second army (with a staff of 102,000 soldiers) operated in the Oradea-Cluj area.

On the first day, the main occupied cities were Carei, Satu Mare, Sighetul Marmației, and Ocna Șugatag. Nine stages of progress were established, each over a distance of 40-80 kilometers. The last localities taken over, on 13 September 1940, were Sfântu Gheorghe and Târgu Secuiesc. The advance of Hungarian units took place in peaceful conditions, with only a few scattered incidents with Romanian soldiers retreating to southern Transylvania. The Hungarian army was greeted enthusiastically by the majority of the Hungarian population, which was documented in detail in the 1940 films, with the parade of military units, as well as Horthy riding on a gray horse, marching through the main cities of Northern Transylvania.

After some ethnic Hungarian groups considered unreliable or insecure were sacked/expelled from Southern Transylvania, the Hungarian officials also regularly expelled some Romanian groups from Northern Transylvania. Many Hungarians and Romanians either fled or chose to opt between the two countries. There was a mass exodus; over 100,000 people on both sides of the ethnic and political borders relocated. This continued until 1944.

Following the occupation of Hungary by Nazi Germany on 19 March 1944, Northern Transylvania came under German military occupation. Like the Jews living in Hungary, most of the Jews in Northern Transylvania (about 150,000) were sent to concentration camps during World War II, a move that was facilitated by local military and civilians. Following several decrees of the Hungarian government and high-level consultations at a meeting on 26 April with László Endre in Szatmárnémeti (now Satu Mare), the deportation of the Jews was decided. On 3 May, authorities in Dés (now Dej) launched the action of ghettoization of Jews in the Bungăr forest, where 3,700 Jews from Dej and 4,100 Jews from other localities in the area were imprisoned. During the operation of the Dej ghetto, Jews were mistreated, tortured, and starved. The deportation of the Jews to the Nazi death camps was done with freight wagons, in three stages: the first transport on 28 May (when 3,150 Jews were deported), the second on 6 June (when 3,360 Jews were deported), and the third on 8 June (when the last 1,364 Jews were deported). Most of those deported were exterminated in the Auschwitz–Birkenau camp, with just over 800 deportees surviving. The Kolozsvár Ghetto (in what is now Cluj-Napoca) was initiated on 3 May, and was put under the command of László Urbán, the local police chief. The ghetto, comprising about 18,000 Jews, was liquidated in six transports to Auschwitz, with the first deportation occurring on 25 May, and the last one on 9 June. Other ghettoes that were set up in Northern Transylvania during this period were the Oradea ghetto (the largest one, with 35,000 Jews), the Baia Mare ghetto, the Bistrița ghetto, the Cehei ghetto, the Reghin ghetto, the Satu Mare ghetto, and the Sfântu Gheorghe ghetto.

After King Michael's Coup of 23 August 1944, Romania left the Axis and joined the Allies. Thus, the Romanian Army fought Nazi Germany and its allies in Romania – regaining Northern Transylvania – and further on, in German occupied Hungary and in Slovakia and Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, for instance, in the Budapest Offensive, the Siege of Budapest, and the Prague Offensive.

The Second Vienna Award was voided by the Allied Commission through the Armistice Agreement with Romania (12 September 1944) whose Article 19 stipulated the following: "The Allied Governments regard the decision of the Vienna award regarding Transylvania as null and void and are agreed that Transylvania (or the greater part thereof) should be returned to Romania, subject to confirmation at the peace settlement, and the Soviet Government agrees that Soviet forces shall take part for this purpose in joint military operations with Romania against Germany and Hungary."

The territory was occupied by the Allied forces by late October 1944. On 25 October, at the Battle of Carei, units of the Romanian 4th Army under the command of General Gheorghe Avramescu defeated the last remaining Hungarian and German troops in the area and took control of the last piece of the territory ceded in 1940 to Hungary. However, due to the activities of Romanian paramilitary forces, the Soviets expelled the Romanian administration from Northern Transylvania in November 1944 and did not allow them to return until 10 March 1945.

On 20 January 1945, Hungary accepted the obligation to evacuate all Hungarian troops and officials from the territory, to retreat to its pre-war borders, and to repeal all legislative and administrative regulations in connection with the incorporation of the territory.

The 1947 Paris Peace Treaty reaffirmed the borders between Romania and Hungary, as originally defined in the Treaty of Trianon, 27 years earlier, thus confirming the return of Northern Transylvania to Romania.

Geography
Northern Transylvania is a diverse region, both in terms of landscape and population. It contains both largely rural areas (such as Bistrița-Năsăud County ) as well as major cities, such as Cluj-Napoca, Oradea, Târgu Mureș, Baia Mare, and Satu Mare. Centers of Hungarian culture, such as Miercurea Ciuc and Sfântu Gheorghe, are also part of the region. An important tourist destination is Maramureș County, an area known for its beautiful rural scenery, local small woodwork, including wooden churches, its craftwork industry, and its original rural architecture.

title: Northern Transylvania


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Andrés Caicedo

Luis Andrés Caicedo Estela (29 September 1951 – 4 March 1977) was a Colombian writer born in Cali, the city where he would spend most of his life. Despite his premature death, his works are considered to be some of the most original produced in Colombia. Caicedo led different cultural movements in the city like the literary group "Los Dialogantes" (Those who speak), the Cinema Club of Cali and the "Ojo al Cine" Magazine (Attention to the Cinema). In 1970 he won the First Literary Contest of Caracas with his work "Los dientes de caperucita" (The Teeth of Little Red Riding Hood) that opened the doors of national recognition for him. Some sources say that he used to say that to live more than 25 years was a shame and it is seen as the main reason of his suicide on March 4, 1977, when he was that age.

Caicedo's work has as its context the urban world and its social conflicts, especially those of young people. Contrary to the school of magic realism, the work of Caicedo is grounded completely in social reality. Therefore, some scholars give importance to his work as an alternative in Latin America to prominent figures such as Gabriel García Márquez, especially through the research of the Chilean journalist, writer and movie critic Alberto Fuguet who called Caicedo "The first enemy of Macondo". Despite his fame in Colombia, Caicedo is little known in Latin America, maybe for his early death. However his work is becoming known thanks to the influence of his works in new writer generations such as Rafael Chaparro, Efraim Medina Reyes, Manuel Giraldo, Octavio Escobar and Ricardo Abdahllah.

First years
Andrés Caicedo was the youngest surviving child and only surviving son of Carlos Alberto Caicedo and Nellie Estella. His brother Francisco José was born in 1958, but died three years later. By that time Andrés was studying in Colegio del Pilar, after he was in Colegio Pio XII, a "very bad Franciscan establishment" as he said years after. Because of his bad behavior in the school in Cali, he was transferred to the Colegio Calasanz in Medellín in 1964 and this was the year of his first story: "El Silencio" (The Silence). However, his academic and discipline was rather the same, a reason to be transferred again to Cali, this time to Colegio Berchmans, an institution that would influence his works. From Berchmans he was expelled to go to Colegio San Luis in 1966, again expelled and finally he could finish his high school in Colegio Camacho Perea in 1968.

Among pages, stages and cinema
Along with his passion for literature, Caicedo liked cinema and stage. In 1966, he wrote his first play, "Las curiosas conciencias" (Curious Minds) and his first story, "Infection". A year later he directed the play "The Bald Soprano" by Eugène Ionesco and he wrote "The End of the Vacations", "Welcoming the New Student", "The Sea", "The Imbeciles are also Witnesses" and "The Skin of the Other Hero". His last work would make him win the First Students' Theatre Festival of the Theatre Department of University of Valle. He abandoned the university in 1971 to join the Cali Theatre Company (Teatro Experimental de Cali) as an actor, and there he met the famous Colombian director Enrique Buenaventura.

In 1969 he also started to write cinema reviews for newspapers, for example in the Cali newspaper El País, in Occidente and El Pueblo. He got another award with his story "Berenice" in the Story Contest of the University of Valle, while his story "The Teeth of Little Red Riding Hood" won the second place of the Latin American Story Contest organized by the Caracas Image Magazine. He adapted and directed the work of Eugène Ionesco: "The Chairs". He wrote the story "For this reason I am back to my city", "Empty", "The Messengers", "Besacalles", "From Up to Down, From Left to Right", "The Spectator", "Happy Friendships" and "Lulita, that you do not want to open the door?".

The Cinema Club of Cali

His love for cinema was the motive for opening the Cinema Club of Cali with his friends Ramiro Arbeláez, Hernando Guerrero and Luis Ospina in 1969. It started its meetings in the headquarters of the Company of Theatre of Cali (Teatro Experimental de Cali), but later moved to the Alameda Cinema and finally to the San Fernando Cinema. The Cinema Club attracted many students, intellectuals and critics who used to watch the movies and meet afterwards to discuss and analyze the films with Caicedo.

In 1970 he adapted and directed The Night of the Assassins of José Triana and in that same year he wrote a new story, "Antígona". In 1971 he wrote stories like "Patricialinda", "Cannibalism", "Fatal Little Destinies", "Angelita and Miguel Ángel" and "El atravesado". He wrote also some essays: "The Heroes of the Beginning", an essay about the work of Mario Vargas Llosa, "The Time of the Hero" and "The Sea", an essay on the work of Harold Pinter.

His friend Carlos Mayolo tried unsuccessfully to bring to cinema his screenplay "Angelita and Miguel Angel" in 1972. In that year he wrote the screenplay "A Good Man is Very Difficult to Find" and the stories "The Suitor" and "The Time of the Swamp", which was awarded by the National Contents of Story of the Universidad Externado de Colombia.

Looking for Hollywood
In 1973 Caicedo went to Los Angeles and New York. He knew sufficient English and had dreamed of meeting the legendary Roger Corman in order to sell to him four of his play scripts that his sister had translated into English. He had come thinking that Hollywood would welcome him with open hands. However, the venture was unsuccessful and Corman never got ahold of his books. About Hollywood he said:

"It is a very difficult and labyrinthine world and those over there do not give support, fearing competition."

As nobody in Hollywood paid attention to the "writer with the face of a rockstar" in the 1960s, Caicedo dedicated himself to watching movies, studying blues and rock, especially the Rolling Stones and writing a new story, ¡Que viva la música!, a work that was to become the most internationally recognized title of Caicedo so far. He also began work on "Memories of a Cinema Lover", a diary he intended to make into a novel. However, he could have an interview with Sergio Leone and returned to Colombia.

Last years
Caicedo considered that his best work was "Maternity", a story written in 1974. In that year, he also published "Ojo al cine" (Attention to the Cinema), which would become one of the most important magazines on the topic in Colombia. He returned to the U.S., but this time to participate in the International Exposition of Cinema and a year later the publishing house "Pirata de Calidad" published his story "El Atravesado" thanks to the economic support of his mother, and his national recognition.

Suicide
Caicedo had mentioned that to live past the age of 25 was madness and he died by suicide at age 25 on March 4, 1977. On the afternoon he died, he received a volume of his recently published book "Que viva la música!. He took 60 pills of secobarbital. Analyzing his death, Alberto Fuguet says:

"'Caicedo is the missing link of the lost boom. He is the first enemy of Macondo. I do not know if he committed suicide or maybe was killed by García Márquez and the dominant culture of the times. He was less the rocker that Colombians want and more of an intellectual. [He was] A super tormented, genial nerd. He had imbalances, life-induced anxiety. He was not comfortable with life. He had problems standing on his own two feet. And he had to write in order to survive. He killed himself because he saw too much.'"

Influence
The first Colombian author to evince Caicedo's influence may be Manuel Giraldo Magil from the city of Ibagué, in his work "Concerts of Bewilderment" ("Conciertos del desconcierto"). In the 1990s the work of Rafael Chaparro Madiedo, "Opio en las nubes" (Opium in the Clouds), was viewed as a Caicedian piece of work. Other authors like Octavio Escobar Giraldo, Efraím Medina, and Ricardo Abdahllah are related to what is becoming a real literary school. The Theatre Company of the city of Medellín, Matacandelas, has played "Angelitos empantanados" for over a decade.

Works
Most of Caicedo's works were published after his death, thanks to the commitment of some of his friends. The works include in stories, playwrights for stage and cinema, and essays. Some of his personal letters to his mother, sisters and friends, were also published. The importance of the letters is that they show the turbulence of his soul.

 * El cuento de mi vida (2007). Bogotá: Norma.
 * Noche sin fortuna / Antígona (2002). Bogotá: Norma.
 * Ojo al cine (1999). Bogotá: Norma.
 * Angelitos empantanados o historias para jovencitos / A propósito de Andrés Caicedo y su obra (1995). Bogotá: Norma.
 * Recibiendo al nuevo alumno (1995). Cali: Editorial de la Facultad de Humanidades. Universidad del Valle.
 * Destinitos fatales (1984). Bogotá: Oveja Negra.
 * Berenice / El atravesado / Maternidad / El Tiempo de la ciénaga (1978). Cali: Editorial Andes.

Novels

 * ¡Que viva la música! (1977)
 * Noche sin fortuna (unfinished) (1976)
 * La estatua del soldadito de plomo (unfinished) (1967)

Stories

 * Pronto (1976)
 * En las garras del crimen (1975)
 * Maternidad (1974)
 * El pretendiente (1972)
 * El tiempo de la ciénaga (1972)
 * El atravesado (1971)
 * Destinitos fatales (1971)
 * Calibanismo (1971)
 * Patricialinda (1971)
 * Antígona (1970)
 * Berenice (1969)
 * Lulita, ¿qué no quiere abrir la puerta? (1969)
 * Felices amistades (1969)
 * El espectador (1969)
 * De arriba a abajo de izquierda a derecha (1969)
 * Besacalles (1969)
 * Vacíos (1969)
 * Por eso yo regreso a mi ciudad (1969)
 * Infección (1966)
 * Los mensajeros (1969)
 * Los dientes de Caperucita (1969)
 * Infección (1966)
 * El silencio (1964)

Writings for cinema and stage

 * Un hombre bueno es difícil de encontrar (1972)
 * El fin de las vacaciones (1967)
 * Recibiendo al nuevo alumno (1967)
 * El mar (1967)
 * Los imbéciles también son testigos (1967)
 * La piel del otro héroe (1967)
 * Las curiosas conciencias (1966)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Andrés Caicedo


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Cervical vertebrae

In tetrapods, cervical vertebrae (: vertebra) are the vertebrae of the neck, immediately below the skull. Truncal vertebrae (divided into thoracic and lumbar vertebrae in mammals) lie caudal (toward the tail) of cervical vertebrae. In sauropsid species, the cervical vertebrae bear cervical ribs. In lizards and saurischian dinosaurs, the cervical ribs are large; in birds, they are small and completely fused to the vertebrae. The vertebral transverse processes of mammals are homologous to the cervical ribs of other amniotes. Most mammals have seven cervical vertebrae, with the only three known exceptions being the manatee with six, the two-toed sloth with five or six, and the three-toed sloth with nine.

In humans, cervical vertebrae are the smallest of the true vertebrae and can be readily distinguished from those of the thoracic or lumbar regions by the presence of a foramen (hole) in each transverse process, through which the vertebral artery, vertebral veins, and inferior cervical ganglion pass. The remainder of this article focuses upon human anatomy.

Structure

By convention, the cervical vertebrae are numbered, with the first one (C1) closest to the skull and higher numbered vertebrae (C2–C7) proceeding away from the skull and down the spine. The general characteristics of the third through sixth cervical vertebrae are described here. The first, second, and seventh vertebrae are extraordinary, and are detailed later.
 * The bodies of these four vertebrae are small, and broader from side to side than from front to back.
 * The anterior and posterior surfaces are flattened and of equal depth; the former is placed on a lower level than the latter, and its inferior border is prolonged downward, so as to overlap the upper and forepart of the vertebra below.
 * The upper surface is concave transversely, and presents a projecting lip on either side.
 * The lower surface is concave from front to back, convex from side to side, and presents laterally shallow concavities that receive the corresponding projecting lips of the underlying vertebra.
 * The pedicles are directed laterally and backward, and attach to the body midway between its upper and lower borders, so that the superior vertebral notch is as deep as the inferior, but it is, at the same time, narrower.
 * The laminae are narrow and thinner above than below; the vertebral foramen is large and of a triangular form.
 * The spinous process is short and bifid, the two divisions being often of unequal size. Because the spinous processes are so short, certain superficial muscles (the trapezius and splenius capitis) attach to the nuchal ligament rather than directly to the vertebrae; the nuchal ligament itself attaching to the spinous processes of C2–C7 and to the posterior tubercle of the atlas.
 * The superior and inferior articular processes of cervical vertebrae have fused on either or both sides to form articular pillars, columns of bone that project laterally from the junction of the pedicle and lamina.
 * The articular facets are flat and of an oval form:
 * the superior face backward, upward, and slightly medially.
 * the inferior face forward, downward, and slightly laterally.
 * The transverse processes are each pierced by the foramen transversarium, which, in the upper six vertebrae, gives passage to the vertebral artery and vein, as well as a plexus of sympathetic nerves. Each process consists of an anterior and a posterior part. These two parts are joined, outside the foramen, by a bar of bone that exhibits a deep sulcus on its upper surface for the passage of the corresponding spinal nerve.
 * The anterior portion is the homologue of the rib in the thoracic region, and is therefore named the costal process or costal element. It arises from the side of the body, is directed laterally in front of the foramen, and ends in a tubercle, the anterior tubercle.
 * The posterior part, the true transverse process, springs from the vertebral arch behind the foramen and is directed forward and laterally; it ends in a flattened vertical tubercle, the posterior tubercle.

The anterior tubercle of the sixth cervical vertebra is known as the carotid tubercle or Chassaignac tubercle (for Édouard Chassaignac). This separates the carotid artery from the vertebral artery and the carotid artery can be massaged against this tubercle to relieve the symptoms of supraventricular tachycardia. The carotid tubercle is also used as a landmark for anaesthesia of the brachial plexus and cervical plexus.

The cervical spinal nerves emerge from above the cervical vertebrae. For example, the cervical spinal nerve 3 (C3) passes above C3.

Atlas and axis
The atlas (C1) and axis (C2) are the two topmost vertebrae.

The atlas (C1) is the topmost vertebra, and along with the axis forms the joint connecting the skull and spine. It lacks a vertebral body, spinous process, and discs either superior or inferior to it. It is ring-like and consists of an anterior arch, posterior arch, and two lateral masses.

The axis (C2) forms the pivot on which the atlas rotates. The most distinctive characteristic of this bone is the strong odontoid process (dens) that rises perpendicularly from the upper surface of the body and articulates with C1. The body is deeper in front than behind, and prolonged downward anteriorly so as to overlap the upper and front part of the third vertebra.

Vertebra prominens
The vertebra prominens, or C7, has a distinctive long and prominent spinous process, which is palpable from the skin surface. Sometimes, the seventh cervical vertebra is associated with an abnormal extra rib, known as a cervical rib, which develops from the anterior root of the transverse process. These ribs are usually small, but may occasionally compress blood vessels (such as the subclavian artery or subclavian vein) or nerves in the brachial plexus, causing pain, numbness, tingling, and weakness in the upper limb, a condition known as thoracic outlet syndrome. Very rarely, this rib occurs in a pair.

The long spinous process of C7 is thick and nearly horizontal in direction. It is not bifurcated, and ends in a tubercle that the ligamentum nuchae attaches to. This process is not always the most prominent of the spinous processes, being found only about 70% of the time, C6 or T1 can sometimes be the most prominent.

The transverse processes are of considerable size; their posterior roots are large and prominent, while the anterior are small and faintly marked. The upper surface of each usually has a shallow sulcus for the eighth spinal nerve, and its extremity seldom presents more than a trace of bifurcation.

The transverse foramen may be as large as that in the other cervical vertebrae, but it is generally smaller on one or both sides; occasionally, it is double, and sometimes it is absent.

On the left side, it occasionally gives passage to the vertebral artery; more frequently, the vertebral vein traverses it on both sides, but the usual arrangement is for both artery and vein to pass in front of the transverse process, not through the foramen.

Function
The movement of nodding the head takes place predominantly through flexion and extension at the atlanto-occipital joint between the atlas and the occipital bone. However, the cervical spine is comparatively mobile, and some component of this movement is due to flexion and extension of the vertebral column itself. This movement between the atlas and occipital bone is often referred to as the "yes joint", owing to its nature of being able to move the head in an up-and-down fashion.

The movement of shaking or rotating the head left and right happens almost entirely at the joint between the atlas and the axis, the atlanto-axial joint. A small amount of rotation of the vertebral column itself contributes to the movement. This movement between the atlas and axis is often referred to as the "no joint", owing to its nature of being able to rotate the head in a side-to-side fashion.

Clinical significance
Cervical degenerative changes arise from conditions such as spondylosis, stenosis of intervertebral discs, and the formation of osteophytes. The changes are seen on radiographs, which are used in a grading system from 0–4 ranging from no changes (0) to early with minimal development of osteophytes (1) to mild with definite osteophytes (2) to moderate with additional disc space stenosis or narrowing (3) to the stage of many large osteophytes, severe narrowing of the disc space, and more severe vertebral end plate sclerosis (4).

Injuries to the cervical spine are common at the level of the second cervical vertebrae, but neurological injury is uncommon. C4 and C5 are the areas that see the highest amount of cervical spine trauma.

If it does occur, however, it may cause death or profound disability, including paralysis of the arms, legs, and diaphragm, which leads to respiratory failure.

Common patterns of injury include the odontoid fracture and the hangman's fracture, both of which are often treated with immobilization in a cervical collar or halo brace.

A common practice is to immobilize a patient's cervical spine to prevent further damage during transport to hospital. This practice has come under review recently as incidence rates of unstable spinal trauma can be as low as 2% in immobilized patients. In clearing the cervical spine, Canadian studies have developed the Canadian C-Spine Rule (CCR) for physicians to decide who should receive radiological imaging.

Landmarks
The vertebral column is often used as a marker of human anatomy. This includes:
 * At C1, base of the nose and the hard palate
 * At C2, the teeth of a closed mouth
 * At C3, the mandible and hyoid bone
 * At C4, the common carotid artery bifurcates.
 * From C4–5, the thyroid cartilage
 * From C6–7, the cricoid cartilage
 * At C6, the oesophagus becomes continuous with the laryngopharynx and also where the larynx becomes continuous with the trachea. It is also the level where the carotid pulse can be palpated against the transverse process of the C6 vertebrae.

title: Cervical vertebrae


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Talk:Martin Rees

Untitled
I asked him permission to put this image:

http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/IoA/staff/mjr/rees_bw.jpg —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 200.69.103.2 (talk • contribs) 08:05, 3 December 2004 (UTC)

 * That image is used all over the place, usually without attribution. One article on the BBC credits Cambridge University. There are maybe three or four commonly used portraits of him. I bet most of the websites using his picture never had permission, but we can't do that on Wikipedia. The book cover was the best I could find without needing permission. The alternative were some very poor shots from a 1995 debate that are on the NASA site.  J Rawle  (Talk) 10:08, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

Prof. Rees has given his permission for the current photo to be used, so I've tagged it as a promotional photo. It's much better than using a book cover!  J Rawle  (Talk) 16:01, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

PRS v FRS
What is the correct honour whilst Martin Rees is President of the Royal Scoiety? I believe it is P(resident)RS but saw this had been changed before and changed back Rogwan 15:02, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

I believe the argument hinges on whether PRS is recognised as a postnominal anywhere outside the RS. They use it on his bio page there ... but then they also use "Kt" for knight which is not formally correct. The article on previous president Lord Adrian still has "PRS" but I am certain they don't keep it after the end of their term. It is unusual to have postnominal letters for a specific office, particularly one that is only held for a few years. You could e-mail someone at the RS to ask.  J Rawle  (Talk) 16:27, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

"Presidents of some societies have special letters to signify their appointment. The President of the Royal Society has PRS after his name, for instance, but these letters are used only within the particular society." (Debrett's Correct Form under "Fellowship of Learned Societies") Proteus (Talk) 16:53, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

Title
Surely the title should be Martin, Lord Rees of Ludlow, not Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow? "Lord Rees of Ludlow" is his title according to, and Baron isn't used as a title in England. -- Robminchin 04:04, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

 * See Naming conventions (names and titles) - we put the Baron in because Lord could mean any one of a Marquess, an Earl, a Viscount or a Baron, or in many cases a courtesy title for their children. -- ALoan (Talk) 09:37, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

 * In English usage, Lord couldn't mean anything other than Baron in this context though (Duke, Marquess, Earl and Viscount all use the rank in their written title, see e.g. ), and Marquess, Earl, Viscount or Baron could all just as easily be courtesy titles (e.g. the Earl of Arundel, the eldest son of the Duke of Norfolk). To quote Burke's Peerage, "to refer in the third person to any baron in the peerage (2) of England, Great Britain, Ireland, Scotland or the United Kingdom as 'Baron Blank' rather than 'Lord Blank' is a solecism"  - but I suppose if Wikipedia has set a convention it should be followed, even if it's not good english. -- Robminchin 05:21, 5 August 2006 (UTC)

 * We're not referring to him as "Baron Rees of Ludlow", but as "Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow" which (apart from the use of his surname, which is a necessary convention to avoid confusion where titles and surnames are not the same) is legally what he is. Proteus (Talk) 10:36, 5 August 2006 (UTC)

I have a doubt with his knighthood, I pressume he is KBE. Why not using in the article? Pablo_Castellanos —Preceding undated comment was added at 23:25, 15 January 2009 (UTC).

Is he an atheist?

 * He describes himself as a "practising, but non-believing Christian" Interview with Rees, Guardian, 24 April 2003. That seems to imply that he doesn't believe in God. --143.52.5.181 11:32, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

He's neither a theist nor an atheist. He always seems to sidestep the God question. Agnostic Anglican would be an appropriate title. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 208.96.110.56 (talk) 01:57, 1 April 2009 (UTC)

 * Rees's position on religion may be noteworthy, as he says he has no religious beliefs, yet is a practising Anglican as he values the tradition. He goes into more detail in this debate (from 15:00). --Mattmm (talk) 20:08, 2 August 2010 (UTC)

 * It's good to point out that he likes to side-step the question. He doesn't consider it relevant nor does he consider blasting it (his Dawkins Comments) useful either.

 * Fair point - he is nominally Anglican, but practically sidesteps the question. But the links seem to explain that sufficiently. HalfdanRagnarsson (talk) 04:45, 25 March 2020 (UTC)

Personal life?
No mention of his personal life anywhere. Married? Kids? "Confirmed bachelor"? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.156.189.247 (talk) 23:39, 13 March 2008 (UTC)

He is married to Caroline Humphrey. Please add a link to her page. 160.39.55.29 (talk) 21:09, 6 November 2011 (UTC)

Also there is no mention to him being educated at Bedstone College, Bucknell, Shropshire. Which I know for a fact he did attend because I also went there and he has been back since. The article on Bedstone also gives reference to him attending. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.229.41.225 (talk) 12:33, 10 April 2009 (UTC)

Nationality
Shouldn't it be "is an British cosmologist" rather than "an English cosmologist" as English isn't a nationality? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 131.111.183.9 (talk) 14:19, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

 * “English” is more specific and refers to the English people and not the English language. — Richie 10:40, 25 March 2008 (UTC)

Rees writings.
In, "The Emergence of Complexity in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology: Proceedings of the Plenary Session of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences", 27-31 October 1992, Day Two 28 October 1992, "The Epoch of Galaxy Formation", Martin J. Rees, University of Cambridge, Page 223, with possible translation(s) into this English, reads:

"And gravitating objects have the peculiar property that when they *lose* energy they get *hotter* - as Professor Thirring has explained, their specific heat is *negative*. For instance, if the sun's radiative losses weren't compensated by nuclear fusion, it would contract and deflate, but would end up with a *hotter* centre than before: to establish a new and more compact equilibrium where pressure can ballance a (now *stronger*) gravitational force, the central temperature must *rise*."

Which I interpretively-correct to context, as far as I can, to this:

"And gravitating [sufficiently large gaseous active fusion] objects have the peculiar property that when they [radiatively] *lose* energy they get *hotter* - as Professor Thirring has explained, [their specific heat is *negative*]. For instance, if the sun's radiative losses weren't compensated by nuclear fusion, it would contract and deflate, but would end up with a *hotter* centre than before: to establish a new and more compact equilibrium where pressure can ballance [(sic)] a (now *stronger*) gravitational force, the central temperature must *rise*." LoneRubberDragon (talk) 20:22, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

What does, [their specific heat is *negative*] mean, that Rees writes, attempting to cite to Physicist Professor W. Thirring's works? Specific heat is the always-greater-than-0 measure of matter's thermal kinetic energy capacity. Perhaps it should read, [their specific heat is *declining*], for English, as the nucleons increase mass in a stellar fusion shell series, which seems a reasonable interpretation. Maybe I've interpreted this Rees paragraph wrong, in some other way I can't scan rightly.

I added [sufficiently large gaseous active fusion] to (objects), because it reduces the errors of the Martin J. Rees' writing, because after a star's death as a white dwarf, or neutron star, it cools off in time, and a "star without fusion" (a gas giant or brown dwarf) also cools off in time, and I am assuming that nucleon-fusion in the shells of aging stars, spending their fuel, inevitably leads to increasing temperatures, as Rees claims.LoneRubberDragon (talk) 06:41, 21 September 2008 (UTC)

Wiki:specific heat:in [Jg^(-1)K^(-1)]:for some elements in fusion-supernovae series and products, are:

Hydrogen 14.30

Helium 5.193

Neon 1.0301

Oxygen 0.918

Carbon (graphite) 0.710

Silicon 0.703

Iron 0.450

Uranium 0.116

LoneRubberDragon (talk) 20:22, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

Japan earthquake
everyone can predict an eminent earthquake that generates a tsunami in Japan that would damage the local economy, that does not make him predict the future. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 189.58.47.30 (talk) 16:57, 25 May 2011 (UTC)

Japan earthquake
everyone can predict an eminent earthquake that generates a tsunami in Japan that would damage the local economy, that does not make him predict the future. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Wildstarlights (talk • contribs) 16:59, 25 May 2011 (UTC)

Amendments on behalf of Martin Rees
I made a series of amendments to this page based on the instructions of Martin Rees, in my role as Web Editor at the Royal Society. Please leave a message on my talk page if any of the changes are contentious. Thanks Andeggs (talk) 09:47, 9 August 2011 (UTC)

 * I was curious so I checked these edits out. I'm sure the new material is of high quality, but it does appear to be the case that sourced statements were replaced in some cases with unsourced statements, which I'm now bringing to the attention of anyone who might be concerned and wishes to take a second look.  I've also dropped a note on Andeggs' talk page mentioning that I would leave this note.  — MaxEnt 11:29, 24 March 2014 (UTC)

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Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence
According to the article on Evidence of absence this maxim "belongs to" Martin Rees. That article says that when Carl Sagan used it he was citing Rees' maxim. True? Important? Ileanadu (talk) 21:14, 8 February 2018 (UTC)

Is he Labour?
I find it erroneous to call him a member of the Labour party. Yes, he supports Labour, but sits as a Crossbencher in the Lords - there is a fine line between "membership" and "party preference", and I have not heard of any source saying that he is a member of Labour. Someone needs to have a look at that - I'll just add a citation needed tag.183.83.137.243 (talk) 06:59, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Fixed. Rolf H Nelson (talk) 06:07, 20 February 2020 (UTC)

Coronavirus pandemic
I have heard in some Arabic media outlets that he predicted a "bioterror" or "bioerror" that would kill one million people in 2020 see.-- SharʿabSalam▼ (talk) 21:42, 12 April 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Martin Rees


text:
USS Lawrence (DD-8)

The third USS Lawrence (DD-8) was a Lawrence-class destroyer, which was a sub-class of Bainbridge-class destroyer, in the United States Navy. She was named for Captain James Lawrence.

Construction
Lawrence was laid down on 10 April 1899, by Fore River Ship & Engine Company, Weymouth, Massachusetts; launched on 7 November 1900; sponsored by Miss Ruth Lawrence, great niece of Captain Lawrence; and commissioned on 7 April 1903.

Pre-World War I
Assigned to the 2nd Torpedo Flotilla, Lawrence operated along the Atlantic coast, taking part in the fleet search problem off the New England coast during the summer of 1903. The torpedo boat departed Norfolk on 17 December, and sailed to Key West for winter exercises. On 31 December 1903 while at anchor at Key West she was fouled by the passing steamer SS Olivette, receiving minor hull damage.

During 1904, she performed Midshipmen cruises and acted as a torpedo practice ship. She continued exercises in the Caribbean and along the Atlantic coast until she decommissioned at Philadelphia on 14 November 1906.

Lawrence recommissioned on 23 July 1907 and resumed training operations out of Norfolk. Departing Hampton Roads on 2 December, she sailed with the torpedo flotilla for winter maneuvers in the Caribbean and off South America. She arrived at San Diego on 28 April 1908 and stood out San Francisco eight days later as the "Great White Fleet" steamed into San Francisco Bay. During the next four years, she operated in the Pacific with the 3rd Torpedo Flotilla patrolling the coast from Canada to Panama and engaged in exercises with the fleet. From 1 June 1912 – 23 April 1914, Lawrence was in commission in reserve.

Returned to full commission status, she departed San Francisco on 25 April to patrol the Mexican coast and protect American and foreign nationals during the Mexican revolution. Returning to Mare Island on 12 September, the destroyer was once again placed in reserve status.

World War I
After America's entry into World War I, Lawrence was placed in full commission on 13 June 1917 to join coastal defense units. Arriving Balboa, Panama, on 29 July, she guarded the ocean approaches to the Panama Canal Zone until on 30 May 1918, when she steamed toward Key West. Upon her arrival there she operated as coastal escort and patrol ship. After the Armistice, Lawrence steamed to Philadelphia, arriving there on 1 February 1919. She decommissioned on 20 June and was sold to Henry A. Hitner's Sons Company of Philadelphia on 3 January 1920.

Noteworthy commanding officers

 * Lieutenant Thomas C. Hart (9 December 1905 – 14 November 1906) (Later Admiral)
 * Lieutenant Alfred Graham Howe (1 June 1908 – 27 July 1909) (Later Rear Admiral)
 * Lieutenant Daniel E. Barbey (December 1917-7 July 1919) (Later Vice admiral)

title: USS Lawrence (DD-8)


text:
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Wikipedia:News sources/Internet/No specific region

Many organisations that claim not to be attached to a particular country or region are nevertheless influenced by their readers or writers coming predominantly from a particular country or region. A news site's position in this list does not indicate that it is less biased or more international but that it cannot be easily categorised. If you see a link here which you feel would be better placed somewhere else please move it there.

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Please consider adding links to news pages that do not already have many links on them. A good start would be the red links on News sources. This will help us to maintain NPOV in our news sources.


text:
Enol

In organic chemistry, alkenols (shortened to enols) are a type of reactive structure or intermediate in organic chemistry that is represented as an alkene (olefin) with a hydroxyl group attached to one end of the alkene double bond (C\dC\sOH). The terms enol and alkenol are portmanteaus deriving from "-ene"/"alkene" and the "-ol" suffix indicating the hydroxyl group of alcohols, dropping the terminal "-e" of the first term. Generation of enols often involves deprotonation at the α position to the carbonyl group—i.e., removal of the hydrogen atom there as a proton H+. When this proton is not returned at the end of the stepwise process, the result is an anion termed an enolate (see images at right). The enolate structures shown are schematic; a more modern representation considers the molecular orbitals that are formed and occupied by electrons in the enolate. Similarly, generation of the enol often is accompanied by "trapping" or masking of the hydroxy group as an ether, such as a silyl enol ether.

Keto–enol tautomerism refers to a chemical equilibrium between a "keto" form (a carbonyl, named for the common ketone case) and an enol. The interconversion of the two forms involves the transfer of an alpha hydrogen atom and the reorganisation of bonding electrons. The keto and enol forms are tautomers of each other.

Enolization
Organic esters, ketones, and aldehydes with an α-hydrogen (C\sH bond adjacent to the carbonyl group) often form enols. The reaction involves migration of a proton from carbon to oxygen:
 * RC(\dO)CR′R′′ <-> RC(O)\dCR′R′′

In the case of ketones, the conversion is called a keto-enol tautomerism, although this name is often more generally applied to all such tautomerizations. Usually the equilibrium constant is so small that the enol is undetectable spectroscopically.

In some compounds with two (or more) carbonyls, the enol form becomes dominant. The behavior of 2,4-pentanedione illustrates this effect:
 * AcacH.svg

Enols are derivatives of vinyl alcohol, with a C\dC\sOH connectivity. Deprotonation of organic carbonyls gives the enolate anion, which are a strong nucleophile. A classic example for favoring the keto form can be seen in the equilibrium between vinyl alcohol and acetaldehyde (K = [enol]/[keto] ≈ 3). In 1,3-diketones, such as acetylacetone (2,4-pentanedione), the enol form is favored.

The acid-catalyzed conversion of an enol to the keto form proceeds by proton transfer from O to carbon. The process does not occur intramolecularly, but requires participation of solvent or other mediators.

Stereochemistry of ketonization
If R1 and R2 (note equation at top of page) are different substituents, there is a new stereocenter formed at the alpha position when an enol converts to its keto form. Depending on the nature of the three R groups, the resulting products in this situation would be diastereomers or enantiomers.

Enediols
Enediols are alkenes with a hydroxyl group on each carbon of the C=C double bond. Normally such compounds are disfavored components in equilibria with acyloins. One special case is catechol, where the C=C subunit is part of an aromatic ring. In some other cases however, enediols are stabilized by flanking carbonyl groups. These stabilized enediols are called reductones. Such species are important in glycochemistry, e.g., the Lobry de Bruyn-van Ekenstein transformation.
 * Keto-Endiol-Tautomerie.svg isomers at left and right. Ex. is hydroxyacetone, shown at right.]]

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate is a key substrate in the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. In the Calvin cycle, the ribulose equilibrates with the enediol, which then binds carbon dioxide. The same enediol is also susceptible to attack by oxygen (O2) in the (undesirable) process called photorespiration.

Phenols
Phenols represent a kind of enol. For some phenols and related compounds, the keto tautomer plays an important role. Many of the reactions of resorcinol involve the keto tautomer, for example. Naphthalene-1,4-diol exists in observable equilibrium with the diketone tetrahydronaphthalene-1,4-dione.
 * Tetrahydronaphthalenedione.png

Biochemistry
Keto–enol tautomerism is important in several areas of biochemistry.

The high phosphate-transfer potential of phosphoenolpyruvate results from the fact that the phosphorylated compound is "trapped" in the less thermodynamically favorable enol form, whereas after dephosphorylation it can assume the keto form.

The enzyme enolase catalyzes the dehydration of 2-phosphoglyceric acid to the enol phosphate ester. Metabolism of PEP to pyruvic acid by pyruvate kinase (PK) generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via substrate-level phosphorylation.

Addition of electrophiles
The terminus of the double bond in enols is nucleophilic. Its reactions with electrophilic organic compounds is important in biochemistry as well as synthetic organic chemistry. In the former area, the fixation of carbon dioxide involves addition of CO2 to an enol.

Deprotonation: enolates
Deprotonation of enolizable ketones, aldehydes, and esters gives enolates. Enolates can be trapped by the addition of electrophiles at oxygen. Silylation gives silyl enol ether. Acylation gives esters such as vinyl acetate.

Stable enols
In general, enols are less stable than their keto equivalents because of the favorability of the C=O double bond over C=C double bond. However, enols can be stabilized kinetically or thermodynamically.

Some enols are sufficiently stabilized kinetically so that they can be characterized.

Delocalization can stabilize the enol tautomer. Thus, very stable enols are phenols. Another stabilizing factor in 1,3-dicarbonyls is intramolecular hydrogen bonding. Both of these factors influence the enol-dione equilibrium in acetylacetone.

title: Enol


text:
Talk:Randall Flagg

Images
I removed the comicbook image for the time being. Unfortunately, WP is clamping down on fair use images for featured articles. The first thing that will happen when we put it up for Featured status is that it will be considered 'decorative' and not adding anything to the article. There was a time when the article actually had quite a few illustrations, one of which was Flagg from the comics, and they were all removed.

As it is, I'm not even sure if the image of Walter will be permitted when the time comes even though that shows Flagg's second major persona. I won't stop anyone if they want to put it back, but an image of Flagg from the comic will be the first to go when it gets nominated again.--CyberGhostface (talk) 20:35, 5 March 2012 (UTC)

It's better to have no images than the klingon sorcerer who looks nothing like this description: "Later, he attributed Flagg to an image of a man walking the roads in cowboy boots, denim jeans, and a jacket, a notion which "came out of nowhere" when he was in college. Flagg's character and the nature of his evil have been the subject of considerable critical attention." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.195.240.130 (talk) 21:25, 21 September 2016 (UTC)
 * Well again the image of Flagg as a sorcerer is one of his major personas throughout the different books. He only has the denim outfit in a few of his appearances.--CyberGhostface (talk) 17:42, 19 June 2017 (UTC)

The Crimson King
Just wanted to let you all know that this article is looking great. I was hoping that whoever was working on this article could they do the same for the article on The Crimson King, Flagg's associate and master. The article is in a state of severe underdevelopment and needs to be expanded upon significantly.--Paleface Jack (talk) 17:30, 14 August 2017 (UTC)
 * I will try looking at it if I get some time but I don't think there's as much real-world information (I.e. King discussing his conception, general critical analysis) about the CK as there is for Flagg.--CyberGhostface (talk) 18:06, 14 August 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Randall Flagg


text:
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 * .com.td (commercial companies including financial institutions, industrial, etc)
 * .org.td (non-governmental organizations, nonprofit organizations, associations)
 * .nat.td (public enterprises, national institutes, national offices, national agencies)
 * .tourism.td (companies operating in the field of tourism, museums, national parks)
 * .info.td (entities providing information and related content, such as the press, non-fiction television and radio)
 * .net.td (telecommunications operators and networks)
 * .sante.td (health establishments, such as hospitals, dispensaries, etc.)
 * .edu.td (educational institutions)
 * .agri.td (structure of the Ministry of Agriculture, research establishment)
 * .ordr.td (professional orders)

title: .td


text: User talk:68.254.180.220

title: User talk:68.254.180.220


text:
.tg

.tg is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Togo. Although there are no restrictions on who can register domains in this TLD, it is not often used outside Togo.

, no online registration and domain maintenance features were available on the registry site, although a basic web-based whois capability is provided.

title: .tg


text:
Marcantonio Raimondi

Marcantonio Raimondi, often called simply Marcantonio (c. 1470/82 – c. 1534), was an Italian engraver, known for being the first important printmaker whose body of work consists largely of prints copying paintings. He is therefore a key figure in the rise of the reproductive print. He also systematized a technique of engraving that became dominant in Italy and elsewhere. His collaboration with Raphael greatly helped his career, and he continued to exploit Raphael's works after the painter's death in 1520, playing a large part in spreading High Renaissance styles across Europe. Much of the biographical information we have comes from his life, the only one of a printmaker, in Vasari's Lives of the Artists.

He is attributed with around 300 engravings. After years of great success, his career ran into trouble in the mid-1520s; he was imprisoned for a time in Rome over his role in the series of erotic prints I Modi, and then, according to Vasari, lost all his money in the Sack of Rome in 1527, after which none of his work can be securely dated.

Early years
Marcantonio's date of birth is unknown, but was by 1482 at the latest. He was possibly born in Argine, near Bologna, Italy, where he is assumed to have grown up. He trained in the workshop of the leading goldsmith and painter in Bologna, Francesco Francia. Vasari claimed that Marcantonio quickly demonstrated more aptitude than Francia, and started designing and producing fashionable waist-buckles (among other items) in niello (engraved metal which is filled in with alloy in a contrasting colour). This is doubted, however, by Arthur Mayger Hind, who sees no evidence of a background in niello technique in his early engravings.

No paintings produced by Marcantonio are known or documented, although some drawings survive. His first dated engraving, Pyramus and Thisbe, comes from 1505, although a number of undated works come from the years before this. From 1505–11, Marcantonio engraved about 80 pieces, with a wide variety of subject matter, from pagan mythology, to religious scenes. His early works use his own compositions, combining elements from Francia and other North Italian artists, and like all Italian printmakers in these years he was strongly affected by the enormously accomplished prints of Dürer, which were widely distributed in Italy. Like other printmakers such as Giulio Campagnola, he borrowed elements of Dürer's landscapes in a cut and paste fashion, and also borrowed from his technique. Dürer was in Bologna in 1506, as was Michelangelo, and he may have met one or both of them.

Reproductions
About this time he began to make copies of Dürer's woodcut series, the Life of the Virgin. This was extremely common practice, although normally engravers copied other expensive engravings rather than the cheaper woodcuts. However Dürer's woodcuts had raised the standard of the medium considerably, and since Marcantonio continued to copy a large number of both Dürer's engravings and woodcuts, he must have found it profitable.

His early copies included Dürer's famous AD monogram, and Dürer made a complaint to the Venetian Government, which won him some legal protection for his monogram, but not his compositions, in Venetian territory - an important case in the slowly evolving history of intellectual property law.

Marcantonio appears to have spent some of the last half of the decade in Venice, but no dates are known.

Rome

Around 1510, Marcantonio travelled to Rome and entered the circle of artists surrounding Raphael. This influence began showing up in engravings titled The Climbers (in which he reproduced part of Michelangelo's Soldiers surprised bathing, also called Battle of Cascina). After a reproduction of a work by Raphael, entitled Lucretia, Raphael trained and assisted Marcantonio personally.

Another famous engraving, the Judgement of Paris, dated 1515 or 1516, after Raphael, became the composition source for Édouard Manet when he painted The Luncheon on the Grass.

The two started a successful printing establishment under a colorgrinder, Il Baveria, that quickly expanded into an engraving school with Marcantonio at the head. Among his most distinguished pupils were Marco Dente (Marco da Ravenna), Giovanni Jacopo Caraglio and Agostino de Musi (Agostino Veneziano).

Later years
Marcantonio and his pupils continued to make engravings based upon Raphael's work, even after Raphael's death in 1520. In many instances, Marcantonio would not copy the finished painting, but instead worked from early sketches and drafts. This method produced variations on a theme and were moderately successful.

Around 1524, Marcantonio was briefly imprisoned by Pope Clement VII for making the I modi set of erotic engravings, from the designs of Giulio Romano, which were later accompanied by sonnets written by Pietro Aretino. At the intercession of the Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici, Baccio Bandinelli and Pietro Aretino, he was released, and set to work on his plate of the Martyrdom of St. Lawrence after Bandinelli.

During the Sack of Rome, in 1527, he was forced to pay a heavy ransom by the Spaniards and fled in poverty. It is unclear where he stayed after his departure from Rome until his death in 1534.

Biographical information

 * Artcyclopedia: Marcantonio Raimondi (1480 - 1527)
 * Catholic Encyclopedia: Marcantonio Raimondi
 * Marcantonio Raimondi (Getty Museum)

Reproductions of his works

 * Works at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
 * Cybermuse
 * Childs Gallery
 * Marcantonio Raimondi engravings from De Verda collection
 * Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Marcantonio Raimondi (see index)

title: Marcantonio Raimondi


text:
WeMade Entertainment

Wemade Co., Ltd (formerly Wemade Entertainment Co., Ltd ) is a South Korean video game developer, based in Seongnam. They are the creators of the Legend of Mir series of MMORPGs, the two most successful being The Legend of Mir 2, and its sequel The Legend of Mir 3. Legend of Mir has attracted over 120 million users in Asia, and generated over $65 million a month in revenue during its height. Even today, in its ninth year of operation, Legend of Mir 2 still generates well over $20 million a month in China alone.

According to Forbes, Wemade's founder, Kwan Ho Park, has a net worth of $1.2 billion, as of October 19.

History
Wemade was founded on February 10, 2000, by the original Legend of Mir developers. They chose the name WeMade Entertainment to acknowledge a copyright infringement lawsuit filed by their South Korean publishing partner Actoz against the Chinese game operator Shanda. Shanda had copied Legend of Mir under the name The World of Legend, prompting the lawsuit. In choosing their company name, the developers were making the point that “We made Legend of Mir”. Shanda settled the lawsuit by acquiring Actoz and operating it as Shanda Korea.

In 2007, WeMade Entertainment's CEO and founder Kwan-Ho Park hired Kevin “Sookiel” Seo as co-CEO to turn the development company into a publisher and operator of online games in South Korea. Mr. Seo was formerly the CEO of Actoz/Shanda Korea. The company grew from 300 to close to 600 employees as it expanded to provide full hosting services in South Korea.

Today, WeMade Entertainment Co. Ltd. hosts and operates several games in South Korea. This includes games developed by Wemade such as Legend of Mir 2, Legend of Mir 3, Master of Fantasy and Chang Chun (aka Three Kingdom Chronicles). In addition, Wemade also hosts games from other developers including Chaps Online, Tartaros and Avalon. Wemade continues to license these games to other operators in other global territories. Shanda operates Legend of Mir 2 and Chang Chun in Greater China, while Softworld operates Mir 2 in Taiwan. GameFactory operates Rumble Fighter in the US and Europe.

In the summer of 2008, Wemade established its U.S. headquarters in the Seattle, Washington area. WeMade Entertainment USA, Inc. is a wholly owned subsidiary of the South Korean entity. Headed up by CEO Kisung Kim, the US company is responsible for the Western Games market including Europe and the Americas.

WeMade Entertainment USA, Inc. is currently hosting the North American servers of Lost Saga, a game developed by I.O. Entertainment. It initially planned to transfer accounts from OGPlanet Lost Saga to the new servers (although the accounts were never made available to them to do so) and the game was fully released on May 2, 2013.

On November 20, 2013, WeMade Entertainment USA announced from the North America Lost Saga homepage, that they will be ending Lost Saga's service in North America on December 8, 2013. No answer or reason was given as to why WeMade USA is ending its service of Lost Saga, though there have been rumors. Currently, the company Z8Games will be resuming Lost Saga's services in the North America region on December 18, 2013. With the change of services, all the content obtained while under WeMade USA's service will transfer over when Z8Games resumes when the Lost Saga servers come online, with the transfer period being from December 9 through December 17, 2013. Further information regarding how the transfer will work is currently unknown.

In November 2020, Wemade released Mir 4 in South Korea. The game was made available globally, across 170 countries in 12 languages, on August 26.

In May 2022, Wemade made a strategic investment in Froyo Games - a Singapore-based GameFi platform that is co-developing play-to-earn titles with iCandy Interactive.

In November 2022, Wemade has announced that its investment round raised $46 million from a number of companies, including Microsoft. Microsoft has invested $14.8 million in Wemade by purchasing convertible bonds.

In January 2023, Wemade launched its MMORPG MIR M: Vanguard & Vagabond (MIR M) in more than 170 countries.

'Night Crows', an MMORPG developed by Madngine and published by Wemade, began servicing in South Korea in April 2023. An immediate hit, it topped the sales charts both in Apple App Store and Google Play. The international version will follow in the same year, the company official said.

WeMade FOX
From 2007 to 2011, WeMade Entertainment operated a professional gaming team called WeMade FOX that maintained high-ranking Counter-Strike, StarCraft: Brood War and Warcraft III players. Sponsored by Pepsi, Skechers, GomTV and Mizuno, WeMade FOX possessed several high-earning players including NaDa and Jang Jae "Moon" Ho. On August 31, 2011, the team was officially shut down, with the former players placed in the care of KeSPA, until new sponsors were to be found.

title: WeMade Entertainment


text:
.tj

.tj is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Tajikistan. Registrations are processed via accredited registrars.

Second-level domains
The following second-level domains are available for third-level domain name registration:

 * biz.tj, intended for commercial entities
 * co.tj, intended for commercial entities
 * com.tj, intended for commercial entities

 * edu.tj, reserved for educational institutions
 * go.tj, reserved for websites of the Government of Tajikistan and government departments/institutions
 * gov.tj, reserved for websites of the Government of Tajikistan and government departments/institutions
 * info.tj, intended for informational websites

 * mil.tj, reserved for the Armed Forces of the Republic of Tajikistan

 * name.tj, intended for individuals and Tajik nationals
 * net.tj, intended for network providers/operators and organizations implementing projects related to the development of the Internet
 * nic.tj, reserved for the Network Information Center and support for the ccTLD
 * org.tj, intended for nonprofit organizations

 * web.tj, general public domain

title: .tj


text:
Roberto Bettega

Roberto Bettega (born 27 December 1950) is an Italian former footballer who played as a forward.

A prolific and athletic player, Bettega is mostly remembered for his successful time at his hometown club Juventus, where he won several titles and established himself as one of Italy's greatest ever players due to his strength, skill, goalscoring ability, and creativity. He was nicknamed La penna bianca ("White Feather") due to his appearance, and Bobby Gol! due to his eye for goal.

At international level, he represented Italy at the 1978 FIFA World Cup, and at the 1980 European Championships, helping his team to fourth-place finishes on both occasions; he was unable to take part at the 1982 World Cup, which Italy won, due to injury.

In December 2009, Bettega was officially appointed deputy director-general of Juventus. His role was to act as an intermediary between the players and coaching staff and the upper echelons of the club, as well as taking an active involvement in all of the Old Lady's transfer dealings. Bettega left the role a short time later in 2010 after the appointment of Luigi Del Neri as manager.

Early career

Born in Turin, Bettega joined the Juventus Primavera squad in 1961 as a midfielder. Bettega spent the 1968–69 campaign on the bench. At the age of 19 Bettega was loaned to the Varese F.C. in Serie B. Under Nils Liedholm, the coach of Varese, Bettega hit 13 goals to help the side finish top and gain promotion to Serie A.

Nils Liedholm said of Bettega, "He allies tremendous athletic strength with impressive technical skills. He is particularly strong in the air, and can kick the ball with either foot. All he needs is to build up experience, and then he will certainly be a force to be reckoned with."

Professional career
Back at Juventus, Bettega made his Serie A debut away to Catania on 27 September 1970. He scored the winning goal. Bettega ended the season with 13 goals in 28 matches. The following season, he scored ten goals in only 14 matches.

He scored a goal against Fiorentina on 16 January 1972, but this was to be his last for a while because he was forced out of the game with a lung infection and the initial stages of tuberculosis, although he was still able to contribute to Juventus's Serie A title victory that season. He was not out for long, and returned on 24 September of the same year, leading the team to their second successive league title that season.

With the arrival of Giovanni Trapattoni in 1976 as coach, Bettega found himself becoming the main frontman of the bianconeri in the late 70s; the former player to take this position, Pietro Anastasi, moved to Internazionale in the summer of that year, and Bettega partnered with his replacement, Roberto Boninsegna, leading the team to notable domestic and European success during this period, including back to back Serie A titles, a Coppa Italia, and an UEFA Cup triumph; Juventus also reached the European Cup final during the 1972–73 season, as well as the Intercontinental Cup final, and managed a semi-final finish in the 1979–80 European Cup Winners' Cup.

Bettega won the Serie A title with Juventus yet again during the 1980–81 season, but did not feature extensively in Juventus's victorious defense of their Serie A campaign during the 1981–82 season, as he suffered knee ligament damage in a collision with an opposing goalkeeper during a 1981 European Cup match against Anderlecht. After finally regaining full fitness, he took to the pitch for the 1982–83 season, which would be his final season with the club. He retired from playing in Europe after Juventus lost the 1983 European Cup Final against Hamburg in Athens.

In total, Bettega made 326 league appearances for Juventus, scoring 129 league goals and enjoyed a highly successful career, winning seven league titles between 1972 and 1982, the 1977 UEFA Cup (in which he scored in the final) and the 1978-79 Coppa Italia titles. He also won the Capocannoniere (Serie A top scorer) in the 1979–80 season. Regarded as one of Juventus's best ever players, Bettega scored 179 goals for Juventus in all competitions, in 490 matches, including 22 goals in 74 Coppa Italia matches, and 27 goals in 81 European matches.

After retiring from European football, Bettega played two summers in the NASL with the Toronto Blizzard, helping the team to two second-place finishes during his two seasons with the club.

International career
Bettega played 42 times for Italy national team, scoring 19 goals between 1975 and 1983. In 1975, Bettega got his first call-up for a match against Finland. He went on to play in the 1978 FIFA World Cup where he scored two goals to help Italy reach the second round, where they were defeated by the Netherlands, which denied them a spot in the final. Italy finished fourth after losing the third place play-off to Brazil at Estadio Monumental Antonio Vespuci, Buenos Aires. Bettega was named in the Team of the Tournament for his performances. Bettega also helped Italy to a fourth-place finish at the 1980 European Championship, a tournament played on home soil.

He was set to represent Italy at the 1982 FIFA World Cup, but suffered a knee ligament injury in a collision with an opposing goalkeeper during a 1981 European Cup match against Anderlecht, missing out on the '82 tournament, in which Italy were victorious.

Style of play
Bettega was regarded as a player of noteworthy tactical intelligence, and in his prime, he was one of the most feared Italian strikers, due to his physical strength and prolific goalscoring ability. A tall, quick, agile, and athletic player, Bettega excelled in the air, and was known for  scoring acrobatic goals, due to his elevation, coordination, opportunism, and timing, as well as his ability to make attacking runs to get on the end of crosses, and was an accurate and a clinical finisher with either foot. His elegance, aerial strength, and prematurely greying hair earned him the nickname Cabeza Blanca ("white head," in Spanish).

Considered one of the greatest Italian footballers of all-time, Bettega was also regarded as a complete and modern team player, as he was capable of playing both as a midfielder and as a forward, courtesy of his stamina, vision, passing ability, and outstanding technical skills, which led him to be compared to former Juventus legend John Charles. He was usually used as a centre-forward earlier on in his career, but was also able to play in several other attacking roles, including as a left winger, and was even deployed in a more creative role, as a supporting striker, or as an attacking midfielder, during his later career, in particular after losing some of his natural pace, agility, and mobility. In addition to his ability as a footballer, Bettega also stood out for his personality, determination, and leadership throughout his career. Despite his playing ability, his career is thought to have been affected by his injuries, in particular during the later part of his career.

After retirement
Bettega later returned to Juventus at the request of the club's chairman at the time, Umberto Agnelli, who asked him to be vice-chairman of the board of directors. He served the position from 1994 to 2006. He returned to Juventus again in 2009 as vice general manager. However, his return was short lived, after Andrea Agnelli became chairman and Giuseppe Marotta became CEO and general manager of the club in 2010.

Personal life
Bettega has a son named Alessandro who also started his career in the Juventus system and was the captain of the Primavera team.

Honours

Juventus
 * Serie A: 1971–72, 1972–73, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81, 1981–82
 * Coppa Italia: 1978–79
 * UEFA Cup: 1976–77
 * Intercontinental Cup: Runner-up: 1973
 * European Cup: Runner-up: 1972–73, 1982–83
 * Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Runner-up: 1970-71

Varese
 * Serie B: 1969–70

Italy
 * FIFA World Cup: Semi-finals: 1978
 * UEFA European Football Championship: Semi-finals: 1980

Individual
 * Serie A top scorer: 1979–80
 * Serie B top scorer: 1969–70
 * FIFA World Cup All-star Team: 1978

title: Roberto Bettega


text:
.tn

.tn is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Tunisia.

Second-level domains
Registrations can be made directly at the second level, or at the third level beneath these names (some of which are restricted):
 * .com.tn
 * .ens.tn
 * .fin.tn
 * .gov.tn
 * .ind.tn
 * .intl.tn
 * .nat.tn
 * .net.tn
 * .org.tn
 * .info.tn
 * .perso.tn
 * .tourism.tn
 * .mincom.tn

title: .tn


text: User talk:69.193.157.197

title: User talk:69.193.157.197


text:
.tt

.tt is the internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) in the Domain Name System of the Internet for Trinidad and Tobago.

The Trinidad and Tobago Network Information Centre (TTNIC) allows registrations under tt for second-level domains, and for third-level domains under the following domains: co.tt, com.tt, org.tt, net.tt, biz.tt, info.tt, pro.tt, int.tt, coop.tt, jobs.tt, mobi.tt, travel.tt, museum.tt, aero.tt, tel.tt and name.tt. Registration under the above domains is unrestricted and the registry does not require applicants to have a physical presence in Trinidad and Tobago. However, registrants with a foreign address are charged double.

In addition, there is mil.tt, restricted to entities in the Military of Trinidad and Tobago, edu.tt is a registry for educational institutions in Trinidad and Tobago, and gov.tt reserved for agencies of the government.

Domain hacks using .tt include db.tt, ift.tt and mi.tt, URL shorteners used for Dropbox, IFTTT and the 2012 U.S. presidential campaign of Mitt Romney, respectively.

title: .tt


text:
.tz

.tz is the Internet country code top-level domain for Tanzania. Through a consultative process, Tanzania Network information Centre (tzNIC), a not-for-profit company was established and registered (in 2006) to administer and manage the operations of the Tanzania country code top-level domain. tzNIC is a limited company (by guarantee) with two founding members – the Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority (the regulator) and the Tanzania Internet Service Provider Association.

On 29 April 2010, the .tz top-level domain was transferred to tzNIC. On 18 October 2018, the members of tzNIC passed a resolution to liquidate itself and agreed to “execute the process of transferring the tzNIC functions to TCRA”. The decision was made after they confirmed that tzNIC had not fulfilled its financial sustainability goal and that the TCRA could no longer financially support it. The resolution recognized that the “only way forward in compliance with the law was for tzNIC’s functions to be absorbed within TCRA in such a way that same present tzNIC staff would continue managing and administering the same .tz registry infrastructure within TCRA”.

From July 1995 until March 2022, registrations were permitted only at the third level beneath the following second-level names:

 * .co.tz – commercial
 * .ac.tz – schools granting baccalaureate degrees
 * .go.tz – governmental entities
 * .or.tz – not-for-profit organizations
 * .mil.tz – exclusively for Tanzania Military entities recognized by the Ministry responsible for Defence
 * .sc.tz – schools that are elementary, primary and secondary level institutions
 * .ne.tz – network infrastructure

On 1 March 2022 and effective on 1 July of that year, Tanzania's Ministry of Information, Communication, and Information Technology began to allow registrations at the top-level domain .tz without the use of a second-level domain such as .co.tz. The ministry also removed the requirement for registrants to have a local presence in Tanzania.

Additional second-level names were added on Tuesday, 14 February 2012:
 * .hotel.tz – hotel operators
 * .mobi.tz – mobile phone operators
 * .tv.tz – television operators and stations
 * .info.tz – informational sites such as museums
 * .me.tz – individuals

On 1 March 2022 the Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority opened .tz second-level domain registration in parallel with other third-level domains such as .co.tz, .or.tz etc. At that time, registration was allowed only to priority groups, until 1 July 2022 when .tz second domain registration was opened to the general public. Priority groups were existing third-level .tz domain owners (those registered before 1 March 2022) and trademark owners. Unlike third-level domains, the second-level domain is a premium .tz domain, elegant, easy to remember and sounds more professional than other third-level domains. Registration of .tz follows similar processes as other .tz domains, and can be done via any TCRA accredited registrars. For the second-level domain, there is reserved list, and TCRA have blocked registration for some common or popular names in order to prevent conflicts.

title: .tz