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Roman siege engines

Roman siege engines were, for the most part, adapted from Hellenistic siege technology. Relatively small efforts were made to develop the technology; however, the Romans brought an unrelentingly aggressive style to siege warfare that brought them repeated success. Up to the first century BC, the Romans utilized siege weapons only as required and relied for the most part on ladders, towers and rams to assault a fortified town. Ballistae were also employed, but held no permanent place within a legion's roster, until later in the republic, and were used sparingly. Julius Caesar took great interest in the integration of advanced siege engines, organizing their use for optimal battlefield efficiency.

Army engineering corps

To facilitate this organization and the army's self-sufficiency, an engineering corps was developed. An officer of engineers, or praefectus fabrum, is referenced in armies of the late Republic, but this post is not verifiable in all accounts and may have simply been a military advisor on the personal staff of a commanding officer. There were legion architects (whose rank is yet unknown) who were responsible for the construction of war machines who would also assure that all artillery constructions in the field were level. Ensuring that constructions were level was the job of the libratores, who would also launch missiles and other projectiles (on occasion) during battle (Le Bohec 1994: 52). The engineering corps was in charge of massive production, frequently prefabricating artillery and siege equipment to facilitate its transportation.

Artillery

Roman artillery was very efficient at that time, and during a siege the Romans would attack the weakest area of their enemy's defenses and attempt to breach the walls at that point. To support this effort, artillery attacks commence, with three main objectives: to cause damage to defenses, casualties among the opposing army, and loss of enemy morale. It would also provide cover fire for troops building siege ramps or those in siege towers. There were machines called  tormenta , which would launch (sometimes incendiary) projectiles such as javelins, arrows, rocks, or beams. These devices were on wheeled platforms to follow the line's advance. All were "predicated on a principle of physics: a lever was inserted into a skein of twisted horsehair to increase torsion, and when the arm was released, a considerable amount of energy was thus freed". It was later stated that sinew, instead of twisted hair, provided a better “spring.” These weapons were high-maintenance devices and vulnerable to having their leather, sinew, or hemp skeins affected by wet or even damp, which would cause them to slacken and lose tension, rendering the engine useless.

It is somewhat difficult to clearly define and describe Roman artillery, as names are easily confused and historians still do not agree on all definitions. Perhaps best known are the ballista, the onager, and the scorpio.

Ballista

After the absorption of the ancient Greek city states into the Roman Republic in 146 BC, some advanced Greek technologies began to spread across many areas of Roman influence. This included the hugely advantageous military advances the Greeks had made (most notably by Dionysus of Syracuse), as well as all the scientific, mathematical, political and artistic developments.

The Romans 'inherited' the torsion powered ballistae which had by now spread to several cities around the Mediterranean, all of which became Roman spoils of war in time, including one from Pergamum, which was depicted among a pile of 'trophy' weapons in relief on a balustrade.

The torsion ballista, developed by Alexander, was a far more complicated weapon than its predecessor, and the Romans developed it even further.

Vitruvius, in his De Architectura book X, describes the construction and tuning of ballistae.

Every century (group of 60-100 men) in the Roman army had a ballista by the 1st century AD. It was the command of the chief of the ballistae, under whom were the artillery experts, or doctores ballistarum and finally, the artillerymen, or ballistarii. Ballistae were heavy missile weapons, hurling large rocks great distances to damage rampart walls. They resembled large crossbows, rather than catapults. They were powered by two horizontal like arms, which were inserted into two vertical and tightly wound "skein" springs contained in a rectangular frame structure making up the head or principal part of the weapon. The arms were drawn rearward with a winch lever to further twist the skeins and thus gain the torsion power to cast a projectile. It has been said that the whirring sound of a ballista projected stone struck fear and dread into the hearts of those inside the walls of besieged cities. The stones chosen to be used in the ballista had to be a particular sort. According to Vegetius, river stones were best, since they are round, smooth, and dense. Ballista stones found at the site of Masada were chiseled to make them as round as possible.

Early Roman ballistae

The early Roman ballistae were made of wood, and held together with iron plates around the frames and iron nails in the stand. The main stand had a slider on the top, into which were loaded the bolts or stone 'shot'. Attached to this, at the back, was a pair of winches and a claw, used to ratchet the bowstring back to the armed firing position. A slider passed through the field frames of the weapon, in which were located the torsion springs (rope made of animal sinew), which were twisted around the bow arms, which in turn were attached to the bowstring.

Drawing the bowstring back with the winches twisted the already taut springs, storing the energy to fire the projectiles.

The ballista was a highly accurate weapon (there are many accounts right from its early history of single soldiers being picked off by the operators), but some design aspects meant it could compromise its accuracy for range. The lightweight bolts could not gain the high momentum of the stones over the same distance as those thrown by the later onagers, trebuchets, or mangonels; these could be as heavy as 90–135 kg.

The Romans continued the development of the ballista, and it became a highly prized and valued weapon in the army of the Roman Empire.

It was used, just before the start of the empire, by Julius Caesar during his conquest of Gaul and on both of his expeditions to Britain. Both attempted invasions of Britain and the siege of Alesia are recorded in his own commentarii (journal), The Gallic Wars (De Bello Gallico).

First invasion of Britain
The first invasion of Britain took place in 55 BC, after a rapid and successful initial conquest of Gaul, in part as an exploratory expedition, and more practically to try to put an end to the re-enforcements sent by the native Britons to fight the Romans in Gaul.

A total of eighty transports, carrying two legions, attempted to land on the British shore, only to be driven back by the many British warriors assembled along the shoreline. The ships had to unload their troops on the beach, as it was the only one suitable for many kilometers, yet the massed ranks of British charioteers and javeliners were making it impossible.

"Seeing this, Caesar ordered the warships – which were swifter and easier to handle than the transports, and likely to impress the natives more by their unfamiliar appearance – to be removed a short distance from the others, and then be rowed hard and run ashore on the enemy’s right flank, from which position the slings, bows and artillery could be used by men on deck to drive them back. This manoeuvre was highly successful. Scared by the strange shape of the warships, the motion of the oars, and the unfamiliar machines, the natives halted and then retreated a little. (Caesar, The Conquest of Gaul, p. 99)"

Siege of Alesia
In Gaul, the stronghold of Alesia was under a Roman siege in 52 BC, and surrounded by Roman fortifications. As was standard siege technique at the time, ballistae were placed up in the towers with other soldiers armed with either bows or slings.

Onager

The onager was a post-classical Roman siege engine, which derived its name from the kicking action of the machine, similar to that of an onager (wild ass). It is a type of catapult that uses torsional pressure, generally from twisted rope, to store energy for the shot.

The onager consisted of a frame placed on the ground to whose front end a vertical frame of solid timber was rigidly fixed; through the vertical frame ran an axle, which had a single stout spoke. On the extremity of the spoke was a sling used to launch a projectile.

In action the spoke was forced down, against the tension of twisted ropes or other springs, by a windlass, and then suddenly released. The spoke thus kicked the crosspiece of the vertical frame, and the projectile at its extreme end was shot forward.

The onagers of the Roman Empire were mainly used for besieging forts or settlements. They would often be loaded with large stones or rocks that could be covered with a flammable substance and set alight.

In the Middle Ages (recorded from around 1200 A.D.) a less powerful version of the onager was used that employed a fixed bowl rather than a sling, so that many small projectiles could be thrown, as opposed to a single large one. This engine was sometimes called the mangonel, although the same name may have been used for a variety of siege engines.

Scorpio

The scorpio was a crossbow-like device that shot smaller arrows with deadly accuracy used both in the field and in sieges. They were so-named for their deadly, armor-piercing sting and could be operated by just one or two men. Scorpios were meant to kill and injure enemy troops, rather than break down enemy fortifications. Thanks to their smaller size, they could be mounted on or in siege towers. During the Siege of Amida, a scorpio arrow killed the son of Grumbates, king of the Chionitae, when he was approaching the city to surrender.

There has been some research done into the existence of the self-loading, serial repeating scorpio or polybolos. Legionaries on either side would continuously keep turning cranks which turned a chain, which operated the various mechanisms to load and shoot the catapult. All that was needed was for another soldier to keep feeding in more arrows.

Battering ram

Roman battering rams, or aries, were an effective weapon for breaking down an enemy's walls, as well as their morale. Under Roman law, any defenders who failed to surrender before the first ram touched their wall were denied any rights. The moment they heard the ram hit the wall, those inside the city knew that the siege proper had begun and there was no turning back.

Josephus describes the battering ram used at Jotapata thus:

"It is an immense beam, similar to a ship’s mast, with one end covered with iron shaped into a ram’s head; hence its name. It is suspended from another beam like a balance arm by cables around its middle, and this in turn is supported at both ends by posts fixed in the ground. It is drawn back by a huge number of men who then push it forward in unison with all their might so that it hits the wall with its iron head.  There is no tower strong enough nor any wall thick enough to withstand repeated blows of this kind, and many cannot resist the first shock."

Vitruvius in De Architectura Book X describes the construction and use of battering rams.

For protection, a battering ram was suspended in a mobile shelter called a tortoise, or testudo. According to Vegetius, it was given this name because the ram would swing out of the shelter much like a tortoise's head comes out of its shell. Such shelters would provide the men within protection against missiles and incendiary devices. They were constructed from a framework of strong timbers with planks and wicker hurdles on the sides. The entire shelter would then be covered with a fireproof material such as uncured hides. According to Apollodorus of Damascus, the shelter should be fixed to the ground while the ram was being used to both prevent skidding and strain on the axles from the weight of the moving apparatus. This would also increase the strength of the impact on the walls.

Siege tower

According to Josephus, the Roman siege towers at Jotapata were 50 ft high and iron-plated to protect them from fire; those at Masada were reported to be 75 ft high. It was possible to have many different devices on siege towers, such as artillery, draw bridges and rams. Those at the top of the tower were to keep defenders off the walls while those below them attempted to breach the wall using ramps. In the battle of Jerusalem in 70 AD the Romans began assault on the third defensive wall within Jerusalem, the tower stood 75 ft tall and was compromised when the Jewish resistance tunneled underneath the tower leading it to collapse. Following a basic design, details of tower construction varied from siege to siege and there is no known treatise which specifies at which level siege equipment should be placed. Vegetius noted that, “besiegers sometimes built a tower with another turret inside it that could suddenly be raised by ropes and pulleys to over-top the wall”.

Mine
Mines could be dug under city walls as a means of entering a city secretly and capturing it but were more frequently constructed to weaken city walls. Once dug, sappers would underpin the walls with wood and cause the walls to collapse by firing the supports with resin, sulfur and other incendiary materials.

Corvus
In chapter 1.22 "The Victory of Mylae" of his History, Polybius writes:"Now their ships were badly fitted out and not easy to manage, and so some one suggested to them as likely to serve their turn in a fight the construction of what were afterwards called 'crows'."Corvus means "crow" or "raven" in Latin and was the name given to a Roman boarding device first documented during the First Punic War against Carthage. Polybius goes on to describe this siege engine as a bridge used to span the distance between two ships in battle. The device was a plank, 4 ft wide and 36 ft long, affixed to the Roman vessel around a pole. This construction allowed the bridge to be swung port to starboard and therefore used on either side of the ship. A pulley at the top of the pole allowed the planks to be raised and lowered on command. At the end of the bridge there was a heavy metal spike that when dropped on the deck of an enemy ship would, with the aid of gravity, become imbedded in the deck. By connecting the two ships in such a way, Roman soldiers could gain access to the deck of the enemy ship and engage in hand-to-hand combat instead of depending on ship-to-ship combat. Polybius also includes an insight on how these siege engines would have practically functioned in battle: "And as soon as the 'crows' were fixed in the planks of the decks and grappled the ships together, if the ships were alongside of each other, the men leaped on board anywhere along the side, but if they were prow to prow, they used the 'crow' itself for boarding, and advanced over it two abreast. The first two protected their front by holding up before them their shields, while those who came after them secured their sides by placing the rims of their shields upon the top of the railing. Such were the preparations which they made; and having completed them they watched an opportunity of engaging at sea."Based on this historical description the Corvus used some mechanisms seen in the more complex siege towers or the sheds constructed around battering rams. They protected, to an extent, the Roman soldiers as they gained entry to the enemy's space where they could engage in combat.

title: Roman siege engines


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Raymonde Testanière

Raymonde Testanière, known as Vuissane, was a servant in the Comté de Foix in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. She is known to us through her testimony recorded on the Fournier Register and examined in Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie's Montaillou. Vuissane was a servant in the Belot household from 1304 to 1307. She was also a mistress to Bernard Belot and had two children with him. Vuissane reported to have hoped to marry Bernard, but he was only interested in a wife from a wealthier family and eventually married Guillemette Benet. He also rejected Vuissane as she did not believe in Albigensianism.

Unlike most of the household, Vuissane was not a believer in Albigensianism. Her mother, Alazaïs Testanière, was a staunch Catholic and kept her daughter away from Catharism. The Belots were Cathars and for a time Vuissane looked favourably upon the heresies but this ended when a leading heretic Arnaud Vital, who was living as a boarder in the Belot household, tried to rape her.

After leaving the employ of the Belot household she married Bernard Testanière.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Raymonde Testanière


text: Category:1675 books

title: Category:1675 books


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Wend

Wend may refer to:

 * Wends, an ethnic group
 * WEnd, the marker for the end of a while loop in some computer languages
 * WEND, a modern rock radio station in Charlotte, North Carolina, United States

People

 * Chris Wend (born 1987), German sprint canoeist
 * Rainer Wend (born 1954), German politician
 * Wend von Wietersheim (1900–1975), German general

title: Wend


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Search and Intervention Brigade

A Search and Intervention Brigade (Brigade de recherche et d'intervention (BRI), Investigation and Intervention Brigade or Anti-Gang Brigade) is a unit of the French National Police. The first units were formed in 1964 and carried out their tasks under the command of the Paris prefecture.

BRIs are specialized in serious criminal cases such as armed robbery and kidnappings. They typically attempt to catch offenders in the act after monitoring their activities, a technique that was first experimented in the 1960s by the then-new Paris BRI. They use a mix of traditional techniques and modern technology to collect and archive data about banditry. Although most of the pictures illustrating this article show uniformed officers (of the Paris BRI-PP) during a hostage-rescue public demonstration, most BRI missions are undertaken by plain clothed officers. There are now more than 15 BRI units, located in France's major cities. The first of them, the Paris BRI (or BRI-PP for Préfecture de Police), was created in 1964.

In 1972, in the wake of the Munich massacre, it was decided that BRI-PP would, as an additional task, form the nucleus of a police tactical task force known as Brigade Anticommando (Counter-commando Brigade) or BRI-BAC. BRI-BAC, when activated, is reinforced by other specialised units of the Préfecture de police. It has been involved in the resolution of hostage crises from its beginnings in the early 1970s to the Porte de Vincennes siege in January 2015 and the "Bataclan" assault during the November 2015 Paris attacks. In the Porte de Vincennes case, BRI-BAC and the National Police's RAID operated together as part of the National Police Intervention Force (Force d'Intervention de la Police nationale or FIPN).

History
The first BRI, BRI-PP was created in Paris in 1964. François le Mouël, a police commissary with the Paris Police Prefecture (PP), suggested that there were situations when, instead of waiting until a crime had been committed to start an inquiry, the police could achieve better results by keeping a close watch on known or suspected criminals and/or some of their potential targets. The criminals would then be arrested - either just before the crime took place or soon after but never during the action itself - so that there would be enough evidence for prosecution while avoiding the risks of shoot-outs and innocent victims. Initially set up as a new section in one of the PP's Directorate of Judiciary Police brigades, BRI became a separate brigade in 1967, still under le Mouël's leadership.

The Paris BRI method was innovative enough so that it was widely copied all around France and in other European countries. One of the better-known BRI successes was achieved in 1977 when the captors of banker Gérard Mallet, who had been under surveillance for more than four months, were arrested less than four hours after they had committed their crime.

Missions

 * All BRI units - including Paris BRI-PP : Judiciary police work with an emphasis on flagrante delicto cases. All BRIs can set up special response teams in case of a terrorist attack.
 * Paris BRI (BRI-PP) when activated as BRI-BAC (brigade anticommando): crisis response in hostage and terrorism cases. When activated, "brigade anticommando", becomes one of three French national response teams, together with the Police nationale's RAID, and the Gendarmerie nationale's GIGN

Organization
The BRIs are regular law enforcement units of the French National Police, which has jurisdiction over the whole French territory. The only exceptions are the Paris and Bouches-du-Rhône Prefectures of Police, which, because they are major cities and - in the case of Paris - the nation's capital, have autonomous police authority governing bodies directly subordinated to the French Minister of the Interior.

Unlike RAID which is a special response team directly subordinated to the Director general of the National police, BRIs are parts of the French criminal police. Their main mission is the arrest of violent criminals. As members of the judiciary police, BRI officers normally operate in plain clothes for most missions. Hoods are used to ensure anonymity during some of these missions.

Command and coordination between the Paris BRI-PP and RAID in response to acts of terror, is entrusted to a task force called National Police Intervention Force, headed by the RAID commander, and which is only activated if a major crisis occurs.

As of 2018 there are the Paris BRI, two national and several regional BRI units, independent from one another:
 * Paris Police Prefecture
 * Direction Régionale de Police Judiciaire de Paris
 * Brigade de recherche et d'intervention - Préfecture de police (BRI-PP) - the Paris unit. It is the first BRI unit and as such the precursor of the other units. It becomes Brigade Anticommando (BRI-BAC) in case of a security crisis.
 * Central Directorate of the Judicial Police
 * National BRIs
 * Brigade de recherche et d'intervention - Nationale (BRI-NAT) - based in Nanterre (near Paris) in support of inquiries conducted at the national level.
 * Brigade de recherche et d'investigation - Financières nationales (BRI-FN) - attached to the financial crime directorate of the National Police
 * Interregional Directorate of the Judicial Police Lyon (DIPJ Lyon) - BRI Lyon
 * Interregional Directorate of the Judicial Police Marseille (DIPJ Marseille) - BRI Marseille
 * Nice Branch of the Interregional Directorate of the Judicial Police Marseille (DIPJ Marseille – antenne PJ Nice) - BRI Nice
 * Regional Service of the Judicial Police Montpellier (SRPJ Montpellier) - BRI Montpellier
 * Interregional Directorate of the Judicial Police Rennes (DIPJ Rennes)
 * Nantes Branch of the Interregional Directorate of the Judicial Police Rennes (DIPJ Rennes – antenne PJ Nantes) - BRI Nantes
 * Regional Service of the Judicial Police Rouen (DIPJ Rennes – SRPJ Rouen) - BRI Rouen
 * Interregional Directorate of the Judicial Police Lille (DIPJ Lille) - BRI Lille
 * Regional Service of the Judicial Police Versailles (DRPJ Versailles) - BRI Versailles
 * Interregional Directorate of the Judicial Police Strasbourg (DIPJ Strasbourg) - BRI Strasbourg
 * Interregional Directorate of the Judicial Police Bordeaux (DIPJ Bordeaux) - BRI Bordeaux (with a branch team in Bayonne)
 * Regional Service of the Judicial Police Toulouse (DIPJ Bordeaux – SRPJ Toulouse) - BRI Toulouse
 * Regional Service of the Judicial Police Ajaccio (DRPJ Ajaccio) - BRI Ajaccio (with a branch team in Bastia)
 * Interregional Directorate of the Judicial Police Orléans (DIPJ Orléans) - BRI Orléans

BRI-PP commanders

 * François Le Mouël (1964 - 1971) [Section de recherche et d'intervention until 1967, then BRI.]
 * Jean Sautereau (1971-1974)
 * Marcel Leclerc (1974-1978)
 * Robert Broussard (1978-1982)
 * René-Georges Querry (1982-1983)
 * Claude Cancès (1983-1987)
 * Pierre Cavin (1987-1989)
 * Jean-Marc Bloch (1989-1996)
 * Yves Jobic (1996-2001)
 * Jean-Jacques Herlem (2001-2003)
 * Christian Flaesch (2003-2004)
 * Pascal Carreau (2004-2008)
 * Michel Faury (2008-2013)
 * Christophe Molmy (2013-2021)
 * Simon Riondet (Current)

In popular culture

 * The 1979 film The Police War depicts the rivalry between the Territorial Brigade and the Anti-Gang Brigade.
 * The Paris BRI-PP is featured in the 2004 film 36 Quai des Orfèvres and in the famous TV series Spiral (Engrenages).
 * The 2020 Netflix production Rogue City aka Bronx

title: Search and Intervention Brigade


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Bruce Henderson

Bruce Doolin Henderson (April 30, 1915 – July 20, 1992) was an American businessman and management expert. He founded Boston Consulting Group (BCG) in 1963 in Boston, Massachusetts and headed the firm as the president and CEO until 1980. He continued as chairman of BCG until 1985.

Early life
Henderson was born on a farm in Nashville, Tennessee on April 30, 1915. In the fourth grade, he enrolled in the Peabody Demonstration School (PDS) and remained there until his high school graduation in 1932.

During high school, Henderson played on the football team.

Personal life
Henderson married twice. With his first wife, Frances, he fathered four children. He had two daughters—Asta Werme and Ceacy Griffin—and two sons—Bruce Alexander Henderson and Bruce Balfour Henderson. His second wife was Bess, with whom he had no children. Henderson had seven grandchildren at the time of his death.

Career
Henderson began his career as a salesman in the Southwestern Advantage entrepreneurial program. He went on to attend and earn an undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering from Vanderbilt University in 1937, before attending Harvard Business School. He left Harvard only ninety days before graduation to work for the Westinghouse Corporation. Henderson worked there for 18 years. He became the vice president at the age of 37, making him one of the youngest vice presidents in the company's history.

In 1959, Henderson left the company to join the consulting firm Arthur D. Little as a senior vice president for management services. He left the firm in 1963 over disagreements with the firm's leadership.

Boston Consulting Group
Upon leaving Arthur D. Little, Henderson accepted a challenge from the CEO of Boston Company to create a consulting arm for the bank, operating as a subsidiary under the name Management and Consulting Division of the Boston Safe Deposit and Trust Company. This consulting arm began its operations in 1963. Initially, it advised clients of the bank. Billings for the first month were only US$500. Nevertheless, Henderson hired his second consultant, Arthur P. Contas, in December 1963.

Henderson provided a very specific imprint to the firm, that of strategy consultants. Robert Mainer gave an account of how that choice was made:"[Henderson] asked what we thought [BCG's] specialty should be. Many suggestions were offered, but in each case, we were able to identify several other firms that already had strong credentials in that particular area. The discussion began to stall. Then Bruce asked a momentous question: 'What about business strategy?' I objected: 'That's too vague. Most executives won't know what we're talking about.' Bruce replied, 'That's the beauty of it. We'll define it'.—Robert E. Mainer, Boston 1964-1967"

Bruce created the publication entitled Perspectives as a new form of marketing and in response to the McKinsey Quarterly and Arthur D. Little's Prism. He wrote extensively for the publication until 1980.

In 1974 Henderson made BCG an independent business and was one of the first to take advantage of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 that allowed the establishment of an employee stock ownership plan (ESOP). The ESOP began the process of buying BCG from The Boston Company, the parent corporation of Boston Safe Deposit. The buyout was completed in 1979, five years ahead of schedule.

Between 1974 and 1980, Henderson focused on growing the firm and expanding its international presence. By the end of 1977, revenues were split evenly among business originating in the United States and overseas.

Retirement
Henderson stepped down from his role as the president and CEO of Boston Consulting Group in 1980. He was succeeded by Alan Zakon. By that time, he had grown BCG from a one-man-shop to a global firm with seven offices and 249 consultants. He continued as the chairman until 1985. He retired and went to Nashville, Tennessee, to teach at the Owen Graduate School of Management at Vanderbilt University.

Death
Henderson died at the age of 77, ten days after suffering a heart attack at his home in Nashville in 1992. He was survived by his second wife, four children with his first wife, and seven grandchildren.

A memorial service was held with an overflow of attendees at the Memorial Church at Harvard Yard, Cambridge, on December 11, 1992, amidst a blizzard. Speakers at the service included John S. Clarkson, then-president and chief executive officer of BCG, George Stalk, a senior vice president of BCG, and Alan Zakon, former BCG chairman.

The experience curve
"The strategic implications of the experience curve came closer to shattering earth."—The Economist, 2009

The Experience Curve is a managerial tool primarily used to predict cost behaviour. It states that "costs characteristically decline by 20-30% in real terms each time accumulated experience doubles. This means that when inflation is factored out, costs should always decline. The decline is fast if growth is fast and slow if growth is slow."

The Experience Curve partially relies upon the concept of the learning curve, yet expands upon it in de-linking it from labor-driven repetitive tasks.

As a managerial tool, the experience curve is still in use in the 2010s; for example, by Petrobras in oil field development.

The growth-share matrix
The growth-share matrix—or BCG Matrix, as it came to be known—is a managerial tool used to visually represent a company's portfolio. It is a two-by-two matrix, which divides the dimensions of relative market share (x-axis) and market growth (y-axis) into four quadrants. Individual business are represented with circles having an area proportional to the size of the business itself.

The growth-share matrix evolved as a collaborative effort of BCG employees in the period between 1968 and 1970. The theory underpinning it was laid out in the BCG perspective The Product Portfolio in 1970.

One unusual characteristic of this visualization is that the x-axis is generally represented on an inverted scale (greater values are on the left), and on a logarithmic scale. The logarithmic scale may have been carried over from the work done on the Experience Curve (which uses a log-log scale), and is not always consistently used as such. In many cases, the scale used is linear, not logarithmic. According to Aldershof, the inverted scale is merely accidental. During an early development session, Dr. Zakon sketched the two-by-two matrix on a chalkboard, and labeled the sections as High and Low from top to bottom, and High and Low from left to right, simply for convenience. The format persisted through later development sessions, without anyone considering that in the future the axis might become calibrated— where a low-to-high scale from left to right would be more typical and easier to produce.

Brinkmanship in business
"The goal of the hottest economic war, is an agreement for coexistence, not annihilation."—Bruce D. Henderson, 1976.

Henderson said the article could equally be titled "How to Succeed in Business by Being Unreasonable". He wrote that to compete effectively, it was necessary to appear to be co-operating while in fact ensuring to get one's own way. He compared business to international relations during peacetime, when countries compete ferociously but exercise restraint to avoid war.

Business and biology
"Competition existed long before strategy. It began with life itself."—Bruce D. Henderson, 1989

By the early 1980s, the lessons of the experience curve led Henderson to shift his thinking beyond the bankruptcy of mainstream economics. He began to imagine a new and far more powerful kind of economics. The realization that organizations are not static machines but complex, dynamic systems that learn from experience led him to begin seeing companies as living, growing organisms. Following this logic, Henderson began to argue that the competition in the economy's market niches was remarkably like competition in nature's ecologic niches.

The article "The Origin of Strategy" (1989) in this area was the last article he published.

Favorite quotes
An engineer by training, Henderson never tired of quoting Archimedes to aspiring staff: "Give me a lever and a place to stand, and I will move the world".—Carl W. Stern, 2006

He was fond of quoting Jay Forrester: "While most people understand first-order effects, few deal well with second-and third-order effects. Unfortunately, virtually everything interesting in business lies in fourth-order effects and beyond"—Carl W. Stern, 2006

Awards and recognition
In 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Henderson to a team of five analysts who evaluated foreign aid programs in Germany under the Marshall Plan.

Henderson was named one of Time magazine's top 10 newsmakers under 30 years old.

In 1978 Henderson was inducted by Vanderbilt's School of Engineering as a Distinguished Alumnus.

Henderson received the Distinguished Alumnus Award in 1985 by the University School of Nashville, from which he had graduated in 1932.

Upon his death, the Financial Times stated that Henderson "did more to change the way business is done in the United States than any other man in American business history".

The Bruce D. Henderson Chair in Strategy was endowed by Bruce's wife Bess after his death at the Owen Graduate School of Management of Vanderbilt University.

The Boston Consulting Group Bruce D. Henderson Chair in International Management was endowed by BCG in 1995 at INSEAD. It is currently held by W. Chan Kim.

The Bruce D. Henderson Scholarship was endowed in 1985 by the Boston Consulting Group to honor Henderson and awarded to the MBA student at the Owen School of Management of Vanderbilt University, who, during the first year, achieved the strongest record in personal, professional, and academic performance.

The Boston Consulting Group launched the BCG Henderson Institute in honor of Henderson on his hundredth birthday. In January 2018, the BCG Henderson Institute was ranked the third Best For Profit Global Think Tank by the University of Pennsylvania. The institute operates hubs in Europe and Asia and is headquartered in New York.

Publications
Books:
 * Henderson on Corporate Strategy. 1979. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-89011-526-8.
 * Logic of Business Strategy. 1984. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-88410-983-9.

Monographs:
 * Perspectives
 * Perspectives on Experience. 1972. The Boston Consulting Group. ISBN 978-0-78370-000-7
 * The Boston Consulting Group on Strategy: Classic Concepts and New Perspectives (2nd edition). 2006. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-47175-722-1

References and sources

 * Notes

 * Sources
 * "The Lords Of Strategy: the secret intellectual history of the new corporate world". 2010. Harvard Business School Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59139-782-3.
 * "International Directory of Company Histories", Volume 58, St. James Press, December 2003, ISBN 978-1-55862-503-7
 * "International Directory of Company Histories", Volume 58, St. James Press, December 2003, ISBN 978-1-55862-503-7

title: Bruce Henderson


text:
Apurímac

Apurímac is the name of:

 * Apurímac River, a river in the south-eastern parts of central Perú
 * Apurímac Region, a region in the south-eastern parts of central Perú
 * Three albums by the German new-age band Cusco:
 * Apurimac (album)
 * Apurimac II
 * Apurimac III

title: Apurímac


text:
Stoma (medicine)

In anatomy, a stoma (: stomata or stomas) is any opening in the body. For example, a mouth, a nose, and an anus are natural stomata. Any hollow organ can be manipulated into an artificial stoma as necessary. This includes the esophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, colon, pleural cavity, ureters, urinary bladder, and renal pelvis. Such a stoma may be permanent or temporary.

Surgical procedures that involve the creation of an artificial stoma have names that typically end with the suffix "-ostomy", and the same names are also often used to refer to the stoma thus created. For example, the word "colostomy" often refers either to an artificial anus or the procedure that creates one. Accordingly, it is not unusual for a stoma to be called an ostomy (plural ostomies), as is the norm in wound, ostomy, and continence nursing.

Gastrointestinal stomata

Stomata are created in particular in surgical procedures involving the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) or gastrointestinal system (GIS). The GIT begins at the mouth or oral cavity and continues until its termination, which is the anus. Examples of gastrointestinal stomata include:
 * Esophagostomy
 * Gastrostomy (also see percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy)
 * Cholecystostomy
 * Choledochostomy
 * Enteric:
 * Cecostomy
 * Colostomy
 * Duodenostomy
 * Ileostomy
 * Jejunostomy
 * Appendicostomy (see also continence appendicostomy)

One well-known form of an artificial stoma is a colostomy, which is a surgically created opening in the large intestine that allows the removal of feces out of the body, bypassing the rectum, to drain into a pouch or other collection device. This surgical procedure is invoked usually as a result of and solution to disease in the GIT. The procedure involves bisecting this tube, usually between the later stage of the small intestine (ileum) and the large intestine or colon, hence colostomy, and exiting it from the body in the abdominal region. The point of exiting is what is known as the stoma.

For greatest success and to minimize negative effects, it is preferable to perform this procedure as low down in the tract as possible, as this allows the maximal amount of natural digestion to occur before eliminating fecal matter from the body. The stoma is usually covered with a removable pouching system (adhesive or mechanical) that collects and contains the output for later disposal. Modern pouching systems enable most individuals to resume normal activities and lifestyles after surgery, often with no outward physical evidence of the stoma or its pouching system.

When planning the position of the stoma, a stoma nurse should bear in mind the height of the person's waist and beltline so that clothes can fit as before. Also a peri-stomal hernia belt worn from the start can help prevent the stoma from developing a serious hernia problem.

Other examples of stomata
The historical practice of trepanation was also a type of stoma.
 * Dacryocystorhinostomy
 * Sclerotomy
 * Tracheostomy
 * Urostomy (also see Ileal conduit urinary diversion)
 * Nephrostomy
 * Ureterostomy
 * Vesicostomy (cystostomy)

title: Stoma (medicine)


text: Category:1676 books

title: Category:1676 books


text:
Banania

Banania is a popular chocolate drink found most widely distributed in France. It is made from cocoa, banana flour, cereals, honey and sugar. There are two types of Banania available in French supermarkets: 'traditional' which must be cooked with milk for 10 minutes, and 'instant' which can be prepared in similar fashion to Nesquik.

History
During a visit near Lake Managua, Nicaragua in 1909, the journalist Pierre Lardet discovered the recipe for a cocoa-based drink. When he returned to Paris, he started its commercial fabrication and, in 1912, began marketing Banania with the picture of an Antillaise.

At the outset of World War I, the popularity of the colonial troops at the time led to the replacement of the West Indian in 1915, by the now more familiar jolly Senegalese infantry man enjoying Banania. Pierre Lardet took it upon himself to distribute the product to the Army, using the line pour nos soldats la nourriture abondante qui se conserve sous le moindre volume possible ("for our soldiers: abundant nourishment that stores while taking up the least space possible").

The brand's yellow background underlines the banana ingredient, and the Senegalese infantryman's red and blue uniform make up the other two main colours. The slogan Y'a bon ("It's good") derives from the pidgin French supposedly used by these soldiers (it is, in fact, an invention).

The form of the character has since evolved to more of a cartoon character. However, the original advertising has become a cultural icon in France. Posters and reproduction tin-plate signs of the pre-war advertising continue to be sold.

In the 1970s and early 1980s, Banania sponsored the Yellow Jersey of the Tour de France. In France the Banania brand is now owned by the newly founded French company Nutrial, which acquired it from Unilever in 2003.

Marketing
This brand of chocolate drink is recognized by its trademark the 'bonhomme Banania': a black man wearing a fez. The company started using this illustration in 1915.

Controversy

Some feel that the advertising slogans and images are racist and colonialist as it reinforces the cliché of a friendly yet stupid African. Some French black people connect this stereotype with aggressive colonialist policy in Africa of the global group Unilever, the former owner of the brand. The Martiniquan psychiatrist and philosopher Frantz Fanon, in his 1952 book Black Skin, White Masks, mentions the grinning Senegalese tirailleur as an example of how in a burgeoning consumer culture, the black subject appears not only as an object, but as "an object in the midst of other objects".

title: Banania


text: Category:1677 books

title: Category:1677 books


text:
Thomas Granger

Thomas Granger or Graunger (1625? – September 8, 1642) was one of the first people hanged in the Plymouth Colony (the first hanged in Plymouth or in any of the colonies of New England being John Billington) and the first known juvenile to be sentenced to death and executed in the territory of today's United States. He was a servant to Love Brewster, of Duxbury, in the Plymouth Colony of British North America. Graunger, at the age of 16 or 17, was convicted of "buggery with a mare, a cow, two goats, divers sheep, two calves, and a turkey", according to court records of September 7, 1642.

Graunger reportedly confessed to his crimes in court privately to local magistrates, and upon indictment, publicly to ministers and the jury, being sentenced to "death by hanging until he was dead". He was hanged by John Holmes, Messenger of the Court, on September 8, 1642. Before Graunger's execution, following the laws set down in Leviticus 20:15 ("And if a man shall lie with a beast, he shall surely be put to death: and ye shall slay the beast"), the animals involved were slaughtered before his face and thrown into a large pit dug for their disposal, no use being made of any part of them.

An account of Granger's acts is recorded in Gov. William Bradford's diary Of Plymouth Plantation 1620-1647. Granger's crime represents the colonies' first recorded act of bestiality.

title: Thomas Granger


text:
User talk:Davorg

Welcome to wikipedia!
G'day Davorg,

Looks like nobody's given you the introductory warm-fuzzies yet, so I'm going to take the opportunity. It's very good to see you around.

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome!
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing, policy, conduct, and structure tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style
 * If you're ready for the complete list of Wikipedia documentation, there's also Topical index.

--PJF (talk) 09:10, 27 Mar 2005 (UTC)

The Shakespeare Code/A Sound of Thunder
Thanks for correcting the title I misremembered & linking to the relevant article. For some reason, I keep thinking of it as 'A Distant Sound of Thunder, even though remembering that 'A Delicate Sound of Thunder' is Pink Floyd track! Cheers Vivamancer 11:25, 8 April 2007 (UTC)

Non-free use disputed for Image:Bbv2.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Bbv2.jpg. However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under "fair use" may be invalid. Please read carefully the instructions at Non-free content and then go to the image description page and clarify why you think the image qualifies.

If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our Criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 02:40, 1 June 2007 (UTC)

Re: your recent edit to The Bedford
The Bedford was formerly widely known as the Bedford Arms and is still referred to as such by many people. If you google The Bedford Arms, Balham, you will see that my original wording was quite correct. Jud 22:59, 1 August 2007 (UTC)
 * As I have not managed to find anything conclusive regarding the former name, I have altered the wording slightly. I am glad you are happy with the change. On my quest for hard facts I did discover that in the C19th the building was known as the Bedford Hotel and was the venue for the Charles Bravo inquest, so I have added this as well. There was a pub in Clapham called the Bedford Arms - maybe the compiler of the A-Z got confused? Jud 23:45, 2 August 2007 (UTC)

London Meetup - January 12, 2008
Hi! There's going to be a London Wikipedia Meetup coming Saturday January 12, 2008. If you are interested in coming along take part in the discussion over a Meetup/London7. The discussion is going on until tomorrow evening and the official location and time will be published at the same page late Thursday or early Friday. Hope to see you Saturday, Poeloq (talk) 01:41, 10 January 2008 (UTC)

Invitation to Wikipedia meetup in London

Date: 13:00 onwards, Sunday 10 August 2008

Venue: Penderel's Oak pub, Holborn WC1 map

More information: Meetup/London 12

Hello,

I noticed that you have listed yourself as a Wikipedian in London, so I thought you might like to come to one of our monthly social meetups. The next one is going to be on Sunday 10 August, which might well be rather short notice, but if you can't come this time, we try to have one every second Sunday of the month.

If you haven't been before, these meetups are mainly casual social events for Wikipedia enthusiasts in which we chat about Wikipedia and any other topics we fancy. It's a great way to meet some very keen Wikipedians, but we'd also love for you to come along if you're interested in finding out more about Wikipedia, other Wikimedia projects, or other collaborative wiki projects too.

The location is a pub that is quite quiet and family friendly on a Sunday lunchtime, so hopefully younger Wikipedians will also feel welcome and safe. Alcohol consumption is certainly not required!

Although the meetups are popular, many UK-based editors still don't know about them. It would be great to welcome some fresh faces, so I hope you can come along.

Yours,

James F. (talk) 09:27, 3 August 2008 (UTC)

Please forgive the slightly impersonal mass-invite!

London Wikimedia Fundraiser
Good evening! This is a friendly message from Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, inviting you to the London Wikimedia Fundraising party on 19th December 2010, in approximately one week. This party is being held at an artistic London venue with room for approximately 300 people, and is being funded by Ed Saperia, a non-Wikipedian who has a reputation for holding exclusive events all over London. This year, he wants to help Wikipedia, and is subsidising a charity event for us. We're keen to get as many Wikimedians coming as possible, and we already have approximately 200 guests, including members of the press, and some mystery guests! More details can be found at http://ten.wikipedia.org/wiki/London - expect an Eigenharp, a mulled wine hot tub, a free hog roast, a haybale amphitheatre and more. If you're interested in coming - and we'd love to have you - please go to the ten.wikipedia page and follow the link to the Facebook event. Signing up on Facebook will add you to the party guestlist. Entry fee is a heavily subsidised £5 and entry is restricted to over 18s. It promises to be a 10th birthday party to remember! If you have any questions, please email me at chasemewiki at gmail.com.

Hope we'll see you there, (and apologies for the talk page spam) - Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry (talk) 22:42, 12 December 2010 (UTC)

The Contribution Team cordially invites you to Imperial College London All Hail The Muffin Nor does it taste nice... 17:02, 5 February 2011 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
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title: User talk:Davorg


text: Category:1678 books

title: Category:1678 books


text: Category:1679 books

title: Category:1679 books


text:
Limited-access road

A limited-access road, known by various terms worldwide, including limited-access highway, dual-carriageway, expressway, and  partial controlled-access highway, is a highway or arterial road for high-speed traffic which has many or most characteristics of a controlled-access highway (also known as a freeway or motorway), including limited or no access to adjacent property, some degree of separation of opposing traffic flow, use of grade separated interchanges to some extent, prohibition of slow modes of transport, such as bicycles, horse-drawn vehicles or ridden horses, or self-propelled agricultural machines; and very few or no intersecting cross-streets or level crossings. The degree of isolation from local traffic allowed varies between countries and regions. The precise definition of these terms varies by jurisdiction.

History
The first implementation of limited-access roadways in the United States was the Bronx River Parkway in New York, in 1907. The New York State Parkway System was constructed as a network of high-speed roads in and around New York City. The first limited access highway built is thought to be the privately built Long Island Motor Parkway in Long Island, New York. The Southern State Parkway opened in 1927, while the Long Island Motor Parkway was closed in 1937 and replaced by the Northern State Parkway (opened in 1931) and the contiguous Grand Central Parkway (opened in 1936).

Regional implementations
In the United States, the national Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) uses "full control of access" only for freeways. Expressways are defined as having "partial control of access" (or semi-controlled access). This means that major roads typically use interchanges and commercial development is accessed via cross roads or frontage roads, while minor roads can cross at grade and farms can have direct access. This definition is also used by some states, some of which also restrict freeways only to motor vehicles capable of maintaining a certain speed. Some other states use "controlled access" to mean a higher standard than "limited access", while others reverse the two terms.

Australia
While Australia's larger capital cities feature controlled-access highway networks, the smaller metropolitan areas mostly rely on limited-access highways for high-speed local traffic.

In South Australia the terms "expressway" and "freeway" can be synonymous. The Southern and Northern Expressways are both controlled-access highways. However, perhaps confusingly, the Port River Expressway is a limited-access highway.

Dual carriageways that connect capital cities and regional centres, such as the M31 Hume Highway between Sydney and Melbourne, are almost all limited-access highways. In spite of this, 'freeway' terminology is used on signage for most regional limited access highways in the state of Victoria.

New Zealand: Expressway, Motorway
The terms Motorway and Expressway in New Zealand both encompass multi-lane divided freeways as well as narrower 2 to 4-lane undivided expressways with varying degrees of grade separation; the difference being that in New Zealand a Motorway has certain additional legal traffic restrictions.

China
The Expressway Network of the People's Republic of China is the longest highway system in the world. The network is also known as National Trunk Highway System (NTHS). By the end of 2016, the total length of China's expressway network reached 131,000 kilometers (82,000 mi).

Expressways in China are a fairly recent addition to a complex network of roads. China's first expressway was built in 1988. Until 1993, very few expressways existed. The network is expanding rapidly after 2000. In 2011, 11,000 kilometres (6,800 mi) of expressways were added to the network.

Pakistan
The Expressways of Pakistan are a network of multiple-lane, high-speed highways in Pakistan, which are owned, maintained and operated federally by Pakistan's National Highway Authority. They are one class lower than the country's motorways and are usually upgraded versions of the national highways. The total length of Pakistan's expressways is 260 km as of November, 2016. Around 770 km of expressways are currently under construction in different parts of country. Most of these expressways will be complete between 2017 and 2020.

India

Expressways in India make up more than 5,579 km of the Indian National Highway System on which they are the highest class of road. The National Highways Development Project is underway to add an additional 18637 km of expressways to the network by the year 2023.

Iran
Expressways in Iran are one class lower than freeways and are used in large urban areas such as Isfahan, Mashhad, or Tehran and between other important cities (Usually two province capitals) in rural and desert areas. The speed limit in Urban areas is between 50 - 70 km/h and in rural and desert areas between 90 - 110 km/h.

Japan
The term Expressway as used in English in Japan refers to both freeway-style highways and narrower, more winding, often undivided Regional High-Standard Highways 地域高規格道路 (ちいきこうきかくどうろ). Both types of expressways have a combined length of 10021 km as of April 2012.

Malaysia
Limited-access roads in Malaysia usually, but not always, take the name (lebuhraya – this is also the name for expressways). Highways normally have a lower speed limit than expressways (but still higher than the rest of the local road network), and permit at-grade intersections and junctions to residential roads and shopfronts, although grade separation is still typical. Highways are normally toll-free and are owned and operated by the federal government. Notable examples of limited-access roads are the Federal Highway, Skudai Highway, Gelugor Highway, Kuantan Bypass and Kuching Bypass.

Singapore
Limited-access roads in Singapore are formally known as (in contrast to controlled-access highways which are known as expressways). While still functioning as high-speed roads, semi-expressways may still have at-grade intersections with traffic lights, and speed limits are not uniform. Grade separation is, however, still typical at major junctions. Five roads have been designated as semi-expressways: Bukit Timah Road, Jurong Island Highway, Nicoll Highway, Outer Ring Road System and West Coast Highway.

South Korea
Motorways in South Korea (자동차 전용 도로, jadongcha jeonyong doro, literally 'motor vehicle-only road') include various grades of highways other than expressways. Contrary to the expressway in South Korea, the status of motorway is a measure of traffic control rather than a class of road. For example, Jayu-ro is a segment of national route 77 as well as a motorway. As of June 2011, 1,610 km of highways in total were designated as motorways. (1,052 km national highways, 351 km metropolitan highways, 185 km regional highways and 20 km municipal highways)

Like on expressways, motorcycles are not permitted.

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has ensured to classify the expressways in reference to the connotation of E grades. , three expressways namely the Southern Expressway,  Outer Circular Expressway and the  Colombo – Katunayake Expressway have been created. A tax levying structure is proposed for travelling via the expressways. Speed limits in the range of 80–100 km/h is attested for travelling through the expressways. Up to now two expressways namely the Northern Expressway and the Ruwanpura Expressway are in process to satisfy the needs of public transport.

Taiwan (R.O.C.)
Expressways in Taiwan may be controlled-access highways similar to National Freeways or limited-access roads. Most have Provincial (as opposed to National) Highway status, although some are built and maintained by cities. All provincial expressways run east–west except for Provincial Highway No. 61, which runs north–south along the west coast. Some provincial expressway routes are still under construction.

Austria: Schnellstraße
In Austria the speed limit on a Schnellstraße is 100 –. Schnellstraßen are very similar to Austrian Autobahnen (freeways/motorways); the chief difference is that they are more cheaply built with smaller curve radius, often undivided and have fewer bridges and tunnels.

Belgium: Autoweg
In Belgium an autoweg is a public road, the beginning of which is indicated by the first signboard (F9) and the end by the second sign (F11).

An important difference with an autosnelweg is that crossroads as well as traffic lights can be on an autoweg.

In Belgium there is no specific speed regulation for an autoweg.

Only motor vehicles and their trailers (with the exception of mopeds), agricultural vehicles and the towing of fairground vehicles, as well as four-wheelers (without passenger compartment), are allowed to drive on an autoweg.

An autoweg can consist of two or more lanes. The driving directions can be separated by a roadmarking, or by a central reservation. If a public road (autosnelweg, autoweg, weg) consists of two or more lanes that are clearly separated from each other by a roadside or a space that is not accessible to vehicles, the drivers may not drive on the lane opposite to them.

Croatia: Brza cesta

In Croatia, the term brza cesta (lit. "fast road") is used to describe a motor vehicle-only road, usually grade-separated, without an emergency lane, with a speed limit of 110 km/h, although it can be lowered, usually to 70 or. They range from 2+2 lane dual carriageways with grade-separated intersections and 110 km/h speed limit (D2 in Osijek), four or six-lane urban streets with at-grade intersections with traffic lights (D1 in Karlovac) or two-lane single carriageways with grade-separated intersections (D33 in Šibenik). They are either a standalone state road (D10) or a part of one (Southern Osijek bypass, D2). Some portions of motorways are expressways since they are either in construction (A8 between Pazin and Matulji) or designed as such (A7 in Rijeka). As a rule, the expressways are not tolled, however major tunnels on expressways are tolled.

Czech Republic: Rychlostní silnice

Expressways in the Czech Republic (, are defined as dual carriageways with smaller emergency lane. The speed limit is 110 km/h (70 mph). Expressway road signs are white on blue.

Denmark: Motortrafikvej
In Denmark, a 'motortrafikvej' (Danish for "motor traffic road") is a high-speed highway with a speed limit between 80 –90 km/h. The most common 'motortrafikvej' has two lanes (1+1) or 2+1. There is no grade intersections. The signs for 'motortrafikvej' have white text on blue background.

Finland: Moottoriliikennetie
In Finland, highways are separated into three categories: all-access valtatie ("main road"), limited-access moottoriliikennetie ("motor traffic road") and finally moottoritie ("motorway"); the latter two are marked with green signage, while valtatie signage is blue. While most of the network is all-access road, 779 km of it is motorway, and 124 km is limited-access road. The access is limited to motor vehicles faster than 50 km/h, thus excluding pedestrian, bicycle, moped or tractor traffic; furthermore, towing is not allowed. Limited-access roads are generally similar to motorways, but do not fulfill all the technical requirements, such as several lanes in one direction or separation of opposite directions. Limited-access roads are usually built because the local population density is too low to justify a motorway. Often space has been left during construction for an eventual upgrade to a motorway. Limited-access roads also function as feeder routes for motorways. The general speed limit on main roads and limited-access roads is 100 km/h (summertime) and 80 km/h (wintertime). On motorways the speed limits are 120 and 100 km/h respectively. Especially during winter the speed limits can be changed due to weather conditions.

Germany: Kraftfahrstraße
A Kraftfahrstrasse (German for "motor-power road", also colloquially called Schnellstraße, literally "fast road") in Germany is any road with access limited to motor vehicles with a maximum design speed of more than 60 km/h, excluding pedestrian, bicycle, moped or tractor traffic. Oversized vehicles are banned.

The construction of transregional Kraftfahrstraßen highways (Autostraßen) rank below the standard of German autobahns. With regard to the general German speed limits, on roads with lanes separated by a median or with a minimum of two marked lanes per direction, an advisory speed limit (Richtgeschwindigkeit) of 130 km/h applies. At-grade intersections are admissible, regulation at junctions is usually provided by traffic lights or roundabouts. U-turns and any deliberate stopping are prohibited. Kraftfahrstraßen are out of bounds to pedestrians, except for special crosswalks.

Hungary: Autóút
Expressways in Hungary are called Autóút (Auto/car road). They are mostly dual carriageways. The main difference between Hungarian motorways and expressways is, that they are more cheaply built with narrower width and often undivided. Maximum speed limit is reduced to 110 km/h for vehicles under 3.5 tons, and 70 km/h for vehicles over 3.5 tons.

In Hungary there are multiple types of dual carriageways. One part is almost identical with motorways, but the driving lanes are narrower.

Parameters of a 2+2 lane dual carriageway off-habitat area: Parameters of a 2+2 lane dual carriageway in habitat (town/city) area:
 * Total width of road: 25.60 m
 * Driving lane width: 3.50 m
 * Pavement width: 2x10.25 m
 * Parking lane: 3.00 m
 * Middle separation area width: 3.60 m
 * Total width of road: 24.10 m
 * Driving lane width: 3.50 m
 * Pavement width: 2x10.75 m
 * Parking lane: 3.00 m
 * Middle separation area width: 3.60 m

There are also semi-motorways with only one side of the motorway built. After the missing lanes are built, they will become standard motorways.

Ireland: HQDC
A High-quality dual carriageway (HQDC) in Ireland is normally completed to a motorway standard, including no right-turns, but with no motorway restrictions. These are common on the final stretches of motorways nearing a major city, generally in order to enable use of bus stops and city bus services on the particular stretch of road.

Speed limits are normally 100 km/h compared to 120 km/h on motorways

Italy: Superstrada

In Italy there are: Type B highway (or strada extraurbana principale), commonly but unofficially known as superstrada, is a divided highway with at least two lanes for each direction, paved shoulder on the right, no cross-traffic and no at-grade intersections. Access restrictions on such highways are exactly the same of Italian motorways (autostrade), as well as signage at the beginning and the end of the highway (with the only difference being the background color, blue instead of green). Speed limit on type-B road is 110 km/h.

Type C highway (or strada extraurbana secondaria), a single carriageway with at least one lane for each direction and shoulders. It may have at-grade, at-level crossings with railways, roundabouts and traffic lights. This category contains also dual carriageways that can not be classified as type-B highways because of the lack of one or more required features. In absence of specific regulation signs, a type-C road is accessible by all vehicles and pedestrians, even if it has separate carriageways and no cross-traffic.

The sign shown here on the left allows access only to motorized vehicles. Speed limit on type-C roads is 90 km/h.

Netherlands: Autoweg
The Netherlands has much more kilometres of motorways (snelwegen), than expressways (autowegen). The latter only form a complementary part of the country's main highway network. They are typically shorter than motorways, offering connections of a more regional significance. The general speed limit is 100 km/h. Only faster motor vehicles, both capable and legally allowed to go at least 50 km/h, may use the road. Autowegen are always numbered and mostly signposted with an N (for Non motorway highway) and up to three digits, like. For the most part they fall under national or provincial management.

Dutch expressways are built to significantly varying standards. Designs range from fully controlled-access dual carriageways with grade separation, center dividers and full hard shoulders, to single carriageways with just one lane per direction and only intermittent shoulder patches called Vluchthavens (small Lay-bys). Intersections are frequently at grade with traffic lights, or they are roundabouts. There can be moveable bridges in these roads. In either case, the speed limit is frequently reduced to 70 km/h before reaching the junction or the bridge.

Since 1997 a national traffic safety program called Sustainable Safety has introduced a new road categorisation and new design standards. Although autowegen don't have to conform completely to the new Dutch design standard for regional flow roads (stroomwegen), many of these roads require at least some upgrades. The ideal is to make expressways divided and grade-separated, as much as possible. Otherwise these roads are downgraded to the safety category of distributor roads, thereby losing their expressway status.

Norway: Motortrafikkvei
In Norway, a motortrafikkvei (Norwegian for "motor traffic road"), formerly called motorvei klasse B ("class-B motorway") is a high-speed highway with a speed limit of up to 90 km/h. There are no at grade intersections. Direction signs for motortrafikkvei have black text on yellow background, while same signs on motorvei have white text on blue background. As of October 2017 the Norwegian Road DataBase show approximately 455 km of motortrafikkvei in Norway.

Poland: droga ekspresowa
Droga ekspresowa (plural: drogi ekspresowe) in Poland refers to a network of roads fulfilling the role of bringing traffic to the motorways, and serving major international and inter-regional purposes. They are often built as ring roads since they take less space than motorway and allow more entrances and exits. All expressways start with the letter S, followed by a number. They can be dual or single carriageways and have reduced number of one level intersections. As of May 2004 the Polish government documents indicated that the country had plans of an expressway and motorway network totalling 7200 km (including about 2000 km of motorways). The speed limit is 120 km/h (dual carriageway) and 100 km/h (single carriageway).

Portugal: via rápida
In Portugal, a non-motorway limited access road is commonly referred as a via rápida (rapid way, plural: vias rápidas), although there is not a specific official technical designation for it.

The legal term via reservada a automóveis e motociclos (reserved way for automobiles and motorcycles) is used to designate a non-motorway road where motorway rules apply (except the speed limit which is lower). However, this term refers only to the road rules and not to the road technical characteristics.

There are two main types of roads commonly referred as vias rápidas in Portugal. The first type is a limited access road, with dual carriageway and with interchanges grade separation. Many of these roads have all or almost all the technical characteristics of full motorways. Examples are the several urban highways in cities like Lisbon, Oporto, Coimbra and Braga. In Madeira, the main regional highways, that connect the cities and other important places of the island, are mainly of these type, there are two vias rápidas classified as motorways in the region, VR1 and VR2. The second Portuguese type of via rápida is a highway with all the same characteristics of the above first type, except the number of carriageways that is only one. Examples of this type of roads are the ancient IP4 and IP5 (before being transformed in full motorways), the Portalegre-Beja section of the IP2, the Coimbra-Viseu section of the IP3 and several complementary routes (IC). The dual carriageway vias rápidas can be classified and signalized as reserved ways for automobiles and motorcycles, cases in which general motorway rules apply, except speed limited which is never above 100 km/h. In dual carriageway vias rápidas not signalized as reserved ways, normal road rules apply, including speed limit which is never above 90 km/h. Single carriageway vias rápidas cannot be classified and signalized as reserved ways and so normal road rules always apply there.

Romania
In Romania, such roads are called drumuri expres (or drum expres in singular form). Whilst there is only one expressway in Romania so far, their main difference from regular motorways are the lack of hard shoulders and a slightly lower speed limit of 120 km/h, otherwise, being similar to a motorway regarding grade separation and featuring at least 2 lanes per direction.

Expressways were introduced for the first time on the 2014 roads masterplan. This masterplan envisaged building most planned motorways up to expressway standards, provided that in the future they would be converted to actual motorways. However, by mid-2019, no expressway has been built, nevermind starting works on one, although contracts were signed to allow for their construction, meaning that in the 2020s more expressways will likely be completed.

Planned expressways according to CNADNR (Romanian National Company of Motorways and National Roads), based on the 2014 roads masterplan:

Russia
Russia has a large federal highway network that totals approximately 30000 km. Federal highways in the country are classified into two categories: "motorways" (магистральная автомобильная дорога, автомагистраль, not the same as the English term motorway) and "other". In the Road Rules, there are 2 designations for a limited-access road, one being "motorway" and the other being "road for cars"(дорога для автомобилей), on both of which special motorway rules apply. "Roads for cars" are different from motorways by the fact that they don't have to be dual-carriageway, at-grade traffic light intersections are permitted, and the speed limit is still 90 km/h.

Spain: Autovía
Unlike Spain's Autopistas, specifically reserved for vehicles able to sustain at least 60 km/h (37 mph), and usually tolled, Autovías are usually upgrades from older roads, and never toll roads. In general, slow vehicles like bicycles and agricultural machinery are allowed under certain restrictions.

Slovakia: Rýchlostná cesta
A rýchlostná cesta in Slovakia, sometimes referred to as cesta pre motorove vozidla, is different from a diaľnica, with speed limits restricted to 100 km/h for cars and 80 km/h for trucks. Rýchlostné cesty ("cesty" is the plural form of "cesta") used to be designated by the letter 'R' preceding the road number, however, new road rules introduced in 2020 established that all expressways noted by the letter 'R' were to be considered motorways. A rýchlostná cesta has two lanes on each side and, occasionally, may take the form of a single carriageway, like in Poland.

Sweden
The Swedish road type motortrafikled is a road with limited access (all grade-separated, no slow traffic) and two or three lanes. According to the EU's multilingual term base, motortrafikled should be translated to expressway, rapid road or road with limited access. The same rules apply to a motortrafikled as to a motorway - it is basically a half motorway. The speed limit is usually 90 – 100 km/h. Many motortrafikleder are built as 2+1 roads, alternating two lanes in one direction and one in the other, with a narrow fence in between.

Switzerland
In Switzerland Autostrasse (German, auto road), semi-autoroute, or semiautostrada (French and Italian for semi-freeway) is a highway that is only allowed to high-speed traffic with no crossings, but it is not the highest class road, the motorways (Autobahn/autoroute/autostrada). The speed limit on these roads in Switzerland is 100 km/h. Most of the Autostrasse / semi-autoroutes / semiautostrade have no central barrier separating the lanes in different directions.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the second tier of high speed roads below motorways are typically dual carriageways (although the term "dual carriageway" can refer to roads that are not limited-access, so long as traffic in opposite directions is physically separated). Many roads such as the A1, the A14, the A19 and the A42 are built to a high quality, in many places they are only intersected by grade-separated junctions, have full barriers at both the road side and the central reservations and in some cases three or more lanes of traffic, however they are not subjected to motorway restrictions as they are typically built to a lower standard, or have existing rights of way for non motorised vehicles. They may lack some features that a motorway would have, such as hard shoulders, and may have tighter bends and steeper gradients than would be allowed on a motorway or have established|rights of way that cannot be removed. The standard motorway speed limit for cars of 70 mph also applies to many dual carriageways.

In March 2015, it was announced that a new standard would be developed to formally designate certain high-quality routes in England as Expressways. This new standard would have the same motorway regulations as traditional motorways, however would lack a hard shoulder and use traffic management systems like those on smart motorways. An "expressway" is limited to 3 through lanes, they are to be built largely to the same standards as a smart motorway, although some non-standard existing alignments are allowed to remain if they are just short of being standard.

Some roads have "expressway" in their name, this has no reflection on the purpose or standard of the road. For example, the Aston Expressway or the North Wales Expressway

Canada
In Ontario, expressway is synonymous with freeway and is used to mean limited-access divided-highways with no at-grade intersections. An example of this is the Gardiner Expressway through western and downtown Toronto, and once it turns into a 6-lane arterial road (Lake Shore Boulevard) east of the Don River, there is a sign warning of the end of the freeway. The E. C. Row Expressway in Windsor, Ontario is a controlled-access divided freeway with grade-separated interchanges, between Ojibway Parkway at its western terminus and Banwell Road at its eastern terminus, where there are traffic intersections at both termini. The Macdonald–Cartier Freeway would be an example of a route that uses the term freeway, however, that name is being phased out by the Ministry of Transportation. In general, the term "expressway" is used more frequently for municipally maintained roads, while provincial freeways are known more by their route number (particularly the 400-series highways are known as Highway 4__) despite some of them having an "expressway" name for all or part of their length, such as the (Chedoke Expressway/Hamilton Expressway, Belfield Expressway, and Airport Expressway).

The Veterans Memorial Parkway in London, Ontario, has intersections instead of interchanges, and thus is considered an expressway and not a freeway. It was originally designed with sufficient right-of-way to be built as a full freeway, but a lack of funding forced it to be built with at-grade intersections. Similarly, the Hanlon Parkway in Guelph and Highway 40 in Sarnia, Ontario were originally opened with intersections in lieu of interchanges, save for the couple grade-separated interchanges. Regional Road 420 in Niagara Falls is also an expressway. While Allen Road and Highway 400 were originally full freeways, their extensions (for Allen Road to meet Sheppard Avenue and Dufferine Street, and the 400 South Extension which became Black Creek Drive and handed over to Metro Toronto upon completion) were built as expressways with at-grade intersections.

Two sections of Highway 11, between Barrie and Orillia as well as between Orillia and Gravenhurst, are a Right-in Right-out (RIRO) expressway rather than a full freeway. The joint route of Highway 35/115 in Durham Region is also a RIRO expressway.

In most of Western Canada, an expressway is a high-speed arterial road along the lines of the California definition, while a freeway is fully controlled access with no at-grade intersections. In Alberta, the term "Trail" refers to both full freeways (Stoney Trail), or high-speed arterials with a mix of signalized intersections and interchanges (Crowchild Trail). The Yellowhead Trail as it passes through Edmonton, Alberta has both intersections and interchanges. It is the main east–west artery for the northern half of the city. There are plans to upgrade many of the most congested remaining intersections into interchanges in the near future.

In Quebec, the term freeway is never used, with the terms expressway (in English) and autoroute (in English and French) being preferred. English terms are rare, and only found on bilingual signage of expressways (abbreviated "expy") found in Montreal around bridges and on the Bonaventure Expressway; these signs are controlled by the federal government. Most of the Autoroutes are built or at least designed to be upgrade to a full freeway (initially constructed as a Two-lane expressway), a notable exception is the section of Autoroute 20 through Vaudreuil-Dorion and L'Île-Perrot which is an 8 km urban boulevard.

United States
In the United States, an expressway is defined by the federal government's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices as a divided highway with partial control of access. In contrast, a freeway is defined as a divided highway with full control of access. The difference between partial and full access control is that expressways may have a limited number of driveways and at-grade intersections (thus making them a form of high-speed arterial road), while access to freeways is allowed only at grade-separated interchanges. Expressways under this definition do not conform to Interstate highway standards (which ban all driveways and at-grade intersections) and are therefore usually numbered as state highways or U.S. Highways.

This distinction was first developed in 1949 by the Special Committee on Nomenclature of what is now the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). In turn, the definitions were incorporated into AASHTO's official standards book, the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, which would become the national standards book of the U.S. Department of Transportation under a 1966 federal statute. The same distinction has also been codified into the statutory law of eight states: California, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, and Wisconsin.

However, each state codified the federal distinction slightly differently. California expressways do not necessarily have to be divided, though they must have at least partial access control. For both terms to apply in Wisconsin, a divided highway must be at least four lanes wide. In Missouri, both terms apply only to divided highways at least 10 miles long that are not part of the Interstate Highway System. In North Dakota and Mississippi, an expressway may have "full or partial" access control and "generally" has grade separations at intersections; a freeway is then defined as an expressway with full access control. Ohio's statute is similar, but instead of the vague word "generally", it imposes a requirement that 50% of an expressway's intersections must be grade-separated for the term to apply. Only Minnesota enacted the exact MUTCD definitions, in May 2008.

However, many states around the Great Lakes region and along the Eastern Seaboard have refused to conform their terminology to the federal definition. The following states officially prefer the term expressway instead of freeway to describe what are technically freeways in federal parlance: Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, Maryland, and West Virginia. In those states, it is common to find Interstate highways that bear the name expressway. Ultimately, it is the federal definition that defines a road's classification whether it is an expressway or freeway no matter the preferred term. No state, for instance, could have what is technically an expressway given Interstate status just because semantically they use the term interchangeably with freeway.

Most expressways under the federal definition have speed limits of 45-55 mph (70–90 km/h) in urban areas and 55-70 mph (90–110 km/h) in rural areas. Urban expressways are usually free of private driveways, but occasional exceptions include direct driveways to gas stations and shopping malls at major intersections (which would never be allowed on a true freeway).

The vast majority of expressways are built by state governments, or by private companies, which then operate them as toll roads pursuant to a license from the state government.

A famous example of a local government getting into the expressway business is Santa Clara County in California, which deliberately built its own expressway system in the 1960s to supplement the freeway system then planned by Caltrans. Although the county originally planned to upgrade the expressways into full-fledged freeways, such a project became politically infeasible after the rise of the tax revolt movement in the mid-1970s, which began with California Proposition 13 in 1978.

Brazil
In Brazil, an expressway is known as Via Expressa and its function is to connect the most important streets and avenues of certain cities with their adjacent highways. Because of this, some expressways are numbered (in the same way as highways). According to the Código Brasileiro de Trânsito (Brazilian Traffic Code), expressways are officially defined as Vias de Trânsito Rápido (Rapid Transit Routes) and are considered the most important urban roads, with standard speed limits of 80 km/h (unless specified). A few examples of expressways include Marginal Tietê and Marginal Pinheiros in São Paulo; Avenida Brasil, Red Line and Yellow Line in Rio de Janeiro; among others.

title: Limited-access road


text:
User:Davorg

I'm Dave Cross.

I'm a Perl hacker, writer and trainer living in Clapham, London. I'm the author of Data Munging with Perl and a co-author of Perl Template Toolkit.

Expect to see work on articles covering Open Source software, London and obscure British TV shows and music.

 * My web site
 * My blog
 * My company
 * Planet davorg

title: User:Davorg


text:
Alfonso Ferrabosco

Alfonso Ferrabosco may refer to:

 * Alfonso Ferrabosco the elder (1543–1588), Italian composer mainly active in England, and instrumental in bringing the Italian madrigal there; eldest son of Domenico Ferrabosco
 * Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger (1575–1628), English composer, son of Alfonso senior, also a singer, and performer on the lute and viol
 * Alfonso Ferrabosco III (junior) (died 1661), English composer and court musician

title: Alfonso Ferrabosco


text:
Kaki Hunter

Kaki Hunter (born Katherine Susan Hunter; November 6, 1955) is an American actress, architect, and writer, perhaps best known for her role in the trilogy of Porky's films in the 1980s.

Life and career
Hunter was born in Silver Spring, Maryland. She received accolades for her second ever role, as one of the three sisters in the 1977 West German film Maiden's War. Her performance earned the gold award for Best Young Actress from Germany's Deutscher Filmpreis, and the award for Best Actress at Spain's San Sebastián International Film Festival.

Hunter starred as the female lead in Roadie (1980), followed by roles in Willie & Phil (1980), Whose Life Is It Anyway? (1981) and Just the Way You Are (1984).

Hunter also appeared in guest roles on television, including the 1979 episode "The Execution File" of the television series Hawaii Five-O, the 1982 episode "Weekend" on the anthology series American Playhouse, and the 1991 episode "Writer Wrong" of the series Tropical Heat, her last role before retiring from acting.

Hunter received her greatest attention for the role of Wendy Williams, the female lead among the group of high schoolers in the 1981 hit film Porky's, returning to the role in Porky's II: The Next Day (1983) and Porky's Revenge! (1985).

After she retired from acting, Hunter became a teacher of white water rafting in Utah. She is the author of the how-to book Earthbag Building.

She was also active in the community theater in Moab, Utah.

title: Kaki Hunter


text: User talk:69.142.219.176

title: User talk:69.142.219.176


text:
Talk:George S. Parker High School

For a May 2005 deletion debate over this page see Votes for deletion/George S. Parker High School

Why has this school an article in wikipedia? The current version of the text does not answer this question. Is anyone able to make the article more appropriate for an encyclopedia by describing the importance of this particular highschool? Otherwise we should propose deleting the article. --Besserwissi 22:28, 19 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Anyway, in one place in the article it says the school has 2000 students; in another place the article says 1600 students. Which is it? Please pick one and fix. Moncrief 23:43, Mar 4, 2005 (UTC)

I fixed the enrollment earlier. Just fixed some vandalism. Also changed the nickname from Vikings to Cow Pie High which is its actual nickname. Michael McNett 22:15, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

NPOV
"Under the coaching of Tom Klawitter, the girls basketball team has been a dominant force in the state almost every year since the early 1990s. Since the late 1990s the Parker football team has also been an extremely dominant force in the state." This tells me nothing about how they are actually doing. Is this a Division I school? What sort state achievements has this school had since the early 1990s that make its girls' basketball team "a dominant force in the state" and it's football team "an extremely dominant force in the state"? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Alethiareg (talk • contribs).
 * I took out the uncited claims. We can find something better to say than grandiose claims (winning a few isn't "dominant"). --Dhartung | Talk 09:57, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as stub, and the rating on other projects was brought up to Stub class. BetacommandBot 10:15, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:George S. Parker High School


text:
Ferrabosco

Ferrabosco is the name of several musicians and composers, all from a family originating in Bologna:

 * Domenico Ferrabosco (1513–1574), Italian composer and singer
 * Alfonso Ferrabosco the elder (1543–1588), Italian composer mainly active in England, and instrumental in bringing the Italian madrigal there; eldest son of Domenico Ferrabosco
 * Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger (1575–1628), English composer, son of Alfonso the elder, also a singer, and performer on the lute and viol
 * Alfonso Ferrabosco III (junior) (died 1652), an English composer and court musician, son of Ferrabosco the younger
 * Henry Ferrabosco (died 1658?), a court musician before and during the First English Civil War, son of Ferrabosco the younger
 * John Ferrabosco (1626–1682), English organist and composer, youngest son of Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger

 * Matthia Ferrabosco (1550–1616), Italian singer and composer
 * Constantino Ferrabosco (late 16th century), Italian composer, probably the brother of Matthia

title: Ferrabosco


text:
Théah

Théah is the fictional world created for the 7th Sea tabletop roleplaying game and collectible card game, created by John Wick and Jennifer Wick. It is based on an alternate version of early modern Europe with nations matching different periods and legends. There is also an undercurrent of secret societies based on real world and fictional sources. The 7th Sea role-playing game is centered on the swashbuckling genre.

Nations of Théah

 * Avalon : The England of Théah is based equally on Elizabethan England and the Arthurian legends. Queen Elaine rules the Three Kingdoms (Avalon, Innismore, and the Highland Marches) from the mystical city of Carleon using the symbol of the Graal to represent her unified rule.
 * Castille : The Spain of Théah is the stronghold of the Vaticine church (more Gnostic than Catholic) where the masked El Vago fights the injustice of the Inquisition.
 * Eisen : The Seven Kingdoms of Théah's equivalent to the various nation-states that would become Germany were once united into a Holy Roman Empire but now lie war-torn and divided after a religious-based civil war equivalent to the Thirty Years' War.
 * Montaigne : The France of Théah was home to the decadent empire of the glorious Sun King Leon Alexandre du Montaigne but now having gone through the throes of a bloody French Revolution is the first republic in Théah.
 * Ussura : The icy parable of Russia lies on the brink of modernisation and the transition from the iron grip of the Gaius (like Ivan the Terrible) to the reformation of Catherine the Great.
 * Vendel : The Dutch and Scandinavian cultures are in schism between the merchant Guilds and the ancient warrior traditions of the Vestenmannavnjar (Vikings).
 * Vodacce : The Italian city-states are represented by the fracture and fractious islands of the scheming Merchant Princes all following the tenets of The Great Game.
 * Cathay : Théah's parallel to China and the Orient is separated from the rest of the world by the mysterious Wall of Fire.
 * Crescent Empire : Sand, scimitars and other archetypal Middle Eastern fare.

Secret societies

 * The Knights of the Rose & Cross : A mixture of the Knights Templar with the Rosicrucians and a touch of the Masons, they try to inspire the populace with their heroic deeds.
 * Die Kreuzritter : The Black Crosses are the successors to the Teutonic Knights who fought in the Crusades and now fight a shadowy war against an alien threat.
 * Explorer's Society : The archaeologists and explorers of Théah are for any budding "Indiana Jones" as they explore the ancient Syrneth cultures that predate mankind.
 * Invisible College : Based on the real-world association of scholars that became the Royal Society, they work in secret due to the rise of the Inquisition.
 * Los Vagos : The followers of El Vago (Zorro) help to uphold justice and freedom in Castille under the persecution of the Inquisition
 * The Rilasciare : Seen as small collections of anarchists and troublemakers, the group is far older and more organised than anyone realises.
 * Sophia's Daughters : Descendants of an ancient Sidhe bloodline, the group are secret guardians of Théah with powers of foresight and manipulation.
 * Novus Ordum Mundi : The evil overlord club is a collection of some of the most villainous members of Théan society who have schemed and manipulated for many centuries.
 * The Rye Grin : A new organization founded during the Montaigne Revolution trying to save innocents from the guillotine.

title: Théah


text:
Tell-tale (spacecraft)

In space systems a tell-tale is a single-bit status indicator that is included in telemetry or is used within the spacecraft's on-board software to signal conditions that must be tracked or acted upon, especially when the status changes. A tell-tale may continually change as the status it is tracking changes, or, it may change once upon change of status and then remain at that value until deliberately cleared. The latter type of tell-tale is known as a "sticky-bit" because its value "sticks", that is, remains constant, once it has been set.

The Phoenix spacecraft contains another type of tell-tale, developed by the University of Aarhus in Denmark, as part of its Meteorological Station. It is a small tube that is deflected by the martian wind, similar to a sailing tell-tale. The science payload's stereo camera recorded images of its motion to be used to determine wind direction and speed.

title: Tell-tale (spacecraft)


text:
Iuka

Iuka may refer to several places and things named after Chief Iuka of the Chickasaw:

 * Iuka, Arkansas, a village in Izard County
 * Iuka, Illinois, a village in Marion County
 * Iuka Township, Marion County, Illinois
 * Iuka, Kansas, a city in Pratt County
 * Iuka, Kentucky, a village in Livingston County
 * Iuka, Mississippi, a city in Tishomingo County
 * Battle of Iuka, 1862
 * Iuka order of battle
 * Iuka, West Virginia
 * Iuka Normal Institute, a former school (1882-1902) in Iuka, Mississippi
 * USS Iuka, several ships

title: Iuka