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EZ Rock

EZ Rock was a brand of adult contemporary radio stations heard primarily in Canada. The branding was originally created by Telemedia in the mid-1990s for its AC stations, and based on the call sign of its former Toronto flagship CJEZ-FM (now adult hits-formatted CHBM-FM).

Via acquisitions, control of the "EZ Rock" brand passed from Telemedia to Astral Media and later Bell Media. By 2021, as the majority of its owned-and-operated stations had been shifted to one of Bell Media's other standardized station formats, such as Pure Country, Move Radio (AC, which replaced Ontario's final "EZ Rock" station CHRE-FM in St. Catharines, and Kelowna's CILK-FM), or Virgin Radio (CHR/Top 40), the only remaining "EZ Rock" stations were in British Columbia. On May 18, 2021, the final "EZ Rock" stations flipped to adult hits under Bell's "Bounce Radio" brand.

History
Ownership of the EZ Rock brand passed from Telemedia to Standard Broadcasting in 2002, to Astral Media in 2007, and to Bell Media in 2013.

On August 29, 2013, Rogers Media's "EZ Rock" stations in Northern Ontario switched to the company's standard "Kiss" brand (heard primarily on CHR stations); these stations were former Standard stations that were acquired by Rogers in 2002.

As of January 2021, the "EZ Rock" branding was mostly heard on Bell Media-owned stations in British Columbia making it the last Canadian province to use the "EZ Rock" branding since the other stations have rebranded to Move Radio. On May 18, 2021, Bell flipped all remaining "EZ Rock" stations to its new adult hits branding "Bounce Radio".

Programming
The EZ Rock stations were generally programmed independently, although special Canadian content versions of shows such as Delilah and the John Tesh Radio Show were heard across the network. Several marketing stations like London and St. Catharines also heard is On Air with Ryan Seacrest and Rick Dees Weekly Top 40 as well. Some stations in smaller markets may also share voice-tracked programming in weekend and overnight slots.

Former EZ Rock stations
All stations are owned by Bell Media Radio, unless otherwise specified.

Alberta

 * Edmonton - CFMG-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 1990s until 2011)

British Columbia

 * Summerland - CHOR-FM (identified as EZ Rock from June 17, 2010 until May 18, 2021)
 * Penticton - CKOR (identified as EZ Rock from until May 18, 2021)
 * Osoyoos - CJOR (identified as EZ Rock from until May 18, 2021)
 * Salmon Arm - CKXR-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 1999 until May 18, 2021)
 * Revelstoke - CKCR-FM (identified as EZ Rock from until May 18, 2021)
 * Golden - CKGR-FM (identified as EZ Rock from until May 18, 2021)
 * Trail - CJAT-FM (identified as EZ Rock from October 5, 2011 until May 18, 2021)
 * Nelson - CKKC-FM (identified as EZ Rock from until May 18, 2021)
 * Prince Rupert - CHTK-FM (identified as EZ Rock from October 2011 until May 18, 2021)
 * Terrace - CFTK (identified as EZ Rock from October 2011 until May 18, 2021)
 * Kitimat - CKTK-FM (identified as EZ Rock from October 2011 until May 18, 2021)
 * Kelowna - CILK-FM (identified as EZ Rock from January 2011 until December 27, 2020)

New Brunswick

 * Fredericton - CIBX-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 2000 until 2005)
 * Woodstock - CJCJ-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 1999 until 2009)

Nova Scotia

 * Truro - CKTO-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 2001 until 2002)

Ontario

 * Orillia - CICX-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 1996 until 2002; former Standard/Rogers station owned by Larche Communications, but later sold to Bell Media)
 * Ottawa - CJOT-FM (identified as EZ Rock from May 27, 2010 until June 30, 2011, former flagship station; now owned by Corus Radio)
 * Toronto - CHBM-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 1995 until 2009 using the CJEZ-FM callsign, former flagship station; now owned by Stingray Group)
 * London - CIQM-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 1996 until August 17, 2012)
 * North Bay - CHUR-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 1999 until August 29, 2013; owned by Rogers Sports & Media)
 * Sault Ste. Marie - CHAS-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 1999 until August 29, 2013; owned by Rogers Sports & Media)
 * St. Catharines - CHRE-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 2001 until December 27, 2020; last Ontario station to use the brand)
 * Sudbury - CJMX-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 1999 until August 29, 2013; owned by Rogers Sport & Media)
 * Timmins - CKGB-FM (identified as EZ Rock from 2001 until August 29, 2013; owned by Rogers Sports & Media)

title: EZ Rock


text:
Talk:Cold cathode

Arc or glow discharge?
Is a neon lamp really an example of arc discharge? I thought it was glow discharge. A neon sign, on the other hand...

Atlant 18:02, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

In German wie distinguish between (Neon-)Glimm-lampe (= neon-(glow-)lamp, a small bulb about 2 mm distance between electrodes, starts to glow at 70 volts as in the screwdriver style voltage tester) and the Neon-Röhre (=neon tube, 2 cm inner diameter and 5 to 300 cm length with 4500 volts to ignite teh arc, and to be coloured by different gas fillings, fluorescent pigments, glass colours) 91.141.97.179 (talk) 08:17, 25 July 2009 (UTC) johannes muhr, graz (A)

Patents?
An anonymous editor has added examples of CC patents. Is there any evidence that these particlular ones are practical or have been the basis of any commercial development? Simply browsing patent files is not likely to be very fruitful in this regard. --Blainster 12:16, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, I'm tempted to give any patent by Philo Farnsworth the "Okay" based just upon his name and fame, and looking at the first patent, it seems reasonably relevant. I'm not sure it goes to "the heart of the matter", but it's not bad or spam or anything like that.

 * Atlant 15:56, 17 July 2005 (UTC)

Common usage?
Right now, if one searches for "cold cathode" in Google, one gets a whole bunch of ads for the PC case mods using "cold cathodes", and mostly after those, comes more generic items. I'd love to see a "Common Usage" section, with at least one question answered: what sort of power supplies are really required? The case mods are all being sold with inverters, which convert from PC power supply input (12VDC, approx. 4W per tube) to (I think, based on some blogosphere statements only) ~300 VAC at some unknown Hz and low current. If this is true, I think it should theoretically be possible to build an AC-to-AC power supply cheaper than those inverters, losing less power to heat in power conversion, and very useful to implement those wonderfully inexpensive cathodes for room and desk lighting and more. Anyone have a clue where to look for the skinny?

 * Wikipedia isn't the place for manuals or how-to documents, sorry. See What_Wikipedia_is_not for some suggestions (and maybe someone can beautify this link, as I don't have the patience to figure out whether it can be, bleah). 72.48.98.26 (talk) 09:36, 17 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Regarding your question "what sort of power supplies are required" I added an external link to Everbrite. This is one of several companies who make neon lamp supplies.  Hope this helps.  WWriter (talk) 19:49, 28 March 2011 (UTC)

Definition of "Cathode Ray"
In section 2 the following definition is given:

"Cathode rays - The positive ions created when some electrons are removed from the molecules of a gas at low pressure."

I thought that "cathode ray" was the name originally given to what we now consider to be a stream of electrons being attracted from the cathode towards a more positive anode.

CacheHue 04:22, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm on your side of the definition, but we should remove that archaic reference entirely.

 * Atlant 12:10, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

Weird...
Whats with the weird comment at the end of the article?

Quote:

 * Remember kids to put on a condom before putting in your cathodes.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.202.21.141 (talk) 03:33, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

Electron emission
That chapter is misleading. To my knowledge, field emission is irrelevant for usual glow discharges (it is secondary emission mainly due to ion impact, with some contribution of photoeffect) and field emission cathodes are not subsumed under cold cathodes. – Rainald62 (talk) 11:42, 26 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Fixed it earlier this month. -- Rainald62 (talk) 13:31, 16 April 2011 (UTC)

This article is now completely misleading. A Cold cathode is simply an electrode which emits electrons due to electric field strength, rather than by thermionic emission. The article used to be correct in this respect, but it has been modified by people who don't understand the difference between Thermionic Emission and Cold Cathode operation. 81.187.1.83 (talk) 18:31, 6 September 2014 (UTC)

 * I think the distinction between cold cathode and hot cathode is one of construction rather than emission mechanism. A cold cathode may work by secondary emission (a neon lamp), field emission (a mercury lamp), or thermionic emission (an arc). Glrx (talk) 15:41, 9 September 2014 (UTC)

 * Cold cathode is simply a cathode operating below its thermionic emission temperature. It is not defined by its construction, but how it liberates electrons (although of course, cathodes are generally designed for optimum operation in one or other mode depending on use case). Some cathodes operate in cold cathode mode and thermionic emission mode at different times (e.g. there are many lamps where cathodes operate in cold cathode mode initially at lamp striking, but transition to thermionic emission mode quite quickly). Most mercury lamps operate in thermionic emission mode (after first few seconds of cold cathode mode in some cases). They can be designed for permanent cold cathode operation, but the much higher cathode fall voltage results in wasted power (and excess heat to be dissipated) around the cathode which is not conducive to efficient operation. 81.187.1.83 (talk) 22:43, 12 September 2014 (UTC)

 * No, a cold cathode is one that does not have a heater. Compare hot cathode that says "In a hot cathode, the cathode surface is induced to emit electrons by heating it with a filament, a thin wire of refractory metal like tungsten with current flowing through it.  The increased thermal motion of the metal atoms knocks electrons out of the surface; this process is called thermionic emission. ".
 * See also Whitaker page 2512 stating, "(3 – cold-cathode) An electron tube whose cathode emits electrons without the need of a heating filament."
 * The hot/code cathode distinction is not used to identify the emission mode; that's done with terms such as field emission, photo emission, secondary emission, and thermionic emission.
 * Mercury lamps are not normally believed to operate in thermionic emission mode; the mercury evaporates at too low a temperature for efficient thermionic emission.
 * Glrx (talk) 16:33, 15 September 2014 (UTC)

 * Yes. And in operation, the cathode might become pretty warm. There is the additional distinction between space charge limited and temperature limited thermionic emission. There should be an article on that. Gah4 (talk) 22:53, 9 September 2016 (UTC)

This article needs some work
The wording in the "details" section is highly technical. I have a degree in Computer Science with some experience in electrical engineering and am generally well-rounded technically. Even so, I'm having a hard time figuring out what this section is talking about and why it's important. I think this should be reworded. If you look at one of the pages on one of the reference sites, you can see that it's much clearer and easier to understand: http://www.solelighting.com/node/8

Also, it looks like one of the references is just some company's product page, with no real information on it: http://www.egl-lighting.com/products.html I find that highly suspect and think it should be removed. 209.134.115.80 (talk) 00:31, 24 May 2011 (UTC)

 * 2015 - still needs work. Perhaps should be renamed to cold cathode device with 'cold cathode' being just a disambiguation. - Much better if all CCFL content moved to a CCFL article ? - Rod57 (talk) 19:05, 28 September 2015 (UTC)

Clarify the claim that "too low" temperature shortens the lifespan
How low is too low when dimming the backlight? For example, if I set the brightness of my LCD monitor to 25%, will that increase or decrease the lifetime of its CCFL backlight? SEppley (talk) 17:54, 7 October 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Cold cathode. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20101026042259/http://www.egl-lighting.com:80/products.html to http://www.egl-lighting.com/products.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 08:04, 30 August 2015 (UTC)

cold-cathode fluorescent lamp needs its own article
then we can more clearly discuss eg their characteristics (eg starting/striking, luminous efficiency) and voltage/current requirements. - Rod57 (talk) 18:49, 28 September 2015 (UTC)

Note 1.
A negatively charged electrode emits electrons or is the positively charged terminal A negative electrode emits electrons into the device, into the vacuum in a vacuum tube. It is, then, the positive electrode in a rectifier. That is, in a power supply the cathode connects to the positive terminal of the output (where electrons come back in). The terminology is even more confusing in batteries and electrolysis. Gah4 (talk) 22:47, 9 September 2016 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Cold cathode


text:
Joe Mullen

Joseph Patrick Mullen (born February 26, 1957) is an American former professional ice hockey player. He played 16 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) with the St. Louis Blues, Calgary Flames, Pittsburgh Penguins and Boston Bruins between 1980 and 1997. He was a member of three Stanley Cup championship teams, winning with the Flames in 1989 and the Penguins in 1991 and 1992. Mullen turned to coaching in 2000, serving as an assistant in Pittsburgh and briefly as head coach of the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins. He was an assistant with the Philadelphia Flyers from 2007 to 2017.

An undrafted player, Mullen was an all-star for the Boston College Eagles before turning professional in the Blues' organization. He was named the Central Hockey League (CHL) rookie of the year in 1980 and most valuable player in 1981 as a member of the Salt Lake Golden Eagles. He won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most gentlemanly player on two occasions as a member of the Flames, as well as the NHL Plus-Minus Award. Mullen was named to the first All-Star team in 1988–89 and played in three NHL All-Star Games.

Mullen played with the United States National Team on several occasions, including three Canada Cup tournaments. He was the first American player to score 500 goals and to reach 1,000 points in his career. Mullen received the Lester Patrick Trophy in 1995 in recognition of his contributions to the sport in the United States. He was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 1998 and the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2000.

Early life
Born February 26, 1957, in New York City, Mullen grew up in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan when it was controlled by the Gambino crime family. It was a rough neighborhood; Mullen later said that many of the people he grew up with fell into gangs and drug use, and several died before turning 21. He has three brothers, Ken, Tom Jr. and Brian, and a sister, Debbie.

The Mullen family lived less than a block from the old site of the third Madison Square Garden on Eighth Avenue between 49th and 50th Streets. Joe's father Tom was a longtime employee on the ice and maintenance staffs at the current Garden. Joe and his brothers often hung around the arena with their father, taking old sticks to play with. He began playing roller hockey at the age of five, playing in a concrete schoolyard and using a sanded down roll of electrical tape as a puck. The boys' schoolyard games served as a partial inspiration for New York Rangers' general manager, Emile Francis, to create the Metropolitan Junior Hockey Association in 1966. Mullen did not learn to ice skate until he was ten years old, but at the age of 14 joined the Metropolitan association as one of the league's youngest players. Mullen played four seasons in the league between 1971 and 1975. He scored 71 goals in 1973–74, then 182 points in 40 games the following season. Mullen's 110 goals in 1974–75 was 52 more than his nearest competitor.

College
Boston College offered Mullen a partial scholarship for the 1975–76 season to attend and play for the Eagles hockey program. He paid $700 out of his own pocket in the first year, but after scoring 34 points in 24 games as a freshman, the school gave him a full scholarship. Including tournament games, he led the Eagles in goals the following three seasons with 39, 38 and 30 respectively, and points in 1977–78 with 68 and in 1978–79 with 56. Mullen led the Eagles to the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC) championship in 1977–78, and was named an all-star of the 1978 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) tournament. He scored a goal in the championship game, but the Eagles lost to cross-town rival Boston University, 5–3.

In four seasons with Boston College, Mullen set school records of 110 goals and 212 points (both subsequently broken). He was named to the All-ECAC, All-New England and NCAA All-American teams in 1978 and 1979. He won the Walter Brown Award in 1978 as the top American-born player in New England, and was the team captain in 1978–79. Boston College has twice honored Mullen; He was inducted into the school's Varsity Club Hall of Fame in 1998, while the hockey program retired his jersey number 21 the following year.

St. Louis Blues
While Mullen had a successful college career, he went undrafted by any National Hockey League (NHL) team. His small stature, coupled with a general bias against American players at the time, especially from non-traditional development areas, contributed to his failure to be selected. However, he received interest as a free agent from several teams following graduation as well as the United States Olympic Team. He passed up the opportunity to play in the 1980 Winter Olympics and signed with the St. Louis Blues on August 16, 1979. The Blues assigned Mullen to their Central Hockey League (CHL) affiliate, the Salt Lake Golden Eagles for the 1979–80 season. In 75 games with the Golden Eagles, Mullen scored 40 goals and 72 points. He was named to the CHL's second all-star team and was voted rookie of the year. He made his NHL debut in the 1980 Stanley Cup Playoffs, appearing in one game for the Blues.

Mullen returned to Salt Lake for the 1980–81 season where he scored 59 goals and led the league with 117 points. He was named to the first all-star team and won the CHL's Most Valuable Player Award. Opening the 1981–82 season with Salt Lake, Mullen had 21 goals in 27 games before he was recalled to St. Louis. He scored his first two NHL goals on January 5, 1981, against the Minnesota North Stars. They came eight seconds apart and set a Blues' franchise record for fastest two goals by one player. Mullen scored 25 goals for the Blues that season and became the first player in history to score at least 20 goals in both the minor leagues and the NHL in the same season.

Injuries reduced Mullen to 49 games with the Blues in 1982–83, but he still scored 47 points. His 41 goals in 1983–84 set a record as the most scored by an American-born player in NHL history (broken by Bobby Carpenter the following season). He again reached the 40-goal plateau in 1984–85, and had 92 points total. He missed the first three days of the Blues' training camp prior to the 1985–86 season in a contract dispute before agreeing to a one-year deal. On February 1, 1986, the Blues dealt him to the Calgary Flames as part of a six player trade. Mullen went to Calgary, along with Terry Johnson and Rik Wilson, for Eddy Beers, Charlie Bourgeois and Gino Cavallini.

Calgary Flames
The Flames felt they needed a quality offensive player and expected Mullen to fulfill that role. As it was the first time in his career he had been traded, Mullen was initially upset at the move. He was awed by the reaction he received from fans in Calgary however; fans greeted him warmly even as his flight landed to arrive in the city. Mullen described the experience as being "almost like ... an instant celebrity". He quickly established himself as a fan favorite, scoring 38 points in 29 games to end the regular season. He then led the league with 12 goals in the 1986 Stanley Cup playoffs. The Flames reached the Finals for the first time in franchise history, but lost to the Montreal Canadiens in five games. Mullen set a personal best of 47 goals in his first full year in Calgary, 1986–87, and with only 14 penalty minutes on the season, was voted the winner of the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most gentlemanly player.

Mullen's 40 goals in 1987–88 was the fifth consecutive season he reached that total. He won his first of three consecutive Molson Cups as the Flames player with the most three star selections during the season. 1988–89 was Mullen's best season in the NHL. He reached the 50 goal and 100 point milestones, leading the Flames with 51 and 110 respectively, and won his second Lady Byng Memorial Trophy. He was named a first-team All-Star at right wing and won the Plus-Minus Award at +51. Additionally, he played in his first NHL All-Star Game, appearing opposite his brother Brian. He led the 1989 Stanley Cup playoffs with 16 goals as the Flames defeated the Canadiens to win their first Stanley Cup championship.

Though he played in his second All-Star Game in 1990, Mullen's production fell by 41 points, to 69, and he failed to score at least 40 goals for the first time in six seasons. Concerned about his age, the Flames chose to trade the 33-year-old Mullen following the season. He was sent to the Pittsburgh Penguins in a draft day trade on June 16, 1990, in exchange for Pittsburgh's second round selection.

Pittsburgh and Boston
The move to Pittsburgh brought Mullen closer to his New York home and fulfilled his desire to raise his family in his native United States. He also appreciated that the Penguins felt he could aid their team. Penguins' head coach Bob Johnson, who had previously coached him in Calgary, influenced the team's decision to acquire him. Mullen played only 47 games in 1990–91, scoring 17 goals and 39 points. He missed the last two months of the regular season after having surgery to remove a herniated disc in his back, an injury for which he could not identify a specific check or incident as the cause. He returned for the third game of the Penguins' Division Semifinals series against the New Jersey Devils, scoring a goal. Mullen finished the 1991 Stanley Cup playoffs with eight goals, including two in game six of the Finals, an 8–0 victory over the Minnesota North Stars that clinched Pittsburgh's first Stanley Cup.

Healthy throughout the 1991–92 season, Mullen rebounded offensively to score 42 goals and 87 points in 77 games. Midway through the season, he became the first player in Penguins' history to have consecutive four-goal games, doing so against the New York Islanders on December 23, 1991, and the Toronto Maple Leafs three days later. He appeared in only nine playoff games, however, as he suffered a knee injury that required surgery to repair in the second game of Pittsburgh's Division Final series against the New York Rangers. Mullen watched from the sidelines as the Penguins repeated as Stanley Cup champions.

Mullen tested free agency prior to the 1992–93 season, but ultimately chose to remain with the Penguins. He missed the first month of the season while recovering from his knee surgery, but finished the season with 33 goals and 70 points in 72 games. He added 6 points in 12 playoff games, but the Penguins' attempt at a third consecutive championship ended with a Division Final loss to the New York Islanders. A 38-goal season in 1993–94 led to Mullen's third All-Star Game appearance. The game was a homecoming of sorts for Mullen, as it was played in Madison Square Garden.

In the lockout-shortened 1994–95 season, Mullen scored 37 points in 45 games. He scored the 1,000th point of his career with a pair of assists on February 7, 1995, in a 7–3 victory over the Florida Panthers. He left the Penguins following the season, signing a one-year contract as a free agent with the Boston Bruins. Mullen chose to wear number 11 with the Bruins as his usual number 7 had been retired by the Bruins in honor of Phil Esposito. He missed the majority of the season after requiring surgery for another herniated disc, then suffering a sprained medial collateral ligament. He appeared in only 37 games, scoring 15 points.

Mullen rejoined the Penguins for the 1996–97 season, signing a one-year contract. He appeared in 54 games and scored 22 points. He scored his 500th career goal on March 14, 1997, in a 6–3 loss to the Colorado Avalanche. He retired as a player following the season.

International
Mullen made his first appearance with the United States National Team following his graduation from Boston College. He appeared in eight games at the 1979 World Ice Hockey Championships, scoring seven goals and adding an assist for the seventh place Americans. He was a member of three Canada Cup teams, appearing at the 1984, 1987 and 1991 tournaments. He scored two goals in the 1991 tournament, both of which came in a 7–3 semi-final victory over Finland that led the United States into their first tournament final. The Americans settled for second place, however, after losing to Canada in the championship series.

At the age of 41, Mullen emerged from retirement to join the Americans for a qualifying tournament leading into the 1999 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships. The United States had a disastrous 12th-place finish in the 1998 tournament, requiring them to go into a qualifying round to avoid relegation to the B division for 1999. As the qualifying tournament was played in November, American NHL players were not available. Mullen recorded three assists in three games, and helped the Americans stay in the top division for the 1999 tournament.

Playing style
Mullen arrived in the NHL possessing great balance on his skates, an ability his teammates and coaches believed he gained from playing roller hockey. His coaches praised his willingness to play in the difficult areas of the ice, even though he stood only five foot nine inches tall and knew he would have to take a hit to make a play. Penguins' play-by-play announcer Mike Lange nicknamed Mullen "Slippery Rock Joe" for his ability to evade opposing players.

The first American player in NHL history to score 500 goals and 1,000 points, Mullen's career totals of 502 goals and 1,063 points stood as American records until surpassed by Mike Modano and Phil Housley, respectively. Along with his brother Brian, Mullen was named a recipient of the Lester Patrick Award in 1995 in recognition of his contributions to hockey in the United States. He was inducted into the United States Hockey Hall of Fame in 1998, the Pittsburgh Penguins Hall of Fame as well and two years later, to the Hockey Hall of Fame. In 2011, the St. Louis Blues honored four players who wore uniform number 7 for their team. Mullen, Red Berenson, Garry Unger and Keith Tkachuk were each celebrated as part of the ceremony.

Coaching career
Mullen turned to coaching in 2000, joining the Penguins' staff as an assistant under Ivan Hlinka. He remained on the staff when Hlinka was fired one year later, under replacement Rick Kehoe, then Ed Olczyk. Mullen was removed from his role midway through the 2005–06 NHL season when the Penguins fired Olczyk and his entire staff. He was retained by the organization, however, and named interim head coach of the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins for the remainder of the American Hockey League (AHL) season. In 52 games, Mullen achieved a record of 28 wins, 16 losses, 3 ties and 5 overtime losses. The Penguins chose not to retain Mullen following the season. He moved to Pittsburgh's cross-state rival, the Philadelphia Flyers, first as an assistant with the AHL's Philadelphia Phantoms in 2006–07, then joining the NHL team in 2007. Mullen coached the team's power play, and was a member of the staff when the team reached the 2010 Stanley Cup Finals. He remained on the Flyers' staff through the end of 2016–17 season.

Personal life
Mullen and his wife, Linda, have four children: sons Ryan, Michael and Patrick, and a daughter: Erin. Patrick is also a professional hockey player. He signed a contract with the Ottawa Senators organization for the 2013–14 season.

title: Joe Mullen


text: Category:Runic inscriptions

title: Category:Runic inscriptions


text:
Hartwick

The name Hartwick has multiple uses:

People

 * Anna Elisabeth Hartwick (1796–1882), Swedish lace industrialist
 * John Christopher Hartwick (1714–1796), Lutheran minister in colonial America.
 * Edward Hartwick (1871–1918), soldier and namesake of Hartwick Pines State Park

United States

 * Hartwick, Iowa, a city in Powesheik County
 * Hartwick, Delaware County, Iowa
 * Hartwick, New York
 * Hartwick (CDP), New York
 * Hartwick Township, Michigan
 * Hartwick Pines State Park

Institutions

 * Hartwick College, Oneonta, New York

title: Hartwick


text:
Gir National Park

Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, also known as Sasan Gir, is a forest, national park, and wildlife sanctuary near Talala Gir in Gujarat, India. It is located 43 km north-east of Somnath, 65 km south-east of Junagadh and 60 km south-west of Amreli. It was established in 1965 in the erstwhile Nawab of Junagarh's private hunting area, with a total area of 1410.30 km2, of which 258.71 km2 is fully protected as a national park and 1151.59 km2 as wildlife sanctuary. It is part of the Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forests ecoregion.

The 14th Asiatic Lion Census 2015 was conducted in May 2015. In 2015, the population was 523 (27% up compared to previous census in 2010). The population was 411 in 2010 and 359 in 2005. The lion population in Junagadh District was 268 individuals, 44 in Gir Somnath District, 174 in Amreli District, and 37 in Bhavangar District. There are 109 males, 201 females and 213 cubs. The lions can be seen by Jungle Safari which one can book online as well.

Gir National Park is closed from 16 June to 15 October every year, throughout the monsoon season.

History
In the 19th century, the rulers of Indian princely states used to invite the British colonists for hunting expeditions. At the end of the 19th century, only about a dozen Asiatic lions were left in India, all of them in the Gir Forest, which was part of the Nawab of Junagarh's private hunting grounds. British viceroys brought the drastic decline of the lion population in Gir to the attention of the Nawab of Junagadh, who established the sanctuary. Today, it is the only area in Asia where Asiatic lions occur and is considered one of the most important protected areas in Asia because of its biodiversity. The Gir ecosystem with its diverse flora and fauna is protected as a result of the efforts of the government forest department, wildlife activists and NGOs. It is now considered the jewel of Gujarat's ecological resources.

Water reserves
The seven major perennial rivers of the Gir region are Hiran, Shetrunji, Dhatarvadi, Shingoda, Machhundri, Ambajal and Raval. The four reservoirs of the area are at four dams, one each on Hiran, Machhundri, Raval and Shingoda rivers, including the biggest reservoir in the area, the Kamleshwar Dam, dubbed 'the lifeline of Gir'. It is located at 21°08′08″N to 70°47′48″E.

During peak summer, surface water for wild animals is available at about 300 water points. When drought hits the area following poor rainfall, surface water is not available at a majority of these points, and water scarcity becomes a serious problem (mainly in the eastern part of the sanctuary). Ensuring the availability of water during peak summer is one of the major tasks of the Forest Department staff.

Flora
More than 400 plant species were recorded in the survey of Gir forest by Samtapau & Raizada in 1955. The botany department of M.S. University of Baroda has revised the count to 507 during their survey. According to the 1964 forest type classification by Champion & Sheth, the Gir forest falls under "5A/C-1a—very dry teak forest" classification. Teak occurs mixed with dry deciduous species. The degradation stages (DS) sub-types are thus derived as:
 * 1) 5/DS1-Dry deciduous scrub forest and
 * 2) 5/DS1-Dry savannah forests (Locally known as "vidis"). It is the largest dry deciduous forest in western India.

Teak bearing areas are mainly in the eastern portion of the forest, which constitutes nearly half of the total area. Several species of acacia are found. Also found here are ber, jamun (Syzygium cumini), babul (acacia), flame of the forest, zizyphus, tendu and dhak. Also plants like karanj, umlo, amli, sirus, kalam, charal and an occasional vad or banyan tree are found. These broadleaf trees provide a cool shade and moisture content to the region. As part of the afforestation programme casuarina and prosopis have been planted along the coast borders of gir.

The forest is an important biological research area with considerable scientific, educational, aesthetic and recreational values. It provides nearly 5 million kilograms of green grass by annual harvesting, which is valued approximately at ₹ 500 million (US$7.12 million). The forest provides nearly 123,000 metric tons worth of fuel wood annually.

Wildlife
The count of 2,375 distinct fauna species of Gir includes about 38 species of mammals, around 300 species of birds, 37 species of reptiles and more than 2,000 species of insects.

The carnivores group mainly comprises the Asiatic lion, Indian leopard, jungle cat, striped hyena, golden jackal, Bengal fox, Indian gray mongoose, ruddy mongoose, and honey badger. Asiatic wildcat and rusty-spotted cat occur, but are rarely seen.

The main herbivores of Gir are chital, nilgai, sambar, four-horned antelope, chinkara and wild boar. Blackbucks from the surrounding area are sometimes seen in the sanctuary. Among the smaller mammals, porcupine and hare are common, but the pangolin is rare.

The reptiles are represented by the mugger crocodile, Indian cobra, tortoise and monitor lizard which inhabit the sanctuary's bodies of water. Snakes are found in the bush and forest. Pythons are sighted at times along the stream banks. Gir has been used by the Gujarat State Forest Department which formed the Indian Crocodile Conservation Project in 1977 and released close to 1,000 marsh crocodiles into Lake Kamaleshwar and other small bodies of water in and around Gir.

The plentiful avifauna population has more than 300 species of birds, most of which are resident. The scavenger group of birds has six recorded species of vultures. Some of the typical species of Gir include crested serpent eagle, Bonelli's eagle, changeable hawk-eagle, brown fish owl, Indian eagle-owl, rock bush-quail, Indian peafowl, brown-capped pygmy woodpecker, black-headed oriole, crested treeswift and Indian pitta. The Indian grey hornbill was not found from the last census of 2001.

Asiatic lion
The Asiatic lion's habitat is dry scrub land and open deciduous forest. The lion population increased from 411 individuals in 2010 to 674 in 2020, and all of them live in or around Gir National Park.

In 1900 it was estimated that the population was as low as 100, and the Asiatic lion was declared a protected species. A census in 1936 recorded 289 animals. The first modern-day count of lions was done by Mark Alexander Wynter-Blyth, the principal of Rajkumar College, Rajkot and R.S. Dharmakumarsinhji sometime between 1948 and 1963; and a further survey, in 1968, recorded that since 1936 numbers had fallen to 162.

Even though the Gir Forest is well protected, there are instances of Asiatic lions being poached. They have also been poisoned in retaliation for attacking livestock. Some of the other threats include floods, fires and the possibility of epidemics and natural calamities. Gir nonetheless remains the most promising long-term preserve for them.

During a prolonged drought from 1899 to 1901, lions attacked livestock and people beyond the Gir Forest. After 1904, the rulers of Junagadh compensated livestock losses. Today, the lions in Gir National Park rarely attack people.

Lion conservation
The Lion Breeding Programme creates and maintains breeding centres. It also carries out studies of the behaviour of the Asiatic lions and also practices artificial insemination. One such centre has been established in the Sakkarbaug Zoo at the district headquarters of Junagadh, which has successfully bred about 180 lions. A total of 126 pure Asiatic lions have been given to zoos in India and abroad.

The census of lions takes place every five years. Previously indirect methods like using pugmarks of the lion were adopted for the count. However, during the census of April 2005 (which originally was scheduled for 2006, but was advanced following the reports and controversy over vanishing tigers in India), "Block-Direct-Total Count" method was employed with the help of around 1,000 forest officials, experts and volunteers. It means that only those lions were counted that were "spotted" visually. Use of "live bait" (a prey that is alive and used as a bait) for the exercise, though thought to be a traditional practice, was not used this time. The reason believed to be behind this is the Gujarat High Court ruling of 2000 against such a use of animals.

During the 2010 census 'The Cat Women of Gir Forest' counted more than 411 lions in the park, and 523 in 2015. The women who do the counting are from traditional tribes in neighbouring villages. There are over 40 women van raksha sahayaks, who seek only to protect the animals of the park.

Ecological problems
Gir National Park and Sanctuary faces a number of threats to its ecosystem. Natural threats include recurrent drought, cyclones, and forest fires. Anthropogenic threats include over-grazing, encroachment, excessive traffic and resultant weed infestation. Tourism contributes to this environmental degradation, as does the mining carried out in the periphery. Pollution results from the railway lines that run through the peripheral zone. The narrow genetic base in the large mammals is also an issue of growing concern.

title: Gir National Park


text:
Gaya (India)

Gaya (IAST: Gayā) is a city, municipal corporation and the administrative headquarters of Gaya district and Magadh division of the Indian state of Bihar. Gaya is 116 km south of Patna and is the state's second-largest city, with a population of 500,000+. The city is surrounded on three sides by small, rocky hills (Mangla-Gauri, Shringa-Sthan, Ram-Shila, and Brahmayoni), with the Phalgu River on its eastern side.

It is a city of historical significance and is one of the major tourist attractions in India. Gaya is sanctified in the Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist religions. Gaya district is mentioned in the great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. It is the place where Rama, with Sita and Lakshmana, came to offer piṇḍadāna for their father, Dasharatha, and continues to be a major Hindu pilgrimage site for the piṇḍadāna ritual. Bodh Gaya, where Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment, is one of the four holy sites of Buddhism.

Gaya was chosen as one of twelve heritage cities to benefit from the Government of India's four-year Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) scheme for urban planning, economic growth and heritage conservation projects.

The Mahabodhi Temple complex at Bodh Gaya is a World Heritage Site declared by UNESCO

The Gaya District have 4 sub-division include Gaya Sadar,Sherghati,Tekadi,Neemchak-Bathani

Etymology
Gaya is named after the demon Gayasura (meaning "the demon Gaya") who dwelt the area during the Treta Yuga. According to Vayu Purana, Gaya was the name of a demon (Asura) whose body became pious after he performed strict penance and secured blessings from Lord Vishnu. It was said that the body of Gayasura was transformed into the series of rocky hills that make up the landscape of Gaya.

Ancient history
According to modern scholars, the Kikata kingdom from Rigvedic period was located at Gaya, Bihar.

Gaya is an ancient city, with a Buddhist documented history dating back to the 6th century BCE when the sage Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, 16 km from the modern city.

Even before this time, Gaya was a place of pilgrimage for people from around the world. The fame of ancient Gaya derived from the account in the Ramayana of the god Rama coming here to the banks of Phalgu River (called the Niranjana), accompanied by his wife and younger brother, to offer pind-daan for their father Dasharatha, for the moksha of his soul. In the Mahabharata, Gaya is referred to as Gayapuri.

Gaya flourished during the Maurya Empire (321–187 BCE), which ruled from the city of Pataliputra (adjacent to modern Patna) over an area that extended beyond the Indian subcontinent. During this period, Gaya witnessed the rise and fall of many dynasties in the Magadha region, where it occupied an important place in cultural history over some 2,400 years between the 6th century BCE and the 18th century CE.

The city's cultural significance began with the dynasty founded by Sisunaga, who exercised power over Patna and Gaya around 600 BCE. Bimbisara, fifth king of the dynasty, who lived and ruled around 519 BCE, had projected Gaya to the outer world. Having attained an important place in the history of civilization, the area experienced the influence of Gautama Buddha and Bhagwan Mahavir during the reign of Bimbisara. After a brief period under the Nanda dynasty (345–321 BCE), Gaya and the entire Magadha region came under Mauryan rule. Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (272–232 BCE) embraced and promoted Buddhism. He visited Gaya, and built the first temple at Bodh Gaya to commemorate the Buddha's attainment of supreme enlightenment.

The period of Hindu revivalism began with the Gupta Empire during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. Samudragupta of Magadha brought Gaya into the limelight, making it the capital of Bihar district during the Gupta empire.

In 750 CE, Gaya became a part of the Pala Empire, under the rule of its founder, Gopala. It is believed that the present temple of Bodh Gaya was built during the reign of Gopala's son, Dharmapala.

In the 12th century CE, Gaya was invaded by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji of the Ghaznavid Empire. By 1557, it had become part of the Mughal Empire, and remained under its power until the Battle of Buxar and the beginning of British rule in 1764. Gaya, along with other parts of the country, gained its independence in 1947.

Modern history
As attested by Francis Buchanan-Hamilton in the early nineteenth century, the city was divided into two areas: a sacred area in the southern part of the city, called Gaya; and the larger secular area, which may have been known by the Muslim community as Allahabad. During the British rule, the commercial and administrative area of the secular zone was formally named Saheb Ganj by British policy reformer Thomas Law, who was a district officer in Gaya in the late nineteenth century. Now 2023 Upgrade Gaya Junction to International Junction official news launched By @PIB_Patna on Twitter

Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, founder of the All India Kisan Sabha peasant movement in 1936, established an ashram at Neyamatpur, Gaya, which later became the centre of the freedom struggle in Bihar. Many prominent leaders of the Indian National Congress visited frequently to meet Yadunandan (Jadunandan) Sharma when he was leader of Kisan Sabha, residing in the ashram set up by Swamiji. Yadunandan Sharma became the leader of the peasants of Gaya district and second-in-command to Swami Sahajanand Saraswati.

Gaya played a significant role in the Indian Independence Movement. From 26 to 31 December 1922, the 37th session of the Indian National Congress was held in Gaya under the presidency of Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das. It was attended by prominent leaders and luminaries of the Independence Movement, including Mohandas K. Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Sardar Patel, Maulana Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru and Sri Krishna Sinha.

Gaya is the birthplace of eminent nationalist Bihar Vibhuti, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Bihar's first deputy Chief Minister and Finance Minister. Former Bihar Chief Minister Satyendra Narayan Sinha also hailed from Gaya. Ishwar Chaudhary, a member of the Fifth, Sixth and Ninth Lok Sabhas from 1971 to 1979 and from 1989 to 1991, represented the Gaya constituency of Bihar.

Administration
Until 1864, Gaya was a part of the district of Behar and Ramgarh (now in the state of Jharkhand). It became a district of Bihar in its own right on 3 October 1865. In May 1981, the Bihar state government created the Magadh division, comprising the district of Gaya, along with Nawada, Aurangabad and Jehanabad, all of which had originally been sub-divisions when Gaya district was created. Aurangabad and Nawada were partitioned from the territory of Gaya in 1973; and Jehanabad in 1988. Gaya district occupies an area of 4,976 km2 (1,921-mile2).

Gaya Municipal Corporation (GMC) is the civic body that governs Gaya. GMC consists of democratically elected members, is headed by a mayor, who administer the city's infrastructure, public services, and supplies. As of 2022, the corporation is headed by Birendra Kumar and Deputy mayor Chinta Devi.

Pilgrimage
The city of Gaya is a holy place of Hinduism, with a great number of Hindu deities represented in the engravings, paintings and carvings of its shrines. Of particular importance are the sites in the city associated with Vishnu, in particular the Phalgu River and the shrine Vishnupad Mandir, or Vishnupada, which is marked by a large footprint of Lord Vishnu engraved in a basalt block. Gaya is the location at which Rama, with Sita and Lakshmana, offered pind-daan for his father, Dasharatha. Gaya has since remained a site of key importance for the performance of the pind-daan ritual.

Gaya is considered to be one of the most ideal places to perform the Śrāddha. (A Śrāddha is the Hindu ritual that one performs to pay homage to one's ancestors, especially to one's dead parents). As per Hindu belief system, it is believed that a person goes to hell if he dies in the following circumstances - if he meets an accidental death, if he dies without his consecrations being performed, or if he is killed by a wild animal. But, if Śrāddha of that person are performed at Gaya then the soul of such a man will get rid of the tortures of the hell and will go to heaven. Performing Śrāddha here is of great importance as it helps one to get rid of pitra rinna i.e. debts towards one's ancestors (male forefathers).

Nearby Bodh Gaya ("Buddha Gaya"), so named to distinguish it from the Hindu town centre of Gaya, is one of the four holiest sites of Buddhism and the site where the Buddha attained enlightenment.

Bitho Sharif is famous for the tomb of Sufi Saint Makhdoom Durvesh Ashraf RA on the bank of River Phalgu.

World Heritage Site at Bodh Gaya
The Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya was listed as a World Heritage Site by the World Heritage Committee of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) at its 26th session, on 26 June 2002.

The 50 m Mahabodhi Temple central to the complex was first built by the emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. The main part of the present structure dates from the 5th–6th centuries CE. It is one of the earliest and best-preserved Buddhist temples built entirely of brick dating from the later Gupta period. The Bodhi Tree (Ficus religiosa), the most important of the sacred places within the complex, is reputedly a descendant of the original tree under which Siddhārtha Gautama attained enlightenment and became the Buddha. Marking this seminal moment, Bodh Gaya is one of the four holiest pilgrimage sites of Buddhism, with Lumbini, Sarnath and Kushinagar.

The various structures on the site have undergone a number of restorations over the centuries. Ongoing maintenance and management is required to protect the complex which, as a major pilgrimage site, is under pressure due to large numbers of visitors. The site is under the responsibility of the state government of Bihar, and is managed by the Bodhgaya Temple Management Committee (BTMC) and advisory board under the Bodh Gaya Temple Act, 1949.

Climate
As Gaya is surrounded by hills on three sides and river on the fourth side, the climate of Gaya is seasonable. Climate is characterised by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year. The Köppen Climate Classification sub-type for this climate is "Cwa" (humid subtropical).

Economy
Gaya is the second-largest contributor to the economy of Bihar, after Patna. Agriculture is the leading economic activity of the district. The main crops grown are rice, wheat, potatoes, and lentils. Livestock raised include cattle, buffaloes, goats and pigs. Gaya has a large number of household industries, producing incense sticks (atagarbatti), local sweets tilkut (made with sesame seed) and lai (made with poppy seed), stone-work, hand weaving, power-loom weaving, textiles and garments, small-scale manufactured goods, and plastic products. Small-scale industries also include agricultural services, metalworking, machinery and equipment production and repair services. The main vegetable market in the city is the Kedarnath Market. Commercial activities are located along its main roads; the city also has a large number of informal shops. As Gaya is an important centre of religious tourism, accommodation is widely available. Bodh Gaya's largest hotel is the Maha Bodhi Hotel, Resort & Convention Centre; the Sambodhi Retreat, a resort of Bihar, is also in the town.

Demographics
The city had its first census in 1872, which placed the figure at 66,843. In the 2011 census, the Gaya Urban Agglomeration had a population of 470,840. The Gaya Urban Agglomeration encompasses the Gaya Municipal Corporation, Kaler (Out Growth), and Paharpur (Census Town). the Gaya Municipal Corporation had a total population of 468,614, of whom 247,572 were male and 221,042 were female. The population below 5 years was 59,669. The sex ratio was 986 women to 1000 men. The literacy rate for the population aged 7 and over was 85.74%.

Subdivisions

 * Aatri
 * Amas
 * Atri
 * Banke Bazar
 * Barachatti
 * Belaganj
 * Bodhgaya
 * Dobhi
 * Dumariya
 * Fatehpur
 * Gaya Town CD Block
 * Guraru
 * Gurua
 * Imamganj
 * Khizirsarai
 * Konch
 * Manpur
 * Mohanpur
 * Muhra
 * Neem Chak Bathani
 * Parariya
 * Sherghati
 * Tan Kupa
 * Tikari
 * Wazirganj

Local transport
There are many city buses and taxis providing services across the city and Bodh Gaya. Tangas, Auto Rickshaws, Electric rickshaws, and cycle rickshaws also ply the city and Bodh Gaya. The main bus stands are Government Bus Stand, Sikaria More Bus Stand, Gaurkashni Bus Stand (Manpur), and Delha Bus Stand. Local transport is reliable, and auto rickshaws are available for various destinations in the city. A weel bus service connecting all nearby towns is operated by BSRTC (Bihar State Road Transport Corporation.The Gaya–Patna railway line plays a major role in transporting people from the town to the state capital.

Roadways
Gaya has a road network providing good connectivity with the state of Bihar and other parts of the country. Regular direct bus services run from Gaya to Patna, aurangabad, Bhagalpur, Munger, Nalanda, Rajgir, Varanasi, Ranchi, Jamshedpur, Hazaribagh, Bardhaman, Durgapur, Asansol, Kolkata, Lucknow and Dhanbad. In 2011, A/C Mercedes-Benz luxury services were introduced by Bihar State Road Transport Corporation for Muzaffarpur, Patna, Munger, Bhagalpur, Motihari, Hazaribagh, Koderma, Ranchi and Ramgarh.

The Grand Trunk Road from Kolkata to Delhi passes from "Dobhi & Barachatti"some 30 km from Gaya. This road, known as National Highway 2 before 2010, is now called National Highway 19. It connects Gaya to Patna, Dhanbad, Ranchi, Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Kolkata (495 km), Varanasi (252 km), Prayagraj, Kanpur, Delhi, Amritsar, and to the Pakistani cities of Lahore and Peshawar. Gaya is connected to Patna (105 km) by National Highway 22 (formerly NH 83), and to Nawada, Rajgir (78 km) and Bihar Sharif by NH 120. Construction work began in 2014 on the road from Patna to Dobhi via Gaya and Gaya to Bihar Sharif to create a four-lane highway with additional road and bridge infrastructure. Completion of the project, originally due in April 2018, has been delayed. the first expressway of bihar Amas-Darbhanga Expressway is starting from a nearby village Amas ,construction started from late 2020.

Railways
Gaya is connected to the rest of India by roads, rail and airways. The Grand Chord section of the Indian Railways passes through Gaya. Gaya Junction railway station railway station is a major junction station serving the city. Gaya Junction has been redeveloped as Model railway station recently and houses all the major facilities like waiting rooms, computerized reservation facility, food plaza, dormitory, retiring rooms, cafeteria, bookshop, etc. Gaya falls under the jurisdiction of the Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya railway division of the East Central Railway zone. The Grand Chord rail line that connects Howrah and New Delhi passes through Gaya. It lies between Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction on the Delhi side and Dhanbad Junction on the Howrah side. It is located at 24.80361°N, 84.99917°W. It has an elevation of 117 m.

Airways
Situated between Gaya (7 km) and Bodh Gaya (11 km), Gaya Airport is one of two operating international airports in the states of Bihar and Jharkhand. Gaya airport mainly operates weekly and seasonal flights for Buddhist pilgrims to Bodh Gaya from Colombo, Sri Lanka; Bangkok, Thailand, Singapore, Paro and Bhutan. There are also regular domestic flights to Kolkata and Delhi. Indigo has started Domestic Flights to New Delhi and Kolkata. The Airports Authority of India has plans to develop Gaya Airport as a stand-by to the Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport in Kolkata. Gaya Airport also serves as the only place of Bihar from where Hajj pilgrims take direct flight to Jeddah and Madina in Saudi Arabia.

Education

Notable institutions of higher education include:
 * Indian Institute of Management Bodh Gaya (IIM BodhGaya)
 * Central University of South Bihar (CUSB)
 * Anugrah Narayan Magadh Medical College and Hospital (ANMMCH)
 * Magadh University
 * Gaya College of Engineering
 * Gaya College
 * Mirza Ghalib College

Notable schools:
 * PM Shri Kendriya Vidyalaya No.1, Gaya
 * Kendriya vidyalaya No. 2, OTA, Paharpur Cantt., Gaya
 * D. A. V. Public School, Cantt. Area, Gaya
 * D. A. V. Public School,CR RC, Medical Road, Gaya
 * D. A. V. Public School, Manpur, Kaiya
 * D. A. V. Public School, Rotary Club Campus, Ashok Nagar, Gaya
 * Creane Memorial High School, Katari Hill Road, Gaya
 * Nazareth Academy, Gaya
 * Delhi Public School, Dubhal, Gaya
 * Gyan Bharti Residencial Complex, Bodh Gaya
 * G.D. Goenka Public School, Rasalpur, NH-22, Gaya
 * Shatabadi Public School, Katari Hill Road, Gaya
 * Hansraj Public School, Cantt. Area, Kharanti, Gaya
 * Mahabodhi college,Gaya

Notable people

 * Gautam Buddha
 * Rajesh Kumar
 * Anugrah Narayan Sinha
 * Jitan Ram Manjhi,serving as the Minister of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises since 2024.
 * L. N. Sinha, Former Attorney General of India
 * Jalaluddin Ansari, Former MP
 * Syed Shah Makhdoom Durwesh Ashraf, 13th century Sufi Saint
 * Eqbal Ahmad
 * Seyed E. Hasnain
 * Ashutosh Aman
 * Tabish Khair
 * Prem Kumar (politician)
 * A. K. Narain
 * Lalit Mohan Sharma
 * Janki Ballabh Shastri
 * O. P. Singh
 * Abhay Kushwaha
 * Lilliput (actor)
 * Rajendra Prasad Yadav (Bihar)
 * Surendra Prasad Yadav
 * Syed Shahabuddin, Former IFS Officer, Diplomat and Three term Lok Sabha Member

title: Gaya (India)


text:
John Bartholomew Gough

John Bartholomew Gough (August 22, 1817 – February 18, 1886) was a United States temperance orator.

Biography
He was born at Sandgate, Kent, England, and was educated by his mother, a schoolmistress. At the age of twelve, after his father died, he was sent to the United States to seek his fortune. He arrived in New York City in August 1829, and went to live for two years with family friends on a farm in Oneida County, New York in the western part of the state. He then entered a book-bindery in New York City to learn the trade. There in 1833 his mother and sister joined him, but after her death in 1835 he fell in with dissolute companions, and became a confirmed drunkard.

He lost his position, and for several years supported himself as a ballad singer and story-teller in the cheap theatres and concert-halls of New York and other eastern cities. He had always had a passion for the stage, and made one or two efforts to become an actor, but owing to his habits gained little favor. He married in 1839, and became a bookbinder on his own account. The effort to do his work without giving up his nightly dissipations so affected him that he was on the verge of delirium tremens. He lost his wife and child, and was reduced to the utmost misery.

Even this means of livelihood was being closed to him, when in Worcester, Massachusetts, in October 1842, a little kindness shown him by a Quaker induced him to attend a temperance meeting, and to sign a temperance pledge. After several lapses and a terrific struggle, he determined to devote his life to lecturing on behalf of temperance reform.

He set forth, carpet-bag in hand, to tramp through the New England states, glad to obtain even seventy-five cents for a temperance lecture, and soon became famous for his eloquence. An intense earnestness derived from experience, and his power of imitation and expression, enabled him to work on the sensibilities of his audiences. He was accustomed to mingle the pathetic and humorous in such a way as to attract thousands to hear him who had no purpose but to be interested and amused. In the first year of his travels, he spoke 386 times, and thenceforward for seventeen years he dealt only with temperance. During that period he addressed over 5,000 audiences.

He visited England in 1853, by invitation of the London Temperance League, was entertained by George Cruikshank, the veteran artist and total abstainer, and his first address, delivered at Exeter Hall, produced a great sensation. He intended to stay but six months, but was kept busy for two years. In 1854 he had undertaken to speak at Oxford, and the students had determined to prevent him. He was greeted with hisses, cat calls, and yells. But Gough had a disciplined temper and the courage of his convictions, and an appeal to the Briton's proverbial love of fair play ended in his obtaining a hearing. On a subsequent visit, in 1878, he was received with distinguished attention by the Oxonians. He returned to the United States in 1855, and took up his old work with unabated success.

In 1857 he made another journey to England, and lectured for three years. In his temperance efforts, Gough always kept aloof from politics or any organized effort to accomplish results through legislation, relying entirely on moral influences and on the total abstinence pledge.

After confining his addresses to the subject of temperance for 17 years, he began to take up other subjects, literary and social, though from first to last his chief successes were obtained on the temperance platform. After his popularity had led him to vary his subject and to lecture before lyceums, he made a moderate fortune by his eloquence. His subjects were such as to give full scope to his powers of imitation, and to furnish opportunity to stir the feelings. "Eloquence and Orators" and "Peculiar People" were topics of this kind, in which diverting imitations played a prominent part. But he rarely failed to introduce some reference to the evils of intemperance. His oratory was not acquired, but natural. He had no elocutionary training, his reading was singularly restricted, and all his resources were from within. Yet he never failed to hold the attention of his audiences.

He continued his work until the end of his life. For several years, he made his home at Boylston, Massachusetts. He died at his work, being stricken with apoplexy on the lecture platform in the 1st Presbyterian Church of Frankford, Philadelphia, where he died two days later. He is buried at Hope Cemetery in Worcester, Massachusetts.

Honors
Gough Street in San Francisco, California was named for him.

Works

 * Autobiography (London, 1846; 3d ed., 1853)
 * Autobiography and Personal Recollections of John B. Gough (1870)
 * Orations (1854)
 * Temperance Addresses (New York, 1870)
 * Temperance Lectures (1879)
 * Sunlight and Shadow, or Gleanings from My Life Work (1880)

Some of his publications have been translated into French, Dutch, Scandinavian, and Tamil. One of his stories (The Pilot), based upon an anonymously published story The Helmsman of Lake Erie, caused Horatio Alger to write the ballad John Maynard. Gough or Alger, perhaps both, were the source for Theodor Fontane's ballad John Maynard which remains to this day popular in German speaking countries.

title: John Bartholomew Gough


text:
Paul A. Baran

Paul Alexander Baran (25 August 1909 – 26 March 1964) was an American Marxist economist. In 1951 Baran was promoted to full professor at Stanford University and Baran was the only tenured Marxian economist in the United States until his death in 1964. Baran wrote The Political Economy of Growth in 1957 and co-authored Monopoly Capital with Paul Sweezy.

Life and work
Baran was born in Imperial Russia. His father, a Menshevik, left Russia for Vilnius, Lithuania in 1917. From Vilna the Baran family moved to Berlin, and then, in 1925 back to Moscow, but Paul stayed in Germany to finish his secondary school. In 1926 he attended the Plekhanov Institute in Moscow. He left again for Germany in 1928 accepting an appointment as an assistant on agricultural research with his advisor, Dr. Friedrich Pollock. Baran remained in Germany associated with the Frankfurt School Institute for Social Research. He received the Diplom-Volkswirt (graduate degree in political economy, equivalent to a master's degree) in 1931 from the Schlesische Friedrich-Wilhelm University of Breslau. He next wrote a dissertation under Emil Lederer on economic planning, and received his PhD from the University of Berlin in 1933. During these years in Germany, he met Rudolf Hilferding, author of Finance Capital and wrote under the pen name of Alexander Gabriel for the German Social Democratic Party journal Die Gesellschaft.

After the Nazi regime took power, Baran fled to Paris and then back to the USSR, and then to Vilnius, Lithuania. With the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and just before the Nazi invasion of Poland he emigrated to the US, where he enrolled at Harvard and received a master's degree. Short of funds, he left the PhD program and worked for the Brookings Institution and then for the Office of Price Administration and then the Office of Strategic Services. He worked under John Kenneth Galbraith at the Strategic Bombing Survey traveling to post-war Germany and Japan. Baran then worked for the United States Department of Commerce and lectured at George Washington University. He then worked for the Federal Reserve Bank of New York before resigning to join academia.

He married Elena Djatschenko, had a son Nicholas but soon divorced. Baran had his academic career in the United States, teaching at Stanford University from 1949. From 1949, he was an active participant in the formulation of editorial ideas and opinions in Monthly Review magazine edited by Paul Sweezy and Leo Huberman. Baran visited Cuba in 1960 along with Sweezy and Huberman, and was greatly inspired. In 1962 he revisited Moscow, Iran, and Yugoslavia. In his last years he worked on Monopoly Capital with Sweezy. He died from a heart attack in 1964 before it was completed by Sweezy. He is associated with the Neo-Marxian economics.

Baran introduced the concept of "economic surplus" to deal with novel complexities raised by the dominance of monopoly capital. With Paul Sweezy, Baran elaborated the importance of this innovation, its consistency with Marx's labor concept of value, and supplementary relation to Marx's category of surplus value. Monthly Review has recently published a book of correspondence between Sweezy and Baran, which illuminates the development of their ideas on political economy, and in particular, their collaboration in writing their seminal work, Monopoly Capital. See The Age of Monopoly Capital, The Selected Correspondence of Paul A. Baran and Paul M. Sweezy, 1949–1964, edited by Nicholas Baran and John Bellamy Foster, Monthly Review Press, New York, 2017.

According to Baran's categories, "Actual economic surplus" is "the difference between society's actual current output and its actual current consumption," and hence is equal to current savings or accumulation. Potential economic surplus," in contrast, is "the difference between that output that could be produced in a given natural and technical environment with the help of employable productive resources, and what might be regarded as essential consumption." Baran also introduced the concept of "planned surplus"—a category that could only be operationalized in a rationally planned socialist society. This was defined as "the difference between society's 'optimum' output available in a historically given natural and technological environment under conditions of planned 'optimal' utilization of all available productive resources, and some chosen 'optimal' volume of consumption."

Baran used the surplus concept to analyze underdeveloped economies in his The Political Economy of Growth. Baran with Paul M. Sweezy applied the surplus concept to the contemporary US economy in Monopoly Capital.

Notable among Baran's students was Richard D. Wolff.

Selected bibliography

 * Baran, Paul A. (1952), The Political Economy of Underdevelopment, "Manchester School"
 * Baran, Paul A. (1957), The Political Economy of Growth, Monthly Review Press, New York. Review extract.
 * ISBN 9780804705684.
 * Baran, Paul A. (1960), Marxism and Psychoanalysis [pamphlet] Monthly Review Press
 * Baran, Paul A. (1961), The Commitment of the Intellectual, [pamphlet] Monthly Review Press
 * Baran, Paul A. (1961), Reflections on the Cuban Revolution, [pamphlet] Monthly Review Press
 * Baran, Paul A.; Sweezy, Paul (1966), Monopoly Capital: An essay on the American economic and social order, Monthly Review Press, New York
 * Baran, Paul A. (1970), The Longer View: Essays toward a critique of political economy
 * Baran, Paul A. (1975), The Political Economy of Neo-Colonialism

title: Paul A. Baran


text:
Samyukta Socialist Party

Samyukta Socialist Party (abbr. SSP), was a political party in India from 1964 to 1974. SSP was formed through a split in the Praja Socialist Party (PSP) in 1964. In 1965, Ram Manohar Lohia merged his Socialist Party (Lohia) with SSP and contested in 1967 Indian general election. In 1972, SSP was reunited with PSP, forming the Socialist Party. But in December 1972, SSP was recreated after the split in Socialist Party. One faction of SSP led by Madhu Limaye and George Fernandes wanted to merge with PSP but another faction led by Raj Narain resisted the merger with PSP.

The General Secretary of the SSP from 1969 to 1971 was George Fernandes.

The Party President of the SSP from 1964 to 1971 was Anantram Jaiswal.

The SSP merged with Charan Singh's Bharatiya Kranti Dal, Swatantra Party and Utkal Congress to form Bharatiya Lok Dal.

title: Samyukta Socialist Party


text:
Talk:Gir National Park

Litlawawa (talk) 03:33, 11 February 2015 (UTC)

I am using the Gujarat map because I cannot use this one (copyright). If we have anyone talented enough to replicate the area of the park on a map it would definitely help the article. -gren

Better image
Image:Gujarat map with Gir Nat Park-fr.svg seems to be more accurate. Should we switch? Does anyone know how to translate the SVG? gren グレン 04:11, 26 May 2007 (UTC)

Comments removed from main articles and listed here

 * 1

"Lions were spread at many place across the Asia. As per local sentiments it is only people of Gir and their tolerance who preserved the lions on cost of their cattle and even human lives. As per the Hindu traditions, the lion is the vehicle of Hindu Goddess Ambaji. Ambaji has high importance in traditions and religious faith of people of Gujarat. Also being widely vegetarian society, It is common faith in Gir locality to consider animal killing as a sin. As per the Gir people these are the reasons behind survival of lions in this place. Even Government of Gujarat and its forest department has put large efforts behind growing the lions count from 20 to 360(+/- 10). Hence they are reluctant to leave their exclusiveness."

 * 2

"The relocation of Gir lions faces opposition from local people. Gir lions has remain issue of prestige for people of Gujarat. As per the local sentiments it is the tolerance of Gir people who preserved lions, even after loosing their cattle on regular basis. There are cases of even human death by lions. Also it is unacceptable for them to leave their exclusivity. Hence the Indian central government's move to shift them, attracted oppose in Gir localities as well by the state government of Gujarat. One argument against the lions shifting is that Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary also houses tigers. The tigers being slight stronger than the lions, are potential threat for survival of lions."

References for above:

 * 1) * 1 Above comment was left in the article on Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project on and by - 15:50, 25 May 2007 Vishal dodiya Talk• Contributions

 * 1) * 2 Above comment was left in the article on Gir Forest National Park on and by - 14:21, 25 May 2007 Vishal dodiya Talk• Contributions

Above comments have been removed from the main articles and listed here by me.

Atulsnischal 16:18, 7 November 2007 (UTC)

references and external links
There seem to be too many external links. Can we reduce it to the important ones? Also the inline references need work. There is too much information in the citations, no need for address' and phone numbers. Also it is not good to link to ALL the text, preferably link to the title only. In this way the readers of this article will get more out of it. More information is not always better. David D. (Talk) 16:07, 8 November 2007 (UTC)

WP:STALKING Comment also copied here from discussion pages Genetic pollution and Genetic Erosion
How can you expect to not have problems with the POV section that you have cut and pasted into multiple articles? At present you have refused every opportunity to discuss this matter and just revert my edits accusing me of stalking. This is hopeful on your part, and you seem to think that if you say it enough it will become true. If you keep refusing to dicuss this issue i will remove that section from every article you have placed it. It reads like a political scree and is not neutral enough for wikipedia. You need to discuss how this section can be made more neutral, an opportunity that hs been present to you on at least two different talk pages. I am within my rights to remove this section if you choose to ignore all discussion. David D. (Talk) 04:30, 20 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I have already made it neutral enough, i spent days on it, your POV accusation is based on previous POV comments on Genetic pollution discussion page which came when I started the article and wrote two lines on it, i spent a week on it afterwards finding and using references and nuteral enough language, it states the truth. Definitely you have stalked me to my other articles over the months so there you go, I am busy now with other stuff in life. Kindly dont stalk me and bother me and do some constructive contributions instead to wikipedia. Please dont leave comment after comment for me on my talk page it has been bothering me, you are definitely causing stress, and my WP:STALKING accusation for you holds true. Atulsnischal (talk) 18:19, 20 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Your stalking accusations are unwarranted. I have been a long time contributor to GMO and biology topics here. Why shouldn't I take an interest in genetic erosion-type articles? Why do you think I even noticed your edits in the first place? Show me evidence of my edits not being constructive; almost all my edits have been to help your articles grow. You just can't see it in this case because you happen to disagree with my opinion (one that others share too).

 * When were those discussions and collaborative edits that led you to improve the POV of this text? To date, I have seen no evidence that you have been willing to receive independent input on this topic.

 * It’s a shame that you are unwilling to discuss this content dispute and instead try to change the subject and avoid any dialog. Is this your way of informing us you are unwilling to discuss any on the content you have inserted into multiple articles? Your input would be welcome but not necessary. David D. (Talk) 18:44, 20 November 2007 (UTC)

WP:STALKING
So by changing the title of this topic and the subsequent removal of the dialog is your way of informing us you are unwilling to discuss any on the content you have inserted into mulitple articles? Your input would be welcome but not necessary. David D. (Talk) 18:29, 20 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Listen I have Archived our previous conversation - it is in my talk page Archives, your edits are based on and motivated with WP:STALKING me on Wikipedia which you have been doing since the last year or so, outcome can not be healthy and I dont want to argue with you. Please do not go to my contributions page for following me from there to articles I have been working on, that is called stalking. Please dont get into ego clashes and personality clashes with people, just find articles randomly for contributing.

Hope it makes sense, also I did inform that I am busy with other stuff in life.

Best wishes, hope you will leave me alone.

Atulsnischal (talk) 21:29, 24 November 2007 (UTC)

Coordinate error
The coordinates need the following fixes:
 * Write here

J.M.AAHIR. 18:26, 20 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Coordinates appear to be correct. If you still feel they're wrong, please say how you think that they are wrong and remove the "tlc|" from the beginning of the tag code. Regards,  T RANSPORTER M AN  ( TALK ) 22:12, 20 February 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120212165913/http://www.flonnet.com/fl2210/stories/20050520000106500.htm to http://www.flonnet.com/fl2210/stories/20050520000106500.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20071129142502/http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/rsg/rsgcdrom/PDFs/RNews18.pdf to http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/rsg/rsgcdrom/PDFs/RNews18.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20071129142502/http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/rsg/rsgcdrom/PDFs/RNews18.pdf to http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/sgs/rsg/rsgcdrom/PDFs/RNews18.pdf

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Images of lions
I was wondering if some the images of lions here can be shifted to related articles, considering how many there are. Leo1pard (talk) 15:56, 2 February 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Gir Forest National Park. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20151122025644/http://gujenvfor.gswan.gov.in/wildlife/national-park/wildlife-gir-nat-park.htm to http://gujenvfor.gswan.gov.in/wildlife/national-park/wildlife-gir-nat-park.htm

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title: Talk:Gir National Park


text:
Bharatiya Lok Dal

Bharatiya Lok Dal (English: Indian Peoples' Party) was a political party in India. The BLD or simply  BL was formed at the end of 1974 through the fusion of seven parties opposed to the rule of Indira Gandhi, including the Swatantra Party, the Samyukta Socialist Party, the Utkal Congress and the Bharatiya Kranti Dal. The leader of the BLD was Charan Singh.

History
In 1977, the BLD combined with the Jan Sangh and the Indian National Congress (Organization) to form the Janata Party. The newly formed Janata Party contested the 1977 elections on the BLD symbol and formed independent India's first government not ruled by the Indian National Congress.

Despite a strong start, the Janata government began to wither as significant ideological and political divisions emerged. Through 1979, support for Morarji Desai had declined considerably due to worsening economic conditions as well as the emergence of allegations of nepotism and corruption involving members of his family. Protesting Desai's leadership, Charan Singh resigned and withdrew the support of his BLD. Desai also lost the support of the secular and socialist politicians in the party, who saw him as favoring the Hindu nationalist BJS. On 19 July 1979 Desai resigned from the government. Dissidents projected Charan Singh as the new prime minister in place of Desai.

President Reddy appointed Charan Singh as the Prime Minister of a minority government on the strength of 64 MPs, calling upon him to form a new government and prove his majority. The departure of Desai and the BJS had considerably diminished Janata's majority, and numerous Janata MPs refused to support Charan Singh. MPs loyal to Jagjivan Ram withdrew themselves from the Janata party. Former allies such as the DMK, Shiromani Akali Dal and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) had distanced themselves from the Janata party. Desperately seeking enough support for a majority, Charan Singh even sought to negotiate with Congress (I), which refused. After only three weeks in office, Charan Singh resigned. With no other political party in position to establish a majority government, President Reddy dissolved the Parliament and called fresh elections for January 1980.

After 1980 elections, Charan Singh came out of the Janata Alliance with his party and renamed it as Lok Dal.

Subsequently, Ajit Singh (son of Charan Singh) founded the Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD). Now Lok Dal is led by Chaudhary Sunil Singh of Aligarh.

Constituent Parties

 * Bharatiya Kranti Dal
 * Swatantra Party
 * Samyukta Socialist Party
 * Utkal Congress
 * Rashtriya Loktantrik Dal
 * Kisan Mazdoor Party
 * Punjabi Khetibari Zamindari Union

title: Bharatiya Lok Dal


text:
Friends of Canadian Broadcasting

Friends of Canadian Media (formerly Friends of Public Broadcasting and Friends of Canadian Broadcasting, styled FRIENDS ) is a Canadian advocacy group that monitors developments in the Canadian television and radio broadcasting industries. The group promotes expansion of public broadcasting, investment in Canadian content, and production of local news while opposing concentration of media ownership and foreign ownership of Canadian broadcasters.

In 2023, Friends of Canadian Media called for a two-day boycott of posting on Facebook and Instagram after Meta Platforms' response to the passing of the Online News Act.

Friends of Canadian Media presents the Dalton Camp Award, named for journalist and political commentator Dalton Camp. The $10,000 award is presented to the winner of an essay competition on the link between Canadian media and democracy. The group is non-partisan.

title: Friends of Canadian Broadcasting


text:
Pragati Legislature Party

The Pragati Legislature Party(Also called Pragati Dal) was a political grouping in the Legislative Assembly of the Indian state Orissa. PLP was formed in 1973 by the Utkal Congress, Swatantra Party and others. The PLP leader Biju Patnaik, was elected as the Leader of the Opposition of the Assembly on February 9, 1973. His tenure as Leader of Opposition lasted until March 3 the same year. On that date President's Rule was introduced in the state.

PLP and its member organizations later merged into Bharatiya Lok Dal in the end of 1974.

Background
Politics in early 70's Orissa was very fluid. The election of 1971 threw a hung assembly. A coalition government was formed by Utkala Congress, Swatantra Party, Jharkhand Party and others. This government under leadership of Bishwanath Das lasted about a year. There were defections and it lost majority. A Congress government headed by Nandini Satpathy came into power by inducting the defectors from Utkal Congress. However the Satpathy government lost majority in six months when the ex-Utkal Congress Members decided to revive Utkal Congress. Satpathy Decided to call an election. On the eve of election Swatantra Party, Utkal Congress and Swadhin Congress decided to form Pragati Legislature Party. PLP staked claim to form government, but the Governor B.D Jatti dissolved the assembly and called for election.

Organisation
PLP was not a political party in a conventional sense. Its different constituents fought elections under different symbols and campaigned under different flags. It was led by 3 stalwarts of Orissa politics, Rajendra Narayan Singh Deo, Biju Patnaik, and Harekrushna Mahatab.

Electoral Performance
PLP won 56 seats in the 1974 mid-term elections. Biju Patnaik was elected as leader of opposition.

title: Pragati Legislature Party


text:
Direct tax

Although the actual definitions vary between jurisdictions, in general, a direct tax or income tax is a tax imposed upon a person or property as distinct from a tax imposed upon a transaction, which is described as an indirect tax. There is a distinction between direct and indirect tax depending on whether the tax payer is the actual taxpayer or if the amount of tax is supported by a third party, usually a client. The term may be used in economic and political analyses, but does not itself have any legal implications. However, in the United States, the term has special constitutional significance because of a provision in the U.S. Constitution that any direct taxes imposed by the national government be apportioned among the states on the basis of population. In the European Union direct taxation remains the sole responsibility of member states.

General meaning
In general, a direct tax is one imposed upon an individual person (juristic or natural) or property (i.e. real and personal property, livestock, crops, wages, etc.) as distinct from a tax imposed upon a transaction. In this sense, indirect taxes such as a sales tax or a value added tax (VAT) are imposed only if and when a taxable transaction occurs. People have the freedom to engage in or refrain from such transactions; whereas a direct tax (in the general sense) is imposed upon a person, typically in an unconditional manner, such as a poll-tax or head-tax, which is imposed on the basis of the person's very life or existence, or a property tax which is imposed upon the owner by virtue of ownership, rather than commercial use. Some commentators have argued that "a direct tax is one that cannot be shifted by the taxpayer to someone else, whereas an indirect tax can be."

Direct tax is supposed to be borne and paid by the same person. The person who pays the amount of direct tax does not recover all or part of the tax elsewhere. It is in this sense that direct taxation is opposed to indirect taxation. It is the notion of fiscal incidence which allows to analyse who ultimately, weights the burden of a tax, that determines whether the tax is direct or indirect. Direct taxation is generally declarative (established either by the person concerned or by a third party).

The unconditional, inexorable aspect of the direct tax was a paramount concern of people in the 18th century seeking to escape tyrannical forms of government and to safeguard individual liberty.

The distinction between direct and indirect taxation was first extensively discussed by Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations, as in the following passage:

It is thus that a tax upon the necessaries of life operates exactly in the same manner as a direct tax upon the wages of labour. ... if he is a manufacturer, will charge upon the price of his goods this rise of wages, together with a profit; so that the final payment of the tax, together with this overcharge, will fall upon the consumer.

The Pennsylvania Minority, a group of delegates to the 1787 U.S. Constitutional Convention who dissented from the document sent to the states for ratification, objected over this kind of taxation, and explained:

The power of direct taxation applies to every individual ... it cannot be evaded like the objects of imposts or excise, and will be paid, because all that a man hath will he give for his head. This tax is so congenial to the nature of despotism, that it has ever been a favorite under such governments. ...

The power of direct taxation will further apply to every individual ... however oppressive, the people will have but this alternative, either to pay the tax, or let their property be taken for all resistance will be vain.

Examples of direct taxes
Direct taxation can apply on income or on wealth (property tax; estate tax or wealth tax). Here below a few examples of direct taxes existing in the United States (though not all of these meet the US constitutional definition of a direct tax, as stated below):

 * Income tax: it is the most important direct tax in many developed countries. It is based on incomes of taxpayers. A certain amount of money is taken from the wage of the individuals. When this type of tax is applied to corporations and firms, it is called corporate income tax.
 * Transfer taxes: the most frequent form of transfer taxes is the estate tax. Such a tax is levied on the taxable portion of the property of a deceased individual. A gift tax is also another form of transfer taxes when a certain amount is collected from people who are transferring properties to another individual.

 * Entitlement tax or payroll taxes: this type of direct tax serves to finance social security and health services. The entitlement tax is collected through payroll deductions. Their importance increases with the rise of the development of the welfare state during the twentieth century.
 * Property tax: property tax is charged on properties such as land and buildings.
 * Capital gains tax: this tax is collected when an individual earns gains from the sale of capital, for example when an individual sells stocks, real estate, or a business. The tax is computed by determining the difference between the acquisition amount and the selling amount.

Effects of direct taxation and comparison of indirect taxation
Direct taxation has a few advantages and also some inconveniences in comparison of indirect taxes. It promotes equality and equity because direct taxes are based on ability to pay of the taxpayer and in the case of a progressive tax structure, every person is taxed differently depending on their income. Another advantage of direct taxation is that the government and the taxpayer know the amount they will receive and they pay, even before the collection of the tax. Direct taxation and in particular income tax act as automatic stabilizers. Some direct taxes are easy to collect for the government and the fiscal administration because they are collected at the source. Yet, tax collection can be expensive depending on the efficiency of the fiscal administration. Running the tax collection office has some administrative costs (keeping the records of incomes of the population for example), in particular when different tax rates are applied. Moreover, direct taxes can be evaded (tax evasion affects mainly direct taxes) whereas indirect taxes cannot be evaded (when the taxed transaction occurs, it is not possible to avoid the burden of the tax).

Direct taxes decrease the savings and earnings of individuals and firms. Indirect taxation however make goods and services more expensive (the burden of the tax is reflected in the prices). Contrary to indirect taxation which leads to inflation (increasing of the prices), direct taxes can help to reduce inflation.

There is no consensus among the academic literature to designate if direct taxation is more efficient or not. Earlier works based on static models favour direct taxation whereas the recent literature, based on neoclassical growth models, shows that indirect taxation is more efficient. The conclusions of these debates are that the answers are mostly conjectural, depending on the economic structure.

Direct taxes and progressivity
Contrary to indirect taxes such as value-added taxes, direct taxes can be adjusted to the ability to pay of the taxpayer according to their status (income, age...). So, direct taxes can be progressive (the tax rate increases as the taxable amount increases), proportional (the tax rate is fixed, it does not change when the taxable base amount increases or decreases) or regressive (the tax rate decreases as the taxable amount increases) according to their structure. It differs from indirect taxes which are generally regressive because everyone pays the same amount regardless of ability to pay (meaning the burden of the tax is greater for the poorer than for the richer).

Moreover, direct taxation are transfers which can have a redistributive preoccupation (combined with the will of increasing tax revenue). Indeed, taxation is a main tool of the redistributive function of the government identified by Richard Musgrave in his The Theory of Public Finance (1959). A progressive direct taxation could participate in the reduction of inequalities and correcting difference in living standards among the population.

Another effect of a progressive direct taxation is that such tax structure act as automatic stabilizers when prices are stable. Indeed, when incomes (in the example of a progressive income tax) decrease, as a result of recession, the average tax rate is reduced – individuals have to face lower tax rates because their earnings and their incomes have been reduced. And similarly, when incomes are increasing, the average tax rate increases also. This mechanism of progressive taxation participates to the stabilization of the economy, another function of the government in the works of Musgrave (stabilization branch of the government which prevents major fluctuations in real GDP). When incomes fall, tax revenues fall too (and in the case of progressive taxation, even tax rates drop also) reducing tax burden on taxpayers.

U.S. constitutional law
In the United States, the term "direct tax" has acquired specific meaning under constitutional law: a direct tax is a tax on property "by reason of its ownership" (such as an ordinary real estate property tax imposed on the person owning the property as of January 1 of each year) as well as a capitation (a "tax per head"). Income taxes on income from personal services such as wages are indirect taxes in this sense. The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit has stated: "Only three taxes are definitely known to be direct: (1) a capitation [...], (2) a tax upon real property, and (3) a tax upon personal property." In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, the Supreme Court held that a penalty directly imposed upon individuals for failure to possess health insurance, though a tax for constitutional purposes, is not a direct tax. The Court reasoned that the tax is not a capitation because not everyone will be required to pay it, nor is it a tax on property. Rather "it is triggered by specific circumstances."

In the United States, Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 of the Constitution requires that direct taxes imposed by the national government be apportioned among the states on the basis of population. After the 1895 Pollock ruling (essentially, that taxes on income from property should be treated as direct taxes), this provision made it difficult for Congress to impose a national income tax that applied to all forms of income until the 16th Amendment was ratified in 1913. After the Sixteenth Amendment, Federal income taxes are subject to the rule of uniformity but not the rule of apportionment. Before this amendment, the principal sources of revenues of the federal government of the United States were excise taxes and customs duties. Their importance decreased during the twentieth century and the main federal government’s resources have become individual income taxes and payroll taxes. Other evolutions were observed at the local and state level with a decrease of importance of property taxes whereas income and sale taxes became more important.

In the context of income taxes on wages, salaries and other forms of compensation for personal services, see, e.g., United States v. Connor, 898 F.2d 942, 90-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,166 (3d Cir. 1990) (tax evasion conviction under affirmed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit; taxpayer's argument – that because of the Sixteenth Amendment, wages were not taxable – was rejected by the Court; taxpayer's argument that an income tax on wages is required to be apportioned by population also rejected); Perkins v. Commissioner, 746 F.2d 1187, 84-2 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9898 (6th Cir. 1984) ( ruled by the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit to be "in full accordance with Congressional authority under the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution to impose taxes on income without apportionment among the states"; taxpayer's argument that wages paid for labor are non-taxable was rejected by the Court, and ruled frivolous).

Direct taxation in India
Direct tax is a form of collecting taxes applicable on the general public by the means of their personal income and wealth generated and collected through formal channels and worthy government credentials such as Permanent account number and bank account details.

Section 2(c) of the Central Boards of Revenue Act, 1963 of India defines "direct tax" as follows:
 * ″(1) any duty leviable (or) tax chargeable under-

 * (i) the Estate Duty Act, 1953 (34 of 1953.);

 * (ii) the Wealth-tax Act, 1957 (27 of 1957.);

 * (iii) the Expenditure-tax Act, 1957 (29 of 1957.);

 * (iv) the Gift-tax Act, 1958 (18 of 1958.);

 * (v) the Income-tax Act, 1961 (43 of 1961.)

 * (vi) the Super Profits Tax Act, 1963 (14 of 1963.); and

 * (2) any other duty or tax which, having regard to its nature or incidence, may be declared by the Central Government, by notification in the Official Gazette, to be a direct tax.″

Direct taxation in other countries

Tax policy in the European Union (EU) consists of two components: direct taxation, which remains the sole responsibility of member states, and indirect taxation, which affects free movement of goods and the freedom to provide services. With regard to European Union direct taxes, Member States have taken measures to prevent tax avoidance and double taxation. EU direct taxation covers, regarding companies, the following policies: the common consolidated corporate tax base, the common system of taxation applicable in the case of parent companies and subsidiaries of different member states (to avoid withholding tax when the dividend qualifies for application of the EC Parent-Subsidiary Directive, the financial transaction tax, interest and royalty payments made between associated companies and elimination of double taxation if the payment qualifies for application of the EC Interest and Royalties Directive. Regarding direct taxation for individuals, the policies cover taxation of savings income, dividend taxation of individuals and tackling tax obstacles to the cross-border provision of occupational pensions.

title: Direct tax