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Machairodontinae

Machairodontinae is an extinct subfamily of carnivoran mammals of the family Felidae (true cats). They were found in Asia, Africa, North America, South America, and Europe from the Miocene to the Pleistocene, living from about 16 million until about 10,000 years ago.

The Machairodontinae contain many of the extinct predators commonly known as "saber-toothed cats", including the famed genus Smilodon, as well as other cats with only minor increases in the size and length of their maxillary canines. The name means "dagger-tooth", from Greek μάχαιρα (machaira), sword. Sometimes, other carnivorous mammals with elongated teeth are also called saber-toothed cats, although they do not belong to the felids. Besides the machairodonts, other saber-toothed predators also arose in the nimravids, barbourofelids, machaeroidines, hyaenodonts and even in two groups of metatherians (the thylacosmilid sparassodonts and the deltatheroideans).

Etymology
Μαχαιροῦς, from Ancient Greek: μάχαιρα, lit. 'makhaira', means a sword.

Family Felidae

The Machairodontinae originated in the middle Miocene of Europe. The early felid Pseudaelurus quadridentatus showed a trend towards elongated upper canines, and is believed to be at the base of the machairodontine evolution. The earliest known machairodont genus is the middle Miocene Miomachairodus from Africa and Turkey. Until the late Miocene, machairodontines co-existed at several places together with barbourofelids, archaic large carnivores that also bore long sabre-teeth.

Traditionally, three different tribes of machairodontines were recognized, the Smilodontini with typical dirk-toothed forms, such as Megantereon and Smilodon, the Machairodontini or Homotherini with scimitar-toothed cats, such as Machairodus or Homotherium, and the Metailurini, containing genera such as Dinofelis and Metailurus. However, some have recently regrouped the Metailurini within the other felid subfamily, the Felinae, along with all modern cats. The last machairodontine genera, Smilodon and Homotherium, did not disappear until late in the Pleistocene, roughly 10,000 years ago in the Americas.

Based on mitochondrial DNA sequences extracted from fossils, the lineages of Homotherium and Smilodon are estimated to have diverged about 18 Ma ago.

The name 'saber-toothed tigers' is misleading. Machairodonts were not in the same subfamily as tigers, there is no evidence that they had tiger-like coat patterns, and this broad group of animals did not all live or hunt in the same manner as the modern tiger. DNA analysis published in 2005 confirmed and clarified cladistic analysis in showing that the Machairodontinae diverged early from the ancestors of modern cats and are not closely related to any living feline species.

Saber-tooths also coexisted in many places with conical-toothed cats. In Africa and Eurasia, sabertooth cats competed with several pantherines and cheetahs until the early or middle Pleistocene. Homotherium survived in northern Europe even until the late Pleistocene. In the Americas, they coexisted with the cougar, American lion, American cheetah, and jaguar until the late Pleistocene. Saber-toothed and conical-toothed cats competed with each other for food resources, until the last of the former became extinct. All extant felids have more or less conical-shaped upper canines.

Phylogeny
The phylogenetic relationships of Machairodontinae are shown in the following cladogram:

Evolutionary history and origin of phenotype
Until the recent discovery of the Late Miocene fossil depository known as Batallones-1 in the 1990s, specimens of Smilodontini and Homotheriini ancestors were rare and fragmentary, so the evolutionary history of the saber-toothed phenotype, a phenotype affecting craniomandibular, cervical forelimb and forelimb anatomy, was largely unknown. Prior to the excavation of Batallones-1, the predominating hypothesis was that the highly derived saber-toothed phenotype arose rapidly through pleiotropic evolution. Batollnes-1 unearthed new specimens of Promegantereon ogygia, a Smilodontini ancestor, and Machairodus aphanistus, a Homotheriini ancestor, shedding light on evolutionary history. (Though the Smilodontini ancestor was originally assigned to the genus Paramachairodus, it was later revised to the genus Promegantereon). The leopard-sized P. ogygia (living 9.0 Ma) inhabited Spain (and perhaps additional territory), and its most studied descendants, the members of the tiger-sized genus Smilodon, lived up to 10,000 years ago in the Americas. The lion-sized M. aphanistus (living 15.0 Ma) roamed Eurasia, as did its most studied descendants, members of the lion-sized genus Homotherium (living 3.0–5.0 Ma).

The current hypothesis for the evolution of the saber-toothed phenotype, made possible by Batollnes-1, is that this phenotype arose gradually over time through mosaic evolution. Although the exact cause is uncertain, current findings have supported the hypothesis that a need for the rapid killing of prey was the principal pressure driving the development of the phenotype over evolutionary time. As indicated by high instances of broken teeth, the biotic environment of saber-toothed cats was one marked by intense competition.

Broken teeth indicate the frequency at which teeth contact bone. Increased teeth-bone contact suggests either increased consumption of carcasses, rapid consumption of prey, or increased aggression over kills – all three of which point to decreased prey availability, heightening competition between predators. Such a competitive environment would favor the faster killing of prey, because if prey is taken away before consumption (such as by out-competing) the energetic cost of capturing that prey is not reimbursed, and, if this occurs often enough in the lifetime of a predator, death by exhaustion or starvation would result. The earliest adaptations improving the speed at which prey was killed are present in the skull and mandible of P. ogygia and of M. aphanistus, and in the cervical vertebrae and forelimb of P. ogygia. They provide further morphological evidence for the importance of speed in the evolution of the saber-toothed phenotype.

Skull
The most studied section of the machairodont group is the skull, and specifically the teeth. With a large range of genera, good fossil representation, comparable modern relatives, diversity within the group, and a good understanding of the ecosystems inhabited, the machairodont subfamily provides one of the best means of research for the analysis of hypercarnivores, specialization, and the relationships between predator and prey.

Machairodonts are divided into two types: dirk-toothed and scimitar-toothed. Dirk-toothed cats had elongated, narrow upper canines and generally had stocky bodies. Scimitar-toothed cats had broader and shorter upper canines and a typically lithe body form with longer legs. The longer-toothed cats often had a bony flange that extended from their lower mandible. However, one genus, Xenosmilus, known only from two fairly complete fossils, broke this mould; possessing both the stout, heavy limbs associated with dirk-toothed cats, and the stout canines of a scimitar-toothed cat.

Carnivores reduced the number of their teeth as they specialized in eating meat instead of grinding plant or insect matter. Cats have the fewest teeth of any carnivore group, and machairodonts reduce the number even further. Most machairodonts retain six incisors, two canines, and six premolars in each jaw, with two molars in the upper jaw only. Some genera, such as Smilodon, bear only eight premolars with one fewer on the mandible, leaving only four large premolars on the mandible along with two stunted canines and six stout incisors. The canines are curved back smoothly, and serrations are present, but are minor and wear away with age, leaving most middle-aged machairodonts (at about four or five) with no serrations. Hints in the bones such as these help paleontologists to estimate the age of an individual for population studies of an animal long extinct.

Longer canines necessitate a larger gape. A lion with a gape of 95° could not bear canines that are nine inches long because they would not be able to have a gap between the lower and upper canines larger than an inch or so, not enough to use for killing. Machairodonts, along with the other groups of animals that acquired similar teeth by convergent evolution, needed a way to change their skulls to accommodate the canines in several ways.

The main inhibitors of a large gape for mammals are the temporalis and masseter muscles at the back of the jaw. These muscles have the capacity to be powerful and undergo a great degree of modification for ranging bite forces, but are not very elastic due to their thickness, placement, and strength. To open the mouth wider, these species needed to make the muscles smaller and change their shape. The first step in this was to reduce the coronoid process. The masseter, and especially the temporalis, muscles insert on this jutting strip of bone, so reduction of this process meant the reduction of the muscles. Less mass for each muscle allowed greater elasticity and less resistance to a wide gape. Changing the shape of the temporalis muscle in this respect created a greater distance between the origin and insertion, so that the muscle became longer and more compact, which is generally a more suitable format for this type of stretching. This reduction led to a weaker bite.

The skulls of machairodonts suggests another change in the shape of the temporalis muscle. The main constraint to opening the jaws is that the temporalis muscle will tear if it is stretched past a critical degree around the glenoid process when the mouth is opened. In modern felids, the occipital bone extends backward, but the temporalis muscles that attach to this surface are strained when opening the jaw wide as the muscle is wrapped around the glenoid process. To reduce the stretch of the temporalis muscle around the immovable process, machairodonts evolved a skull with a more vertical occipital bone. The domestic cat has a gape of 80°, while a lion has a gape of 91°. In Smilodon, the gape is 128°, and the angle between the ramus of the mandible and the occipital bone is 100°. This angle is the major limiting factor of the gape, and reducing the angle of the occipital bone relative to the palate of the mouth, as seen in Smilodon, allowed the gape to increase further. Had the occipital bone not been stretched towards the palate, and closer to perpendicular, the gape would theoretically be less, at roughly 113°.

The skulls of many sabre-tooth predators, including machairodonts, are tall from top to bottom and short from front to back. The zygomatic arches are compressed, and the portion of the skull bearing facial features, such as eyes, is higher, while the muzzle is shorter. These changes help to compensate for an increased gape. Machairodonts also had reduced bottom canines, maintaining the distance between those in the upper and lower jaws.

Post-cranial skeleton
The dirk-toothed machairodonts, including Smilodon, Megantereon, and Paramachairodus, are defined by sturdiness and strength with the most primitive (Paramachairodus) being smaller and more lithe than the more advanced Smilodon; the intermediate Megantereon falls in between. They were not stamina runners with short tarsi and metatarsi and heavy bodies. When compared with the modern lion, their ribcages were barrel-like with narrow anterior ends and expanded posterior ends. Their scapulae were very well developed, especially in Smilodon, to allow for a larger surface area of attachment for massive shoulder and triceps muscles. The cervical vertebrae are very sturdy, and the attachments for muscles were powerful and strong. The lumbar section of the vertebral column was shortened. The tails were, from most primitive to most advanced, growing shorter and shorter, resulting in the bobcat-like tail of Smilodon. When viewing only postcranial remains, they are more similar in structure to modern bears than to modern cats.

The scimitar-toothed machairodonts (Machairodontini, Homotherini and Metailurini) are a much more diverse group. The canines of this larger group are significantly shorter and generally stouter, but still much longer than in any modern cat. Because of the diversity of the genera, it is difficult to illustrate a specific type. The Machairodontini were the first among the machairodontines and the felids overall to attain near-lion size and already showed impressive upper canines early on in their evolution in the Miocene, but apart from these retained a relatively cat-like morphology that was more similar to modern pantherines than more derived machairodontines from later periods. Machairodus appears to have been an excellent jumper. The homotherines were overall more specialized and already the earliest taxa like Lokotunjailurus were remarkably long-legged and lean, though as large as a modern lion, a trend that further magnified in the Pliocene-Pleistocene genus Homotherium, which was once thought to be plantigrade, but was proven to be digitigrade. Homotherium serum, the most derived known species from the Pleistocene of North America bore a sloped back that might have made it excellent at running long distances, similar to the living spotted hyena. It also had a well-developed visual cortex, a large nasal cavity that would have allowed for better oxygen intake and smaller, only partially retractable claws that might have functioned like spikes for a better grip on the ground, all of which seems to point to a highly active lifestyle and cursoriality. Xenosmilus however, a mid-Pleistocene homotherine from Florida and close relative of Homotherium, broke this trend in that it had both scimitar-like teeth and a bulky and strong build that is more typical for dirk-tooths.

The third scimitar-toothed tribe, the Metailurini, bore overall similarity to modern cats, but were highly diverse in terms of morphology with species ranging from a small cheetah to a small lion in size. Some had comparatively short, almost conical upper canines similar to modern cats, while some species bore strongly pronounced machairodontine features. However, in contrast to homotherines and smilodontines, even the most derived metailurines retained long tails, long hind legs and a long spine. On average, scimitar-toothed cats had more teeth than the average dirk-toothed machairodont, with six premolars on the mandible. When viewing only postcranial remains of similar-toothed machairodonts, many of their forms were comparatively similar to modern pantherines (genera Panthera and Neofelis).

Bite strength
The jaws of machairodonts, especially more derived species with longer canines, such as Smilodon and Megantereon, are unusually weak. Digital reconstructions of the skulls of lions and of Smilodon show that the latter would have fared poorly with the stresses of holding onto struggling prey. The main issue was the stresses suffered by the mandible: a strong force threatened to break the jaw as pressure was placed on its weakest points.

Smilodon would have had one-third the bite force of a lion, had it used only its jaw muscles. However, the neck muscles that connected to the back of the skull were stronger and depressed the head, forcing the skull down. When the jaw was hyper-extended, the jaw muscles could not contract, but the neck muscles pressed the head down, forcing the canines into whatever resisted them. When the mouth was closed far enough, the jaw muscles could raise the mandible by some margin.

Diet
On occasion, the bone of a fossilised predator is preserved well enough to retain recognizable proteins that belong to the species it consumed when alive. Stable isotope analysis of these proteins has shown that Smilodon preyed mainly on bison and horses, and occasionally ground sloths and mammoths, while Homotherium often preyed on young mammoths and other grazers such as pronghorn antelope and bighorn sheep when mammoths were not available. Examinations published in 2022 of tooth wear patterns on Smilodon and bite marks on the bones of the peccary Platygonus by Xenosmilus suggest that machairodonts were capable of efficiently stripping and de-fleshing a carcass of meat when feeding. They also show a degree of bone consumption on par with that of modern lions, which themselves can and regularly do eat smaller bones when consuming a meal.

The face
American paleontologist George Miller set forth a set of features not previously thought of in the soft tissues of machairodonts, specifically Smilodon.

The first change he suggested in the appearance of machairodonts was lower ears, or rather the illusion of lower ears due to the higher sagittal crest. However, the positioning of the ears is always similar in modern felids, even in individuals that have crests comparable in size to those of sabretooth cats. The positioning of the pinnae, or outer ears, along with fur color, are dependent on the individual doing the reconstruction. Large or small, pointed or rounded, high or low, fossils do not record these characteristics, leaving them open to interpretation.

Miller also suggested a pug-like nose. Aside from the pug and similar dogs, no modern carnivore exhibits a pug nose due to it being an unnaturally created trait originating from selective breeding. The relatively low distribution of the pug nose has resulted in it being generally ignored. Miller's rationale is based on the retraction of Smilodon nasal bones. Criticism of Miller's theory compares the nasal bones of lions and tigers. Lions, when compared to tigers, also have strongly retracted nasal bones, but a lion's rhinarium, or external nose, is no more retracted than the tiger's. Thus, the pug nose of Smilodon proposed by Miller has little evidence in the physical structures of comparable animals. According to Antón, García-Perea and Turner (1998), the nostrils of living felids always extend to a similar position, independently of the length of the nasal bones, which in Smilodon falls within the range observed in modern species.

The third idea proposed is the elongation of the lips by 50%. While his other hypotheses have been largely discarded, the last is used significantly in modern depictions. Miller argues that longer lips allows the greater elasticity needed for biting prey with a wider gape. Although this argument has been disputed within the scientific community, it remains supported nevertheless by artists. Scientific criticism points out that the lips of modern cats, especially larger species, display incredible elasticity and the usual lip length would stretch suitably, despite the larger degree of opening, and that in living carnivores the lip line is always anterior to the masseter muscle, which in Smilodon was located just behind the carnassials. Regardless, reconstructions of Smilodon, Machairodus, and other species are shown with long lips, often resembling the jowls of large dogs.

Studies of Homotherium and Smilodon suggest that scimitar-toothed machairodonts like Homotherium itself possessed upper lips and gum tissue that could effectively hide and protect their upper canines; a trait they shared in common with modern cat species, while Smilodon had canines that remained partially exposed and protruded past the lips and chin even while the mouth was closed due to their great length.

Vocalizations
Comparisons of the hyoid bones of Smilodon and lions show that the former, and possibly other machairodonts, could potentially have roared like their modern relatives.

Smilodon
A 2009 study compared the ratios of social and solitary carnivores in reserves in South Africa and Tanzania with those of fossils of California's La Brea tar pits, a well-known fossil bed from the Pleistocene, and how they responded to recorded sounds of dying prey, to infer whether Smilodon was social or not. At one time, the La Brea tar pits consisted of deep tar in which animals became trapped. As they died, their calls attracted predators, which in turn also became caught. It is considered the best Pleistocene fossil bed in North America for the number of animals caught and preserved in the tar, and may be similar to the situation created in the study. The assumption was that solitary carnivores would not approach the sources of such sounds, because of the danger of confrontation with other predators. Social carnivores, such as lions, have few other predators to fear, and will readily attend these calls. The study concluded that this latter situation most closely fit the ratio of animals found at the La Brea tar pits, and therefore that Smilodon was most likely social.

Homotherium

At Friesenhahn Cave, Texas, the remains of almost 400 juvenile mammoths were discovered along with skeletons of Homotherium. Homotherium groups have been suggested to have specialized in hunting young mammoths, and to have dragged the kills into secluded caves to eat inside, out from the open. They also retained excellent nocturnal vision, and hunting at night in the arctic regions would probably have been their prime hunting method.

The modern lion is capable of, in large numbers, killing weakened adult and healthy subadult elephants, so similar sized Homotherium likely could have managed the same feat with juvenile mammoths. This is supported by isotopic analysis. But the idea that a cat, even one of very large size and possibly social, was able to cooperatively 'drag' a 400 lb mammoth calf any real distance into a cave without damaging its teeth has aroused great criticism. Its sloped back and powerful lumbar section of its vertebrae suggested a bear-like build, so it might have been capable of pulling weights, but breaking canines, a fate suffered by Machairodus and Smilodon with some frequency, is not seen in Homotherium. Moreover, the bones of these young mammoths show the distinctive marks of Homotherium incisors, indicating they could efficiently process most of the meat on a carcass, indicating it was they and not scavengers who dragged the carcasses into the caves. Examination of the bones also indicates that the carcasses of these mammoths were dismembered by the cats before being dragged away, indicating that Homotherium would disarticulate their kill to transport it to a safe area and prevent scavengers from claiming a hard-won meal. Evidence also shows the cats were able to effectively strip flesh from bone in a manner that left noticeable score marks.

Paleopathology

Machairodus is another genus with few fossil records to suggest a social nature, but canines on these species are broken more often than others and show signs of extensive healing afterward. A male Amphimachairodus giganteus from China housed by the Babiarz Institute of Paleontological Studies is an older individual with a broken canine, worn from usage after the break. However, the individual died of a severe nasal infection, an injury that a social predator would have had a better chance of healing, so the skull can be interpreted in different ways. The adult canine teeth of juvenile Machairodus took an exceptionally long time to erupt and be used, so until then, it was completely dependent on the care of its parents.

In another example of paleopathology supporting the social hypothesis, a large number of Smilodon fossils from the La Brea tar pits feature hunting injuries. In addition to injuries resulting from strain while hunting, the more severe injuries strongly suggest a social nature. Animals may have been crippled long after the injury healed, suffering swollen ankles, prominent limps, and limited mobility that persisted for years. One such case displays a subadult suffering a shattered pelvis that healed. The specimen would barely have been able to use the damaged limb and would have limped slowly, favoring the other three legs, completely unable to hunt on its own. If a solitary predator would have been able to survive such a severe injury, it would have been a very rare occasion. It is far more likely that such an animal would have been unable to move from a single spot on the ground for several months and might have only survived by being brought food or dragging itself towards kills made by relatives.

Rebuttals to the social hypothesis
The question of sociality is still controversial. Strong support for the traditional concept of a solitary Smilodon is found in its brain. Most social predators, including humans, grey wolves, and lions, have brains that are slightly larger than those of their loner relatives. Smilodon had a relatively small brain, suggesting less ability for complex cooperative behaviors, such as hunting in groups.

The broken bones still seem to support sociality, however, the best explanation for a solitary animal healing from serious wounds is that cats build up metabolic reserves that can be used in times of need. The cheetah is often viewed as a poor example because it is a specialized species with a more fragile physique than other cats. Larger, more sturdily built cat species, such as lions and leopards, have been observed to recover from severe injuries, such as broken jaws and torn muscles.

Stabbing
It has been suggested that machairodonts used their saber teeth during hunting, grappling an animal, opening its mouth, and swinging its head down with enough force to puncture the animal's skin and flesh. It was once suggested that the saber teeth were used much like a knife. The canines seemed, initially, as tools of great power and devastating ability, used for crushing vertebrae, or for tearing open armored animals such as glyptodonts.

However, teeth are made of unsupported enamel, and would have been easily broken against hard material such as bone. It has also been argued that the mandible and an inability to open the mouth very wide would have been an impediment to effective stabbing. For such reasons, this concept has been rejected by the scientific community.

Sexual characteristic
Long canines could also have been the product of sexual selection, much like the mane of a lion, and were used for courting, sexual display, and social status. Their canines are already well established as relatively fragile, and their jaw muscles not strong, so any predatory function is uncertain.

However, when a trait is adopted to enhance sexual attraction, typically only one sex, usually males, display the feature. In all machairodont species, both males and females have these canines and, with only minor exceptions as in Machairodus, are shaped similarly. There is typically also a size difference between sexes, but male and female machairodonts appear to have been the same sizes. Also, this level of sexual selection seems extreme given an individual would be left severely impaired in eating and general function.

Scavenging
One suggestion is that most machairodonts were scavengers. This leaves the canines not functional for the most part, and is often coupled with the hypothesis of sexual selection. Many modern carnivores scavenge to a greater or lesser degree. A strong sense of smell and good hearing could have helped find carcasses or steal the kills of other predators, such as dire wolves or short-faced bears, and sprinting would not have been needed, as is seen in the stocky conformation of most machairodonts.

Many modern cats show this mixture of traits. Lions are able-bodied hunters, but will steal when they are given the opportunity. Tigers and cougars bury their kills and return later to keep eating, even days later. All cats prefer killing the sick or injured, and there is a fine line between an animal so sick it cannot move and a dead animal. The abundance of Smilodon skeletons in the La Brea tar pits in California supports the hypothesis, as well. The animals caught in the pits would have been dying or dead, the kind of meal a true hypercarnivore, such as a modern cheetah, would pass up. This hypothesis is the oldest, but still considered viable.

Opposition to this concept lies in many parts of the cat. The teeth are purely carnivorous, unable to grind plant material, as the omnivorous teeth of dogs and bears do. The carnassials are shaped to efficiently slice flesh, not crunch bone, as they are in the modern spotted hyena. Since both sexes bear these canines and additional modifications to the skull are present, machairodonts were likely opportunists to some degree.

The neck-biting hypotheses
A more common and widely accepted view of machairodont hunting is the throat-shearing bite. Modern cats use a throat clamp, a bite positioned around the upper section of the throat, to suffocate the prey by compressing the windpipe. Their canines serve to puncture the skin and mostly allow a better grip, and do not do any significant damage to the prey. Machairodonts, alternatively, would have caused damage if they used the same technique as their modern relatives.

The major drawback to these methods is that the large amount of blood spilled could be smelled by other nearby carnivores, such as other machairodonts or dire wolves. Predators often form competitive relationships in which dominance can shift from one species to the other, as seen in the modern lion and spotted hyena of Africa. In such situations, squabbles are not uncommon. The balance of power and dominance between these apex predators remains a mystery because of the social factor. Strength in numbers can be significant in these struggles. For example, dire wolves are thought to have traveled in small packs, and while individually subordinate, their numbers might have been sufficient to force a machairodont off a kill.

However, the cat might have been able to scavenge on kills made by dire wolves. Two solitary machairodonts would quickly develop a pecking order with the first individual dominant. Because of this uncertainty, a large part of the niche of machairodonts is still unknown. The several variations on this hypothesis all require a subdued and still animal.

General "bite and retreat"
The first hypothesis involving the sensitive neck is that the cat simply restrained the animal and then bit the neck, without much specificity to location, to cause major blood damage and then retreated to allow the animal to bleed to death. Stipulations include not biting the back of the neck where contact with vertebrae could break the teeth, but a deep bite anywhere in the neck would prove fatal.

This general bite would be used wherever it could be attained, and needs fewer predators. When compared with the belly-shearing hypothesis, one Megantereon could kill a large deer, and possibly a horse, with little danger of breaking canines. This is because the bite can be applied while the carnivore keeps its body behind the prey for the most part, avoiding flinging legs while still pressing with its body weight to keep it still. It would have been a quick bite, suiting the ambush style of stalking and hunting implied by the heavy and strong bodies of most machairodonts. It would also have been possible for a lone machairodont to wound a large prey animal in this manner, then release and follow it until it fell from shock.

The general bite-and-retreat hypothesis has been criticised because of its bloodiness and because the struggling prey would have attracted any predators and scavengers in the area. The idea that a single animal would wound, release, and follow a prey animal has been counteracted more strongly. Cats rarely walk away from prey until they have eaten their fill and it would have risked being stolen by other predators.

Xenosmilus in particular might have used this method, as all the teeth in its mouth were serrated and aligned in a way that formed a consistent cutting surface.

"Bite and compress"
When the animal is wounded with a bite from a machairodont (ignoring the placement of the blood vessels, which are negligible in this hypothesis), the canines would have been inserted behind the windpipe and the premolars would have been encompassing the windpipe. This variation states that the machairodont compressed the windpipe after dealing the bite, serving to both suffocate and wound the prey animal. Puncturing large blood vessels in the throat and causing massive bleeding would hasten the death of the animal.

Modern cats, and presumably the basal genera of all cats, such as Pseudaelurus and Proailurus, use the throat clamp as a common method of dispatching prey. The suffocation would inhibit sound from the panicked prey, a method used by modern cheetahs and leopards. The wound from the canines and the lack of air would then kill the prey animal.

This method might inhibit the full effect of the wound created by the canines. Keeping the canines in the wound would stifle the blood flow from the body and could keep the animal alive longer even if the prey is unable to vocalize. There is no significant advantage to the longer canines in this method of killing when compared to the ancestral cats with their short, conical-shaped canines. If anything, the dangers to breaking teeth held in the throat of a panicked animal, even if well restrained, outweighs the possible benefits, so this method has often been viewed as improbable.

Careful "shearing bite"
Another variation suggests the advanced machairodonts were highly specialized, enough to obtain the specific geometry to puncture the four major blood vessels in the throat of a prey animal in one bite. This hypothesis would include a careful bite to puncture the blood vessels, similar to, but more precise than, the bite-and-compress hypothesis, whereupon the machairodont would retreat and allow the animal to bleed to death very quickly.

Though bloody, this method would take the shortest amount of time to kill the animal out of all the hypotheses. Because of the differences of anatomy between species possibly hunted by machairodonts, the geometry needed to kill a horse, for instance, might not work for a bison. This would require the genus, or even the specific species, to be highly specialized for one type of prey animal. This might offer an explanation for their extinction, for the movement or extinction of that prey species would lead to the death of its specialist predator.

The high specialization seems an extreme and unnecessary version of a bite-and-retreat version of the throat-shear, but the suggestion that machairodont species became more specialized to hunt one prey species is usually considered acceptable so long as the misconception that the machairodont hunted 'only' that species is taken. However, this would not resolve the issue of the messiness and the loud sounds probably associated with this kind of bite. More than one individual would probably have been needed to ensure a completely subdued animal.

"Belly shearing"
In 1985, American paleontologist William Akersten suggested the shearing bite. This method of killing is similar to the style of killing seen in hyenas and canines today. A group of machairodonts captured and completely subdued a prey item, holding it still while one from the group bit into the abdominal cavity, pulled back and tore open the body.

For this technique to work, a specific sequence of motions would have to be followed. First, the animal must be completely subdued, and the predatory machairodonts must be social, so that several individuals can hold the prey animal down. The individual preparing to deliver the killing bite would open its mouth at maximum gape, and with its mandible, press up on the skin of the belly. Creating a depression where the lower canines and incisors press into the skin, a slight fold is created in the skin above the lower teeth as the mandible is shoved upward. Next, the upper canines are pressed into the skin and the muscles of the neck are used to depress the head, so instead of pulling the jaw 'up', the skull is pressed 'down'. When the canines pierce the skin, they are lowered until the gape of the mouth is roughly 45°, where the mandible is pulled up in addition to the skull still being depressed. The small flanges on the anterior portion of the mandible of most machairodonts would be used to aid the depression of the skull. When the animal's mouth is closed, it holds a thick flap of skin between its jaws, behind its canines, and the animal uses the muscles of its lower back and forequarters to pull back, tearing the flap clear of the body. This large gash, once opened, leaves intestines uncovered and arteries and veins torn. The bleeding animal would die within minutes, and the shock of repeated bites, tearing innards from the body, could speed up the process.

This method allows social machairodonts to inflict large wounds on prey animals. Massive blood loss would ensue, and though bloody, the social group would be able to fend off almost any animal attracted to the area. The bite would not need to be specific, and could be repeated to hasten the death of the animal, and it is already seen in the killing methods of several extant species, such as the spotted hyena. Canines are not as likely to be broken due to the softer nature of the abdomen when compared to the throat and jerking movements are not as amplified in the abdomen as they are in the neck. The abdominal-tearing hypothesis has generally been regarded as highly plausible. In the La Brea tar pits, occurrences of broken canines in Smilodon are rare, and this less risky method might have contributed to this.

However, a shearing bite may have been problematic for machairodonts for several reasons. Most ungulates are highly sensitive around the belly and hindquarters, and most predators find it much easier to capture and subdue an animal similar to the domestic cow, by manipulating the head and forequarters. By lowering the animal to the ground and placing itself between the pairs of legs, a machairodont would have suffered great risk of being kicked. The power behind such a kick would easily break teeth, a mandible, or a leg, and cripple or kill the cat.

Sociability might have solved this issue by having one individual deliver the killing bite while others held the animal still. Furthermore, the diameter of the abdomen of a large ungulate such as a bison might have been too large, and the skin too taut, for a machairodont to grasp a flap of skin at all, much less tear it away from the body. A third issue with the shearing bite is that the canines would need to tear a large hole in the belly of the animal to be successful, but might instead simply flay the skin and produce two long slits. This wound may be painful and bleed, but the animal likely would not bleed to death and could still escape and survive, instead of bleeding to death.

In 2004 an experiment used a pair of mechanical aluminum jaws, cast from the CT scans of a Smilodon fatalis from the La Brea tar pits, to simulate several biting techniques possibly used by Smilodon, including the shearing bite, on a fresh domestic cow carcass. The belly of the cow was found to be too large in diameter for the canines to puncture the skin, which were instead deflected off the body, with the mandible blocking their access. However, the model pulled its jaw upward as modern cats bite, while machairodonts most likely did not, instead pressing their skulls down with the aid of their neck muscles. This flaw in the procedure might nullify the results and leave the belly-shearing hypothesis untouched.

Notes and references

 * Report on Barnett group's study in Current Biology August 9, 2005: Ross Barnett et al.: "Evolution of the extinct Sabretooths and the American cheetah-like cat" in Current Biology, Vol. 15, R589-R590, August 9, 2005

title: Machairodontinae


text:
User talk:G4937

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Hi!
Thanks for correcting my syntax and spelling errors in the euro coins pages... Rather embarassing mistakes, those. ^_^;; I assume you're also interested in euro and euro coins? ナイトスタリオン ✉ 06:44, 24 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes, I find it interesting to see how the countries represent themselves in such a small space. Although I am a biased citizen, I think the Irish ones are the best.  Simple and effective, a really classic design. Also, when I was in Austria I bought a cheap collection kit from Libro and tried to fill it. I actually succeeded! Sometimes I also buy the commemorative €2 coins!
 * By the way, I find that there is a lot of good stuff out there on Wikipedia written by non-native English speakers which sometimes has a few errors! I often wonder how offended these people get when things get corrected.  When I and a few of my UK/US friends worked in different Austrian schools as language assistants, we often found that some of the teachers would get very annoyed if you corrected their poor grammar and said, "Well, that's the way they say it in (the other country), so I'm actually right," or "I heard an (other nationality) say it like that once."  Very difficult to counteract, although it thankfully rarely happened to me. User: 17:59, 24 November 2005 (UTC)

Mh. Difficult to say. In my experience, a certain type of teacher (not the majority, I'd say) simply has a problem with being corrected - for the simple reason that in most cases, the people they teach really don't know the topic as well as they do. Once they've realized they've got a student who's smarter than they are – happens often enough – most tend to take it rather well, but then again, that depends on how the student in question presents the corrections... If the relationship in question is assistant teacher—teacher, I suppose similar mechanisms set in, even though they ought to realize that you should know your stuff. ;) ナイトスタリオン ✉ 18:23, 24 November 2005 (UTC)

Hi,
thank you very much for your improments on the article about Leibnitz. I know the BG/BRG Leibnitz quite well, I had my general qualification for university entrence there. But that is already more than a decade ago... I have been in England, I have been in Scotland but I have never been in Ireland - until now. Where do you live in Ireland - maybe I can help to improve the articles written in German language about your hometown (area).

Sincerely yours, Andreas

Thanks man
Thanks very much for the comments, mate :) The cookbook is a great one, and so is that bottle of whiskey :P (the picture that is, ofcourse) ;)

Dom0803 11:58, 12 June 2006 (UTC)

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text: Category:Tennessee culture

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Philips 68070

The SCC68070 is a Philips Semiconductors-branded, Motorola 68000-based 16/32-bit processor produced under license. While marketed externally as a high-performance microcontroller, it has been almost exclusively used combined with the Philips SCC66470 VSC (Video- and Systems Controller) in the Philips CD-i interactive entertainment product line.

Additions to the Motorola 68000 core include:

 * Operation from 4 to 17.5 MHz
 * Inclusion of a minimal, segmented MMU supporting up to 16 MB of memory
 * Built-in DMA controller
 * I²C bus controller
 * UART
 * 16-bit counter/timer unit
 * 2 match/count/capture registers allowing the implementation of a pulse generator, event counter or reference timer
 * Clock generator

Differences from the Motorola 68000 core include these:

 * Instruction execution timing is completely different
 * Interrupt handling has been simplified
 * The SCC68070 has MC68010 style bus-error recovery. They are not compatible, so exception error processing is different.
 * The SCC68070 lacks a dedicated address generation unit (AGU), so operations requiring address calculation run slower due to contention with the shared ALU. This means that most instructions take more cycles to execute, for some instructions significantly more, than a 68000.
 * The MMU is not compatible with the Motorola 68451 or any other "standard" Motorola MMU, so operating system code dealing with memory protection and address translation is not generally portable. Enabling the MMU also costs a wait state on each memory access.

While the SCC68070 is mostly binary compatible with the Motorola 68000, there is no equivalent chip in the Motorola 680x0 series. In particular, the SCC68070 is not a follow-on to the Motorola 68060.

Even though the SCC68070 is a 32-bit processor internally, it has a 24-bit address bus, giving it a theoretical 16MB maximum RAM. However, this is not possible, as all of the on-board peripherals are mapped internally.

title: Philips 68070


text:
User talk:Timeaftertimecl

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Thanks
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Harry Laurent

Harry John Laurent, VC (15 April 1895 – 9 December 1987) was a New Zealand recipient of the Victoria Cross (VC), the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Born in Tarata, Laurent was a grocer's assistant when he volunteered in May 1915 to serve in the First World War with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF). He was posted to the 2nd Battalion of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade and from 1916 served on the Western Front. It was on 12 September 1918, during an engagement that followed the Second Battle of Bapaume, that he performed the actions that led to him being honoured with the VC. He ended the war as a second lieutenant. Discharged from the NZEF, he returned to civilian life but was recalled to active duty during the Second World War and was involved in the Home Guard. He was the last surviving New Zealand VC recipient of the First World War at the time of his death in 1987.

Early life
Henry John Laurent, known as Harry, was born on 15 April 1895 in Tarata, in the Taranaki region of New Zealand. His father, John, and mother, Mary, were farmers. His family was of French descent, his grandfather, a former officer in the French Army, having emigrated to New Zealand in 1852. The family moved to Hāwera while Laurent was still a child. He attended Hawera District High School and after completing his education, he found work as a grocer's assistant. He also served with the Territorial Force, having joined at the age of 16.

First World War
In May 1915, Laurent enlisted with the New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF), shortly after his 20th birthday. An attempt to volunteer for the NZEF the previous year had been declined, as he was below the minimum age for service aboard. Posted to the 2nd Battalion of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade (NZRB), Laurent embarked for the Middle East in October 1915. He did not arrive in time to be involved in the Gallipoli Campaign and instead participated in the defence of the Suez Canal.

Western Front
In March 1916, the Rifle Brigade was designated part of the newly formed New Zealand Division and the following month it was sent to the Western Front. Laurent participated in the Battle of Flers–Courcelette, part of the Somme Offensive, during which he was wounded. After a period of hospital treatment, he returned to his battalion in April 1917. He received a series of promotions over the next several months, and during this time, his battalion participated in the Battle of Messines as the reserve for the NZRB, the First Battle of Passchendaele, and in defending the British lines near Colincamps during the German spring offensive of late-March 1918. By September 1918 Laurent had advanced in rank to sergeant.

During the Hundred Days Offensive, the New Zealand Division, following the Second Battle of Bapaume, was in pursuit of retreating German forces. Leading a patrol on 12 September in the area east of Gouzeaucourt Wood, France, Laurent was ordered to locate and regain contact with the German front lines. The 12-man patrol inadvertently penetrated through the front line and located a line of artillery. Realising the patrol's mistake, Laurent organised a swift attack which resulted in the capture of 112 prisoners, with one member of the patrol being killed and three others wounded. He then extricated his patrol, together with the prisoners, back to the New Zealand line, fighting off counterattacks along the way. For his bravery and leadership, he was awarded the Victoria Cross (VC). The VC, instituted in 1856, was the highest gallantry award that could be bestowed on a soldier of the British Empire. His VC was gazetted on 12 November 1918, and the citation read:

"For most conspicuous bravery, skill, and enterprise when during an attack he was detailed to exploit an initial success and keep in touch with the enemy. With a party of twelve he located the enemy support line very strongly held, at once charged the position, followed by his men, and completely disorganised the enemy by his sudden onslaught. In the subsequent hand-to-hand fighting which ensued he showed great resourcefulness in controlling and encouraging his men, and thirty of the enemy having been killed, the remainder surrendered, a total of one officer and 111 other ranks in all. The success of this daring venture, which caused his party four casualties only, was due to his gallantry and enterprise" Laurent was sent to England in October 1918, where he attended an officer training school. The war had ended by the time he was commissioned in February 1919. He, together with three other New Zealanders who had been awarded the VC, received his medal from King George V in a ceremony at Buckingham Palace on 27 February 1919. A few months later, he left England for New Zealand and his hometown of Hāwera. On his arrival, the mayor presented him a gold watch and chain, the cost of which was met by public donations. In October 1919, he was part of the welcoming party when fellow VC recipient and Hāwera resident John Grant returned home.

Later life
Discharged from the NZEF and placed on the Reserve of Officers, Laurent settled into life in Hāwera and soon found employment at a grocery store. He later worked as a sales representative. He married Ethel Homewood, originally from England, on 20 July 1921, in a ceremony at Hāwera. Fellow VC recipients John Grant and Leslie Andrew were present, the former in the capacity of best man. In 1937, Laurent, along with several other VC recipients, was awarded the coronation medal to commemorate the ascension of King George VI to the British throne.

During the Second World War, Laurent was recalled to the Reserve of Officers of the New Zealand Military Forces. He was soon commanding a battalion in the Home Guard. Later promoted to a temporary lieutenant colonel, he was made group director of the Hāwera Home Guard in early 1942. Late the following year he was appointed commander of the Hāwera squadron of the Air Training Corps and held this post until 1945. He was formally seconded to the Royal New Zealand Air Force for a brief period as a squadron commander of 34th Air Training Squadron before ceasing active duty at the end of the war. He formally retired from the military in 1949.

At the age of 61, Laurent went to London in 1956 as part of the VC centenary celebrations. He attended further VC events in the following years. He died in Hastings on 9 December 1987, the last surviving New Zealand VC recipient of the First World War. His wife had predeceased him the previous year. His ashes are interred in the Memorial Wall at the Servicemen's Cemetery at Hāwera, his hometown. A street in the town is also named after him, and nearby is Grant VC Street, named for fellow VC recipient John Grant.

Laurent's VC was displayed at the QEII Army Memorial Museum in Waiouru, along with his service medals from the First and Second World Wars and his coronation medals. On 2 December 2007, Laurent's VC was one of nine Victoria Crosses that were among a hundred medals stolen from the museum. On 16 February 2008, New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ$300,000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess.

title: Harry Laurent


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Angel (paintball gun)

The Angel is one of the first electropneumatic paintball markers. It was manufactured by Angel Paintball Sports (originally WDP) starting in 1997 and was introduced alongside Smart Parts' original Shocker.

The Angel was initially distributed in the United States by Brass Eagle as the 1455 Angel Semi-auto, advertised with a rate of 15 balls per second. This deal was short-lived, so WDP then distributed the Angel independently; refining the marker and releasing new models.

History
The Angel paintball marker was designed by engineer John Rice, as an HPA-only marker. Despite its ubiquitous use in the sport at the time, Rice considered CO2 a dirty gas, so the Angel used miniaturized components that could not withstand impurities in the air or the cooling effects of CO2. To cater to the sudden need for a high-flow HPA regulator, WDP released the Gov'nair high pressure air system. The marker featured an electronic firing sequence and light trigger for effective shooting, and low learning curve -. The first use of the Angel in a NPPL event was at the 1996 World Cup by Ted Kunewa with Washington Reign and Jacko with Banzai Bandits.

Operation
The Angel incorporates a linked bolt and hammer, tri-tubed design, and a four-way solenoid valve; referred to as a fourteen-way by Angel engineer Rice. The valve drives the ram and is essentially an electronically controlled version of the four-way valves mounted to the front block of Autococker markers.

The firing sequence is electronically controlled, and starts from the open bolt. At the pull of the trigger, an electronic impulse trips the four-way valve, pushing compressed gas through the ram from behind, forcing the ram and bolt assembly to move towards the valve, impacting the poppet and releasing gas to the chamber. The paintball is fired with this gas, then the four-way solenoid reverses, and delivers gas to the front of the ram, returning the ram and bolt assembly to their starting position.

title: Angel (paintball gun)


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Philadelphia International Records

Philadelphia International Records (PIR) was an American record label based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was founded in 1971 by songwriting and production duo Kenneth Gamble and Leon Huff along with their longtime collaborator Thom Bell. It was known for showcasing the Philadelphia soul music genre (also known as Philly soul) that was founded on the gospel, doo-wop and soul music of the time. This sound later marked a prominent and distinct era within the R&B genre. During the 1970s, the label released a string of worldwide hits that emphasized lavish orchestral instrumentation, heavy bass and driving percussion.

Some of its most popular and best selling acts included the O'Jays, Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes, Teddy Pendergrass, MFSB, Billy Paul, Patti LaBelle, and Lou Rawls. Between 1971 and the early 1980s, the label released more than 170 gold and platinum records.

Philadelphia International Records had been mostly defunct since 1987 and finally shut down in 2001. As of 2007, Sony Music Entertainment owns all rights to the Philadelphia International Records catalogue.

Beginning and success
Kenneth Gamble and Leon Huff, the founders of Philadelphia International Records, met in 1964 while they were both playing as session musicians for various labels, including Philadelphia based Cameo-Parkway Records, whose building would later become home to Philadelphia International Records' recording studio. In 1965, Huff joined Gamble's band, the Romeos, a popular moniker at the time, by replacing future Philadelphia International Records producer and arranger Thom Bell on piano. Gamble and the Romeos had seen little success playing for their label, Arctic Records, and split up soon after.

When the Romeos disbanded, Gamble and Huff started one of the first iterations of Philadelphia International Records (which they named Excel and Gamble) after a visit to Motown Records in Detroit to scope out the Motown setup. The success of their biggest signing, the Intruders, brought attention to Gamble and Huff allowing them to create Neptune Records in 1969. Neptune Records, a more ambitious project for the duo, was financed by Chess Records; thus they were able to sign later Philadelphia International Records artists the O'Jays and the Three Degrees.

When Chess Records changed ownership in 1969, Neptune Records folded. Gamble and Huff transferred their signed artists to a new project, Philadelphia International Records. Looking to attract new black acts to their label, but without the in-house know-how, Columbia Records was convinced to sign an exclusive production contract with Gamble and Huff's new Philadelphia International Records. The label was set up in connection with Mighty Three/Assorted Music, the music publishing company which was run by Gamble, Huff, and Thom Bell, a Philadelphia producer, to showcase their songs.

The label's major hits included: "TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)" by MFSB, featuring the Three Degrees, 1974 (which was later used as one of the theme tunes for the TV dance-music show Soul Train); "Ain't No Stoppin' Us Now" by McFadden & Whitehead (writers and producers with the label), 1979; "Back Stabbers" and "Love Train" by the O'Jays, 1972/3; "If You Don't Know Me By Now" and "The Love I Lost" by Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes, 1972/3; "Me and Mrs. Jones" by Billy Paul, 1972; "When Will I See You Again" by the Three Degrees, 1974; and "You'll Never Find Another Love Like Mine" by Lou Rawls, 1976.

The label had a distribution deal with CBS Records until 1984. Distribution of the catalog from 1976 onward was taken over by EMI Records, but CBS continued to distribute material which was recorded up to 1976. In 2007, Sony's Legacy Recordings regained the rights to Philadelphia International's full catalog and the following year, PIR/Legacy released a box set titled Love Train: The Sound of Philadelphia.

Most of the music which was released by the label was recorded and produced at Sigma Sound Studios in Philadelphia, with chief engineer and later studio owner Joe Tarsia recording many of the sessions. More than 30 resident studio musicians, known collectively as MFSB ("Mother Father Sister Brother"), were based at this studio and backed up most of the recordings. Some of the musicians also acted as arrangers, writers, or producers for Philadelphia International as well as for other labels recording in the city. They included Bobby Martin, Norman Harris, Thom Bell, Ronnie Baker, Vince Montana and, later, Jack Faith, Dexter Wansel, and John Usry.

Gamble and Huff worked as independent producers with a series of artists in the late 1960s and early 1970s, including Jerry Butler, Wilson Pickett, and Dusty Springfield. They also produced the Jacksons' first two albums for Epic/CBS after the group left Motown in 1976. The first, titled The Jacksons, featured the platinum-selling single "Enjoy Yourself", and a second album, Goin' Places, followed in 1977. Although they were released on a CBS subsidiary, Epic, both albums and the singles also had a Philadelphia International logo.

In 1965, Gamble and Huff started an independent label, Excel Records. It was soon renamed Gamble Records and in 1972, was folded into Philadelphia International as a subsidiary. In 1974, the subsidiary's name was changed to TSOP Records, taken from the title of the 1974 hit single "TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)". Artists for Excel/Gamble/TSOP included Dee Dee Sharp, Archie Bell & the Drells, and the People's Choice who had a top 10 single on TSOP in 1976 with "Do It Any Way You Wanna". Later signings to the Philly International roster in the 1980s and 1990s included Patti LaBelle, the Stylistics, Phyllis Hyman, and the Dells.

Between 1973 and 1975, Gamble and Huff also distributed a boutique label called Golden Fleece, set up by musicians Norman Harris, Ronnie Baker, and Earl Young, which released the second album by the Trammps. Gamble and Huff also launched a short-lived subsidiary called Thunder Records. Created by Thom Bell, it only had two singles: Derek & Cyndi's "You Bring Out the Best in Me/I'll Do the Impossible for You", which was produced by Bell, and Fatback Band member Michael Walker's "I Got the Notion, You Got the Motion", produced by his brother and Spinners member Philippe Wynne.

Later period
By the mid-1980s, Philadelphia International Records had ended the distribution deal that they had with Columbia. The label was soon after picked up by Capitol/EMI Records. They continued to make hits, including Shirley Jones' "Do You Get Enough Love", but their most successful years were behind them. In the 1990s, Philadelphia International launched a new subsidiary, Uncensored Records. Featuring Damon and No Question, the label releases hip hop music. Philadelphia International now largely concentrates on licensing its music catalog worldwide and has issued few new recordings since the mid-1980s when Gamble and Huff wound down their studio work together.

In 1989, Gamble and Huff won their first Grammy Award. Simply Red's cover of "If You Don't Know Me By Now" which was written by Gamble and Huff, received the Grammy Award for Best R&B Song. In 1999, Gamble and Huff were awarded the Lifetime Achievement Grammy from the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. In 2008, the duo was inducted in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the non-performer category, joining their band the O'Jays, who were inducted in 2005.

In November 2009, PBS aired a two-part special, Love Train: The Sound of Philadelphia, that focuses on Gamble and Huff and the family of Philadelphia International Records artists. The concert was shot with a live audience on June 7, 2008 at the Borgata Hotel and Casino in Atlantic City; it showcased TSOP artists.

In February 2010, fire swept through part of the offices on Philadelphia's Broad Street. The building was previously the home of another iconic part of the city's musical heritage, Cameo-Parkway Records, based there during the 1950s and 1960s; it had become a tourist attraction. The fire was started deliberately by a man who had broken into the offices while so intoxicated by alcohol that he had no later recollection of the crime.

In August 2011, in honor of the 40th anniversary of the company, Philadelphia International Records launched TSOP Soul Radio, an online radio station that airs music and interviews from the Gamble and Huff catalog.

The building that housed Philadelphia International Records located on Broad and Spruce Streets was damaged by arson in 2010 and effectively was shut down. It was sold to local developer Dranoff Properties in 2014. On April 18, 2015, demolition started on the building. Dranoff Properties announced plans to build an SLS International Hotel at the site of the building. It is now home to the 47-story Arthaus Condominiums, where there is a tribute to Philadelphia International Records on display in the lobby.

Gamble and Huff have written more than 3,000 songs throughout their careers, making them two of the most efficient and productive songwriters of all time. They continue to write songs together from their homes in South Philadelphia.

Philly soul
Philadelphia soul, or Philly soul, is a form of soul music that emanated from Philadelphia during the mid-1960s. It provided a smoother alternative to the deep soul of the 1960s while maintaining the soul and emotion of popular R&B of the time. Philadelphia International Records was one of the most successful labels to capitalize on this new genre with acts such as the O'Jays and Teddy Pendergrass.

Philly soul is known for its incorporation of lush string arrangements along with penetrating brass, and often tells very personal and emotional stories. The world-renowned Philadelphia Orchestra's string section was often employed to play on many of Philadelphia International Records' tracks. Philly soul is often considered a producer's genre, the essence of the genre coming mostly from Gamble, Huff, Bell, and the other producers within PIR. Philly soul, with its driving rhythms, later became an inspiration for the disco craze of the 1970s.

Discography
Catalog numbers from 1971 to 1985 are part of CBS Records' overall numbering system, and therefore are discontinuous. Albums released from 1986-1990 were part of Capitol/EMI catalog numbering system. Catalog numbers for albums released after 1991 are from Philadelphia International's distribution deal with Zoo Entertainment.

title: Philadelphia International Records


text:
Hans Moore

Hans Garrett Moore (31 March 1834 – 6 October 1889), born in Carlingford, County Louth, Ireland, was an Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Details
He was 43 years old, and a major in the 88th Regiment (later The Connaught Rangers), British Army during the Ninth Cape Frontier War when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC.

On 29 December 1877 near Komgha, South Africa, during an action with the Gaikas, Major Moore saw that a private of the Frontier Mounted Police was unable to mount his horse and was left at the mercy of the enemy. Realising the danger, Major Moore rode back alone in the midst of the enemy, and continued in his efforts to save the man's life until the latter was killed. The major shot two and received an assegai in the arm during this gallant attempt.

Later life
He later achieved the rank of colonel. He died at Lough Derg, County Tipperary on 6 October 1889 whilst attempting to save a life and was buried at Mount Jerome Cemetery, Dublin, Ireland.

The medal
The medal is on display in the MuseuMAfricA, Johannesburg, South Africa.

title: Hans Moore


text:
Phonestheme

A phonestheme (phonaestheme in British English) is a pattern of sounds systematically paired with a certain meaning in a language. The concept was proposed in 1930 by British linguist J. R. Firth, who coined the term from the Greek φωνή phone, "sound", and αἴσθημα aisthema, "perception" (from αίσθάνομαι aisthanomai, "I perceive"). For example, sequence "sl-" appears in English words denoting low-friction motion, like "slide", "slick" and "sled".

A phonestheme is different from a phoneme (a basic unit of word-differentiating sound) or a morpheme (a basic unit of meaning) because it does not meet the normal criterion of compositionality.

Within C.S. Peirce's "theory of signs" the phonestheme is considered to be an "icon" rather than a "symbol" or an "index".

Identification
Phonesthemes are of critical interest to students of the internal structure of words because they appear to be a case where the internal structure of the word is non-compositional; i.e., a word with a phonestheme in it has other material in it that is not itself a morpheme. Phonesthemes "fascinate some linguists", as Ben Zimmer has phrased it, in a process that can become "mystical" or "unscientific".

For example, the English phonestheme "gl-" occurs in a large number of words relating to light or vision, like "glitter", "glisten", "glow", "gleam", "glare", "glint", "glimmer", "gloss", and so on; yet, despite this, the remainder of each word is not itself a phonestheme (i.e., a pairing of form and meaning); i.e., "-isten", "-ow", and "-eam" do not make meaningful contributions to "glisten", "glow", and "gleam". There are multiple main ways in which phonesthemes are empirically identified.

Corpus studies
The first is through corpus studies, where the words of a language are subjected to statistical analysis, and the particular form-meaning pairing, or phonestheme, is shown to constitute a statistically unexpected distribution in the lexicon or not.

Corpus studies can inform a researcher about the current state of the lexicon, a critical first step, but importantly are completely uninformative when it comes to questions of whether and how phonesthemes are represented in the minds of language users.

Study of patterns in neologisms
The second type of approach makes use of the tendency for phonesthemes to participate in the coinage and interpretation of neologisms (i.e., new words in a language). Various studies have demonstrated that, when asked to invent or interpret new words, subjects tend to follow the patterns that are predicted by the phonesthemes in their language. It is known, for example, that the word bangle is a loan from Hindi but speakers tend to associate it with English onomatopoeia like bang. While this approach demonstrates the vitality of phonesthemic patterns, it does not provide any evidence about whether (or how) phonesthemes are represented in the minds of speaker-hearers.

Study of linguistic processing patterns
The final type of evidence uses the methods of psycholinguistics to study exactly how phonesthemes participate in language processing. One such method is phonesthemic priming — akin to morphological priming — which demonstrates that people represent phonesthemes much as they do typical morphemes, despite the fact that phonesthemes are non-compositional.

Discussions of phonesthesia are often grouped with other phenomena under the rubric of sound symbolism.

Cross-linguistic similarities
While phonaesthemes may be language-specific, it has been pointed out that people may be sensitive to some phonaesthemes (e.g. /fl-/, or /tr-/) irrespective of where sound-meaning correspondences are exemplified in the lexicon of their mother tongue (e.g. English, French, Spanish or Macedonian).

Distribution
Phonesthemes have been documented in numerous languages from diverse language families, among them English, Swedish, and other Indo-European languages, Austronesian languages, and Japanese.

While phonesthemes have mostly been identified in the onsets of words and syllables, they can have other forms. There has been some argument that sequences like "-ash" and "-ack" in English also serve as phonesthemes, due to their patterning in words that denote forceful, destructive contact ("smash", "crash", "bash", etc.) and abrupt contact ("smack", "whack", "crack", etc.), respectively.

In addition to the distribution of phonesthemes, linguists consider their motivation. In some cases, there may appear to be good sound-symbolic reasons why phonesthemes would have the form they have. In the case of "-ack", for example, we might imagine that the words sharing this phonestheme do so because they denote events that would produce a similar sound. But critically, there are many phonesthemes for which there can be no sound-symbolic basis, such as "gl-", for the simple reason that their meanings (such as 'pertaining to light or vision') entail no sound.

While there are numerous studies on living languages, research is lacking about ancient languages, although the first documented example of phonesthemes dates back to at least the fourth century B.C.: Plato's Cratylus clearly mentioned a gl- phonestheme (a different one from that discussed previously, as those words are not of Greek origin) as well as an st- one and gave an explanation in terms of phonosemantics.

Examples
Examples of phonesthemes in English include:

"b-": related to the body, such as "back", "bark", "beak", "beard", "belly", "blood/bleed", "body", "bone", "brain", "breast", "breath(e)", "brow", "bruise", "bum/bottom".

"cl-": related to a closing motion of a single object, such as "clam", "clamp", "clap", "clasp", "clench", "cling", "clip", "clop", "clutch".

"fl-": related to movement, such as "flap", "flare", "flee", "flick", "flicker", "fling", "flip", "flit", "flitter", "flow", "flutter", "fly", "flurry".

"gl-": related to light, as in "glance", "glare", "glass", "gleam", "glimmer", "glint", "glisten", "glitter", "gloaming", "gloom", "gloss", "glow".

"sl-": appears in words denoting frictionless motion, like "slide", "slick", "sled", and so on. These are themselves a subset of a larger set of words beginning with “sl-“ that are pejorative behaviours, traits, or events: slab, slack, slang, slant, slap, slash, slate, slattern, slaver, slay, sleek, sleepy, sleet, slime, slip, slipshod, slit, slither, slobber, slog, slope, sloppy, slosh, sloth, slouch, slough, slovenly, slow, sludge, slug, sluggard, slum, slump, slur, slut, sly.

"sn-": related to the nose or mouth, as in "snack", "snarl", "sneer", "sneeze", "snicker/snigger", "sniff", "sniffle", "snivel", "snoot", "snore", "snorkel", "snort", "snot", "snout", "snub" (as an adjective), "snuff", "snuffle".

"st-": appears in three families of meanings:

 * a family of words referring to stability, as in "stable", "stadium", "standard", "stage", "staid", "stake", "stalk", "stall", "stance", "stanchion", "stand", "stare", "stasis", "state", "static", "station", "stationary", "stator", "statue", "stature", "status", "stay", "steady", "stet", "still", "stoll", "store", etc.

 * a family of words referring to the idea of strength, of rigidity, as "stout", "steel", "staff", "stave", "staple", etc.

 * another family referring to the idea of something pointed or sharp, as in "stab", "staple", "stiletto", "sting", "stitch", "stylet", "stylo", etc.

"str-": denoting something long and thin, as in "straight", "strand", "strap", "straw", "streak", "stream", "string", "stripe".

"sw-": related to a long movement, as in "sway", "sweep", "swerve", "swing", "swipe", "swirl", "swish", "swoop".

"tw-": connotes a twisting motion, as in "twist", "twirl", "tweak", "twill", "tweed", "tweezer", "twiddle", "twine", "twinge".

"-ow(e)l": connotes something sinister, as in "owl", "prowl", "scowl", "growl", "howl", "rowel", "bowel", "jowl".

"-ump": related to a hemispherical shape or pile, as in "bump", "clump", "dump", "jump", "hump", "lump", "mump", "rump", "stump".

title: Phonestheme


text:
Highview

Highview or High View may refer to:

Places

 * Highview, Louisville, Kentucky, U.S.
 * High View, West Virginia, U.S.

Other uses

 * Highview Power, a company specialized in cryogenic energy storage
 * Highview Productions, an Australian film production company

title: Highview


text:
Bomberman (2005 video game)

Bomberman (ボンバーマン) is a 2005 video game developed by Racjin for the Nintendo DS. It was released by Hudson Soft in Japan on May 26, 2005, and published worldwide by Ubisoft. The game is notable for its chibi art style, previously seen in the Bomberman Land series.

Part of the Bomberman franchise, it is the first entry to be released on the platform. A sequel, Bomberman 2, was released in 2008.

Gameplay
The single player mode features 10 levels with 10 stages each, a bonus stage after the 5th stage, and a boss battle for the 10th stage. A new mechanic is the item screen. All items collected are added to a stock. Using the touch screen, you can use the items to power Bomberman up; thus, if you die, you can use your reserve items to restart at full power instead of with no power.

The multiplayer mode uses the touch screen to expand the playing area, with tunnels connecting the two screens. Some arenas make use of the microphone to do certain things like setting off remote bombs and using the shield. The revenge bomb setting adds a whole new level to multiplayer gameplay by allowing a player to throw bombs after they are eliminated from the game by flicking them off the touch screen with the stylus. If Super Revenge mode is activated, if a player blows up another player using a flicked Revenge bomb, the player respawns where their opponent fell.

Bomberman is one of many games on the Nintendo DS which allows a player without a copy of the game to participate. Players are able to temporarily download a full copy of the multiplayer game from someone who has the game.

Reception
The game received "generally favorable reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. In Japan, however, Famitsu gave it a score of 26 out of 40.

title: Bomberman (2005 video game)