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List of American composers

This is a list of American composers, alphabetically sorted by surname. It is by no means complete. It is not limited by classifications such as genre or time periodhowever, it includes only music composers of significant fame, notability or importance. Some further composers are included in Category:American composers.

A
• Maurice Abrahams (1883–1931)

• Mark Adamo (born 1962)

• Alton Adams (1889–1987)

• H. Leslie Adams (born 1932)

• John Adams (born 1947)

• John Luther Adams (born 1953)

• Samuel Adler (born 1928)

• Bruce Adolphe (born 1955)

• Milton Adolphus (1913–1988)

• Miguel del Águila (born 1957)

• Howard E. Akers (1913–1984)

• Stephen Albert (1941–1992)

• Mark Alburger (born 1957)

• Russell Alexander (1877–1915)

• Esther Allan (1914–1985)

• Tori Amos (born 1963)

• David Amram (born 1930)

• Beth Anderson (born 1950)

• Leroy Anderson (1908–1975)

• T. J. Anderson (born 1928)

• John Antes (1740–1811)

• George Antheil (1900–1959)

• Alfredo Antonini (1901–1983)

• Frederic Archer (1838–1901)

• Dominick Argento (1927–2019)

• Harold Arlen (1905–1986)

• Felix Arndt (1889–1918)

• Robert Ashley (1930–2014)

• May Aufderheide (1888–1972)

• Larry Austin (1930–2018)

• Frederick Ayres (1876–1926)

B
• Milton Babbitt (1916–2011)

• Burt Bacharach (1928–2023)

• Ernst Bacon (1898–1990)

• David Baker (1931–2016)

• Leonardo Balada (born 1933)

• Edward Ballantine (1886–1971)

• George Barati (1913–1996)

• Samuel Barber (1910–1981)

• Wayne Barlow (1912–1996)

• Matthew Barnson (born 1979)

• Marion Bauer (1882–1955)

• Amy Beach (1867–1944)

• Robert Beadell (1925–1994)

• Jeff Beal (born 1963)

• Emily Bear (born 2001)

• Robert Beaser (born 1954)

• Jeremy Beck (born 1960)

• Johann H. Beck (1856–1924)

• John J. Becker (1886–1961)

• Jack Beeson (1921–2010)

• Supply Belcher (1751–1836)

• Robert Russell Bennett (1894–1981)

• Arthur Berger (1912–2003)

• Jonathan Berger (born 1954)

• William Bergsma (1921–1994)

• Irving Berlin (1888–1989)

• Derek Bermel (born 1967)

• Elmer Bernstein (1922–2004)

• Leonard Bernstein (1918–1990)

• Philip Bezanson (1916–1975)

• Lisa Bielawa (born 1968)

• William Billings (1746–1800)

• Phillip Bimstein (born 1947)

• Seth Bingham (1882–1972)

• Arthur H. Bird (1856–1923)

• Easley Blackwood Jr. (born 1933)

• Eubie Blake (1883–1983)

• Carla Bley (1936–2023)

• Marc Blitzstein (1905–1964)

• Ernest Bloch (1880–1959)

• Dušan Bogdanović (born 1955)

• William Bolcom (born 1938)

• Margaret Bonds (1913–1972)

• Francis Boott (1813–1904)

• David Borden (born 1938)

• Benjamin Boretz (born 1934)

• George Botsford (1874–1949)

• Roger Bourland (born 1952)

• Paul Bowles (1910–1999)

• Peter Boyer (born 1970)

• Martin Boykan (1931–2021)

• Henry Brant (1913–2008)

• Anthony Braxton (born 1945)

• Joseph Carl Breil (1870–1926)

• Kendall Durelle Briggs (born 1959)

• Roger Briggs (born 1952)

• George Frederick Bristow (1825–1898)

• Howard Brockway (1870–1951)

• Earle Brown (1926–2002)

• Uzee Brown Jr (born 1950)

• William Brown (active 1780–1790)

• Dave Brubeck (1920–2012)

• Adolf Brune (1870–1935)

• George Brunner (born 1951)

• Steven Bryant (born 1972)

• Mark Bucci (1924–2002)

• Dudley Buck (1839–1909)

• Harold Budd (1936–2020)

• Harry Burleigh (1866–1949)

• Carter Burwell (born 1954)

• Howard J. Buss (born 1951)

C
• Curt Cacioppo (born 1951)

• Charles Wakefield Cadman (1881–1946)

• John Cage (1912–1992)

• David DeBoor Canfield (born 1950)

• John Carisi (1922–1992)

• Robert Carl (born 1954)

• David Carlson (born 1952)

• John Alden Carpenter (1876–1951)

• Benjamin Carr (1768–1831)

• Elliott Carter (1908–2012)

• Kristopher Carter (born 1972)

• Romeo Cascarino (1922–2002)

• Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco (1895–1968)

• George Whitefield Chadwick (1854–1931)

• Evan Chambers (born 1963)

• Eric Chasalow (born 1955)

• George S. Chase (1909–1972)

• Rhys Chatham (born 1952)

• Chen Yi (born 1953)

• Paul Chihara (born 1938)

• Barney Childs (1926–2000)

• F. Melius Christiansen (1871–1955)

• Paul J. Christiansen (1914–1997)

• Avery Claflin (1898–1979)

• Philip Greeley Clapp (1888–1954)

• Rene Clausen (born 1953)

• Gloria Coates (–2023)

• Nellie Weldon Cocroft (1885–1986)

• Louis Coerne (1870–1922)

• Robert Cogan (1930–2021)

• James Cohn (1928–2021)

• Dan Coleman (born 1972)

• Valerie Coleman (born 1970)

• Edward Joseph Collins (1886–1951)

• Laura Sedgwick Collins (1859–1927)

• Edward T. Cone (1917–2004)

• Zez Confrey (1895–1971)

• Sylvia Constantinidis (born 1962)

• David Conte (born 1955)

• Bill Conti (born 1942)

• Charles Crozat Converse (1832–1918)

• Frederick Converse (1871–1940)

• Will Marion Cook (1869–1944)

• Carson Cooman (born 1982)

• David Cope (born 1941)

• Aaron Copland (1900–1990)

• Carmine Coppola (1910–1991)

• Sidney Corbett (born 1960)

• John Corigliano (born 1938)

• Mildred Couper (1887–1974)

• Henry Cowell (1897–1965)

• Sibylla Bailey Crane (1851–1902)

• John Craton (born 1953)

• Ruth Crawford Seeger (1901–1953)

• Noah Creshevsky (1945–2020)

• Paul Creston (1906–1985)

• David Crumb (born 1962)

• George Crumb (1929–2022)

• Conrad Cummings (born 1948)

• Alvin Curran (born 1938)

• Sebastian Currier (born 1959)

• Hoyt Curtin (1922–2000)

D
• Walter Damrosch (1862–1950)

• Joseph Dangerfield (born 1977)

• Richard Danielpour (born 1956)

• Mabel Wheeler Daniels (1878–1971)

• James Dashow (born 1944)

• Michael Daugherty (born 1954)

• Mario Davidovsky (1934–2019)

• Don Davis (born 1957)

• Katherine K. Davis (1892–1980)

• William L. Dawson (1899–1990)

• Reginald De Koven (1859–1920)

• Edmond Dédé (1827–1903)

• David Del Tredici (born 1937)

• Norman Dello Joio (1913–2008)

• Stuart Dempster (born 1936)

• David Diamond (1915–2005)

• Clarence Dickinson (1873–1969)

• Emma Lou Diemer (born 1927)

• Herbert Dillea (1870–1909)

• Fannie Charles Dillon (1881–1947)

• Lawrence Dillon (born 1959)

• James Di Pasquale (born 1941)

• Rocco Di Pietro (born 1949)

• Charles Dodge (born 1942)

• Daniel Dorff (born 1956)

• Celius Dougherty (1902–1986)

• John Thomas Douglass (1847–1886)

• John W. Downey (1927–2004)

• Deborah Drattell (born 1956)

• Paul Dresher (born 1951)

• Jacob Druckman (1928–1996)

• William Duckworth (1943–2012)

• John Woods Duke (1899–1984)

• Vernon Duke (1903–1969)

E
• Julius Eastman (1940–1990)

• Dennis Eberhard (1943–2005)

• Clara Edwards (1880–1974)

• Cecil Effinger (1914–1990)

• Henry Eichheim (1870–1942)

• Danny Elfman (born 1953)

• Bradley Ellingboe (born 1958)

• Duke Ellington (1899–1974)

• Jonathan Elliott (born 1962)

• Abraham Ellstein (1907–1963)

• Mark Engebretson (born 1964)

• Donald Erb (1927–2008)

• Robert Erickson (1917–1997)

• Pozzi Escot (born 1933)

• Alvin Etler (1913–1973)

• Ralph Evans (born 1953)

• Eric Ewazen (born 1954)

F
• Blair Fairchild (1877–1933)

• Mohammed Fairouz (born 1985)

• Richard Faith (1926–2021)

• Harry Falkenau (1864–1907)

• Arthur Farwell (1872–1952)

• Morton Feldman (1926–1987)

• Frank Felice (born 1961)

• Jim Ferguson (born 1948)

• Richard Festinger (born 1948)

• Paul Fetler (1920–2018)

• Jerry Fielding (1922–1980)

• Henry Fillmore (1881–1956)

• Irving Fine (1914–1963)

• Vivian Fine (1913–2000)

• Ross Lee Finney (1906–1997)

• C. P. First (born 1960)

• Clare Fischer (1928–2012)

• Nicolas Flagello (1928–1994)

• Carlisle Floyd (1926–2021)

• William Foden (1860–1947)

• Arthur Foote (1853–1937)

• Dan Forrest, Jr. (born 1978)

• Lukas Foss (1922–2009)

• Stephen Foster (1826–1864)

• Frederick A. Fox (1931–2011)

• Gabriela Lena Frank (born 1972)

• Harry Lawrence Freeman (1869–1954)

• Eleanor Everest Freer (1864–1942)

• Alexander Frey (born 1972)

• William Henry Fry (1813–1864)

• Kenneth Fuchs (born 1956)

G
• Nancy Galbraith (born 1951)

• Jack Gallagher (born 1947)

• Charles Henry Galloway (1871–1931)

• Michael Gandolfi (born 1956)

• Kyle Gann (born 1955)

• J. Ryan Garber (born 1973)

• Roopam Garg (born 1995)

• Daniel E. Gawthrop (born 1949)

• Erin Gee (born 1974)

• Steven Gerber (1948–2015)

• Abbie Gerrish-Jones (1863–1929)

• George Gershwin (1898–1937)

• Michael Giacchino (born 1967)

• Vittorio Giannini (1903–1966)

• Miriam Gideon (1906–1996)

• William Gilchrist (1846–1916)

• Dizzy Gillespie (1917–1993)

• Don Gillis (1912–1978)

• Patrick Gilmore (1829–1892)

• Janice Giteck (born 1946)

• Philip Glass (born 1937)

• Frederick Grant Gleason (1848–1903)

• Roger Goeb (1914–1997)

• Joel Goffin (born 1981)

• Rubin Goldmark (1872–1936)

• Jerry Goldsmith (1929–2004)

• Michael Gordon (born 1956)

• Peter Gordon (born 1951)

• Ricky Ian Gordon (born 1956)

• Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829–1869)

• Morton Gould (1913–1996)

• Donald Grantham (born 1947)

• Charles Greenberg (born 1953)

• Jay Greenberg (born 1991)

• Robert Greenberg (born 1954)

• Mark Gresham (born 1956)

• Charles Tomlinson Griffes (1884–1920)

• Thomas Griselle (1891–1955)

• Ferde Grofé (1892–1972)

• Louis Gruenberg (1884–1964)

• Mark Gustavson (born 1959)

• Woody Guthrie (1912–1967)

• Yalil Guerra (born 1973)

• Elizabeth Gyring (1886–1970)

H
• Henry Kimball Hadley (1871–1937)

• William Edwin Haesche (1867–1929)

• Richard Hageman (1881–1966)

• Philip Hagemann (born 1932)

• Daron Hagen (born 1961)

• Alexei Haieff (1914–1994)

• Adolphus Hailstork (born 1941)

• Juliana Hall (born 1958)

• Roger Lee Hall (born 1942)

• W. C. Handy (1873–1958)

• Howard Hanson (1896–1981)

• John Harbison (born 1938)

• Edward W. Hardy (born 1992)

• Don L. Harper

• Roy Harris (1898–1979)

• Victor Harris (1869–1943)

• Lou Harrison (1917–2003)

• Stephen Hartke (born 1952)

• Walter Hartley (1927–2016)

• Samuel Hazo (born 1966)

• Hubert Klyne Headley (1906–1996)

• Celeste de Longpré Heckscher (1860–1928)

• Neal Hefti (1922–2008)

• Jake Heggie (born 1961)

• Adel Heinrich (1926–2022)

• Anthony Philip Heinrich (1781–1861)

• Robert Helps (1928–2001)

• Swan Hennessy (1866–1929)

• Victor Herbert (1859–1924)

• Bern Herbolsheimer (1948–2016)

• Bernard Herrmann (1911–1975)

• Michael Hersch (born 1971)

• James Hewitt (1770–1827)

• Sean Hickey (born 1970)

• Ethel Glenn Hier (1889–1971)

• Jennifer Higdon (born 1962)

• Edward Burlingame Hill (1872–1960)

• Lee Hoiby (1926–2011)

• Oliver Holden (1765–1844)

• Lee Holdridge (born 1944)

• Sidney Homer (c. 1864 – 1953)

• Helen Francis Hood (1863–1949)

• James Horner (1953–2015)

• Alan Hovhaness (1911–2000)

• James Newton Howard (born 1951)

• Mary Howe (1882–1964)

• Huang Ruo (born 1976)

• Richard Hundley (1931–2018)

• Karel Husa (1921–2016)

• Sarah Hutchings (born 1984)

• Henry Holden Huss (1862–1953)

• Jason Kao Hwang (born 1957)

I
• Anthony Iannaccone (born 1943)

• Chester Edward Ide (1877–1944)

• Andrew Imbrie (1921–2007)

• Kamran Ince (born 1960)

• Mark Isham (born 1951)

• Charles Ives (1874–1954)

J
• Steve Jablonsky (born 1970)

• Frederick Jacobi (1891–1952)

• Carrie Jacobs-Bond (1862–1946)

• Stephen Jaffe (born 1954)

• Philip James (1890–1975)

• David C. Johnson (born 1940)

• David N. Johnson (1922–1987)

• James P. Johnson (1894–1955)

• Tom Johnson (born 1939)

• Ben Johnston (1926–2019)

• Edwin Arthur Jones (1853–1911)

• Quincy Jones (born 1933)

• Ron Jones (born 1954)

• Samuel Jones (born 1935)

• Scott Joplin (1868–1917)

• Bradley Joseph (born 1965)

K
• Michael Kamen (1948–2003)

• Erin Kamler (born 1975)

• Božidar Kantušer (1921–1999)

• Leonard Kastle (1929–2011)

• Ulysses Kay (1917–1995)

• Edgar Stillman Kelley (1857–1944)

• Eddie Kendricks (1939–1992)

• Martin Kennedy (born 1978)

• Jerome Kern (1885–1945)

• Aaron Jay Kernis (born 1960)

• Earl Kim (1920–1998)

• Karl King (1891–1971)

• Leon Kirchner (1919–2009)

• John N. Klohr (1869–1956)

• Douglas Knehans (born 1957)

• Edward Knight (born 1961)

• Charles Knox (1929–2019)

• Karl Kohn (born 1926)

• Ellis B. Kohs (1916–2000)

• Ben Kopec (born 1981)

• Clara Anna Korn (1866–1941)

• Erich Wolfgang Korngold (1897–1957)

• Thomas Kotcheff (born 1988)

• William Kraft (1923–2022)

• Ernst Krenek (1900–1991)

• Gail Kubik (1914–1984)

• Joseph Francis Kuhn (1924–1962)

• Jean Paul Kürsteiner (1864–1943)

• Kristin Kuster (born 1973)

• Robert Kyr (born 1952)

L
• Frank La Forge (1879–1953)

• John La Montaine (1920–2013)

• Ezra Laderman (1924–2015)

• Lori Laitman (born 1955)

• Joseph Lamb (1887–1960)

• Charles Lucien Lambert (1828–1896)

• Lucien Lambert, Jr. (1858–1945)

• Benjamin Johnson Lang (1837–1909)

• David Lang (born 1957)

• Margaret Ruthven Lang (1867–1972)

• Vanessa Lann (born 1968)

• Paul Lansky (born 1944)

• Carter Larsen

• Libby Larsen (born 1950)

• Nicholas Laucella (1882–1952)

• Morten Lauridsen (born 1943)

• Thomas Oboe Lee (born 1945)

• Benjamin Lees (1924–2010)

• David Leisner (born 1953)

• James Lentini (born 1958)

• Tania León (born 1943)

• Fred Lerdahl (born 1943)

• Jonathan Leshnoff (born 1973)

• John Lessard (1920–2003)

• Paul Alan Levi (born 1941)

• Marvin David Levy (1932–2015)

• Frank Lewin (1925–2008)

• John Lewis (1920–2001)

• Peter Scott Lewis (born 1953)

• Lowell Liebermann (born 1961)

• Peter Lieberson (1946–2011)

• Emil Liebling (1851–1914)

• Abraham Lilienthal (1859–1912)

• Scott Lindroth (born 1958)

• Dan Locklair (born 1949)

• Normand Lockwood (1906–2002)

• Charles Martin Loeffler (1861–1935)

• Hannibal Lokumbe (born 1948)

• Zhou Long (born 1953)

• Harvey Worthington Loomis (1865–1930)

• Alvin Lucier (1931–2021)

• Otto Luening (1900–1996)

• Ralph Lyford (1882–1927)

• Frank Lynes (1858–1913)

M
• Edward MacDowell (1860–1908)

• Tod Machover (born 1953)

• John Mackey (born 1973)

• Steven Mackey (born 1956)

• Janet Maguire (born 1927)

• Martin Mailman (1932–2000)

• Ursula Mamlok (1923–2016)

• Mana-Zucca (1885–1981)

• Henry Mancini (1924–1994)

• Kathleen Lockhart Manning (1890–1951)

• Paul Manz (1919–2009)

• Matteo Marchisano-Adamo (born 1973)

• Arthur Marshall (1881–1947)

• Ingram Marshall (born 1942)

• Donald Martino (1931–2005)

• Salvatore Martirano (1927–1995)

• David Maslanka (1943–2017)

• Daniel Gregory Mason (1873–1953)

• Lowell Mason (1792–1872)

• William Mason (1829–1908)

• Arthur Maud (born 1932)

• Richard Maxfield (1927–1969)

• William J. McCoy (1848–1926)

• John McGuire (born 1942)

• George Frederick McKay (1899–1970)

• Kirke Mechem (born 1925)

• Harold Meltzer (born 1966)

• Vince Mendoza (born 1961)

• Alan Menken (born 1949)

• Peter Mennin (1923–1983)

• Gian Carlo Menotti (1911–2007)

• Gregory Mertl (born 1969)

• Edgar Meyer (born 1960)

• Paul Miersch (1868–1956)

• Charles Mingus (1922–1979)

• Eric Moe (born 1954)

• John Christopher Moller (1755–1803)

• Meredith Monk (born 1942)

• Thelonious Monk (1917–1982)

• Dorothy Rudd Moore (born 1940)

• Douglas Moore (1893–1969)

• Mary Carr Moore (1873–1957)

• Undine Smith Moore (1904–1989)

• Robert Moran (born 1937)

• Paul Moravec (born 1957)

• Justin Morgan (1747–1798)

• Jerome Moross (1913–1983)

• Robert Morris (born 1943)

• Robert Muczynski (1929–2010)

• Nico Muhly (born 1981)

• Carli Muñoz (born 1948)

• John Musto (born 1954)

N
• Charles Naginski (1909–1940)

• Armen Nalbandian (born 1978)

• Conlon Nancarrow (1912–1997)

• Sammy Nestico (1924–2021)

• Arthur Nevin (1871–1943)

• Ethelbert Nevin (1862–1901)

• Alfred Newman (1900–1970)

• David Newman (born 1954)

• Emil Newman (1911–1984)

• Lionel Newman (1916–1989)

• Randy Newman (born 1943)

• Thomas Newman (born 1955)

• Roger Nichols (born 1940)

• Ted Nichols (born 1928)

• Alex North (1910–1991)

O
• Mark O'Connor (born 1961)

• Martin O'Donnell (born 1955)

• Pauline Oliveros (1932–2016)

• Chris Opperman (born 1978)

• Leo Ornstein (1893–2002)

• Willson Osborne (1906–1979)

• Frank J. Oteri (born 1964)

• Hall Overton (1920–1972)

P
• John Knowles Paine (1839–1906)

• Carter Pann (born 1972)

• Horatio Parker (1863–1919)

• J. C. D. Parker (1828–1916)

• Susan McFarland Parkhurst (1836–1918)

• Harry Partch (1901–1974)

• Clarence L. Partee (1864–1915)

• Thomas Pasatieri (born 1945)

• Stephen Paulus (1947–2014)

• Russell Peck (born 1945)

• Smith Newell Penfield (1837–1920)

• Rudy Pérez (born 1958)

• Scott Perkins (born 1980)

• George Perle (1915–2009)

• William P. Perry (born 1930)

• Vincent Persichetti (1915–1987)

• Tobias Picker (born 1954)

• Daniel Pinkham (1923–2006)

• Russell Pinkston (born 1949)

• Walter Piston (1894–1976)

• Mika Pohjola (born 1971)

• Basil Poledouris (1945–2006)

• Cole Porter (1891–1964)

• Quincy Porter (1897–1966)

• William H. Potstock (1872–1941)

• Key Poulan (born 1962)

• John Powell (1882–1963)

• Mel Powell (1923–1998)

• Silas G. Pratt (1846–1916)

• André Previn (1929–2019)

• Florence Price (1887–1953)

• Frank Proto (born 1941)

• Arthur Pryor (1870–1942)

• Kevin Puts (born 1972)

R
• John Rahn

• Phillip Ramey (born 1939)

• Shulamit Ran (born 1949)

• Bernard Rands (born 1934)

• Eda Rapoport (1890–1968)

• Carmino Ravosa (1930–2015)

• Ray Reach (born 1948)

• Daniel Read (1757–1836)

• Gardner Read (1913–2005)

• Alfred Reed (1921–2005)

• Mona Lyn Reese (born 1951)

• Steve Reich (born 1936)

• Alexander Reinagle (1756–1809)

• Jay Reise (born 1950)

• Leon René (1902–1982)

• Joe Renzetti (born 1941)

• Roger Reynolds (born 1934)

• Wallingford Riegger (1885–1961)

• Terry Riley (born 1935)

• Julie Rivé-King (1854–1937)

• Curtis Roads (born 1951)

• Leroy Robertson (1896–1971)

• Avery Robinson (1878–1965)

• George Rochberg (1918–2005)

• Eugénie R. Rocherolle (born 1939)

• Richard Rodgers (1902–1979)

• Robert Xavier Rodriguez (born 1946)

• Bernard Rogers (1893–1968)

• James Hotchkiss Rogers (1857–1940)

• Caro Roma (1866–1937)

• Douglas Romayne (born 1974)

• James Romig (born 1971)

• Joseph Willard Roosevelt (1918–2008)

• Ned Rorem (1923–2022)

• David Rosenboom (born 1947)

• Arnold Rosner (1945–2013)

• Christopher Rouse (1949–2019)

• David Ruffin (1941–1991)

• Carl Ruggles (1876–1971)

• Jake Runestad (born 1986)

• Craig Russell (born 1951)

• George Russell (1923–2009)

• Frederic Rzewski (1938–2021)

• Ron Fein (born 1952)

S
• Peter Sacco (1928–2000)

• Rosamonde Safier (1912–1992)

• Richard St. Clair (born 1946)

• Mary Elizabeth Turner Salter (1856–1938)

• Michael Salvatori (born 1954)

• Steven Sametz (born 1954)

• Greg Sandow (born 1943)

• Kike Santander (born 1960)

• Eddie Sauter (1914–1981)

• Anthony Louis Scarmolin (1890–1969)

• Michael Schelle (born 1950)

• Ernest Schelling (1876–1939)

• Edward Benjamin Scheve (1865–1924)

• Peter Schickele (1935–2024)

• David Schiff (born 1945)

• Henry Schoenefeld (1857–1936)

• Paul Schoenfield (born 1947)

• Gunther Schuller (1925–2015)

• William Schuman (1910–1992)

• Joseph Schwantner (born 1943)

• Stephen Schwartz (born 1948)

• Laura Schwendinger (born 1962)

• James Scott (1885–1938)

• Raymond Scott (1908–1994)

• Stephen Scott (1944–2021)

• Neil Sedaka (born 1939)

• Charles Seeger (1886–1979)

• José Serebrier (born 1938)

• John Serry, Sr. (1915–2003)

• Roger Sessions (1896–1985)

• John Laurence Seymour (1893–1986)

• Ralph Shapey (1921–2002)

• Harold Shapero (1920–2013)

• Alex Shapiro (born 1962)

• Michael Jeffrey Shapiro (born 1951)

• Judith Shatin (born 1949)

• Allen Shearer (born 1943)

• Harry Rowe Shelley (1858–1947)

• Sinyan Shen (1949–2016)

• Bright Sheng (born 1955)

• Arthur Shepherd (1880–1958)

• Charles Shere (1935–2020)

• Gordon Sherwood (1929–2013)

• Alice Shields (born 1943)

• Seymour Shifrin (1926–1979)

• Clare Shore (born 1954)

• Gregory Short (1938–1999)

• Wayne Shorter (1933–2023)

• Marilyn Shrude (born 1946)

• Alan Shulman (1915–2002)

• Elie Siegmeister (1909–1991)

• Arlene Sierra (born 1970)

• Roberto Sierra (born 1953)

• Sheila Silver (born 1946)

• Louis Silvers (1889–1954)

• Alan Silvestri (born 1950)

• Charles Sanford Skilton (1868–1941)

• Matthew Sklar (born 1973)

• Haskell Small (born 1948)

• Leo Smit (1921–1999)

• Hale Smith (1925–2009)

• Julia Smith (1911–1989)

• Robert W. Smith (born 1958)

• Stuart Saunders Smith (born 1948)

• William O. Smith (1926–2020)

• Harvey Sollberger (born 1938)

• S. P. Somtow (born 1952)

• Stephen Sondheim (1930–2021)

• Jeremy Soule (born 1975)

• John Philip Sousa (1854–1932)

• Leo Sowerby (1895–1968)

• Lewis Spratlan (born 1940)

• Patty Stair (1869–1926)

• Paul Stanley (c. 1847 – 1909)

• Robert Starer (1924–2001)

• Cassius Clement Stearns (1838–1910)

• Emma Roberto Steiner (1852–1929)

• Adam Stern (born 1955)

• Humphrey John Stewart (1856–1932)

• William Grant Still (1895–1978)

• Stella Stocker (1858–1925)

• Allen Strange (1943–2008)

• Robert Strassburg (1915–2003)

• George Templeton Strong (1856–1948)

• Z. Randall Stroope (born 1953)

• Steven Stucky (1949–2016)

• Morton Subotnick (born 1933)

• Robert Suderburg (1936–2013)

• Dana Suesse (1909–1987)

• Laura Sullivan

• Ed Summerlin (1928–2006)

• Conrad Susa (1935–2013)

• William Susman (born 1960)

• Tomas Svoboda (born 1939)

• Elizabeth Swados (1951–2016)

• James Swearingen (born 1947)

• John R. Sweney (1837–1899)

• Richard Swift (1927–2003)

T
• Louise Talma (1906–1996)

• David Tamkin (1906–1975)

• Jerod Tate (born 1968)

• Deems Taylor (1885–1966)

• Raynor Taylor (1747–1825)

• James Tenney (1934–2006)

• Eugene Thayer (1838–1889)

• Christopher Theofanidis (born 1967)

• Augusta Read Thomas (born 1964)

• Randall Thompson (1899–1984)

• Robert Scott Thompson (born 1959)

• Virgil Thomson (1896–1989)

• Francis Thorne (1922–2017)

• John Thow (1949–2007)

• Frank Ticheli (born 1958)

• Frederick C. Tillis (1930–2020)

• Michael Sidney Timpson (born 1970)

• Helen Tobias-Duesberg (1919–2010)

• Ernst Toch (1887–1964)

• Michael Torke (born 1961)

• Gonzalo de la Torre (born 1977)

• Joan Tower (born 1938)

• George Tsontakis (born 1951)

• David Tudor (1926–1996)

U

 * Ken Ueno (born 1970)
 * Chinary Ung (born 1942)

V
• Frank Van der Stucken (1858–1929)

• David Van Tieghem (born 1955)

• David Van Vactor (1906–1994)

• John Verrall (1908–2001)

• Tommy Vig (born 1938)

• Ezequiel Viñao (born 1960)

• John Vincent (1902–1977)

• Roger Craig Vogel (born 1947)

• Robert Voisey (born 1969)

W
• Melinda Wagner (born 1957)

• George Walker (1922–2018)

• Stewart Wallace (born 1960)

• Joelle Wallach (born 1946)

• Robert Ward (1917–2013)

• Dale Warland (born 1932)

• Harry Warren (1893–1981)

• Elinor Remick Warren (1900–1991)

• Rodney Waschka II (born 1963)

• Wintter Watts (1884–1962)

• Franz Waxman (1906–1967)

• Ben Weber (1916–1979)

• Seth Weeks (1868–1953)

• Jaromír Weinberger (1896–1967)

• Hugo Weisgall (1912–1997)

• Dan Welcher (born 1948)

• Richard Wernick (born 1934)

• Mark Wessel (1894–1973)

• Peter Westergaard (1931–2019)

• Paul W. Whear (1925–2021)

• Scott Wheeler (born 1952)

• Eric Whitacre (born 1970)

• Clarence Cameron White (1880–1960)

• Alec Wilder (1907–1980)

• John Williams (born 1932)

• Michael Glenn Williams (born 1957)

• Otis Williams (born 1941)

• Paul Williams (born 1940)

• Richard Storrs Willis (1819–1900)

• Meredith Willson (1902–1984)

• Brian Wilson (born 1942)

• Dana Wilson (born 1946)

• Richard Edward Wilson (born 1941)

• Jason Wright Wingate (born 1971)

• Erling Wold (born 1958)

• Stefan Wolpe (1902–1972)

• Donald Reid Womack (born 1966)

• Stevie Wonder (born 1950)

• Mary Knight Wood (1857–1944)

• Carl Valentin Wunderle (1866–1944)

• Charles Wuorinen (1938–2020)

• Ruth Shaw Wylie (1916–1989)

• Yehudi Wyner (born 1929)

Y
• Richard Yardumian (1917–1985)

• Christopher Yavelow (born 1950)

• La Monte Young (born 1935)

Z
• Judith Lang Zaimont (born 1945)

• Frank Zappa (1940–1993)

• John Zorn (born 1953)

• Ellen Taaffe Zwilich (born 1939)

• Maury Yeston (born 1945)

title: List of American composers


text:
Talk:Fortune 500

Fortune 500 2023 list
Fortune announced the release of the 2023 Fortune 500 list on June 5, 2023. Can this article be updated to reflect the new list? As far as I can tell, the list is only viewable for Fortune subscribers, so I'm not sure how copyright comes into play here. Seanpw91 (talk) 16:42, 9 September 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Fortune 500


text: Category:999 births

title: Category:999 births


text:
User talk:81.232.169.215

Proposed deletion of Trondheim Region

The article Trondheim Region has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "This region doesn't seem to be mentioned in the single source given, and have found no official figures for it."

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Batternut (talk) 16:09, 3 December 2017 (UTC)

Nomination of Trondheim Region for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Trondheim Region is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Trondheim Region until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Batternut (talk) 00:16, 6 December 2017 (UTC)

title: User talk:81.232.169.215


text:
Category talk:People from Connecticut

This appears to be a duplicate of the much larger category "Connecticut natives". I'm not sure what the deletion procedure is for duplicate categories, but I will be editing the biographies contained in this category to switch them to Connecticut natives. Beginning 22:36, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)

title: Category talk:People from Connecticut


text:
Thomas R. Ahlersmeyer

Thomas R. Ahlersmeyer (born April 23, 1954) is a Lutheran educator and minister with the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod in the United States. From 2005 to 2009, he was the president of Concordia University, Ann Arbor, Michigan and was previously interim president. He presently serves as senior pastor of Holy Cross Lutheran Church and School in Fort Wayne, Indiana. Previous to Ann Arbor, Ahlersmeyer was the executive director of the Cleveland Lutheran High Schools.

title: Thomas R. Ahlersmeyer


text: User talk:68.104.131.119

title: User talk:68.104.131.119


text:
Artillery Brigade (Finland)

The Artillery Brigade (Tykistöprikaati) was a Finnish Army unit stationed in Niinisalo in western Finland. The Artillery Brigade trained conscripts and regular personnel for wartime artillery duties. In addition, it provided weather service in the Niinisalo region, and trained most of the Finnish Defence Forces' dogs. The total strength of the brigade was some 800 conscripts and 400 regular civilian and military personnel. On 1 January 2015, it was merged with the Pori Brigade.

The Artillery Brigade consisted (in 2001–2013) of the Satakunta Artillery Regiment, the Reconnaissance Battalion, the Artillery School, and the Satakunta Military Band. Every year, some 1,600 conscripts were trained by the brigade. The Satakunta Artillery Regiment fielded two cannon batteries, with equipment ranging from 122 mm light howitzers to 155 mm cannons and a support battery consisting entirely out of signals personnel and spotters. The regiment continues as a part of the Pori Brigade.

The Reconnaissance Battalion fielded a heavy rocket launcher battery, a UAV battery, a headquarters battery as well as a UAV reconnaissance battery. The conscripts participated in several live-fire exercises in the nearby firing range at Pohjankangas, before the two- or three-week-long national live-fire artillery exercise held once a year in Rovajärvi firing range in Lapland. In 2013, as a preliminary of the merger with the Pori Brigade, the 3rd Infantry Company was established as a part of the Reconnaissance Battalion. In 2015, the Reconnaissance Battalion was disbanded and its functions divided between Finland Proper Logistics Battalion, Satakunta Artillery Regiment and Ostrobothnia Jaeger Battalion.

The Artillery School, which was a part of the Artillery Brigade, provided university-level education for future artillery officers and continuing education for artillery regular personnel. The same function continues, but the School is now part of the Army Academy.

title: Artillery Brigade (Finland)


text:
User:MJaC

Michael Clark Born 27-08-1988 in Kent, England.

Currently studying ICT, Maths, Biology and Psychology in the United Kingdom. My website is located at: http://www.mjac.co.uk/, feel free to visit.

Interested in Science, Maths, Art, Music, and Computing.

Current projects include:
 * Solar Empire (3)
 * My own website
 * GoodScripts
 * Coursework!
 * Philosophical thinking

title: User:MJaC


text:
Geissler (crater)

Geissler is a small lunar impact crater that lies on the northern floor of the much larger walled plain Gilbert, near the eastern limb of the Moon. Just to the northeast of this crater, attached to the outer rim of Gilbert, is the crater pair of Weierstrass and Van Vleck.

The rim of Geissler is nearly circular, with a slight outward bulge toward the northwest. The rim is sharp-edged and not notably worn. The inner walls are simple slopes that run down gradually to the small interior floor, which has a diameter about one third that of the crater. This formation is not significantly eroded, and is otherwise undistinguished.

This crater was formerly designated Gilbert D before being assigned a unique name by the IAU in 1976.

title: Geissler (crater)


text:
User talk:Dd2

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I thought useful:

 * Tutorial
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 * Foundation issues
 * Policy Library
 * Utilities
 * Cite your sources
 * Verifiability
 * Wikiquette
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Feel free to contact me personally with any questions you might have. The Village pump is also a good place to go for quick answers to general questions. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

Be Bold!

[[User:Sam Spade|Sam Spade Wants you to vote!]] 22:39, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Graphic
Thanks for creating. Would you have the capability/interest to update it? savidan(talk) (e@) 04:22, 10 April 2006 (UTC)

Image Tagging for Image:Distribution of SAT scores by race-ethnicity.gif
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intelligence
Over a year ago, you posted a comment on the Intelligence discussion page about creating a section on that entry for the correlates of intelligence. I see that no one ever replied, and nothing was ever done about it, but I think this is a good idea if you are still willing to do it. Jcbutler 19:31, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

I went ahead and added one under the psychometric heading. Check it out, if you want. Jcbutler 20:23, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

Non-free use disputed for Image:Race Differences in Intelligence.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Race Differences in Intelligence.jpg. However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under "fair use" may be invalid. Please read carefully the instructions at Non-free content and then go to the image description page and clarify why you think the image qualifies. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

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Hey, Dd2. I take it that you resolved the license disputes... Thanks for producing the plot! Good work! :) --Ben T/C 17:36, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

CfD nomination of Category:Race and intelligence controversy
I have nominated race and intelligence controversy for deletion. Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at the discussion page. Thank you. Guy (Help!) 10:55, 3 November 2007 (UTC)

Replaceable fair use Image:R&A.gif
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Unspecified source for Image:Australian_brain.png
Thanks for uploading Image:Australian_brain.png. I noticed that the file's description page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you did not create this file yourself, then you will need to specify the owner of the copyright. If you obtained it from a website, then a link to the website from which it was taken, together with a restatement of that website's terms of use of its content, is usually sufficient information. However, if the copyright holder is different from the website's publisher, then their copyright should also be acknowledged.

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AfD nomination of Race and crime
I have nominated Race and crime, an article you created, for deletion. I do not think that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Race and crime&. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time. NJGW (talk) 08:22, 4 October 2008 (UTC) NJGW (talk) 08:22, 4 October 2008 (UTC)

Image source problem with Image:MadisonGrant.gif
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Image tagging for File:MadisonGrant.gif
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ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:55, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dd2


text:
Illinois Central 121

Illinois Central 121 (IC #121) was a diesel streamliner built in 1936 by Pullman-Standard and powered by Electro-Motive Corporation, which was used by the Illinois Central Railroad on the Green Diamond. Its fixed five-car consist was also the end of an era; the popularity of the early streamliners was their undoing, because the trains could not be lengthened or shortened to handle varying loads. It was the last streamliner built with the power car articulated with the train; future streamliners featured a matched but separable locomotive. The train was painted in a two-tone green livery, "Cypress Green" on the nose and below the window sills with "Cedar Green" above, separated by an aluminum strip. Extensive aluminum trim was applied.

Consist
The train's fixed consist was:

 * Car 121: Power car including driving cab, 1200 hp Winton 201-A 16-cylinder engine and generator, auxiliary generator, and train heating boiler. Below the floor, the first truck was powered, but the second, articulated with the second car, was not. A 725 usgal fuel tank was also mounted between the trucks.
 * Car 122: Storage, Baggage and Mail car of which approximately half was the mail compartment.
 * Car 123: Coach including conductor's office, seating 56.
 * Car 124: Coach including restrooms, seating 60.
 * Car 125: Diner-Lounge-Observation including restrooms, kitchen, dining area seating 8, and observation lounge seating 20.

All passenger-carrying cars were air-conditioned, with radio communication between them. Full width rubber diaphragms joined the cars, and all cars were articulated (sharing a truck with the neighboring car).

Operation

IC 121 operated the Green Diamond service between 1936–1947. The Green Diamond began each morning with an 8:55 AM departure as Train 50 from St. Louis Union Station, arriving at IC's Central Station in Chicago at 1:50 PM. The train was then turned and serviced, for a 5:00 PM return as Train 51, arriving back in St. Louis by 9:55 PM. Seven stops were made en route, and the train ran to a 4-hour 55 minute schedule, being by far the fastest of IC's three trains on that route. Wartime in 1943 added an extra 15 minutes to the schedule to cope with traffic congestion, but the train was otherwise unchanged.

On September 29, 1946, with the full dieselization of all Chicago-St.Louis passenger service, the Green Diamond was changed to train Nos. 20 and 21, the reservation requirement was dropped, and the timetable no longer referred to the train as a distinct trainset. Unsurprisingly, the trainset was withdrawn from service on February 28, 1947, being replaced by a new Green Diamond, an E-unit-hauled streamliner with regular lightweight cars.

The trainset was shipped to the ICRR's shops at Paducah, Kentucky, for a complete overhaul, which took two months. The train emerged still in two-tone green, but with the Green Diamond names completely removed. It re-entered service on April 27, 1947, as the Miss-Lou (MISSissippi-LOUisiana) between Jackson, Mississippi, and New Orleans, Louisiana, operating as Trains 27 and 28. It left Jackson at 6:20 AM, arriving in New Orleans at 10:20 AM ; the return journey left at 6:20 PM and arrived in Jackson at 10:20 PM.

The trainset was finally retired on August 8, 1950, and sold for scrap.

title: Illinois Central 121


text:
Talk:Jason Leonard

Fair use rationale for Image:JasonLeonard.jpg
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If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 09:32, 5 June 2007 (UTC)

External links modified
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A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
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title: Talk:Jason Leonard


text:
Gardner (crater)

Gardner is a small lunar impact crater in the northeast part of the Moon. It was named after an American physicist Irvine Clifton Gardner in 1976. It lies due east of the crater Vitruvius, in a section of rough terrain north of the Mare Tranquillitatis. Gardner was previously designated Vitruvius A before being given its present name by the IAU. To the northeast of Gardner is the larger crater Maraldi.

It is a circular crater with sloping inner walls and an interior floor that occupies about half the total crater diameter. The southern half of the floor has a slight rise before reaching the inner wall. The crater is not significantly eroded, and the outer rim is relatively sharp and well-defined. The most distinctive feature is a row of four rounded hills along the northern floor of the crater.

To the south is an elevated area unofficially known as the Gardner Megadome. In the vicinity of the dome are satellite craters including Vitruvius B, H, and T, and Maraldi D.

Related articles

 * - also featuring the surrounding craters

title: Gardner (crater)


text: File:Lola aylings.png

title: File:Lola aylings.png


text:
Galen (crater)

Galen is a small lunar impact crater that lies in the rugged region between the Montes Apenninus range to the west and the Montes Haemus in the east. It is located to the south-southeast of the crater Aratus, a slightly larger formation. Further to the west is the crater Conon, near the flanks of the Montes Apeninnus. Galen was previously designated Aratus A before being given a name by the IAU.

Galen is a circular crater with a bowl-shaped interior and a sharp rim that has not undergone significant erosion. The small interior floor has a lower albedo than the surrounding walls.

The crater is named after ancient Greek doctor Claudius Galen.

title: Galen (crater)


text:
Lola Aylings

Lola Aylings, was a manufacturer of rowing boats. It was formed in early 2001 when Lola Group (a racing car/composite engineering company) purchased Aylings (an existing boat manufacturer) and was based in Huntingdon, United Kingdom.

Aylings was founded in 1859, originally making rowing oars. It began producing boats in the 1980s (after buying Carbocraft) and kayaks in 1998 (after buying Kobra Kayaks)

The company moved from Weybridge to Huntingdon in 2003. It ceased production in 2007.

title: Lola Aylings


text:
Waltersdorf

Waltersdorf may refer to:

In Austria:
 * Bad Waltersdorf, in the Hartberg district, Styria
 * Waltersdorf an der March, a part of Drösing, Lower Austria
 * Waltersdorf, part of Judenburg, Styria
 * Waltersdorf, part of Neukirchen an der Vöckla, Upper Austria
 * Waltersdorf, part of Staatz, Lower Austria

In Germany:
 * Waltersdorf, Thuringia, in the Saale-Holzland district, Thuringia
 * Waltersdorf, Heideblick, a part of Heideblick in the Dahme-Spreewald district, Brandenburg
 * Waltersdorf, Schönefeld, a part of Schönefeld in the Dahme-Spreewald district, Brandenburg
 * Waltersdorf, Löbau-Zittau, a part of Großschönau in the Löbau-Zittau district, Saxony
 * Waltersdorf, Sächsische Schweiz, a part of Porschdorf in the Sächsische Schweiz district, Saxony

In the Czech Republic:
 * An older name of Vrchy

In Poland:
 * An older name of Mniszków
 * An older name of Nielestno
 * An older name of Niegosławice, Lubusz Voivodeship in the Silesian Voivodeship

In Romania:
 * Waltersdorf, the German name for Dumitrița Commune, Bistriţa-Năsăud County

title: Waltersdorf


text:
Oscar Browning

Oscar Browning (17 January 1837 – 6 October 1923) was a British educationalist, historian and bon viveur, a well-known Cambridge personality during the late Victorian and Edwardian eras. An innovator in the early development of professional training for teachers, he served as principal of the Cambridge University Day Training College (CUDTC) from 1891 to 1909. He was also a prolific author of popular histories and other books.

The son of a prosperous distiller, Browning was educated at Eton, and then King's College, Cambridge. On graduating in 1860 he returned to Eton as an assistant master. A vociferous and active opponent of the school's traditional curriculum and teaching methods, he introduced novel and progressive techniques to the classroom, to the general approval of his pupils but to the dismay of the Eton authorities. He was controversially dismissed from his post in 1875, ostensibly because of repeated disregard for school rules, but an underlying issue was disquiet arising from his lifestyle, particularly his close and affectionate relationships with boys under his care.

Browning returned to King's, where he continued his individualistic approach to teaching, and rapidly established himself as a leading Cambridge personality. Again, his methods were far more popular with his students than with his colleagues. An avid social climber and self-promotionist, he cultivated a range of acquaintances in the social and political worlds – he stood unsuccessfully three times for Parliament – and published a number of books on English, European and world history. He also wrote on educational theory and produced a well-regarded biography of the writer George Eliot. Despite this output, he failed to gain scholastic recognition and was repeatedly overlooked for higher college posts and academic honours. However, his pioneering work in teacher education, particularly through his leadership of the CUDTC, was later recognised as a formative factor in the development of the university's present-day Department of Education.

After his retirement in 1909 Browning moved to Rome and remained active as a writer until his death in 1923. Among his late works were two volumes of autobiography and further historical works, including a history of Italy. At the end of his life, having earlier been denied a knighthood, he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his services to education.

Childhood
Oscar Browning was born on 17 January 1837, at No. 8 Cumberland Terrace, Regent's Park, London. His parents were William Shipton Browning, a prosperous distiller, and Mariana Margaret, née Bridge, the daughter of a sea captain. He was the fourth child, and two more daughters followed. Oscar was born prematurely, the survivor of twins the elder of who died stillborn; Oscar escaped the same fate only through the diligence and determination of a nurse.

While Oscar was still in his infancy the family moved to Windsor in Berkshire, where according to his own account Browning grew up in a succession of houses. One of these was close to the Long Walk, where "Queen [Victoria] passed our windows in her almost daily ride". Browning's early education was conducted in various schools and by tutors. Having failed to gain entrance to Eton College as a "lower boy" – on several occasions according to his own account – Browning was sent in 1848 to live with his elder brother William, by then curate of St Mary's Church, Everdon, near Daventry, to prepare for the entrance examinations that would admit him to Eton as a Scholar. He passed in the summer of 1850, and took up his place the following January as a "Colleger", just before his fourteenth birthday.

Eton and Cambridge
Browning was initially shocked by life at Eton, which his biographer Ian Anstruther describes at that time as "a rough world of its own in which the weaker boys were helpless, and where the delights and depravities of vice were imposed on the youngest without restraint". In 1853 Browning began a journal, in which his descriptions of daily life suggest, say Pam Hirst and Mark McBeth in their account of Browning's life, that Eton, "[r]ather than a royally-endowed school [was] more like a Dickensian orphanage". Although his first Eton years were unhappy, his work pleased his tutor, William Johnson, who wrote of him: "Oscar reads like a student of literature ... at last I have found a genuine student combining taste with knowledge, aesthetics with grammar, sociability with thoughtfulness". Johnson's approach to education and teaching influenced Browning for the rest of his life. Although not generally popular, Browning secured election to the exclusive Eton Society, known as "Pop". He also won a contest to write and deliver a suitable oration when Albert, the Prince Consort, visited Eton on Founder's Day in 1854. As Browning matured and his interests widened, his formal schoolwork suffered, to Johnson's distress, but the scope and extent of his reading is evidenced by a list of his books, included in his journal in November 1854: Byron and Edward Gibbon are accompanied by works from Addison, Sydney Smith, Thomas Arnold, and many more writers, classic and contemporary. Summers were often spent in Brussels, where his mother and younger sisters had moved following his father's death in 1853. On one occasion Browning contrived to be included in the royal party when the King of the Belgians visited the Emperor Napoleon III in Calais.

Browning left Eton in 1856, having gained entry to King's College, Cambridge, where he began in October. Students at King's, the sister-foundation to Eton, were all Etonians, and Browning, who found their continuing association stifling, generally preferred the company of men from other colleges, especially Trinity, where he found kindred spirits who shared his growing radical approach to education. Unlike his Eton years, Browning's time at Cambridge passed serenely.

He was invited to join the intellectual group known as the Apostles, was President of the Cambridge Union in 1859, and that same year was elected a fellow of King's – a lifetime appointment which would provide a fallback should his career in other fields falter. In a wider sphere he discovered his political identity as a Radical Liberal, a disciple of John Stuart Mill. Among the more significant friendships initiated at Cambridge was that with Henry Sidgwick from Trinity College, later a leading educational reformer, of whom Browning would write: "I consulted him on every important matter, and never failed to follow his counsel".

Browning graduated in 1860, taking fourth position in the Classical Tripos. His immediate future was undecided; perhaps travel, the English Bar, or an academic post at Cambridge. Instead, he accepted an invitation to return to Eton as an assistant master. Apart from the financial and domestic security this would bring, he saw it as an opportunity to put some of his more enlightened educational ideas into practice. He would later say that his objective as a schoolmaster was "that every pupil of mine should have an experience as different as possible from what my own had been."

Young reformer

When Browning began teaching at Eton he found the college's governance was largely unchanged from its foundation in the 15th century, and its general curriculum barely reformed from those days: classical Latin and Greek texts learned through repetition, a little mathematics, and all other subjects taught as optional extras. However, change was in the air; in 1861 the government set up the Clarendon Commission to enquire into the conditions of Britain's nine leading public schools.

When the commission investigated Eton, the newly-appointed headmaster, Edward Balston, presented a cautious traditionalist view of the curriculum and governance, and saw no need for significant changes. The 25-year-old Browning, giving evidence on 2 July 1862, gave a rather more radical viewpoint. He thought that too little recognition was given to scholarly prowess as against athletic achievement, and that the formal curriculum should be overhauled to include the teaching of French and history. His wider-ranging criticisms included the nature and standard of chapel services, and the over-tolerance of the boys' beer-drinking habits.

This reforming zeal was not shared by Browning's more traditionally-minded colleagues, who included his exact contemporary Edmond Warre, a vociferous opponent of reform who in due course became Eton's headmaster and later, provost. Nevertheless, the Clarendon Commission's report, issued in 1864, was critical of the school and largely endorsed the views of Browning and the reformers. By this time Browning had become a housemaster, which provided him with scope to put his personal educational ethos into practice. His house, under the domestic supervision of his mother, was initially the smallest in the college, with just nine boarders. As the house grew, it became known for numerous characteristic features; Richard Davenport-Hines, in a biographical sketch, summarises the general ambience thus: "'His house had a controversially Pre-Raphaelite tone; the food was nourishing and plentiful, the curtains were by William Morris ... There was much jolliness and ragging led by the man–boy at the centre, but the bronzes and marbles in his corridors discouraged rough-housing ... OB passionately desired to reform Eton so that it could educate an effective governing class for a democratic age; these new rulers, in his ideal, would rest their power on the Platonic virtues of wisdom and goodness as well as hereditary privilege.'"

Although not opposed to healthy physical activity – he was a keen climber and member of the Alpine Club, and promoted sports and games among the junior boys – Browning disavowed the cult of athleticism. As an alternative to "Pop", which he thought had become infested with athletics-worship, he began a Literary Society,  to which distinguished visiting speakers were invited. He instituted regular poetry and play readings, and encouraged the appreciation of music with performances by local musicians of works by emergent modern composers such as Brahms. Many wealthy and influential parents sought places for their sons in Browning's house. As a result, his income rose spectacularly, from the assistant master's stipend of £42 per annum plus fees from tutoring, to something between £2,500 and £3,000 as a result of his profits from boarding fees. "I am so prosperous", he wrote in 1866, "as almost to be astonished myself".

In 1868 Browning published his first full-length work, a school textbook in the form of a new edition of the writings of the Roman historian Cornelius Nepos. He was a regular contributor of articles and reviews to some of the leading contemporary journals. He extended his educational work beyond the boundaries of the school, becoming secretary of the Windsor and Eton Association for the Education of Women.

Hornby and controversy
In 1868 Balston resigned, and was succeeded as headmaster by James John Hornby. This appointment broke with the tradition that Eton headmasters always came from King's College, Cambridge (Hornby was an Oxford man). The change was welcomed by Browning: "We shall now be governed on the principles that universally obtain in human society". Hornby introduced modest curriculum and timetable changes which incorporated history, science, modern languages and other subjects into the main curriculum. However, the anti-reform instincts at Eton remained strong, and Hornby soon identified with the more traditionalist factions led by Warre.

He was irritated by Browning's independent outlook and objected to his teaching of "modern" history such as the French Revolution. Hornby thought that Browning neglected his real work, the teaching of classics, in favour of his experimental pedagogical methods and outside activities such as "lecturing to ladies", and was critical of a supposed lack of discipline in his classes. Contrary to Hornby's view, Browning, despite his unorthodox approach, attached great importance to the teaching of classics, and would later cite the classical education given at Eton as the chief reason for the pre-eminence of Etonians in public life.

Browning's personal relationships with boys were a further matter of concern to Hornby. Although Browning took a firm personal line against homosexuality, masturbation and any other sexual practices, he maintained a series of romantic friendships with boys. He had favourites, who were often replaced with a brutal suddenness when they lost their appeal. Sometimes, one of these would accompany him on his regular European trips during the summer holidays, as did Gerald Balfour, the future prime minister's brother, in 1869. Although this type of close, even affectionate master-boy relationship was considered generally acceptable in Victorian public school life,

Browning's flamboyance and mannerisms were contrary to Hornby's vision for the school; Anstruther writes: "The mere sight of Oscar Browning with his pale face and effeminate manner was enough in itself to make Hornby suspicious". Furthermore, Browning's friendship with the artist Simeon Solomon was widely known. Solomon, like Browning, was an advocate of "Greek love", a concept derived from Plato's Dialogues which held that the highest form of love was that of men for each other, exclusive of physical expression.

The two holidayed together, and Solomon was a frequent visitor to Eton – he exchanged with Browning a series of intimate letters in which they mutually extolled the beauties of various boys. In February 1873 Solomon was convicted of an act of gross indecency in a London public lavatory – a consensual act of sodomy with a mature working-class male was far from the ideals of Greek love, and Browning ended the relationship with Solomon immediately.

Dismissal
Hornby's patience with Browning's conduct was tested further in 1874, when Browning began a friendship with a boy from another house – acting with the full approval of the boy's father. The boy was George Curzon, the future Conservative statesman and Viceroy of India. The nature of this association became the occasion for gossip amongst the staff; Curzon's housemaster, Charles Wolley-Dod, complained to Hornby, who after some equivocation ordered Browning to end all contact with the boy during term-time.

Browning was outraged by what he took as a slur on his morals, and a heated correspondence with Hornby ensued. Since he had the support of Curzon's father, Lord Scarsdale, Browning challenged the headmaster's injunction and appealed to the provost, who upheld Hornby. Under threat of dismissal unless he submitted, Browning did so reluctantly, while continuing to meet Curzon during the holidays.

According to Browning's biographer Ian Anstruther, Browning seriously contemplated resignation in the summer of 1874, but was persuaded otherwise by his friend, the novelist George Eliot. He returned to Eton that autumn, but made little effort to lie low or adhere to regulations which he was accustomed to ignoring if inconvenient. One of these related to the maximum number of pupils for whom any master could act as tutor, that number being forty; Browning had forty-three. Although given a temporary dispensation from this rule by the provost, this expired in the summer of 1875. Browning did not seek a renewal of permission but continued to tutor his excess pupils. This act of insubordination, the latest in a long line of infringements and subversion of regulations, alongside the suspicions arising from the Curzon relationship, proved to be the last straw for Hornby. On 16 September 1875, after a series of tense meetings, he wrote a formal letter to Browning dismissing him from his post.

This sudden action stunned Browning and all of Eton. Most of the assistant masters, and many of the parents of the boys in his house, petitioned Hornby and the Governing Body to retract the dismissal. On 9 November 1875, when the governing body met to consider the matter, they ratified Hornby's decision. An appeal by Browning to public opinion led to a spate of supportive letters and editorials in the leading newspapers but to no avail. At the end of 1875, Browning closed his house and left Eton, his final request for a measure of financial compensation being rejected.

Browning spent the first months of 1876 with his family, and that summer travelled with them to Leipzig, taking along four of his former Eton pupils. He found time in August to visit Bayreuth, where he attended the first full performance of Wagner's Ring Cycle. Meanwhile, a petition against the rights of public school masters to dismiss their staff at will was presented to the House of Commons by Edward Knatchbull-Hugessen, but the House upheld such rights. A writer in The Saturday Review ridiculed the presumption of assistant masters in seeking to challenge the powers of headmasters, and stressed the dangers to schoolboys of such an example of insubordination. As to Browning, according to this anonymous correspondent, "Mr Browning has peculiar ideas as to the proper method of educating boys at a public school" – ideas inimical to Eton's traditions of "manliness and common sense".

Reforming don
In September 1876, Browning returned to Cambridge and his King's College Fellowship where, despite an outwardly cordial reception, he faced some animosity. Many of his King's colleagues, all Etonians, were unimpressed by the circumstances of his departure from the school, and his reputation as a radical reformer gave further grounds for concern. This old guard obstructed his appointment to a college lectureship, which would have increased his income beyond the basic Fellow's stipend of £300 a year. However, a group of more sympathetic dons, under John Robert Seeley, raised a subscription which funded an unofficial lectureship in history and enhanced Browning's earnings by around £150 a year.

Browning believed that the function of the History school in King's was to educate future statesmen. He began a history course on Treaties, and was able to augment his income with fees from students attracted to the course. Browning's tutorials, held in his book-lined and lavishly decorated rooms, soon became famous; in the memory of one participant, "his talk was like a flow of molten lava that bore every kind of reminiscence on its tide". Within months of his arrival he had founded the Political Society, where students presented papers for discussion and criticism, thereby anticipating the role of the seminar as a feature of English university education.

He began other societies, in particular a group devoted to the music of Mozart which developed into a Musical Society to which leading contemporary performers were invited. He also instituted a regular series of "at homes" in his rooms, at which his students would be able to meet and converse with Browning's distinguished friends and acquaintances, who might include George Eliot, Walter Pater, or John Ruskin. These occasions provided a stimulating adjunct to the learning process which, Mark McBeth observes, "did not have to be unglamorous, mind-numbing, nor rigid; it could be entertaining as well as informative, and intellectually stimulating".

Using the 1874 Report of the Royal Commission on Oxford and Cambridge as a lever, Browning proposed a raft of reforms as to how King's should reorganise itself. He argued that the college should place the needs of its students at its centre, and should provide the resources to support a student "in any line of study that he might adopt", amid "companions most congenial to an industrious and able man". He compared King's unfavourably with its sister-college Trinity, and also suggested, undiplomatically, that the King's College provost should be paid less and his living accommodation made smaller. Though largely ignored at the time, many of Browning's ideas would be adopted in future years.

Building a reputation
In 1879 Browning became secretary of the Cambridge branch of the Oxbridge Teachers' Training Syndicate (TTS), formed the previous year with the object of bringing the training of teachers, at the time uncodified, into the purview of Oxford and Cambridge universities to provide a greater intellectual foundation for the profession. TTS students were not members of the university, but attended lectures and were examined and certificated by the university. Despite Browning's enthusiasm, the syndicate struggled to establish itself in the face of the university's general indifference to teacher education, but was warmly supported by the educationist and cleric George Ridding, who told Browning: "The existence of such a Syndicate as yours appears to me to give ... the best possible opportunity for consultative construction of a future Theory for higher education". Two years later Browning published his first major book on educational theory, History of Educational Theories, later translated into several languages and reprinted several times up to 1905. In 1883 he edited a new version of John Milton's Tractate of Education.

Browning was appointed to a formal King's College lectureship in 1880, and worked hard to establish himself as an academic historian. He published successful school textbooks on Modern England and Modern France, and edited a series of political memoranda and despatches from the Napoleonic era. He was elected to the Royal Historical Society in 1884, and was chairman of the society's council in 1885. During the following years he wrote prolifically, but his work did not bring him the scholastic recognition he hoped for. His books were regarded by his peers as slipshod and inaccurate, one critic writing: "If the reader is not particular about grammar and style, and is judiciously suspicious of dates, he, or more likely she, will derive both amusement and profit from Mr Browning's pages".

In 1880 Browning's long-time friend George Eliot (Mary Anne Evans) died; he was among the mourners at Highgate Cemetery when she was buried there on 29 December. Apart from his mother, she was the most influential woman in Browning's life; some of his acquaintances thought he wanted to marry her. He decided to honour her memory by writing her biography with, he said, "no claims to offer but a friendship of fifteen years, and a deep and unswerving devotion to her mind and character".

Published in 1890 as part of a series on Great Writers, it was Browning's most successful book, with 39 editions being issued up to 2012. He followed it up with two short literary lives, respectively of Dante Alighieri (published 1891), and Goethe (published 1892). By this time he had met and befriended Oscar Wilde, a friendship that lasted until Wilde's scandal and imprisonment in 1895, when Browning contributed to the fund set up by Wilde's friends to help pay his debts.

Browning was acquainted through meetings or correspondence with leading literary figures such as Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Algernon Swinburne, and the unrelated Robert Browning. According to the critic Noel Annan, writing in 1983, Oscar Browning introduced himself presumptuously to the Poet Laureate with the words "Hello, Tennyson, I'm Browning", and received the reply "No, you're not".

In 1881 Browning became treasurer of the Cambridge Union, a post he held for 21 years. In 1887 he became president of Footlights, serving until 1895. He also founded the Cambridge University Liberal Club in 1886, becoming its first Treasurer, and staying in post for a decade. During that time, he hosted a whole range of society events at his rooms in King's, from committee meetings and sherry parties to the larger "At Home" evenings which offered a rare chance for men and women in Cambridge to socialise together.

By 1888 he was sufficiently well known to be the subject of a caricature by W.B. Hayes ("Hay"), as one of the "Men of the Day", in the society magazine Vanity Fair. In 1886 Browning entered active politics as a Gladstonian Liberal; in that year's general election, as the Liberal Party's candidate in the South London constituency of Norwood, where he was heavily defeated. He fought two further elections, in 1892 at East Worcestershire and in 1895 at Liverpool West Derby, in each case losing by large majorities.

Inception
The Education Act, 1880  introduced compulsory education for children aged between five and ten. This greatly increased the demand for teachers and created a need for a better trained and more attractive teaching profession. Among the initiatives designed to meet this need was a government Code of Regulation issued in 1890, which led to the establishment of university-based day training colleges.

On 12 March 1891 Browning and his colleague Henry Sidgwick presented the Cambridge University Senate with a proposal to establish in Cambridge a Day Training College for elementary school teachers. The proposal received a "Grace" (provisional acceptance) from the Senate, on the basis of which Browning applied to the government's Education Department for approval to open the college. Permission was granted in August 1891, before the Senate's final assent. According to Browning, he and Sidgwick mutually decided not to wait, and declared the Cambridge University Day Training College (CUDTC) open in September 1891.

Growth
Browning became the CUDTC's first principal, with a nominal salary of £10 per year. The CUDTC was not a "college" in the conventional Cambridge sense; apart from a few registered as non-collegiate, most of its students were attached to colleges such as King's or Trinity, studying for Cambridge degrees alongside their CUDTC training. This heavy workload was made even more onerous by the university's regulation that all students had to pass a first-year examination in Latin and Greek, known as "Previous".

This examination was a significant hurdle to many of the students attracted to the CUDTC programme, as unlike most standard Cambridge entrants, they would not have studied classical languages at school. Browning's solution was to personally coach these students, to a level that would satisfy the requirements of "Previous". "In this manner", he stated, "we got our men through satisfactorily". As student numbers grew, a specialist classics lecturer was taken on by the DTC to help fulfil this task.

In its first year, 1891–92, the CUDTC registered just three students, rising to ten in its second year and twenty-two in its third. Its classes were conducted by Browning and a team of part-time lecturers. For many students, funding was a severe problem. Browning constantly lobbied the university for financial support, which was sparsely given, and sought funds from outside organisations. In conjunction with Samuel Barnett, the founder of East London's Toynbee Hall settlement, he developed a student sponsorship scheme which had raised £385 (approximately £45,000 in 2017 terms) by 1893.

Initially, the CUDTC provided professional training opportunities only for elementary school teachers. Browning thought that the same training was relevant to secondary school teachers, although this was contrary to the traditional view of most secondary headmasters that university graduates did not require pedagogic training. Browning disagreed, arguing that the same pedagogic skills were required at all levels of teaching, whether in elementary, secondary or elite public schools. He proceeded cautiously, finally opening the CUDTC's doors to trainee secondary teachers in 1897.

Despite the continuing growth of the CUDTC, the university provided no administrative support facilities or teaching premises; teaching took place wherever Browning could find accommodation, while the college's office was in Browning's King's College rooms. In 1904 he was finally able to establish a permanent CUDTC headquarters at Warkworth House, a Victorian villa in Cambridge. The growth of the CUDTC ran alongside that of the Cambridge Training College for Women (CTC), founded in 1884 by Elizabeth Hughes.

The two principals maintained a professional relationship that the educational historians Pam Hirsch and Mark McBeth describe as "symbiotic", although one observer asserted that there was "no cordiality whatever between the two". In his memoirs, Browning refers to Hughes as "my old friend and enemy". Their respective training colleges shared facilities and examinations and were to an extent interdependent; they acted as "flagships which had a material effect on raising the profile of education and teacher training in the United Kingdom".

Success and decline
A government inspector's report on the CUDTC in 1900 recorded increases in numbers and efficiency – "but more rapidly in efficiency than numbers". A subsequent inspection in 1903 produced more fulsome praise: "The [students'] teaching exhibited manliness, independence and resource. The students were no longer the hobbled boys of the elementary teacher type. They were real members of the University."

In his memoirs, Browning attempted to quantify CUDTC's successes. He claimed that by 1907, 40 per cent of its students had obtained first or second-class honours in their university degrees, 28 per cent had gained third-class honours, 24 per cent had ordinary degrees, and 8 per cent were unaccounted for. All but a small handful of ex-students, he said, were engaged in educational work, as elementary or secondary teachers, training college lecturers, or government inspectors.

In 1909, when Browning was past 70, he reluctantly retired from the CUDTC principalship. The college continued, but without Browning's force and drive its reputation declined. In the inter-war years the university's interest in teacher training withered, and by 1939 the CUDTC had ceased to exist as a distinct entity; it had "fall[en] to a sort of un-noticed death", according to Hirsch and McBeth.

Later Cambridge years
Alongside his CUTDTC role, Browning continued his various university duties. In 1895 he received the first of several late-career disappointments when he failed to be appointed as Regius Professor of History in succession to Sir John Seeley. The appointment, in the gift of the prime minister, Lord Rosebery, went instead to Lord Acton, evidently on the grounds that Browning's scholarship lacked sufficient depth. On 17 November 1896, after a series of complaints about Browning's overbearing manner, "imperial conduct" and bullying behaviour, he was forced to resign as Treasurer of Cambridge University Liberal Club, of which he was the founder. Browning was uncharacteristically reduced to tears when confronted with his behaviour and given little alternative but to resign.

Browning continued to produce historical works: a study of Peter the Great in 1898 was followed by a History of Europe in 1901. He also provided an introduction to the 1900 edition of Woodrow Wilson's notable textbook The State. In 1900 a formal portrait of Browning was painted by the Spanish artist Ignacio Zuloaga, one of numerous portraits and caricatures made in Browning's later life.

In 1898 Browning's former Eton pupil, George Curzon, was appointed Viceroy of Ireland and raised to the Irish peerage as Baron Curzon of Kedleston. In 1902, Curzon invited Browning to India, as his guest at Government House in Calcutta. For five weeks Browning lived and travelled in great style; on his return he wrote an account of his trip, Impressions of Indian Travel (1903). Further disappointments awaited him at Cambridge. After 21 years' service, he was replaced as treasurer of the Cambridge Union. In November 1902, he failed to be re-elected to King's College Council, a place he had occupied for decades.

In February 1904 his application for a Doctorate of Letters (D.Litt) was rejected. Despite the quantity and popularity of his books, he was considered more a journalist than a scholar. A year later, Browning's private hopes of becoming provost of King's were dashed when M.R. James was appointed to the vacancy. One of James's earliest actions as provost was to advise Browning in 1906 that his history lectureship would not be renewed after three further years.

With his Cambridge days drawing to a close, Browning acquired a holiday home in the small seaside town of Bexhill. When not in Cambridge or travelling, he entered into the life of the town, playing golf, attending concerts, giving lectures and entertaining his friends. After meeting an eminent Christian Scientist, Daniel Mayer, on the train to Bexhill, Browning became a convert and a regular attendee of the sect's meetings, while remaining a member of the Church of England. In 1909, no longer the CUDTC principal and with his King's lectureship terminated, he saw no further reason for remaining in Cambridge and retired to his home in Bexhill.

Retirement, Rome, death
Browning's stipend and pension, totalling about £700 a year (roughly £75,000 in 2017 terms), enabled him to enjoy a comfortable lifestyle in retirement. He visited the Middle East, and also Russia where he lectured on the "Ideals of Education" to the St Petersburg Guild of English Teachers. Each year he took extended holidays in Italy. When not travelling he was busy writing: his memoirs, Memories of Sixty Years at Eton, Cambridge, and Elsewhere appeared in 1910, and a History of the Modern World, 1815–1910 was published the following year. He also wrote poetry, including (in Latin) an "Ode to the Penis" which, he informed his friend Lord Latymer was "superficially rather smutty, but intrinsically very religious and spiritual".

The First World War began in August 1914, while Browning was in Italy. His offer to return to England as a stand-in teacher for those called to military service was ignored and he decided to remain in Rome. Here he enjoyed an agreeable life in the English colony, listening to music, serving on various committees and acting as President of the British Academy of Arts. He continued writing, publishing A General History of the World in 1915, and A Short History of Italy two years later.

After the end of the war, Browning wrote to Curzon, who in 1919 was serving as Britain's Foreign Secretary, asking if Curzon could secure him a knighthood – he thought he deserved it for his services to British-Italian relations. Curzon could not deliver this; four years later, in the final months of his life, Browning was appointed to a lower honour, an OBE.

Shortly before his death, Browning completed a second volume of memoirs, Memories of Later Years (1923). He died in Rome on 6 October 1923 after a short illness. His ashes were returned to Cambridge and placed in a vault within King's College chapel.

Appraisal
In his biography, Anstruther stresses the complexity of Browning's character, in which intelligence, wit, and a real love of youth combined with conceit, laziness, insensitivity and trouble-making. "The needle on the balance swings back and forth violently between good and bad". This dual nature is reflected in the comments of Browning's obituarists: according to the Manchester Guardian, "no man [was] more difficult to characterise nor more easy to misunderstand". The writer concedes that his aims generally exceeded his achievements, but acknowledges him as "a man of great power and force ... possessed of a thorough knowledge of the world, with immense kindness of heart".

Noel Annan, in a 1983 pen-picture, describes Browning as "preposterous" and "a cracking snob"  but recognises Browning's pioneer work in the field of teacher training: "He saw that what the desperately poor young men who came to learn to teach in the State schools needed more than anything was encouragement. Shoals of letters from them and their parents showed what he meant to them".

In her 1929 essay A Room of One's Own, the writer Virginia Woolf depicted Browning as a misogynist, a personification of the patriarchal system which restricted women's educational opportunities. Invoking a passage from Wortham's biography, Woolf wrote: "Mr Oscar Browning was wont to declare that ... irrespective of the marks that he might give, the best woman was intellectually the inferior of the worst man". The feminist scholar Jane Marcus, writing in 1985, characterised Browning as "the great misogynist of his age, the heroic figure of the man with his finger in the dike against the rising tide of female education...[He] held the unofficial Chair of Applied Misogyny at Cambridge for many years".

Hirsch and Peters, however, record that whatever his expressed prejudices, Browning took practical steps to support and develop educational opportunities for women and aid their educational advancement. A letter to Browning from Sidgwick suggests that Browning supported the then highly unfashionable idea that full Cambridge degrees should be awarded to women, a proposal that was not enacted until 1948. Furthermore, when the Political Society debated a motion in support of women's suffrage, Browning voted in favour.

In his professional life Browning maintained discretion and decorum; according to Davenport-Hinds: "His eccentricities enabled his protégés to share emotional intimacy without impermissible sexual contact". Beyond his Cambridge life, Browning acquired a set of rooms in St James's Street, London, a base from which he entertained a variety of mainly working-class boys and men, over many years: "Any youth whom OB liked", says Anstruther, "to whom he thought he could do a kindness, perhaps in exchange for a little amusement, arrived, stayed and went away". Browning treated these acquaintances well, with generous gifts and hospitality, but as with the favourites from his Eton schoolmastering days, they were liable to be dropped without ceremony when Browning tired of them. Although Browning was recognised as a gifted teacher, he acquired no standing as a scholar. Nevertheless, modern historians have recognised that his work in teacher education provided a foundation for the University's present-day Faculty of Education, However, whereas Elizabeth Hughes's memory is perpetuated through Hughes Hall, Browning's contribution to education has no official recognition in Cambridge or elsewhere. According to Hirsch and McBeth, "people knew who he was but not what he did". Thus he is remembered more as a "character", a flamboyant, faintly ridiculous figure; such characterisation, say Hirsch and McBeth, has "blurred and distorted any serious account of his achievements".

Works
Browning's writings comprise historical works, mainly of the popular variety. He also wrote on educational matters, completed several literary biographies, and completed two volumes of memoirs.

title: Oscar Browning


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Freud (crater)

Freud is a tiny lunar impact crater that lies on a plateau within the Oceanus Procellarum, in the northwest part of the Moon's near side. It is located a few kilometers to the west of the Vallis Schröteri, a large, sinuous valley that begins to the north of the crater Herodotus, then meanders north, then northwest, and finally southwest, until it reaches the edge of the lunar mare.

title: Freud (crater)