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Hagwon

 is a Korean term for a for-profit private educational institution. They are commonly likened to cram schools. Some consider hagwons as private language centers or academies operated like businesses apart from the South Korean public school system. , 78.3% of grade school students in South Korea attend at least one and spend an average of 7.2 hours weekly in them.

Most children begin attending them by age five, with some even beginning by age two. The schools tend to focus on individual topics, including the English language, mathematics, and the college entrance exam, the College Scholastic Ability Test. also exist for adults.

Hagwons have been a topic of controversy and criticism both internationally and in South Korea. They are seen as symptomatic of the significant competitiveness in South Korean society, and contribute to significant expense and stress for the majority of families who participate in them. Real estate prices are affected by proximity to elite hagwons, with homes located near these educational centers experiencing higher demand.

Description
are private educational institutions that are often compared to cram schools in the West. They teach a variety of subjects, for many purposes, to a variety of different age groups. As of 2020, South Korea had 73,865.

Motivation
Competition for education and jobs in South Korea is widely considered to be extreme. Nearly 70% of students in South Korea participate in higher education, compared to 51% in the United States and 57% in the United Kingdom. This makes college admissions in South Korea, and especially the entrance examination (College Scholastic Ability Test), highly competitive. In 2023, it was reported that over half of test takers in the Gangnam and Seocho Districts retake the exam a year later because they were dissatisfied with their previous scores.

Demographics
A significant majority of South Korean children begin attending by the age of five; it was reported in 2017 that 83% of five year olds attended at least one. A minority of students begin at age two. In 2022, it was reported that 78.3% of students between the first to twelfth grade attended at least one and spent an average of 7.2 hours in per week. Attendance of and time spent in is higher for elementary and middle school students.

Some students attend until late at night. A number of offer private bus or shuttle services to bring the children back home, although the safety of these services due to cost minimization efforts has been criticized.

Subjects
Parents spend the most money on English language, with mathematics and Korean taking second and third place. Science and the humanities are also popular, although less so. are also seen as a critical place to prepare for the college entrance exams.

While most focus on meeting educational needs, many also exist for a variety of nonacademic subjects, including music, art, swimming, and Taekwondo. A variety of for adults also exist, including some to train flight attendants.

History and regulations
In 1885, Henry Appenzeller founded the Paichai school (배재대학교) as a cover for his missionary work. At the time it was illegal to preach other religions in Korea. Although his main goal was to spread his faith, it was still used by Koreans to learn English.

In the 1970s and 1980s, were reportedly seen as optional for remedial studying. Private education, known as gwaoe (과외), was banned by President Chun Doo-hwan in 1980. It was felt the advantage of private education unfairly burdened the poor and to promote equality, all access to it was made illegal. Through the years the government has relaxed the restrictions on private education by increasingly allowing more individuals and organizations to offer private education until the ban was ruled unconstitutional in the 1990s.

Korean courts have ruled that it may violate the constitution for the government to limit the amount of money can charge. In early 2008, the Seoul government was working on changes to the regulations to allow to set their own hours, citing individual choice as trumping regulation. However, the government reversed its position five days later. The regulations were criticized as ineffective because the city council possessed limited resources to monitor and enforce them.

Along with these restrictions, had to disclose their tuition amounts to the government so people could complain if the schools attempted to raise the tuition. The licenses of caught running false advertisements will be revoked. are required to issue cash receipts. In July 2009, to help catch violators of these new regulations, the government started a program to reward people who reported them.

The regulations were intended to reduce the cost of private education. However, some added weekend classes to compensate for shorter weekday classes. Other parents have sought out private tutors to make up for lost study time. Other simply ignored the regulations. It was reported in April 2009 that 67 percent of sampled were found to have overcharged for tuition. Forty percent were found to have charged parents over two times the registered tuition amount.

In March 2008, the government prohibited school teachers from creating test questions for. It had been found that some teachers were leaking tests and test questions to, giving the students who attended those schools advantages when it came time to take the test.

A petition was made in October 2009 by parents, teachers, students and owners to challenge the government's legislation regarding  closing times in Seoul and Busan. The constitutional court ruled that the laws did not violate the constitution. The restriction was put in place for Seoul and Busan in the summer of 2009. In making the ruling the court said, "Because it's important to secure sleep for high school students to overcome fatigue and for the sake of their growth, it's difficult to say that [the ban] excessively restricts basic rights."

In April 2010 it was reported that there were over 25,000 registered with the Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education, with nearly 6,000 being in the Gangnam area. It was also revealed that local government councils other than Seoul had decided not to implement the 22:00 curfew. The curfew was seen as not having an impact on education fees and not addressing the real concern with private education. Despite the curfew, there have been attempts to get around this curfew among in Seoul.

Controversy
Teaching as a whole in South Korea is essential, especially for the rigorous and fast-paced curriculum. There have been recorded cases of teachers' behavior regarding academic discrimination and ignoring students' learning process and effects. Hagwons not only impact students but parents and teachers as well. In 2022, a mother was so concerned about her son not having enough time to study that she advertised for someone to sit with her son at a study cafe and to wake him up anytime he fell asleep studying. In an article by Suzy Gardner, she interviewed a previous hagwon educator and was told that though her job was to teach English, she "illegally" taught ballet because the hagwon she worked at didn't have enough employees to support all of the classes that they offered. The individual also said that they were so understaffed that they had to watch over at least three rooms at once, with one room containing students aged four. According to The New York Times, students are overworked and exhausted. The average South Korean student works up to 13 hours a day, which is more than half of the day, leaving only 5.5 hours of sleep at night.

Cost and economics
Despite South Korea's now decreasing population and lowest fertility rate in the world, spending on education has only grown. In 2022, Koreans spent on private education, at an average of  per month. Becoming the most expensive country in the world to raise a child, which sparked many concerns for the South Korean economy, according to Time magazine.

While some see as filling a need not being adequately met by the public school system, others see them as creating an unequal footing between the poor and rich in Korea. Although most Korean children attend, according to CNN, studies have still shown a measurable difference in educational outcomes based on the income of the parents.

Efforts are now being made to try and curb the amount of private spending on, although some observers are skeptical that they will be successful. The Korean government has even provided 150 million won ($125,000) to each of the 400 schools that were selected nationwide to refurbish after-school programs and other classes. The Ministry of Education states that the 60-billion won project is expected to halve the private education costs for middle or even lower-income families. Some even stated that the use of hagwons won't be required as the curriculum will be revised. Headmasters would be provided the authority to hire additional educational professionals.

Academic elitism
Research shows hagwons are associated with South Korea's pervasive academic elitism and educational inequity due to their provision of supplementary education. Many students rely heavily on hagwons to improve their grades and to perform well on the College Scholastic Ability Test, which determines whether or not a student will be able to apply to certain universities. A 2023 statistics indicate a notable increase in hagwon spending, disproportionately benefiting students from wealthier or geographically advantageous backgrounds. Daechi-dong, a neighborhood in Gangnam District, Seoul, which is known for its heavily concentrated wealth and high standard of living, is dubbed the "mecca of private education" in South Korea. According to a report released on March 7, 2023, by the Ministry of Education and Statistics Korea based on data collected from January 2022 to December 2022, the monthly average expenditures on hagwons and other private education for households at the bottom of the five-tier, income-based categorization with children aged 13-18, were 482,000 won – only slightly higher than the 481,000 won these families spent on food. Research shows that there is extremely high demand for private education in a highly competitive academic environment, contributing to educational inequality. Data reveals a significant representation of students from high-income districts like Gangnam-gu and Seocho in these universities and that the matriculation rate at SKY Universities was inversely proportional to students' household income – students from lower-income households matriculated at lower rates. The influence of hagwons on South Korea's education system is also a common theme in media. In "SKY Castle", the plot centers on upper-class families destroying each other's lives by committing identity fraud, murder, and suicide in order to send their children to the top universities and secure lucrative career paths.

Health impact
The culture is widely viewed as extreme by both international and domestic observers. A number of experts have expressed concerns about the mental health impact on especially the younger attendees, and even on the parents who have to afford and carefully curate their children's education in order to have them be competitive. In 2017, it was reported that among OECD countries, South Korea had the highest suicide rate in the world. This pressure on mental health is not only felt by the students but also by their parents, who often face the financial and emotional burden of ensuring their children's success in an extremely competitive educational environment. Some hagwons use "anxiety marketing" using phrases such as, "If not now, then when?" to evoke a sense of urgency amongst parents of students. In addition to mental health issues, there are also concerns about physical health implications due to the long hours spent in hagwons. According to a 2015 New York Times report, the average South Korean student works up to 13 hours a day, which is more than half of the day, leaving only 5.5 hours of sleep at night. Research shows that a lifestyle of lack of sleep can lead to problems such as chronic fatigue, poor sleep quality, and an increased risk of physical health problems in the long term. As an effort to combat these issues, in 2010, the South Korean government implemented regulations to limit the operating hours of hagwons and reduce the academic burden on students.

Impact on real estate
A higher-than-average concentration of in the Gangnam District, specifically Daechi-dong (대치동), has been cited as the primary reason for an increase in real estate costs in the area. In the 1970s the Seoul government made some top schools relocate to the area. The schools there have become associated with entry into elite high schools and then elite universities. Many residents feel their children need to be associated with these schools to reach the upper levels of business and success.

As more parents try to move to the area to allow their children to attend these schools, the prices of real estate in the area have risen to 300 percent of similar areas in Seoul. In 2003 the government had planned to develop a center in Pangyo to relieve some of the pressure on Gangnam, yet after heavy criticism for only shifting the problem around and not solving it, the government canceled the plan only a couple of weeks later.

Competiveness
Top-rated hagwon slots are fought over by parents. Parents will stand outside all day to register and enrol students in top hagwons. Some believe that there is a disadvantage for low-income families as many of them cannot afford the costs of hagwons. Typically, financial assistance provides an education that helps differentiate one's value, this is where socioeconomic groups cause inequity in competition. Because of this gap, many students fight to find ways to "stand out" to compensate for not receiving the same level of education or opportunity.

English-language instructors
Native English speakers were hired as early as 1883 in Korea, originally out of need. The first teacher hired at the government-run Tongmunhak was Thomas Hallifax. Due to the preference for having native English speakers teach English, many native English-speakers are still hired to teach at in Korea. These may be only English schools or they may also be schools which offer a variety of subjects including English.

The minimum requirements for foreigners for such teaching positions are: citizenship of Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, the United Kingdom, or the United States, a clean criminal background check at the national level, and a bachelor's degree obtained in one of the aforementioned countries.

In return for signing a one-year contract, the institute provides an instructor with a monthly salary, round-trip airfare from his or her country of origin, usually a rent-free apartment or housing stipend for the duration of the instructor's contract, a pension pay for some citizens, and an additional one-month "severance pay" at the completion of the contract.

Foreign instructors hold a mixed view of. Some have complained of poor housing, non-payment, disagreements, and getting fired on the 11th month before they receive severance pay; however, many instructors have had no significant issues with the they have worked at. Some recommend looking at blacklists or greenlists, but others say they are not necessarily reliable.

owners have complained about the challenge in finding truly qualified teachers. A group of English instructors first formed a labour union at a in 2005.

Hagwons abroad
In some English-speaking countries, exist for ethnic Koreans. In North America, about 75% of Korean-language supplemental schools have affiliation with churches. As of 2006, of the registered with the Korean School Association of America (KSAA), over 75% were affiliated with Korean churches. There are also secular formal and secular informal. The are equivalent to hoshū jugyō kō (hoshūkō) in ethnic Japanese communities and buxiban in ethnic Chinese communities. As of 2010, every year over 50,000 Korean Americans attend Korean heritage schools.

Korean schools were first established in Hawaii after 1903, when the first wave of Korean immigration came to the United States. The modern generation of Korean supplemental schools were first established in the United States in the 1970s. At the time they were weekend schools that had a mission to preserve the Korean-American identity in its students. They taught the Korean language, managed the assimilation of Korean-American children, and offered afterschool tutoring programs. There were almost 500 schools registered with the KSAA by the end of the 1980s. Beginning in the 1990s there were also that were supplementary academic preparation programs like the ones in Korea. Despite this, some parents viewed the quality of American as less rigorous than their South Korean counterparts. But in 2010, it was reported that some Korean parents in the United States viewed some in the New Jersey–New York area as being of similar quality.

Kang Hee-Ryong, author of the PhD thesis White supremacy, racialization, and cultural politics of Korean Heritage Language Schools, wrote that the Korean heritage schools are "not simply a means of counter hegemony against the racializing forces" but instead the "product of compromises" between different generations of Korean Americans.

In popular culture

 * Episode 9 (The Pied piper 피리부는 사나이) in Extraordinary Attorney Woo (2022 South Korean TV series)
 * Crazy Love (2022 South Korean TV series)
 * Crash Course in Romance (2023 South Korean TV series)
 * The Midnight Romance in Hagwon (2024 South Korean TV series)

title: Hagwon


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Static warp bubble

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was - merge somewhere

Static warp bubble
Star Trek fancruft. The article is about a technological anomaly-of-the-week that was never referred to in the series again. —Psychonaut 15:50, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Phasers on delete. One pseudo-scientific mumbo jumbo reference used in one episode of a science fiction series. This is not of any relevance whatsoever to anything at all, ever. While some things in Star Trek are arguably worth a discussion (e.g. the eye scan in one of the films) as part of a larger article, things like this are not worth a discussion at all, and certainly not an article on their own. They aren't suggesting things that might happen, it isn't a debate on the way things may be, it is simply something thrown in to give a plot for one episode (which in my opinion should appear merely as a paragraph or two within a season guide format article). Average Earthman 16:29, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge into "Remember Me", the single episode where it appeared. Probably no need to keep it as a redirect. -- Antaeus Feldspar 18:36, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect. No good reason to not create a redirect.  --L33tminion | (talk) 19:13, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete it, Scotty. Wyss 19:30, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: No merge or redirect. Too trivial.  Geogre 19:54, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete or, at best, redirect to the appropriate Star Trek series since we don't have individual episode entries (thank God). Lord Bob 23:48, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * MERGE and REDIRECT into Treknobabble 132.205.15.43 00:00, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * MERGE (with no redirect) into Warp drive 24.124.29.135 00:07, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Fancruft. --Improv 22:09, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, or else move to Memory Alpha where they live for this stuff. Triviality is relative, dear friends. Mashford 21:22, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * SUPER-MEGA-DELETE-WITH-KNOBS-ON. The word is fancruft. We should delete this nonsense and then go on a deletion rampage. Destroy all of the rest of the trivial, banal star trek rubish. Picth forks and burning torches at the ready my friends!--Bucephalus 11:45, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Please tone down the rhetoric. If your intention is to ridicule those who are concerned with fannish stuff overwhelming a real-world encyclopedia, then your intention is achieved and your point is made.  If it wasn't your intention, then please realize that you're making your own side look bad. -- Antaeus Feldspar 17:02, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. —tregoweth 21:11, Dec 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * merge and redirect into a more general article on startrek technology. mydogategodshat 21:37, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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High Salvington Windmill

Durrington or High Salvington Windmill is a Grade II listed post mill in High Salvington, Sussex that has been restored and is in full working order. The mill stands 320 ft above sea level and is able to take advantage of incoming sea winds.

History
The earliest mention of a mill is in church records, which indicate that the miller was fined in 1615. Budgen's 1724 map showed a mill on this site. The current mill was built around 1750 and was apparently insured against fire in 1774. The windmill ground flour for the Worthing area until 1897 when it was purchased by Colonel T F Wisden. A condition of sale was that the mill had to be kept in working order. It was retired to a role of grinding animal feed until 1905. During much of the 20th century the mill was neglected although in 1907 the wooden roundhouse was replaced with a concrete structure used as a tea-room. In 1959, the mill was taken into the care of Worthing Borough Council. Messrs E Hole and Son, millwrights of Burgess Hill renovated the mill in 1961 and fitted a new pair of stocks and four new sails. In March 1976 one of the sails was broken off in a gale, and the other three removed. An inspection of the mill revealed she was not in good repair. Worthing Town Council set up a restoration project. The roundhouse was rebuilt to better replicate the original in 1990 and the restored mill began grinding again in 1991. A granary rescued from East Grinstead was re-erected at the mill in 1994. In 1998 it was discovered that one of the stocks was split. A new stock was made from laminated larch and the sails were refitted.

In early 2008, the three councillors from Salvington Ward, Mayor Heather Mercer, Cllr Jacqui Marsh and Cllr Noel Atkins, awarded the Mill Trust a total of £3,000, from the Mayor's fund and the pilot Ward Budget Scheme, respectively. This will contribute to the refurbishment of the current gatehouse as a visitor information centre, which it is hoped will be completed by the end of 2009.

Mythology
Sadly, much has been written about Durrington Mill, (now called High Salvington Mill), which has found its way into official records and publications, but for which the original research appears to be lacking. This section attempts to dispel a number of these myths.

When the economics of wind and water-powered mill was undermined by new, steam-powered roller mills, millers of the old school had to find new ways to make a living. At High Salvington, the miller's wife, who was regularly asked for a glass of water by tourists who had toiled up the hill, hit upon the idea of offering a cup of tea and charging for this service. Thus was the High Salvington Windmill tea-room initiated. After miller Scutt's suicide, subsequent "millers" chose to emphasise the Mill as a tourist attraction and made money by charging for refreshments and to climb the steps to look at the mill and its machinery. While this contributed to keeping the mill and its machinery intact, the "millers" elaborated and embellished the known history of the mill, and thus an extensive body of mythology was created to attract and excite visitors. These myths often have been quoted and cited, as various millers lent credence to their stories by publishing them in leaflets, available to the visiting public.

The myth of the Post Tree
A favourite myth is that of the mill's post being part of a tree that grew on the site, the roots of which extended many feet below the ground. Apart from the fact that no mills were built like this in the 1740s, once the raised floor of the tea-rooms was removed from the hexagonal concrete round-house constructed in 1907, it is clear that the post, as is to be expected, is suspended above the ground, by diagonal quarter bars held in place against the cross-trees, themselves resting on brick piers, and that the base of the post is wedged into the centre of the cross-trees, with the wedges used to balance the post and adjust for the varying distribution of weight in the buck as stones, sails and machinery are added or removed.

This myth appeared in several publications, including an untitled leaflet published by St. Stephens Press, Bristol, in the 1950s. (It refers to 1897 as being "53 years ago", and the cover page bears text that includes "VISITORS to WORTHING should not fail to see THE 200 YEAR OLD WINDMILL With its wonderful Old Wooden Machinery"). According to this leaflet, "The post itself at Salvington is of great interest. About 20 years ago excavations were made at the base of it to discover what means had been used to plant it so firmly in the ground that it had borne the whole weight of the mill and withstood the winter storms for two hundred years. To the surprise of the diggers, 12 feet below the level of the ground, instead of coming to the end of the post, great roots were found stopping further progress, showing that a living oak had been trimmed and made use of as it stood."

The myth is refuted by Rex Wailes in his article "Some Windmill Fallacies", published in the 1961 volume of the Transactions of the Newcomen Society of Great Britain.

The "Worked in 1914" myth
"The mill is known to have worked again in 1914."

Brunnarius claims that the mill worked again in 1914, but at that time, the mill was fixed in one position, and the construction of the hexagonal concrete roundhouse prevented the mill from being winded a full 360 degrees. It was not until the restorers removed the corners of the concrete roundhouse in the 1970s, that the mill was able to turn fully. The restored wooden roundhouse, built to the pre-1907 design, which has replaced the concrete roundhouse, allows the mill to be winded 360 degrees. No evidence has been found to support Brunnarius' claim.

The "Fantail" myth
According to the Listed Buildings Register, maintained by English Heritage, the windmill at High Salvington is supposed to have a fantail. This data appears to have made its way into the National Monuments Record, (also maintained by English Heritage), which cites in its notes:

'' Originally Durrington Mill, now usually called Salvington Mill. Post type with round house and fantail. Date 1700 over the door. Machinery of the mill in working order.''

from page 21 of the 21 May 1976 edition of Worthing's publication of the List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest.

However, no evidence for this has ever been found, and when it was bought by Worthing Borough Council in 1959, winding the mill, as far as was possible—see The "Worked in 1914" Myth), was achieved by means of pushing on the tail-pole.

Various "old-timers" who helped the High Salvington Mill Trust reported that the inspector who is supposed to have visited the windmill in 1949 never came as far as High Salvington, so perhaps this is the source of the error.

The private house myth
The same National Monuments Record also cites a Field Investigator's comment, dated from 31 December 1970, which states,

"Mill restored externally and in excellent condition. Now a private house".

The reference for this is given as F1 ASP 31-12-70.

Although a millers cottage did exist on the site it was demolished some decades ago to make way for access to properties built to the rear of the houses adjacent to the mill. The hexagonal concrete roundhouse of the mill, constructed in 1907/8, was still being used to serve teas in 1970 and there was no living accommodation either then or since.

Restoration
Inspection of the mill after the loss of a sail in 1976 revealed that the trestle had been weakened by Death Watch Beetles. The machinery and millstones were removed from the mill and placed in storage. A steel frame was constructed and used to support the mill whilst the trestle and crown tree were replaced. A new 10 ft diameter brake wheel was constructed and fitted in 1985. One pair of sails was fitted in 1987 The sails were turning in the Great Storm of 1987 although the brake was on. The second pair of sails were fitted in 1988. The roundhouse was rebuilt in 1990 and the restored mill ground for the first time on 4 April 1991.

In 2008 discovery of rope burns on the studding by the spout floor window revealed that this was probably originally a pop-hole through which the brake rope would have been dropped, thus allowing the miller to operate the brake from the side of the mill exterior, rather than from behind the mill, as had been the practice in recent years. The "millwrights" restoration and maintenance volunteer decided to improve the authenticity of the restoration and replace the window with a pop-hole and removable shutter.

In July 2009 scaffolding was erected so that the exterior of the buck could be repainted. Window frames have also been repaired and repainted.

Description
High Salvington Windmill is a post mill with a single storey roundhouse. The mill rotates on a solid oak post which is in turn supported by a trestle of heavy pine quarter nars supported on two crosstrees, themselves resting on four brick piers. The trestle is protected by a wooden roundhouse, modelled on the pre-1907 structure. On top of the post, a Samson head is fitted and this supports the crown tree—a large, heavy oak timber to which the body of the mill is attached.

The windmill has a pair of common sails and a pair of spring sails, carried by a wooden windshaft with a cast iron poll end. The mill has two pairs of millstones, arranged head and tail. The head stones are Derbyshire Peak stones are used for rough grinding, while the tail stones are made from pieces of French Burrstone, embedded in plaster of Paris. These millstones were used for fine grinding. Each pair of stones is driven by its own wheel, called the head wheel and tail wheel. The Friends of High Salvington Mill have had to rebuild the head wheel, but the tail wheel, an original of a rare "compass arm" design, is now too fragile to be used for grinding.

Tenter gear is installed to adjust the gap between the stones, and along with the usual system of levers adjustable via a tentering screw, the mill also has a rope attached that allows the miller to lift the half-ton (500 kg) runner stone, while governors adjust to the wind speed and raise or lower the gap accordingly.

Millers

 * Daniel Redman 1824–1847
 * William Beard 1847–1871
 * Walter Brown 1871–1897
 * Alfred Samuel Coote –1898
 * Stephen Scutt –1906
 * Coote 1914

References for above:-

Glynde windpump
The High Salvington Windmill Trust acquired in late 2007, and completed restoration during 2007–09, the Glynde Windpump, a much smaller hollow post mill. This originally stood at - 50.859°N, 0.069°W, it was built in the mid nineteenth century, possibly to supply water to steam engines which powered an aerial ropeway at a nearby quarry, or possibly to raise water from a cutting parallel to a series of lime kilns, for slaking the lime. The rotting remains of the pump were rescued by Andrew Norman who started the restoration, before its acquisition by the High Salvington Mill Trust, which has completed the restoration and installed it beside the existing windmill.

The trestle has been embedded in solid foundations, on which the restored post has been mounted. The buck (body) has been restored and resized according to photographs of the original taken in 1929, and the gear ratio between the windshaft and crankshaft has been adjusted, with a new gear wheel cut. An easily removable roof has been installed and new sails have been designed and constructed. The visually restored windpump was unveiled on Sunday 11 May 2008, during National Mills Weekend.

Errors in construction resulted in a set of rebuilt sails that rotated clockwise. In 2009 the sails have been rebuilt so that they now correctly rotate anti-clockwise. A pump was acquired and in July 2009 it was refitted. Installation of the pump and connection to the con rods take place in August and September 2009, which now allows the Glynde Wind Pump to raise water again for the first time in over fifty years.

Nutley wind engine
In 2013, the High Salvington Mill Trust acquired from a farm at Nutley, in many pieces, a 44 foot steel mast mounted with both a wind engine and above this, a wind generator. The wind generator was a later addition that would have prevented the successful operation of the wind engine.

The original mast was split into two to provide a mast for the separated wind engine and generator. The wind engine is a Hercules oil-bath wind engine with an 8-foot diameter fan. Many parts were missing requiring the maintenance volunteers to research and make new parts. In 2020 a well pump was acquired and fitted to the wind engine.

The wind generator has a 6-foot diameter two-bladed wooden impeller driving a Lucas 24V DC lorry generator capable of very high speeds. The volunteers have built a control box with a series of light bulbs so that the faster the impeller turns, the more lamps are lit, with the full 120 W output lighting all of the bulbs.

Public access
High Salvington Windmill is open to the public, from 2:30 pm to 5 pm, every first and third Sunday of the months April through to September, inclusive. Volunteer "millwrights" meet at the site every Thursday evening, from 7 pm until 9 pm, and the first and third Sunday morning of every month throughout the year. All the maintenance and restoration work at the mill is carried out by the volunteers. Organised parties can also arrange to visit the site for guided tours at other times, by arrangement with the Visit organiser.

title: High Salvington Windmill


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O2 Academy Oxford

The O2 Academy Oxford is a night club and live music venue in Oxford, England, operated by Academy Music Group.

Its previous names include the Coop Hall, the Oxford Venue, the Zodiac and the Carling Academy Oxford.

Oxford Co-operative Society (1907–1990)
The red brick building at 190–196 Cowley Road in southeast Oxford was designed by Harry Wilkinson Moore and built in 1907 for the Oxford Co-operative Society. It consisted of a large hall above three shop units. The hall was used for dances, political meetings of the Co-operative Party and live music. The year of construction is visible as a datestone on the front central gable.

The Oxford Venue (1990–1995)
The hall was sold in 1990 and converted into the Oxford Venue. Oxford band Radiohead played there and the video for their 1992 hit Creep was shot there.

The Zodiac (1995–2007)
In November 1995 it was refurbished and reopened as The Zodiac under new owners Adrian Hicks and Nick Moorbath, both formerly sound engineers and promoters working at the Oxford Venue. Moorbath was also a session keyboardist who played with Ride and Hurricane #1. The refit was partly funded by Radiohead and Supergrass. Moorbath was also involved in organising Radiohead's homecoming performance in South Park, Oxford in July 2001. In November 2006 it was announced that Moorbath and Hicks had agreed to sell the club to the Academy Music Group. The Zodiac's last night on 17 May 2007 featured several Oxford bands, including ones that reformed for the night, including The Candyskins and Unbelievable Truth. The commercial takeover of the city's largest independent music venue inspired Anyone Can Play Guitar, a documentary film about the Oxford music scene.

Academy Oxford (since 2007)
Academy Music Group refurbished the site over several months, increasing its capacity from 750 to 1,150 people and reopening as the Carling Academy Oxford. The sponsorship of the Academy Music Group by the Carling beer brand was succeeded by an agreement with telecommunications firm O2. The venue was rebranded as the O2 Academy Oxford with effect from 1 January 2009.

title: O2 Academy Oxford


text: Template:Cite web

title: Template:Cite web


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Perry White

Perry White is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. He is the editor-in-chief of the Metropolis newspaper the Daily Planet. The character maintains very high ethical and journalistic standards and is an archetypal image of the tough, irascible, but fair-minded boss.

In film, the character has been portrayed by Pierre Watkin in the Superman serial, Jackie Cooper in 1978's Superman movie and its sequels, Frank Langella in Superman Returns, Laurence Fishburne in the DC Extended Universe, and Wendell Pierce in the upcoming DC Universe (DCU) film Superman (2025). In television, John Hamilton and Lane Smith played the character in Adventures of Superman and Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, respectively, and Paul Jarrett in the series Superman & Lois.

Publication history
The character Perry White was created for the radio serial The Adventures of Superman, voiced by actor Julian Noa. He first appeared in the second episode, "Clark Kent, Reporter", which aired on February 14, 1940. The character was introduced into the comic books later that year, appearing in Superman #7 (November 1940). Since then, the character has continued to appear in Superman and other comic books on a continual basis, and has been a regular supporting character in both live-action and animated films and television programs over eight decades.

He is well-known for the catchphrases "Great Caesar's ghost!" and "Don't call me 'chief!'".

Golden and Silver Age
The earliest Superman comics depict Clark Kent and Lois Lane working for the newspaper the Daily Star, under an editor named George Taylor. However, after Perry White's introduction in the Adventures of Superman radio series, the character was incorporated into the comic books, appearing as the editor of a newly renamed the Daily Planet. No in-story explanation for this change was given at the time, and neither George Taylor nor the Daily Star were mentioned again for many years.

After the establishment of the multiverse in the 1960s, Taylor and the Daily Star were retroactively placed on "Earth-Two", (the setting of DC's Golden Age comics), while White and the Daily Planet were placed on Earth-One (the Silver Age universe). (In the real world, Perry White and the Planet were both created during comics' Golden Age.) A Perry White also existed on Earth-Two: There, he is a lead reporter for the Daily Star and, according to a Superman Family tale, has "filled in" as editor from time to time while Taylor was away.

Prior to the sweeping continuity changes detailed in Crisis on Infinite Earths, The Man of Steel, and other comics published after 1986, Perry White is depicted as having been a freelance reporter for various newspapers, including a Chicago newspaper and Gotham City's Gotham Gazette. In The Adventures of Superman, it was also established that White had a law degree but had never practiced law, journalism having a greater attraction for him. However, this detail from the radio show was rarely, if ever, touched upon in comics.

White eventually goes to work at the Daily Planet as a reporter and earns his first Pulitzer Prize by being the first to write about Superboy's extraterrestrial origins, thanks to an exclusive interview with the Boy of Steel.

Later, Perry's reporting skills earn further praise after he is the first to discover that Superboy has moved to Metropolis from Smallville. (Superboy had intended to keep his move quiet for an undefined period of time, so as not to alert anyone to Superboy and Clark Kent leaving Smallville at the same time.)

Finally, during Clark Kent's junior year of college, Perry is promoted to editor-in-chief of the newspaper, after the retirement of the paper's previous editor, the Earth-One version of George Taylor.

In the early 1970s, the Daily Planet is bought by Morgan Edge, president of the media conglomerate Galaxy Communications, with much of Perry's power in running the paper overtaken by Edge. In the months just prior to the Crisis "reboot" in 1985, it is implied that Perry White is beginning to succumb to Alzheimer's disease, manifesting in increased forgetfulness and confusion.

Post-Crisis (1986-2011)
With writer John Byrne's post-Crisis on Infinite Earths revamp of Superman's origin in the Man of Steel miniseries and his subsequent Superman comics, Perry White's history was altered and fleshed out more fully.

Post-Crisis, White was born in Metropolis' Suicide Slum area, growing up with a father missing in action in an overseas war. White goes to school with Lex Luthor while they are children (Luthor was also born in Suicide Slum) and becomes a copy boy at the Daily Planet, beginning a lifetime career that will take him up the newspaper's ladder.

After Luthor becomes a successful businessman, he begins diversifying his holdings in his newly founded LexCorp company, which includes buying the Daily Planet. Luthor soon sells it after deciding to pursue technology and television investments. Turning down an offer from Luthor to become part of Luthor's new television station WLEX, White finds an investor who saves the Daily Planet, on the condition that Perry is promoted from reporter to managing editor. The entire episode, including being forced out of his active reporting career, leaves White bitter and angry with Luthor.

White marries Alice Spencer and has a son, Jerry White. Much later, after Jerry is fully grown, Perry learns that Luthor is Jerry's biological father; Luthor having seduced and impregnated Alice while Perry was overseas reporting on a war and thought to have been killed. Although Perry continues to raise Jerry as his own, the knowledge that he is not the boy's true father continues to haunt him.

In subsequent years as managing editor and then editor-in-chief of The Daily Planet, White forms a core team of reporters and writers: Lois Lane, Clark Kent, Jimmy Olsen, Catherine "Cat" Grant, Ron Troupe, Steve Lombard, and many others. The Planet, meanwhile, is established as a paper of record, breaking such stories as Superman's debut, multiple alien invasions, and the death and subsequent return of Superman. During this time, White becomes increasingly estranged from his son Jerry, who ultimately dies from a gunshot wound. Perry and Alice grieve for some time, resulting in Perry taking a leave of absence from the Daily Planet.

Later, the Whites adopt an orphaned African-American boy named Keith Robert Parks, who soon has his name changed to Keith Robert White. At about this time, Perry takes another leave of absence for lung cancer treatment, putting Clark Kent in charge as the Planet's temporary editor. After many grueling months of chemotherapy, the cancer goes into remission. (Perry White had been depicted in all media as a habitual cigar smoker for decades.)

During a period of financial struggle for the Planet, its owner, Franklin Stern, sells the paper back to Luthor. Luthor, acting out of malice, shuts the paper down and fires everyone except Lane, Olsen, and two others who are forced to accept new jobs at Lexcom, Luthor's new Internet-based news company. Shortly thereafter, Luthor sells the Planet to Bruce Wayne for $1 (thanks to a secret deal made with Lane). Wayne rehires Perry and essentially gives him full control of the Planet, enabling him to undo all of Luthor's meddling while resolving the paper's financial problems.

Though Perry White's knowledge of Clark Kent's alter ego is uncertain, he has found his star reporter's clothes in a supply closet, including his passport. For this reason, it is implied that White may well suspect that Kent is Superman, but he has never confided this suspicion or knowledge to anybody. For his own part, Batman believes that White knows ("Perry White is too good a reporter not to have uncovered Clark's secret. And yet, he acts otherwise... reminding me how good a detective Jim Gordon is back in Gotham City..." -Batman: Hush).

Changes to Superman continuity were introduced in the 2003-2004 miniseries Superman: Birthright, and then again in 2010's Superman: Secret Origin. These changes may have affected details of Perry White's life as related above. However, any details not directly contradicted by those stories or subsequent comics prior to 2011 are assumed to be within the character's continuity.

Since 2011's Flashpoint, 2013's Rebirth, and 2022's Dark Crisis, the entirety of DC Comics continuity has been rewritten, erased, and reintroduced multiple times, subsequently altering the Perry White character further.

New 52
When Superman's identity is exposed by Lois to protect Clark from being blackmailed by a secret conspiracy, Perry fires Clark in a fury of anger and perceived betrayal, accusing Clark of only working at the Planet so that he can profit from his own headlines.

When the Superman of this reality dies, he is replaced by his predecessor from the pre-Flashpoint universe, while Mister Mxyzptlk uses his powers to impersonate Clark Kent and convince everyone that the previous revelation of Superman's identity was an elaborate hoax. This storyline culminates in the displaced Lois and Clark merging with their counterparts in this universe, creating a new timeline where Lois and Clark took a leave of absence from the Planet to raise their newborn son Jon Kent, with Perry as his godfather.

In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock", Perry White has changed the name of the article revolving around "The Superman Theory", much to the dismay of Lois Lane at the time when she and Clark Kent think that someone is pulling the strings behind this theory.

When Clark decides to go public with his identity, Perry is one of the first people he tells. Because Perry is much more involved in Clark's life and sees him not just as an employee but as a good husband and father, he fully accepts that Clark is Superman and allows him to keep his job.

When Lex Luthor uses Manchester Black to erase all public knowledge of Superman's secret identity, Perry is the first to demonstrate what will happen if anyone is reminded of this secret; Black's telepathic command nearly causes Perry to have a seizure as his brain can no longer accept the idea that Superman and Clark Kent are the same person.

Other versions

 * In the limited comic series DC Universe Online: Legends, Perry White was captured, alongside Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen, in the Daily Planet by Brainiac, but was saved by Superman, with Lex Luthor in possession of the canister containing them. Later, Perry became one of the people who has gained metahuman abilities from Braniac's Exobytes, transforming his body into a being of ice and granting him powers, which has surprised him. Later he adopted the code name Frost.
 * In the limited series All-Star Superman, Perry is responsible for publishing an article that exposes his crimes of Lex Luthor, resulting in his arrest and sentenced execution.
 * In the limited series Superman: Red Son, Perry appears briefly as editor-in-chief of the Daily Planet before retiring and naming Lois Luthor as his successor.
 * In the tie-in comic to Young Justice, Perry is at Bibbo's Diner, where Bibbo comments on the behavior of his other guests, but Perry doesn't respond. Five years later, Perry was at the front door of the Daily Planet when a spaceship launched a device that hovered over Metropolis, burrowing into the ground. Perry walks over to the crater and watches as it starts digging a hole through the ground.

Animation

 * Perry White appears in The New Adventures of Superman, voiced by Jackson Beck.
 * Perry White appears in Challenge of the Superfriends episode "Super Friends, Rest In Peace", voiced by William Woodson.
 * Perry White appears in Superman (1988), voiced by Stanley Ralph Ross.
 * Perry White appears in series set in the DC Animated Universe (DCAU):
 * White first appears in Superman: The Animated Series, voiced by George Dzundza.
 * He also makes non-speaking cameo appearances in Justice League and Justice League Unlimited.
 * Perry White appears in Superman: Brainiac Attacks, voiced again by George Dzundza.
 * Perry White appears in Superman: Doomsday, voiced by Ray Wise. This version is bald.
 * Perry White appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "Battle of the Superheroes!", voiced by Richard McGonagle.
 * Perry White appears in All-Star Superman, voiced by Ed Asner.
 * Perry White appears in Superman: Unbound, voiced by Wade Williams.
 * Perry White appears in the Justice League Action episode "Superman's Pal, Sid Sharp", voiced by Piotr Michael.
 * Perry White appears in the DC Animated Movie Universe (DCAMU) films The Death of Superman and Reign of the Supermen, voiced by Rocky Carroll. After Lois Lane gives Doomsday his name on live television during the creature's battle with Superman across Metropolis, Perry orders the Daily Planet's staff to name Doomsday as the headline of the newspaper's new page 1, which Cat Grant speculates no one will be left to read it if Doomsday is not stopped.
 * Perry White appears in My Adventures with Superman, voiced by Darrell Brown.  This version is an old college friend of Vicki Vale, and is additionally depicted as African-American, similar to the DCEU incarnation of the character.
 * Perry White appears in the crossover film Scooby-Doo! and Krypto, Too!, voiced by Fred Tatasciore.

Television

 * Perry White appears in Adventures of Superman, portrayed by John Hamilton. The series originated the character's iconic phrases of "Great Caesar's ghost!" and "Don't call me chief". Additionally, its version of White has a sister, Kate, and a nephew, Chris.
 * Perry White appears in It's a Bird... It's a Plane... It's Superman, portrayed by Allen Ludden.
 * Perry White's son, T. J. White, was a supporting character in the Superboy television series. Perry White himself never appeared in the show; however, he did appear in the second issue of the tie-in comic book series, in which T.J. was kidnapped by an organized crime family on which Perry did an exposé.
 * Perry White appears in the 1990s television series Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, portrayed by Lane Smith. Perry was a Baby Boomer with an abiding fondness for rock and roll, particularly Elvis Presley. Instead of "Great Caesar's ghost!", he sometimes said "Great shades of Elvis!", and the comics briefly followed suit. In a subplot that carried over many episodes, Perry is portrayed as having marital difficulties with his wife Alice due to his dedication to the paper. The couple later reunites just before the series finale.
 * Perry White appears in Smallville, portrayed by Michael McKean. In this show, he is a multiple Pulitzer-nominated reporter formerly working for the Daily Planet, who gets reduced to tabloid television after attempting to expose Lionel Luthor's corrupt dealings. He attempts to regain some of his old reputation by exposing Clark's powers, but the plan backfires when a solar flare temporarily nullifies Clark's abilities, although Clark's subsequent heroism despite his currently powerless status prompts Perry to both abandon the idea that Clark has powers and cause him to consider turning over a new leaf. The season 4 episode "Gone" shows that Perry is working his way back up with an article on Lionel's conviction.  He reprised his role in the season 9 episode "Hostage" as the new boyfriend of Senator Martha Kent, who returns from Washington to visit her son Clark. In the series finale, it is shown that Perry White became the editor-in-chief of the Daily Planet.
 * Perry White appears in the pilot episode of Superman & Lois portrayed by Paul Jarrett. He is seen in the earlier part of the episode giving Clark a tour of the Daily Planet and partnering him with Lois Lane. In the present, Perry is no longer the editor-in-chief due to the Daily Planet being bought out by Morgan Edge who had his minion Samuel Foswell be the new editor-in-chief.

Film

 * Pierre Watkin played Perry White, in the serials Superman (1948) and Atom Man vs. Superman (1950).
 * In the 1978 film Superman: The Movie (and its three sequels from the 1980s), Jackie Cooper played Perry as a tough character, who never let his reporters forget he had worked for the Planet nearly all his life. The "don't call me 'chief'" line was worked into a gag about ordering coffee and became "don't call me 'sugar'!" (when he orders a coffee with sugar, and Jimmy Olsen calls him "chief" and he tells him not to call him "sugar"). Cooper's Perry was also fond of aphorisms such as "A good reporter doesn't get great stories — a good reporter makes them great." In the commentary track for Superman, director Richard Donner reveals that Cooper got the role because he had a passport, and thus was able to be on set in a few hours, after Keenan Wynn, who was originally cast, suffered a heart attack.
 * In Bryan Singer's Superman Returns, Perry White was originally going to be portrayed by Hugh Laurie, but when it was determined that there would be a schedule conflict involving Laurie's TV series House (which was, incidentally, executive produced by Singer), Laurie was forced to drop out and Frank Langella stepped in to play Perry White. In this film, Perry has a nephew, Richard White, who is engaged to Lois and serves as a father figure to her son Jason, although it is implied over the course of the film that Jason's biological father is Superman himself.
 * Laurence Fishburne portrays Perry White in the DC Extended Universe:
 * In Man of Steel, while his position does not deviate from the comics, his view of Superman is somewhat different. Rather than seeing his existence as a major scoop, he believes such a discovery will warrant a negative reaction from the people of Earth. When a blogger that Lois Lane met with about Superman appears on TV and mentions Lois' encounter with him, Perry White calls up Lois stating that the FBI have visited the Daily Planet and advises her to turn herself over to them. At the film's climax, he and Steve Lombard aid a reporter named Jenny Jurwich when she is trapped under debris. At the end of the film, White introduces Lois and Lombard to Clark.
 * In Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, he tries to convince Clark to focus on publishing a sports article rather than investigate the actions of Batman in Gotham. When Superman is killed, Perry is shown holding a paper which has both Superman and Clark Kent's deaths published (with a cover-up story by Lois claiming that Clark was a bystander killed in the fight against Doomsday) and silently mourned for their deaths. In the Ultimate Edition, Perry and fellow reporter Jenny Jurwich attend Clark Kent's funeral in Smallville.
 * Wendell Pierce will portray Perry White in the DC Universe (DCU), starting with the 2025 film Superman.

Video games

 * Perry White appears in Superman for the NES.
 * Perry White appears in Superman: Shadow of Apokolips, voiced again by George Dzundza.
 * Perry White appears in Lego Dimensions, voiced by Brian Bloom.
 * Perry White appears as an NPC in Lego DC Super-Villains, voiced by Fred Tatasciore.

title: Perry White


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The Simultaneous Man

The Simultaneous Man is a 1970 science fiction novel by Ralph Blum, where brainwashing and psychosurgery techniques are used to create a copy of the experiences and memories of one person in the body of another.

Plot summary
The book's protagonist is Andrew Horne (nicknamed "Bear"), a Russian-born U.S. scientist, who works at "West Wing" on Project Beta, a secret government mind-control project, which aims to perfect the art of brainwashing until it is possible to completely re-make a person's mind and soul. The Project operates on hopeless cases from psychiatric wards, and "prison-volunteers" who would otherwise be executed.

The Project's first Remake having failed disastrously, it is decided to base the second Remake on the mind of Horne himself. The prison-volunteer chosen for the Remake is a Black soldier, now referred to as Prisvol 233/234, who has killed an officer and been sentenced to death. The project first uses ultrasound to destroy his access to his old memories, and then, having washed the slate clean, exposes him to immersive movie reenactments of Horne's childhood, college days, war service, and entry into the Project. (As this is performed, the reader discovers that Horne himself was on the receiving end of torture and brainwashing in the Korean War, which he fought against by creating a "false self" which he betrays to the enemy, the "Lieutenant Kijé defense"). At the end of the process, 233/234, now known as "Black Bear", is, for all intents and purposes, Andrew Horne in a new body.

However, when Security realizes that Black Bear also has all of Horne's secret knowledge and considers him a security risk, it sets off a chain of events where their mirror image identities will lead both Black Bear and Horne to "East Wing" in Russia.

title: The Simultaneous Man


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Thermionic converter

A thermionic converter consists of a hot electrode which thermionically emits electrons over a potential energy barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful electric power output. Caesium vapor is used to optimize the electrode work functions and provide an ion supply (by surface ionization or electron impact ionization in a plasma) to neutralize the electron space charge.

Definition
From a physical electronic viewpoint, thermionic energy conversion is the direct production of electric power from heat by thermionic electron emission. From a thermodynamic viewpoint, it is the use of electron vapor as the working fluid in a power-producing cycle. A thermionic converter consists of a hot emitter electrode from which electrons are vaporized by thermionic emission and a colder collector electrode into which they are condensed after conduction through the inter-electrode plasma. The resulting current, typically several amperes per square centimeter of emitter surface, delivers electrical power to a load at a typical potential difference of 0.5–1 volt and thermal efficiency of 5–20%, depending on the emitter temperature (1500–2000 K) and mode of operation.

History
After the first demonstration of the practical arc-mode caesium vapor thermionic converter by V. Wilson in 1957, several applications of it were demonstrated in the following decade, including its use with solar, combustion, radioisotope, and nuclear reactor heat sources. The application most seriously pursued, however, was the integration of thermionic nuclear fuel elements directly into the core of nuclear reactors for production of electrical power in space. The exceptionally high operating temperature of thermionic converters, which makes their practical use difficult in other applications, gives the thermionic converter decisive advantages over competing energy conversion technologies in the space power application where radiant heat rejection is required. Substantial thermionic space reactor development programs were conducted in the U.S., France, and Germany in the period 1963–1973, and the US resumed a significant thermionic nuclear fuel element development program in the period 1983–1993.

Thermionic power systems were used in combination with various nuclear reactors (BES-5, TOPAZ) as electrical power supply on a number of Soviet military surveillance satellites between 1967 and 1988. See Kosmos 954 for more details.

Although the priority for thermionic reactor use diminished as the US and Russian space programs were curtailed, research and technology development in thermionic energy conversion have continued. In recent years technology development programs for solar-heated thermionic space power systems were conducted. Prototype combustion-heated thermionic systems for domestic heat and electric power cogeneration, and for rectification, have been developed.

Description
The scientific aspects of thermionic energy conversion primarily concern the fields of surface physics and plasma physics. The electrode surface properties determine the magnitude of electron emission current and electric potential at the electrode surfaces, and the plasma properties determine the transport of electron current from the emitter to the collector. All practical thermionic converters to date employ caesium vapor between the electrodes, which determines both the surface and plasma properties. Caesium is employed because it is the most easily ionized of all stable elements.

A thermionic generator is like a cyclic heat engine and its maximum efficiency is limited by Carnot's law. It is a low-Voltage high current device where current densities of 25-50 (A/squarecm) have been achieved at voltage from 1-2V. The energy of high temperature gases can be partly converted into electricity if the riser tubes of the boiler are provided cathode and anode of a thermionic generator with the interspace filled with ionized caesium vapor.

The surface property of primary interest is the work function, which is the barrier that limits electron emission current from the surface and essentially is the heat of vaporization of electrons from the surface. The work function is determined primarily by a layer of caesium atoms adsorbed on the electrode surfaces. The properties of the interelectrode plasma are determined by the mode of operation of the thermionic converter. In the ignited (or "arc") mode the plasma is maintained via ionization internally by hot plasma electrons (~ 3300 K); in the unignited mode the plasma is maintained via injection of externally produced positive ions into a cold plasma; in the hybrid mode the plasma is maintained by ions from a hot-plasma interelectrode region transferred into a cold-plasma interelectrode region.

Recent work
All the applications cited above have employed technology in which the basic physical understanding and performance of the thermionic converter were essentially the same as those achieved before 1970. During the period from 1973 to 1983, however, significant research on advanced low-temperature thermionic converter technology for fossil-fueled industrial and commercial electric power production was conducted in the US, and continued until 1995 for possible space reactor and naval reactor applications. That research has shown that substantial improvements in converter performance can be obtained now at lower operating temperatures by addition of oxygen to the caesium vapor, by suppression of electron reflection at the electrode surfaces, and by hybrid mode operation. Similarly, improvements via use of oxygen-containing electrodes have been demonstrated in Russia along with design studies of systems employing the advanced thermionic converter performance. Recent studies have shown that excited Cs-atoms in thermionic converters form clusters of Cs-Rydberg matter which yield a decrease of collector emitting work function from 1.5 eV to 1.0 – 0.7 eV. Due to long-lived nature of Rydberg matter this low work function remains low for a long time which essentially increases the low-temperature converter’s efficiency.

title: Thermionic converter