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Phosphorite

Phosphorite, phosphate rock or rock phosphate is a non-detrital sedimentary rock that contains high amounts of phosphate minerals. The phosphate content of phosphorite (or grade of phosphate rock) varies greatly, from 4% to 20% phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5). Marketed phosphate rock is enriched ("beneficiated") to at least 28%, often more than 30% P2O5. This occurs through washing, screening, de-liming, magnetic separation or flotation. By comparison, the average phosphorus content of sedimentary rocks is less than 0.2%.

The phosphate is present as fluorapatite Ca5(PO4)3F typically in cryptocrystalline masses (grain sizes < 1 μm) referred to as collophane-sedimentary apatite deposits of uncertain origin. It is also present as hydroxyapatite Ca5(PO4)3OH or Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, which is often dissolved from vertebrate bones and teeth, whereas fluorapatite can originate from hydrothermal veins. Other sources also include chemically dissolved phosphate minerals from igneous and metamorphic rocks. Phosphorite deposits often occur in extensive layers, which cumulatively cover tens of thousands of square kilometres of the Earth's crust.

Limestones and mudstones are common phosphate-bearing rocks. Phosphate-rich sedimentary rocks can occur in dark brown to black beds, ranging from centimeter-sized laminae to beds that are several meters thick. Although these thick beds can exist, they are rarely only composed of phosphatic sedimentary rocks. Phosphatic sedimentary rocks are commonly accompanied by or interbedded with shales, cherts, limestone, dolomites and sometimes sandstone. These layers contain the same textures and structures as fine-grained limestones and may represent diagenetic replacements of carbonate minerals by phosphates. They also can be composed of peloids, ooids, fossils, and clasts that are made up of apatite. There are some phosphorites that are very small and have no distinctive granular textures. This means that their textures are similar to that of collophane, or fine micrite-like texture. Phosphatic grains may be accompanied by organic matter, clay minerals, silt-sized detrital grains, and pyrite. Peloidal or pelletal phosphorites occur normally; whereas oolitic phosphorites are not common.

Phosphorites are known from Proterozoic banded iron formations in Australia, but are more common from Paleozoic and Cenozoic sediments. The Permian Phosphoria Formation of the western United States represents some 15 million years of sedimentation. It reaches a thickness of 420 metres and covers an area of 350,000 km2. Commercially mined phosphorites occur in France, Belgium, Spain, Morocco, Tunisia, Saudi Arabia and Algeria. In the United States phosphorites have been mined in Florida, Tennessee, Wyoming, Utah, Idaho and Kansas.

Classification of phosphatic sedimentary rocks
(1) Pristine: Phosphates that are in pristine conditions have not undergone bioturbation. In other words, the word pristine is used when phosphatic sediment, phosphatized stromatolites and phosphate hardgrounds have not been disturbed.

(2) Condensed: Phosphatic particles, laminae and beds are considered condensed when they have been concentrated. This is helped by the extracting and reworking processes of phosphatic particles or bioturbation.

(3) Allochthonous: Phosphatic particles that were moved by turbulent or gravity-driven flows and deposited by these flows.

Phosphorus cycle, formation and accumulation
The heaviest accumulation of phosphorus is mainly on the ocean floor. Phosphorus accumulation occurs from atmospheric precipitation, dust, glacial runoff, cosmic activity, underground hydrothermal volcanic activity, and deposition of organic material. The primary inflow of dissolved phosphorus is from continental weathering, brought out by rivers to the ocean. It is then processed by both micro- and macro-organisms. Diatomaceous plankton, phytoplankton, and zooplankton process and dissolve phosphorus in the water. The bones and teeth of certain fish (e.g. anchovies) absorb phosphorus and are later deposited and buried in the ocean sediment.

Depending on the pH and salinity levels of the ocean water, organic matter will decay, releasing phosphorus from sediment in shallow basins. Bacteria and enzymes dissolve organic matter on the water–bottom interface, thus returning phosphorus to the beginning of its biogenic cycle. Mineralization of organic matter can also cause the release of phosphorus back into the ocean water.

Depositional environments
Phosphates are known to be deposited in a wide range of depositional environments. Normally phosphates are deposited in very shallow, near-shore marine or low energy environments. This includes environments such as supratidal zones, littoral or intertidal zones, and most importantly estuarine. Currently, areas of oceanic upwelling cause the formation of phosphates. This is because of the constant stream of phosphate brought from the large, deep ocean reservoir (see below). This cycle allows continuous growth of organisms.

Supratidal zones: Supratidal environments are part of the tidal flat system where the presence of strong wave activity is non-existent. Tidal flat systems are created along open coasts and relatively low wave energy environments. They can also develop on high energy coasts behind barrier islands where they are sheltered from the high energy wave action. Within the tidal flat system, the supratidal zone lies in a very high tide level. However, it can be flooded by extreme tides and cut across by tidal channels. This is also subaerially exposed, but is flooded twice a month by spring tides.

Littoral environments/intertidal zones: Intertidal zones are also part of the tidal flat system. The intertidal zone is located within the mean high and low tide levels. It is subject to tidal shifts, which means that it is subaerially exposed once or twice a day. It is not exposed long enough to support the growth of most vegetation. The zone contains both suspension sedimentation and bed load.

Estuarine environments: Estuarine environments, or estuaries, are located at the lower parts of rivers that flow into the open sea. Since they are in the seaward section of the drowned valley system they receive sediment from both marine and fluvial sources. These contain facies that are affected by tide and wave fluvial processes. An estuary is considered to stretch from the landward limit of tidal facies to the seaward limit of coastal facies. Phosphorites are often deposited in fjords within estuarine environments. These are estuaries with shallow sill constrictions. During Holocene sea-level rise, fjord estuaries formed by drowning of glacially-eroded U-shaped valleys.

The most common occurrence of phosphorites is related to strong marine upwelling of sediments. Upwelling is caused by deep water currents that are brought up to coastal surfaces where a large deposition of phosphorites may occur. This type of environment is the main reason why phosphorites are commonly associated with silica and chert. Estuaries are also known as a phosphorus “trap”. This is because coastal estuaries contain a high productivity of phosphorus from marsh grass and benthic algae which allow an equilibrium exchange between living and dead organisms.

Types of phosphorite deposition

 * Phosphate nodules: These are spherical concentrations that are randomly distributed along the floor of continental shelves. Most phosphorite grains are sand size although particles greater than 2 mm may be present. These larger grains, referred to as nodules, can range up to several tens of centimeters in size. Phosphate nodules are known to occur in significant quantities offshore northern Chile.
 * Bioclastic phosphates or bone beds: Bone beds are bedded phosphate deposits that contain concentrations of small skeletal particles and coprolites. Some also contain invertebrate fossils like brachiopods and become more enriched in P2O5 after diagenetic processes have occurred. Bioclastic phosphates can also be cemented by phosphate minerals.
 * Phosphatization: Phosphatization is a type of rare diagenetic processes. It occurs when fluids that are rich in phosphate are leached from guano. These are then concentrated and reprecipitated in limestone. Phosphatized fossils or fragments of original phosphatic shells are important components within some these deposits.

Tectonic and oceanographic settings of marine phosphorites

 * Epeiric sea phosphorites: Epeiric sea phosphorites are within marine shelf environments. These are in a broad and shallow cratonic setting. This is where granular phosphorites, phosphorite hardgrounds, and nodules occur.
 * Continental margin phosphorites: Convergent, passive, upwelling, non-upwelling. This environment accumulates phosphorites in the form of hardgrounds, nodules and granular beds. These accumulate by carbonate fluorapatite precipitation during early diagenesis in the upper few tens of centimeters of sediment. There are two different environmental conditions in which phosphorites are produced within continental margins. Continental margins can consist of organic rich sedimentation, strong coastal upwelling, and pronounced low oxygen zones. They can also form in conditions such as oxygen rich bottom waters and organic poor sediments.
 * Seamount phosphorites: These are phosphorites that occur in seamounts, guyots, or flat topped seamounts, seamount ridges. These phosphorites are produced in association with iron and magnesium bearing crusts. In this setting the productivity of phosphorus is recycled within an iron oxidation reduction phosphorus cycle. This cycle can also form glauconite which is normally associated with modern and ancient phosphorites.
 * Insular phosphorites: Insular phosphorites are located in carbonate islands, plateaus, coral island consisting of a reef surrounding a lagoon or, atoll lagoon, marine lakes. The phosphorite here originates from guano. Replacement of deep sea sediments precipitates, that has been formed in place on the ocean floor.

Production
Deposits which contain phosphate in quantity and concentration which are economic to mine as ore for their phosphate content are not particularly common. The two main sources for phosphate are guano, formed from bird or bat droppings, and rocks containing concentrations of the calcium phosphate mineral, apatite.

, the US is the world's leading producer and exporter of phosphate fertilizers, accounting for about 37% of world P2O5 exports. , the world's total economic demonstrated resource of rock phosphate is 70 gigatonnes, which occurs principally as sedimentary marine phosphorites.

, China, the United States and Morocco are the world's largest miners of phosphate rock, with a production of 77 megatonnes, 29.4 Mt and 26.8 Mt (including 2.5 Mt in the Sahara of Morocco) respectively in 2012 while global production reached 195 Mt. It is thought that in India there are almost 260 million tons of rock phosphate. Other countries with significant production include Brazil, Russia, Jordan and Tunisia. Historically, large amounts of phosphates were obtained from deposits on small islands such as Christmas Island and Nauru, but these sources are now largely depleted.

Phosphate ore is mined and beneficiated into rock phosphate. Beneficiation of phosphate ore is a process which includes washing, flotation and calcining. Froth flotation is used to concentrate the mined ore to rock phosphate. The mined ore is crushed and washed, creating a slurry, this ore slurry is then treated with fatty acids to cause calcium phosphate to become hydrophobic.

This rock phosphate is then either solubilized to produce wet-process phosphoric acid, or smelted to produce elemental phosphorus. Phosphoric acid is reacted with phosphate rock to produce the fertilizer triple superphosphate or with anhydrous ammonia to produce the ammonium phosphate fertilizers. Elemental phosphorus is the base for furnace-grade phosphoric acid, phosphorus pentasulfide, phosphorus pentoxide, and phosphorus trichloride.

Uses
Approximately 90% of rock phosphate production is used for fertilizer and animal feed supplements and the balance for industrial chemicals. In addition, phosphorus from rock phosphate is also used in food preservatives, baking flour, pharmaceuticals, anticorrosion agents, cosmetics, fungicides, insecticides, detergents, ceramics, water treatment and metallurgy.

For use in the chemical fertilizer industry, beneficiated rock phosphate must be concentrated to levels of at least 28% phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), although most marketed grades of phosphate rock are 30% or more.

It must also have reasonable amounts of calcium carbonate (5%), and <4% combined iron and aluminium oxides. Worldwide, the resources of high-grade ore are declining, and use of lower grade ore may become more attractive.

Beneficiated rock phosphate is also marketed and accepted as an "organic" alternative to "chemical" phosphate fertilizer which has been further concentrated from it, because it is perceived as being more "natural". According to a report for the FAO, it can be more sustainable to apply rock phosphate as a fertilizer in certain soil types and countries, although it has many drawbacks. According to the report it may have higher sustainability compared to more concentrated fertilizers because of reduced manufacturing costs and the possibility of local procurement of the refined ore.

Rare earth elements are being found within phosphorites. With increasing demand from modern technology a different method of finding rare earth elements, independent of China, is becoming increasingly important. With yields greater than those from deposits in China, phosphorites offer a new resource located within the U.S. that would likely lead to independence from influence of countries outside of the U.S.

title: Phosphorite


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title: User talk:83.29.41.67


text:
Sextus Calpurnius Agricola

Sextus Calpurnius Agricola was a Roman senator and general active during the 2nd century. He was consul suffectus with Tiberius Claudius Julianus for the nundinium of September-October 154. Agricola is known primarily from inscriptions.

Life
No information has yet been found about Calpurnius Agricola prior to his consulate. His origin is attested in no surviving document, and the gentilicium "Calpurnius" is commonly found all over the Empire. However, Anthony Birley notes the combination "Sextus Calpurnius" is very uncommon, and he suggests that Agricola is related to Fronto's friend Sextus Calpurnius Julianus; if so, he may have been a native of Cirta or another town in Numidia.

Calpurnius Agricola was governor of Germania Superior around 158.

In 161 or 162 he was made governor of Britain and remained until at least 163, possibly until the end of the 160s.

In 163, he was sent to Britain to control uprisings in the north. He rebuilt a number of forts, most notably that at Coria (Corbridge). He withdrew troops southwards from Scotland towards the line of Hadrian's Wall to contend with the threats of further rebellion.

There are indications of unrest in Britain around the time of his rule attested by damage to the forum at Viroconium Cornoviorum (Wroxeter) and the burning of a large part of Verulamium (St Albans).

Around 166 AD Agricola was appointed imperial legate in Roman Dacia. Between 168 and 169, he was one of the governors of Lower Moesia.

Epigraphics

 * PIR C 249
 * CIL VII, 226
 * RIB I, 1137

Secondary

 * Patricia Southern, Roman Britain: A New History 55BC - AD 450

title: Sextus Calpurnius Agricola


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Mary Slessor

Mary Mitchell Slessor (2 December 1848 – 13 January 1915) was a Scottish Presbyterian missionary to Nigeria. Once in Nigeria, Slessor learned Efik, one of the numerous local languages, then began teaching. Because of her understanding of the native language and her bold personality Slessor gained the trust and acceptance of the locals and was able to spread Christianity while promoting women's rights and protecting native children. She is most famous for her role in helping to stop the common practice of infanticide of twins in Okoyong, an area of Cross River State, Nigeria.

Early life

Mary Mitchell Slessor was born on 2 December 1848 in Gilcomston, Aberdeen, Scotland, to a poor working-class family who could not afford proper education. She was the second of seven children of Robert and Mary Slessor. Her father, originally from Buchan, was a shoemaker by trade. Her mother was born in Oldmeldrum, Aberdeenshire, and was a deeply religious woman. In 1859, the family moved to Dundee in search of work. Robert Slessor was an alcoholic and, unable to keep up shoemaking, took a job as a labourer in a mill. Her mother was a skilled weaver and went to work in the mills. At the age of eleven, Mary began work as a "half-timer" in the Baxter Brothers' Mill, meaning she spent half of her day at a school provided by the mill owners and the other half working for the company.

The Slessors lived in the slums of Dundee. Mary Slessor's father and both brothers died of pneumonia, leaving behind only Mary, her mother, and two sisters. By age fourteen, Mary had become a skilled jute worker at the mill, working from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. with just an hour for breakfast and lunch.

Her mother was a devout Presbyterian who read each issue of the Missionary Record, a monthly magazine published by the United Presbyterian Church (later the United Free Church of Scotland) to inform members of missionary activities and needs. Slessor developed an interest in religion, and when a mission was instituted in Quarry Pend (close by the Wishart Church), she wanted to teach. Slessor started her mission at the age of 27, upon hearing that David Livingstone, the famous missionary and explorer, had died. She decided then that she wanted to follow in his footsteps.

Missionary Work
Eventually, Slessor applied to the Foreign Mission Board of the United Presbyterian Church. After training in Edinburgh, she set sail in the SS Ethiopia on 5 August 1876 with her cousin Robert Mitchell Beedie, a missionary from New Deer in Buchan and arrived at her destination in West Africa just over a month later.

Slessor, 28 years of age, was first assigned to the Calabar region in the land of the Efik people. She was warned that they believed in traditional West African religion and had superstitions about women giving birth to twins. Slessor lived in the missionary compound for three years, working first in the missions in Old Town and Creek Town. She wanted to go deeper into Calabar, but contracted malaria and was forced to return to Scotland to recover, leaving Calabar for Dundee in 1879. After 16 months in Scotland, Slessor returned to Calabar, this time to a new assignment three miles farther into Calabar, in Old Town. Since Slessor assigned a large portion of her salary to support her mother and sisters in Scotland, she economised by eating the native food.

Issues Slessor confronted as a young missionary included the lack of Western education, as well as widespread human sacrifice at the death of a village elder, who, it was believed, required servants and retainers to accompany him into the next world.

According to biographer W. P. Livingstone, when two deputies went out to inspect the Mission in 1881–82, they were much impressed. They stated, "… she enjoys the unreserved friendship and confidence of the people and has much influence over them". This they attributed partly to the singular ease with which Slessor spoke the language.

After only three more years, Slessor returned to Scotland on yet another health furlough. During the next three years, Slessor looked after her mother and sister (who had also fallen ill), and spoke at many churches, sharing stories from the Calabar area. Slessor then returned to an area farther away from central Calabar, from the areas which had already eliminated the more heathen practices. She saved hundreds of twins out of the bush, where they had been left either to starve to death or to be eaten by animals. She helped heal the sick and stop the practice of determining guilt by making the suspects drink poison. As a missionary, she went to other tribes, spreading the word of Jesus Christ.

During this third mission to Calabar, Slessor received news that her mother and sister had died. She was overcome with loneliness, writing, "There is no one to write and tell my stories and nonsense to." She had also found a sense of independence, writing, "Heaven is now nearer to me than Britain, and no one will worry about me if I go up country."

Slessor was a driving force behind the establishment of the Hope Waddell Training Institute in Calabar, which provided practical vocational training to Efiks. The superstitious threat against twins was not only in Calabar; but also spread to a town called Arochukwu on the far west of Calabar. The people of Calabar belong to the Efik tribe though the popular Arochukwu town is in the Igbo tribe's region. Both Calabar and Arochukwu share some common cultures and are in southeastern Nigeria, precisely Cross River State and Abia State respectively.

Among the Okoyong and Efik

In August 1888, Slessor travelled north to Okoyong, an area where male missionaries had been killed. She thought her teachings, and the fact she was a woman, would be less threatening to unreached tribes. For 15 years, Slessor lived with the Okoyong and the Efik people. She learned to speak the native Efik language, and made close personal friendships wherever she went, becoming known for her pragmatism and humour. Slessor lived a simple life in a traditional house with Efiks. Her insistence on lone stations often led her into conflict with the authorities and gained her a reputation for eccentricity. However, her exploits were heralded in Britain, and she became known as the "white queen of Okoyong". Slessor continued her focus on evangelism, settling disputes, encouraging trade, establishing social changes and introducing Western education.

It was the belief in the area that the birth of twins was considered a particularly evil curse. Natives feared that the father of one of the infants was a 'devil child', and that the mother had been guilty of a great sin. Unable to determine which twin was fathered by the evil spirit, the natives often abandoned both babies in clay pots to die. In most of Calabar the practice had been eliminated by the Missionaries and King Eyo Honesty II. Slessor left the area of Calabar and moved further in to Okoyong. She adopted every child she found abandoned, and sent out twins' missioners to find, protect and care for them at the Mission House. Some mission compounds were alive with babies. Slessor once saved a pair of twins, a boy and a girl, but the boy did not survive. Mary took the girl as her daughter and called her Janie. She took Janie home to Scotland with her on at least one visit.

In 1892, Slessor became vice-consul in Okoyong, presiding over the native court. In 1905 she was named vice-president of Ikot Obong native court. In 1913, she was awarded the Order of St John. Slessor's health began to suffer in her later years, but she remained in Calabar, where she died in 1915.

Death
For the last four decades of her life, Slessor suffered intermittent fevers from the malaria she contracted during her first station to Calabar. However, she downplayed the personal costs, and never gave up her mission work to return permanently to Scotland. The fevers eventually weakened Slessor to the point she could no longer walk long distances in the rainforest but had to be pushed along in a handcart. In early January 1915, while at her remote station near Use Ikot Oku, she suffered a particularly severe fever. Slessor died on 13 January 1915.

Her body was transported down the Cross River to Duke Town for the colonial equivalent of a state funeral. A Union Jack covered her coffin. Attendees included the provincial commissioner, along with other senior British officials in full uniform. Flags at government buildings were flown at half-mast. Nigeria's Governor-General, Sir Frederick Lugard, telegraphed his "deepest regrets" from Lagos and published a warm eulogy in the government gazette.

A report on her death in The Southern Reporter of 21 January 1915 mentions a time she spent on furlough in Bowden, Roxburghshire, Scottish Borders. It states that "She and her four adopted African children were a centre of great attraction and helped to deepen the interest of the whole community in the Foreign Mission work of the Church." It praises her strong force character, her unostentatious manner, and her zeal for the tribes around Calabar.

Honours and legacy
Slessor's work in Okoyong earned her the Efik nickname of "Obongawan Okoyong" (Queen of Okoyong). This name is still used commonly to refer to her in Calabar.

Several memorials in and around the Efik provinces of Calabar and Okoyong testify to the value placed on her work. Some of these include:
 * a high school named in honour of Slessor in Arochukwu
 * Mary Slessor Road in Calabar
 * Mary Slessor Roundabout
 * Mary Slessor Street in Coventry
 * Mary Slessor Church
 * Statues of her (usually carrying twins) at various locations in Calabar

A female hostel in the University of Nigeria Nsukka is named Mary Slessor Hall in her honour.

A girls' house, "Slessor House", was named after her in Achimota School, Ghana.

In Scotland, a bust of Slessor is now in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling. In Aberdeen a memorial stands in the city's Union Terrace Gardens and in Dundee, a new city centre park is named 'Slessor Gardens' in her honour. There are also streets named after her in Glasgow, Dundee and Oldmeldrum in Scotland, and in Coventry in England.

Slessor was honoured on a 1997 bank note by Clydesdale Bank for the World Heritage Series and Famous Scots Series. She was featured on the back of the bank's £10 note, highlighting her work in Calabar. The note also features a map of Calabar, a lithographic vignette depicting her work with children, and a sailing ship emblem.

Main-belt asteroid 4793 Slessor (1988 RR4) named to mark her centenary celebrations on 13 January 2015.

In 1950, the anthropologist Charles Partridge, a friend of Slessor when both were in Nigeria, donated letters from her, along with a recording of her voice, now The Slessor Collection at Dundee Central Library; he said of her: "She was a very remarkable woman. I look back on her friendship with reverence- one of the greatest honours that have befallen me."

Mary Slessor is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration on 11 January.

Books

 * Benge, Janet & Geoff (c. 1999) Mary Slessor: Forward Into Calabar. YWAM Publishing. 205 pp. ISBN 1-57658-148-9.
 * Bueltmann, A. J. White Queen of the Cannibals: The Story of Mary Slessor. Moody Press, Chicago.
 * Gruffydd, Gan Ceridwen Brenhines Y Diffeithwch (Mary Slessor) Llundain, in Welsh, 1926.
 * Mcfarlan, Donald (1961). White Queen: The Story of Mary Slessor. Lutterworth Press.
 * Purves, Carol. From Jute to Jungle: The Mary Slessor Story. ISBN 978-1-291-75378-3.
 * Purves, Carol. From Jute to Jungle: The Mary Slessor Story. ISBN 978-1-291-75378-3.

Booklet

 * Rev. J. Harrison Hudson, Rev. Thomas W. Jarvie, Rev. Jock Stein. "Let the Fire Burn" – A Study of R. M. McCheyne, Robert Annan and Mary Slessor. Out-of-print booklet, 1978, Handsel Publications (formerly of Dundee), now Handsel Press.  D.15545, 15546 under 'Mary Slessor' in List of Reference Works, Local Studies Department of Dundee Central Library, The Wellgate, Dundee, DD1 1DB.

title: Mary Slessor


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Single-source publishing

Single-source publishing, also known as single-sourcing publishing, is a content management method which allows the same source content to be used across different forms of media and more than one time. The labor-intensive and expensive work of editing need only be carried out once, on only one document; that source document (the single source of truth) can then be stored in one place and reused. This reduces the potential for error, as corrections are only made one time in the source document.

The benefits of single-source publishing primarily relate to the editor rather than the user. The user benefits from the consistency that single-sourcing brings to terminology and information. This assumes the content manager has applied an organized conceptualization to the underlying content (A poor conceptualization can make single-source publishing less useful). Single-source publishing is sometimes used synonymously with multi-channel publishing though whether or not the two terms are synonymous is a matter of discussion.

Definition
While there is a general definition of single-source publishing, there is no single official delineation between single-source publishing and multi-channel publishing, nor are there any official governing bodies to provide such a delineation. Single-source publishing is most often understood as the creation of one source document in an authoring tool and converting that document into different file formats or human languages (or both) multiple times with minimal effort. Multi-channel publishing can either be seen as synonymous with single-source publishing, or similar in that there is one source document but the process itself results in more than a mere reproduction of that source.

History
The origins of single-source publishing lie, indirectly, with the release of Windows 3.0 in 1990. With the eclipsing of MS-DOS by graphical user interfaces, help files went from being unreadable text along the bottom of the screen to hypertext systems such as WinHelp. On-screen help interfaces allowed software companies to cease the printing of large, expensive help manuals with their products, reducing costs for both producer and consumer. This system raised opportunities as well, and many developers fundamentally changed the way they thought about publishing. Writers of software documentation did not simply move from being writers of traditional bound books to writers of electronic publishing, but rather they became authors of central documents which could be reused multiple times across multiple formats.

The first single-source publishing project was started in 1993 by Cornelia Hofmann at Schneider Electric in Seligenstadt, using software based on Interleaf to automatically create paper documentation in multiple languages based on a single original source file.

XML, developed during the mid- to late-1990s, was also significant to the development of single-source publishing as a method. XML, a markup language, allows developers to separate their documentation into two layers: a shell-like layer based on presentation and a core-like layer based on the actual written content. This method allows developers to write the content only one time while switching it in and out of multiple different formats and delivery methods.

In the mid-1990s, several firms began creating and using single-source content for technical documentation (Boeing Helicopter, Sikorsky Aviation and Pratt & Whitney Canada) and user manuals (Ford owners manuals) based on tagged SGML and XML content generated using the Arbortext Epic editor with add-on functions developed by a contractor. The concept behind this usage was that complex, hierarchical content that did not lend itself to discrete componentization could be used across a variety of requirements by tagging the differences within a single document using the capabilities built into SGML and XML. Ford, for example, was able to tag its single owner's manual files so that 12 model years could be generated via a resolution script running on the single completed file. Pratt & Whitney, likewise, was able to tag up to 20 subsets of its jet engine manuals in single-source files, calling out the desired version at publication time. World Book Encyclopedia also used the concept to tag its articles for American and British versions of English.

Starting from the early 2000s, single-source publishing was used with an increasing frequency in the field of technical translation. It is still regarded as the most efficient method of publishing the same material in different languages. Once a printed manual was translated, for example, the online help for the software program which the manual accompanies could be automatically generated using the method. Metadata could be created for an entire manual and individual pages or files could then be translated from that metadata with only one step, removing the need to recreate information or even database structures.

Although single-source publishing is now decades old, its importance has increased urgently as of the 2010s. As consumption of information products rises and the number of target audiences expands, so does the work of developers and content creators. Within the industry of software and its documentation, there is a perception that the choice is to embrace single-source publishing or render one's operations obsolete.

Criticism
Editors using single-source publishing have been criticized for below-standard work quality, leading some critics to describe single-source publishing as the "conveyor belt assembly" of content creation.

While heavily used in technical translation, there are risks of error in regard to indexing. While two words might be synonyms in English, they may not be synonyms in another language. In a document produced via single-sourcing, the index will be translated automatically and the two words will be rendered as synonyms. This is because they are synonyms in the source language, while in the target language they are not.

List of single-source publishing tools

 * Adobe FrameMaker
 * Adobe RoboHelp
 * Apache Cocoon
 * Apache Forrest
 * Altova
 * Booktype
 * ClickHelp
 * DocBook XSL
 * DITA Open Toolkit
 * Heretto
 * Help & Manual
 * HelpNDoc
 * MadCap Flare
 * Oxygen XML editor
 * Paligo
 * Scenari
 * Sphinx
 * Typefi
 * XPLM Publisher

title: Single-source publishing


text:
Gypsy cop

In law enforcement in the United States, a gypsy cop, also known as a wandering police officer,   is a police officer who frequently transfers between police departments, having a record of misconduct or unsuitable job performance. The term is slang, referencing the stereotypical nomadic lifestyle of Gypsies.

History of the term
In use since the 1980s, the phrase entered public parlance in the 2000s after the infamous Tulia drug stings, where itinerant lawman Tom Coleman allegedly set up innocent people, most of them black, as part of a long-term undercover operation. Several other high-profile cases in states include those in Texas and Alaska that involved officers who served with adversity in close to 20 agencies in 15 years or less, yet they continued to evade administrative action as they went from agency to agency, sometimes serving as little as 30 days at one department, despite blatant misconduct and compelling signs of unsuitability to serve as peace officers. More recently in 2016 following a civil rights lawsuit against Ferguson police officer Freddie Boyd, he was found to have had a string of complaints filed against him from over 10 years earlier, including pistol whipping a child and falsifying police reports, from when he worked for the city of St. Louis. Law enforcement agency heads privately refer to the practice of giving a problematic officer a good recommendation in order to get rid of the officer while avoiding litigation, as "pass the trash".

The term comes from the Romani people (popularly known as "Gypsies"), who are stereotypically said to always be travelling and thus never get to settle down in a local community, just like how a gypsy cop never gets to stay at any given police department for long. Some dictionaries recommend against using the word gypsy as a modifier with negative connotations, because such use could be considered a slur against the Romani people.

Hiring process
Some smaller agencies often have an easier and rapid hiring process, involving only a brief interview with the mayor or chief and then a limited background investigation (fingerprint and criminal record checks), drug screen test, and physical exam. Some sheriff's offices, rural and even larger, may bypass some of those steps, as deputies are political appointees, who serve "at the will and pleasure of the elected Sheriff." The hiring process can vary greatly between jurisdictions, due to a variety of factors including budgetary constraints, the availability of existing staff, the experience of existing staff with interviewing techniques, and the number of candidates who respond to advertised positions. On the other hand, major municipal, state and federal law enforcement agencies may have a competitive waiting list for applicants and a lengthy and arduous hiring process that begins with a required minimum score on a written aptitude examination. Such tests may be given only a few times a year and the hiring process may last six to twelve months, with disqualification for cause a possibility at each of the steps along the way. These may include a credit history check, an exhaustive criminal and personal background check going back to age 16, psychological screening testing, polygraph exam, physical strength and agility testing, and a comprehensive interview panel.

In some cases, even already certified peace officers are required to redo basic law enforcement training, either partly or in full, complete a three- to six-month field training program with a veteran field training officer, and accept twelve months of "at will" probationary employment that can result in termination for any or no reason. Officers with a history of moving from agency to agency, especially at short intervals, are closely scrutinized and often rejected as applicants in larger agencies for that very reason. Difficulty in obtaining employment does not always correlate with agency size, however, as some smaller agencies in affluent communities experience very little turnover.

Fragmentation
The United States has a highly decentralized and fragmented system of law enforcement, with around 18,000 law enforcement agencies, and is regulated separately in the 50 states, plus US territories, the federal and local level as well. Hiring and disciplinary standards vary greatly between police departments, the majority of which are small in size. There is no national database of dismissed officers, who may or may not be de-certified to practice law enforcement by their jurisdictional regulatory agency, often called POST (Peace Officer Standards and Training) agencies, or by a similar agency. Some states have established a state-level database or taken other administrative measures to try to prevent dismissed officers from being rehired, but these databases are not centralized, nor do they have uniform prerequisites. The large population and land area of the country makes it further harder to notice these cases; an officer may have moved hundreds of miles away to join another agency and the new agency would be unlikely to have learned of the case in the media.

Incentives for hiring unsuitable staff
Gypsy cops usually move from agency to agency as lateral transfers, or law enforcement officers that have already been trained and certified. Lateral transfers are often preferred over new recruits as the hiring process is simplified. Some smaller agencies knowingly hire gypsy cops because they have difficulty in recruiting suitable officers. That may be because of a smaller population to recruit from, lower pay, limited training and growth potential, less exciting police activity and even less prestige. The vacancy of even one officer in a small agency of fewer than 10 officers can create substantial hardships on an agency that must provide 24-hour coverage to the community it serves. The agencies have a great incentive to fill the vacancy quickly, even if it means hiring someone unsuitable.

Incentives for concealing a misconduct dismissal
Problem officers are often allowed to resign in seemingly good standing and then go to another unsuspecting agency with a good recommendation from a previous chief or sheriff, who is eager to get rid of the problem officer. In other cases, small agencies with limited budgets may fear a costly lawsuit if they dismiss an officer through a formal disciplinary process. An officer who is facing a misconduct dismissal will often threaten the agency and its governmental entity with costly, lengthy, and unflattering litigation for wrongful discipline or wrongful unfit or adverse termination and make such claims public. An officer finally can often negotiate a positive departure from an agency once they realize that they can no longer continue to work there. They can leave with an apparent clean and positive record and the agency is simply relieved to be rid of the officer, who goes to another unsuspecting agency.

Attempts to report problem officers by agencies can be overruled and overturned by administrative law hearings and actions. Such a ruling can be interpreted as a rebuke of the agency and can be a basis for the officer to litigate against the reporting agency. Fear of this potential outcome is also a factor in many agency heads simply taking the path of least resistance and giving a separating officer a positive report of separation.

Most states have a consolidated retirement system for state, county and municipal peace officers, which is unaffected by transfers between agencies so long as continued employment occurs and can thus further provide incentive for both good and bad officers to move frequently between agencies.

title: Gypsy cop


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Clarence Birdseye

Clarence Birdseye (December 9, 1886 – October 7, 1956) was an American inventor, entrepreneur, and naturalist, considered the founder of the modern frozen food industry. He founded the frozen food company Birds Eye. Among his inventions during his career was the double belt freezer.

One of nine children, Birdseye grew up in New York City before heading to Amherst College and began his scientific career with the U.S. government. A biography of his life was published by Doubleday over a half century after his death.

Early life and education
Clarence Birdseye was the sixth of nine children of Clarence Frank Birdseye, a lawyer in an insurance firm, and Ada Jane Underwood. His first years were spent in New York, New York, where his family owned a townhouse in Cobble Hill, Brooklyn. From childhood, Birdseye was obsessed with natural science and with taxidermy, which he taught himself by correspondence. At the age of eleven he advertised his courses in the subject. When he was fourteen, the family moved to the suburb of Montclair, New Jersey, where Birdseye graduated from Montclair High School. He matriculated at Amherst College, where his father and elder brother had earned degrees. There he excelled at science, although an average student in other subjects. His obsession with collecting insects led his college classmates to nickname him "Bugs".

In the summer after his freshman year, Birdseye worked for the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in New Mexico and Arizona as an “assistant naturalist”, at a time when the agency was concerned with helping farmers and ranchers get rid of predators, chiefly coyotes.

In 1908, family finances forced Birdseye to withdraw from college after his second year. In 1917, Birdseye's father and elder brother Kellogg went to prison for defrauding their employer; whether this was related to Birdseye's withdrawal from Amherst is unclear.

Birdseye was once again hired by the USDA, this time for a project surveying animals in the American West. He also worked with entomologist Willard Van Orsdel King (1888–1970) in Montana, where, in 1910 and 1911, he captured several hundred small mammals from which King removed several thousand ticks for research, isolating them as the cause of Rocky Mountain spotted fever, a breakthrough. Birdseye's next field assignment, intermittently from 1912 to 1915, was in Labrador in the Dominion of Newfoundland (now part of Canada), where he became further interested in food preservation by freezing, especially fast freezing. He purchased land at Muddy Bay, where he built a ranch for raising foxes. He was taught by the Inuit how to ice fish under very thick ice. In -40 °C weather, the Inuit also demonstrated that freshly caught fish could be then instantly flash frozen when exposed to air, and when thawed, still tasted fresh. He recognized the potential that this traditional knowledge held if it were to be employed in production since the frozen seafood sold in New York was of lower quality than the frozen fish of Labrador. This 1920s hunting trip to Canada, where he witnessed the traditional methods of the indigenous Inuit people, directly inspired Birdseye's food preserving method.

When food is frozen slowly, at temperatures near the freezing point, ice crystals form within the animal or vegetable cells; when the food thaws, cellular fluid leaks from the damaged tissue, giving the food a mushy or dry consistency. Rapid freezing, at lower temperatures, gives crystals less time to form and thus does less damage.

In 1922, Birdseye conducted fish-freezing experiments at the Clothel Refrigerating Company, and then established his own company, Birdseye Seafoods Inc., to freeze fish fillets with chilled air at −43 °C (−45 °F). In 1924, his company went bankrupt for lack of consumer interest in the product. That same year, he developed an entirely new process for commercially viable quick-freezing: packing fish in cartons, then freezing the contents between two refrigerated surfaces under pressure. Birdseye created General Seafood Corporation to promote this method.

Industrial development
In 1925, General Seafood Corporation moved to Gloucester, Massachusetts. There it marketed and sold Birdseye's newest invention, the double belt freezer, in which cold brine chilled a pair of stainless steel belts carrying packaged fish, freezing the fish quickly. His invention was issued US Patent #1,773,079, considered by some as the beginning of today's frozen foods industry. Birdseye patented other machinery which cooled even more quickly. In 1927, he patented the multiplate freezing machine which was used as the basis for freezing food for several decades.

In 1929, Birdseye sold his company and patents for $22 million (approximately $335 million in 2021 dollars) to Goldman Sachs and the Postum Company, which eventually became General Foods Corporation. General Foods founded the Birds Eye Frozen Food Company. Birdseye continued to work with the company, further developing frozen food technology. In 1930, the company began sales experiments in 18 retail stores around Springfield, Massachusetts, to test consumer acceptance of quick-frozen foods. The initial product line featured 26 items, including 18 cuts of frozen meat, spinach and peas, a variety of fruits and berries, blue point oysters, and fish fillets. Consumers liked the new products, and today this is considered the birth of retail frozen foods. The "Birds Eye" name remains a leading frozen-food brand. In 1949, Birdseye won the Institute of Food Technologists' Babcock-Hart Award. Birdseye was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2005.

Death
Birdseye died on October 7, 1956, of a heart attack at the Gramercy Park Hotel at the age of 69. He was cremated and his ashes were scattered in the sea off the coast of Gloucester, Massachusetts.

Legacy
In 2012 a book-length biography of Birdseye, Mark Kurlansky's Birdseye: The Adventures of a Curious Man, was published by Doubleday.

Birdseye inventions related to food products
• Method of preserving piscatorial products, 1924.

• Brining machine, 1925.

• Method in preparing foods and the product obtained thereby, 1926.

• Refrigerating apparatus; 1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1935.

• Method of packaging fruit juices, 1930.

• Bin for storage of fish, 1931.

• Refrigerating apparatus and method of refrigerating food products, 1931.

• Fish scaling device, 1933.

• Consumer package of meat products, 1933.

• Food product and method of preparing the same, 1934.

• Freezing and packaging food products, 1934.

• Method and apparatus for freezing food products, 1935.

title: Clarence Birdseye


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User:Jabernal

Hello. My name is Jairo Bernal and I'm from Bogotá, Colombia. I'm a Systems Engineer and I think Wikipedia is a very attempt in order to share the human knowledge.

es:Usuario:Jabernal

title: User:Jabernal


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Category talk:Climbers

earlier comments
Most people in this Category, and its sub Cats other than Category:Mountain climbers, are there by mistake. For most purposes, the distinction between "climber" and "mountain climber" is not important, but WP makes clear that some significant forms of climbing are not cases of mountain climbing. Presumably most climbers do some mountain climbing, and probably it is even rarer for someone to be notable as a climber without being more notable as a mountain climber.

This is the sort of problem we should expect in the early phase of Cat assignment; no point in being upset about it. I added a description to the Cat, which may help. And i'm recat-ing some egregious examples, tho i don't have the persistence to truly clean it up, nor the saavy to recognize any cases that should be left as they are.

--Jerzy(t) 16:39, 2004 Nov 30 (UTC)

 * I see no particular reason to try to subcategorize here; nearly all climbers notable enough to have WP articles qualify under all of "mountain climbers", "rock climbers", and "ice climbers"; one does rock in the summer and ice in the winter, and mountains when one is feeling energetic. :-) We have plenty of micro-categories already, let's not add more by making artificial distinctions. Stan 02:19, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * That blurb on this page is the most tortured I have seen in any such case. It just isn't realistic to expect people to follow this and even to add an explanation of their decision on each talk page. I should think that the most likely outcome of anyone taking this seriously is that they won't bother to do any categorisation at all for fear of criticism, and it would be much better to let people get on with it and deal with any reallocations later. Anyway, is it possible to be notable for flat-land free climbing? Philip 01:33, 13 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Category talk:Climbers


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VM Motori

VM Motori S.p.A. is an Italian diesel engine manufacturing company which is wholly owned by Stellantis. VM headquarters and main production facilities are located in Cento, in Emilia-Romagna, Italy.

History
VM Motori was founded by two entrepreneurs, Claudio Vancini and Ugo Martelli (hence the "VM") in 1947.

VM merged with Stabilimenti Meccanici Triestini in Trieste in 1971, then Finmeccanica took a majority stake in the combined company. The company was referred to as "Finmeccanica VM" for many years.

In 1989, Finmeccanica restructured, selling its stake in VM Motori to company managers and Midland Montague in a leveraged buyout, leaving the company with its single Cento plant.

Detroit Diesel Corporation (DDC) bought VM Motori in 1995. In 2000, DDC was purchased by DaimlerChrysler AG.

In 2003, Penske Corporation purchased a 51% stake in VM Motori; in 2007, Penske bought the remaining 49% from Detroit Diesel Corporation and subsequently sold 50% of it to General Motors.

In September 2008, GAZ Group announced plans to purchase a 50% stake from Penske Corp, but ultimately cancelled them in February 2009.

On 11 February 2011, Fiat Powertrain Technologies and Penske Corporation had reached an agreement under which Fiat Powertrain would purchase Penske Corporation's fifty-percent stake in VM Motori S.p.A.

Fiat Group Automobiles acquired the remaining 50% stake of VM Motori S.p.A. owned by General Motors, on 28 October 2013.

Products and licensing
In 1947, the company produced the first Italian air-cooled diesel engine with direct injection.

In 1964, the company introduced entire new families of air-cooled diesel engines for fishing boats and the industrial machine markets.

The year 1974 saw the introduction of a new series of high-speed (4,200 rpm) HR-series, pre-combustion chamber, water-cooled, turbocharged engines.

The Alfa Romeo Alfetta, produced in Arese, rolled off the line with a VM Motori engine under the bonnet in 1979, signaling VM's move to the OEM automotive market. This was Italy's first turbodiesel engine. The engines still retained some maritime features, such as individual heads for each cylinder - a design which made it easier to produce different cylinder configurations.

During the 1980s, British Leyland chose VM engines as the smoothest, most petrol-like units available for diesel models of their Range Rover and Rover SD1; the choice continued with the later Rover 800.

The Covini B24, T40 and C36 models all used VM Motori turbodiesel engines ranging from 4 to 6 cylinders.

The after-cooled, electronic-combustion, "Turbotronic" engine was unveiled in 1990. It was supplied to Alfa Romeo, Chrysler, Ford, General Motors, and Rover.

In 1995, when OEM automotive sales accounted for 75% of income, a major deal with Chrysler saw agreements to supply engines for their Jeep Cherokee, Jeep Grand Cherokee and Voyager (2.5-litre) models. VM Motori's 2.8-litre common rail turbodiesel engine was chosen for the Jeep Liberty CRD(Cherokee in Europe). The 2005 and later Chrysler Grand Voyager and 2012 model year Chevrolet Colorado That sale in Thailand is also fitted with the VM 2.8-litre (R428) engine.

In 1998 a new four-cylinder 2.0-litre turbocharged diesel engine and its three-cylinder derivate a 1.5-litre turbocharged diesel engine was developed by VM Motori. Engines featured a single overhead camshaft, four valves per cylinder, and common rail direct fuel injection. Both engines were licensed to the South Korean manufacturer Hyundai. 1.5-litre engine was used in the second generation of the Hyundai Accent, the Hyundai Getz and the Hyundai Matrix. These were produced and marketed between the fall of 2001 and the end of 2005. The 2.0-litre engine was used in many Hyundai and Kia models as the only diesel variant.

In 2004, GM Daewoo licensed the 1.5-litre and 2.0-litre common rail engine designs, and built a dedicated engine plant, which started production 2006. The 2.0 L diesel is used in the Daewoo Winstorm (also badged as the Chevrolet Captiva, and in the related Opel Antara), the Daewoo Lacetti (also badged as the Chevrolet Lacetti), the Daewoo Tosca (also badged as the Chevrolet Epica) and the Chevrolet Cruze.

The latest vehicle to benefit from a 2.5 L VM Motori diesel engine is the purpose-built LTI (London Taxis International) London style taxicab. The TX4 is the first of the TX range of taxis to include a VM Motori engine.

The company is also selling its products to off-highway applications, such as marine and defense. MTU Friedrichshafen, a German diesel engine manufacturer, holds the exclusive sales rights for VM Motori off-highway engines outside of Italy In the years 2007–2010 the Diesel 2.8 was used in the Dodge Nitro: power: 177 PS (130 kW; 175 hp); torque: 410–460 N⋅m (302–339 lb⋅ft)

In June 2010, VM Motori started the production of the new 2.8L 4-cylinder Euro 5 engine to power the 2011 Jeep Wrangler, 2011 Jeep Cherokee and 2012 Lancia Voyager. The A428 makes 200 PS and 460 Nm of torque at 1,800 rpm. On the manual version of the Jeep Wrangler, the A428 features the Stop/Start system to reduce the emissions.

In January 2011, VM Motori launched its brand new engine 3.0L V6 Variable Valve Timing A 630 DOHC With 241 hp and 550 Nm of torque. Thanks to a collaboration with Fiat Powertrain Technologies, the engine features the latest FPT Common Rail Multijet2 technology for improved performance, fuel economy and NVH. In 2013, the engine was redesigned to comply with Euro5+ emissions standards.

The first application of the A 630 DOHC was the 2011 Grand Cherokee. From 2014 to 2023, the same engine—rebranded as the EcoDiesel—powerd the Ram 1500, Jeep Grand Cherokee, Jeep Wrangler, and Jeep Gladiator; and in lightly tuned form, the Maserati Ghibli III. The engine won several awards including Ward's 10 Best engines of 2014 during its first model year of production in the Jeep &Ram. And has gone on for an unprecedented diesel 'repeat' winning Ward's Top 10 List again in 2015 and 2016. . Stellantis has sold upwards of 250,000 vehicles with the engine but an estimated 50,000 of them have failed. The engine has been a subject of several class action lawsuits.

title: VM Motori


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RKKY interaction

In the physical theory of spin glass magnetization, the Ruderman–Kittel–Kasuya–Yosida (RKKY) interaction models the coupling of nuclear magnetic moments or localized inner d- or f-shell electron spins through conduction electrons. It is named after Malvin Ruderman, Charles Kittel, Tadao Kasuya, and Kei Yosida, the physicists who first proposed and developed the model.

Malvin Ruderman and Charles Kittel of the University of California, Berkeley first proposed the model to explain unusually broad nuclear spin resonance lines in natural metallic silver. The theory is an indirect exchange coupling: the hyperfine interaction couples the nuclear spin of one atom to a conduction electron also coupled to the spin of a different nucleus. The assumption of hyperfine interaction turns out to be unnecessary, and can be replaced equally well with the exchange interaction.

The simplest treatment assumes a Bloch wavefunction basis and therefore only applies to crystalline systems; the resulting correlation energy, computed with perturbation theory, takes the following form: $$H(\mathbf{R}_{ij}) = \frac{\mathbf{I}_i \cdot \mathbf{I}_j}{4} \frac{\left| \Delta_{k_m k_m} \right|^2 m^*}{(2 \pi )^3 R_{ij}^4 \hbar^2} \left[ 2 k_m R_{ij} \cos( 2 k_m R_{ij} ) - \sin( 2 k_m R_{ij} ) \right]\text{,}$$ where $H$ represents the Hamiltonian, $R_{ij}$ is the distance between the nuclei $i$ and $j$, $I_{i}$ is the nuclear spin of atom $i$, $Δ_{k_{m}k_{m}}|undefined$ is a matrix element that represents the strength of the hyperfine interaction, $m^{*}$ is the effective mass of the electrons in the crystal, and $k_{m}$ is the Fermi momentum. Intuitively, we may picture this as when one magnetic atom scatters an electron wave, which then scatters off another magnetic atom many atoms away, thus coupling the two atoms' spins.

Tadao Kasuya from Nagoya University later proposed that a similar indirect exchange coupling could occur with localized inner d-electron spins instead of nuclei. This theory was expanded more completely by Kei Yosida of the UC Berkeley, to give a Hamiltonian that describes (d-electron spin)–(d-electron spin), (nuclear spin)–(nuclear spin), and (d-electron spin)–(nuclear spin) interactions. J.H. Van Vleck clarified some subtleties of the theory, particularly the relationship between the first- and second-order perturbative contributions.

Perhaps the most significant application of the RKKY theory has been to the theory of giant magnetoresistance (GMR). GMR was discovered when the coupling between thin layers of magnetic materials separated by a non-magnetic spacer material was found to oscillate between ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic as a function of the distance between the layers. This ferromagnetic/antiferromagnetic oscillation is one prediction of the RKKY theory.

title: RKKY interaction


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Probabilistic argument

Probabilistic argument may refer to:

 * Probabilistic argument, any argument involving probability theory
 * Probabilistic method, a method of non-constructive existence proof in mathematics

title: Probabilistic argument


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Baumgarten Prize

The Baumgarten Prize was founded by Ferenc Ferdinánd Baumgarten on October 17, 1923. It was awarded every year from 1929 to 1949 (except for 1945). In its time, it was the most prestigious literary prize awarded by Hungary and is considered as equivalent to the subsequent literary prizes established in 20th century Hungary, the Attila József Prize and the Kossuth Prize.

In accordance with the founder's will, it was given to Hungarian authors who had pursued literary excellence devoid of biases, regardless of creating material hardship for themselves. The foundation was administered by the Baumgarten Board of Trustees, whose members were lawyer Lóránt Basch and writer Mihály Babits (from 1941, after Babits' death, Aladár Schöpflin), and it was assisted by an 8-member advisory board. During its existence, the prize had a major significance in developing Hungarian literature.

It was given, among others, to the following people: Valéria Dienes (1934), József Erdélyi (1929, 1931, 1933), Andor Endre Gelléri (1932, 1934), Gyula Illyés (four times), Zoltán Jékely (1939), Gyula Juhász (1929, 1930, 1931), Géza Képes (1943, 1949), Ágnes Nemes Nagy (1946), László Cs. Szabó (1936), Lőrinc Szabó (1932, 1937, 1944), Zoltán Zelk (1947), Antal Szerb, Miklós Radnóti, Miklós Szentkuthy, Sándor Weöres, Győző Csorba, Áron Tamási (three times), Albert Wass, Emil Kolozsvári Grandpierre, Attila József (posthumous), Károly Kerényi, János Pilinszky, Józsi Jenő Tersánszky (four times), Tibor Déry, Pál Szabó, Lajos Fülep, Gábor Devecseri, László Németh, Nagy Lajos (three times), Magda Szabó (repealed).

title: Baumgarten Prize


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Chris Wright

Chris Wright was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete

Chris Wright
Vanity page. --timc | Talk 16:46, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Speedy delete. I have had it with people who can't or won't obey the rules and not write about themselves. - Lucky 6.9 17:08, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, vanity. --[[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 18:22, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Speedy delete. An article on this person has been deleted previously. David Johnson 18:51, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Armet

The armet is a type of combat helmet which was developed in the 15th century. It was extensively used in Italy, France, England, the Low Countries and Spain. It was distinguished by being the first helmet of its era to completely enclose the head while being compact and light enough to move with the wearer. Its use was essentially restricted to the fully armoured man-at-arms.

Appearance and origins

As the armet was fully enclosing, and narrowed to follow the contours of the neck and throat, it had to have a mechanical means of opening and closing to enable it to be worn. The typical armet consisted of four pieces: the skull, the two large hinged cheek-pieces which locked at the front over the chin, and a visor which had a double pivot, one either side of the skull. The cheek-pieces opened laterally by means of horizontal hinges; when closed they overlapped at the chin, fastening by a spring-pin which engaged in a corresponding hole, or by a swivel-hook and pierced staple. A reinforcement for the bottom half of the face, known as a wrapper, was sometimes added; its straps were protected by a metal disc at the base of the skull piece called a rondel. The visor attached to each pivot via hinges with removable pins, as in the later examples of the bascinet. This method remained in use until c. 1520, after which the hinge disappeared and the visor had a solid connection to its pivot. The earlier armet often had a small aventail, a piece of mail attached to the bottom edge of each cheek-piece.

The earliest surviving armet dates to 1420 and was made in Milan. An Italian origin for this type of helmet therefore seems to be indicated. The innovation of a reduced skull and large hinged cheek pieces was such a radical departure from previous forms of helmet that it is highly probable that the armet resulted from the invention of a single armourer or soldier, and not as the result of evolution from earlier forms. However, a number of Italian bascinets dating to c. 1400 (sometimes termed 'Venetian great bascinets') were discovered in Chalcis, Greece; these possess a single hinged cheekpiece (the other being immobile). This may have had some influence on the development of the armet.

Use and variations
The armet reached the height of its popularity during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, when western European full plate armour had been perfected. Movable face and cheek pieces allowed the wearer to close the helmet, thus fully protecting the head from blows. The term armet was often applied in contemporary usage to any fully enclosing helmet, however, modern scholarship draws a distinction between the armet and the outwardly similar close helmet (or close helm) on the basis of their construction, especially their means of opening to allow them to be worn. While an armet had two large cheekpieces hinged at the skull and opened laterally, a close helmet instead had a kind of movable bevor which was attached to the same pivot points as its visor and opened vertically.

The classic armet had a narrow extension to the back of the skull reaching down to the nape of the neck, and the cheekpieces were hinged, horizontally, directly from the main part of the skull. From about 1515, the Germans produced a variant armet where the downward extension of the skull was made much wider, reaching as far forward as the ears. The cheekpieces on this type of helmet opened sideways, on vertical hinges on the edges of this wider neck element. The high-quality English Greenwich armours often included this type of armet from c. 1525. Greenwich-made armets adopted the elegant two-piece visor found on contemporary close helmets; armets of this form were manufactured until as late as 1615. The lower edge of such helmets often closed over a flange in the upper edge of a gorget-piece. The helmet could then rotate without allowing a gap in the armour that a weapon point could enter.

The armet is found in many contemporary pieces of artwork, such as Paolo Uccello's The Battle of San Romano, and is almost always shown as part of a Milanese armor. These depictions show armets worn with tall and elaborate crests, largely of feathered plumes; however, no surviving armets have similar crests and very few show obvious provision for the attachment of such crests.

The armet was most popular in Italy, however, in England, France and Spain it was widely used by men-at-arms alongside the sallet, whilst in Germany the latter helmet was much more common. It is believed that the close helmet resulted from a combination of various elements derived from each of the preceding helmet types.

title: Armet


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User talk:Cavebear42/archive

metric units
[To Gary D:] Why did you revert the metric units on California State Polytechnic University? They looked fine to me. Cavebear42 02:27, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Please see Wikipedia Talk:Manual of Style (dates and numbers). --Gary D 02:31, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I have read your argument for the reasons to not include metric measurements. I disagree that the world should be forced to deal with our system rather than us deal with that of the entire world.  Further, I believe that readers are accustomed to overlooking the metric measurements when they prefer the Imperial and vice-versa.  It makes sense to me to include these measurements.  I am going to go ahead and replace them. Cavebear42 03:19, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)

jpg/bmp
I think it might be the new windows SP2. I'll have a look at firefox anyway. Dunc_Harris|☺ 19:18, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Here's a Microsoft Knowledge Base Article on the problem (and it's apparent solution/workaround): Internet Explorer Does Not Save Graphics Files in the Proper Format. Some people have said it doesn't work, though. - 21:36, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC) Lee  (talk)

Beast Wars character pages
Hi Cavebear,

As a long time fan of Beast Wars, I decided to touch up the Beast Wars section of Wikipedia. While doing so, I came across the AUTOBOTS section of 'pedia and saw seperate character pages linked for many of the G1 bots. This is what prompted me to create a few character pages for the major players in the Beast Wars saga (as there were only about 7 or 8 total on each side during the run of the series). I did not know that this was inappropriate for Wikipedia, sorry.

Format of VfD vote
In the voting on deletion of Pissismi, I removed the "delete" heading that you'd used. That format (separate headings for different positions, and people numbering their votes) is often used in polls on talk pages, votes on WP:RfA, etc., but on VfD the multiple subheadings would mess up the table of contents. If you look at the other listings you'll see that people just tack on their votes in one long list. The way you did it would make life easier for the admin tallying the votes but, for better or worse, that format isn't used. I felt uneasy about messing with someone else's vote or comment but in this instance I thought it justified. Naturally, I preserved the substance of your vote. JamesMLane 06:45, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Thanks for your comments on the Wiki Syntax project
Thank you for your constructive comments on the Wiki Syntax project. I'm working on another run now, this one probably a lot larger than the last one, and I've added a note about the cases you mentioned (like interval [0,3) notation, language clicks, and tables of character sets) to the index page. I'm thinking that the best way to go in these situations (where they look wrong but aren't) is to enclose these things in nowiki tags, which makes it completely unambiguous that the author really wanted those brackets. My syntax script checks for nowiki tags, so anything enclosed in these should not be listed as a problem. All the best, Nickj 06:59, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * I guess you have point with the no wiki tags. Sorry that I know i deleted some of them from your list without adding the tags as that they were rendering correctly.  When they come up again on your next scan, we can add the no wiki tags then i suppose.  take care Cavebear42 16:51, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Pictures at Frederick B. Dent

 * Sorry, I'm adding a whole bunch of Secretary of Commerce pictures off that site. I will go through and copy and paste my source after I'm done. I've done it for the two pictures in that article so that you can double-check my source, if you're curious. --flyhighplato 23:51, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Featured pictures promotion
Hey there, first of all, thanks for noting that it is quite a bit of work heh, I've gotten quite handy with it myself now, using loads of tabs in Firefox, but still it is some work yes. But I'm not sure what you mean with deleting the discussion, all discussions on FPC's are moved to the archive here: Featured pictures candidates/November-2004. I can't seem to find the images you promoted/demoted yesterday, so it seems to me you missed that archive? Anyways, the discussion is conveniently archived there, sorted by date, making it easy to check previous nominations and see what image is up next for Pic of the day featuring. It is also easy to see if a particular image was nominated previously by looking at the image description page, at the bottom you have the "what links here" section. If an FPC archive page is listed there, the image was nominated and the previous discussion can be checked easily. Feel free to message me if you have any questions, thanks for your efforts. -- [[User:Solitude|Solitude\talk]] 17:48, Nov 9, 2004 (UTC)

 * Ah I see now what happened, check Featured pictures candidates/November-2004, Ed g2s noticed that the two nominations had disappeared, so he added them there. For full instructions on promoting images: WP:FPC -- [[User:Solitude|Solitude\talk]] 17:57, Nov 9, 2004 (UTC)

Good question, this is very likely an image that was promoted in the very early days of the featured picture section of Wikipedia, possibly before a vote was held before promoting images, this is why there is no link to an archive. This is not a real issue in itself, but one can wonder if this image is worth being a featured picture, and whether it would pass the nomination process if nominated now. For these sort of images we have the WP:FPC section, there you can list images you feel should no longer be a featured picture, for instance if much better images in the same category or article have been uploaded. I've just checked the image, and there is even a bigger problem with this image, it does not have a valid license, featured pictures need a free license, this image has none. I will list the image for removal. -- [[User:Solitude|Solitude\talk]] 18:23, Nov 9, 2004 (UTC)

Thanks for the notification
Hey thanks for the heads up on Eagle badge image. If you know a way that I can find out for sure the label for this I would be very thankful. Hoekenheef 01:14, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I found this link Boy Scouts of America Legal Main Page. Hoekenheef 01:15, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Try again...
I think I've got this stated correctly, but if you don't mind check the page and see what you think. Hoekenheef 01:18, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Thanks. Hoekenheef 11:55, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Jeremy Bentham
Hi Cavebear,

I noticed your comment on the Auto-Icon on WP:FPC - On an unrelated note, why? I wasn't sure whether you meant 'why nominate it' or 'why does the Auto-Icon exist'. Assuming the later, the answer is that Bentham's friend, the physician Southwood Smith was heavily involved in getting UK law changed to allow bodies to be used for medical experimentation with the Anatomy Act of 1832. For many years before this, doctors were learning anatomy using corpse bought from body snatchers.

Being a man of strong convictions and having backed Dr Smith to get the law changed, Bentham put his body where his mouth was and donated his body to science. He stated in his will, that Smith should collect his body and use it for anatomy research (probably at University College) with his bones being put on display in a cabinet, dressed in his own cloths. Bentham also coined the term Auto-Icon in his will. Being an early atheist, he may also have been looking for an alternative way to preserve his memory. Many of the details of his will can be found here. -- Solipsist 09:12, 21 Nov 2004 (UTC)

umm what if I can't remember what site I got the pictures from, Some of them I be able to find out. Do I just edit the image page and put a link?

Talk:Challenger Deep
Well, you are right. Still, what is the right depths? As far as I understood, no one knows how deep it is. There is just a assumption about 10923 metres, but nothing for sure, right? [[User_talk:Vrykolaka|Reply to Vrykolaka]]

Cal Poly
Let's bring this discussion to Talk:Cal Poly San Luis Obispo... --Jiang

Panty Line
I added the "External links" heading because the template for Wikimedia Commons images is a link outside of Wikipedia — J3ff 01:09, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Just wondering...
I was browsing and I came across your List of Eagle Scouts page and I was wondering if the name of that should be changed since it's a list of famous Eagle Scouts. Contact me at my talk page. Hoekenheef 02:00, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Makes sense.
I see your point. Thanks. Hoekenheef 16:52, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cavebear42/archive


text:
Savage Club

The Savage Club, founded in 1857, is a gentlemen's club in London, named after the poet, Richard Savage. Members are drawn from the fields of art, drama, law, literature, music or science.

History
The founding meeting of the Savage Club took place on 12 October 1857, at the Crown Tavern, Vinegar Yard, Drury Lane, after a letter by pro tempore honorary secretary George Augustus Sala was sent to prospective members. The letter advised it would be 'a meeting of gentlemen connected with literature and the fine arts, and warmly interested in the promotion of Christian knowledge, and the sale of exciseable liquors' with a view to 'forming a social society or club'. The inaugural gathering would also decide upon the new association's 'suitable designation'. Around 20 attended the first meeting including William Brough, Robert Brough, Leicester Silk Buckingham, John Deffett Francis, Gustav von Franck, Bill Hale, Sala, Dr G. L. Strauss and William Bernhardt Tegetmeier.

Andrew Halliday, joint honorary secretary in 1858, and later club president, wrote in his 1867 anthology, of how the 'suitable designation' was determined:

"'When about a dozen of the original members were assembled in the place selected for their meetings, it became a question what the Club should be called. Every one in the room suggested a title. One said the 'Addison', another the 'Johnson', a third the 'Goldsmith', and so forth; and at last, after we had run the whole gamut of famous literary names of the modern period, a modest member in the corner suggested 'The Shakespeare'. This was too much for the gravity of one of the company (the late Mr Robert Brough) whose keen sense of humour enabled him, in the midst of our enthusiasm, to perceive that we were bent on making ourselves ridiculous. 'Who are we,' he said, 'that we should take these great names in vain? Don't let us be pretentious. If we must have a name, let it be a modest one — one that signifies as little as possible.'

Hereupon a member called out, in a pure spirit of wantonness, 'The Savage'. That keen sense of humour was again tickled. 'The very thing!' he exclaimed. 'No one can say that there is anything pretentious in assuming that name. If we accept Richard Savage as our godfather, it shows that there is no pride about us.' And so, in a frolicsome humour, our little society was christened the 'Savage Club'.'" Many of the original members were drawn from the ranks of bohemian journalists and writers for The Illustrated London News who considered themselves unlikely to be accepted into the older, arts related Garrick Club, but, within two decades, the Savage Club itself had become 'almost respectable'. The early requirement – 'a working man in literature or art' – was soon broadened to include musicians, and the club's first piano was hired in 1871, prompting Halliday to tell another member 'Hang your piano... it's ruining the Club'. An associated Masonic lodge was established in 1887.

The club has hosted a variety of guests over the years including American writer and humorist Mark Twain, and the Australian cricket team during its 1934 English tour. In the aftermath of World War II, Oswald Mosley, founder of the British Union of Fascists, arrived as a guest of Henry Williamson, author of Tarka the Otter, but was asked to leave. The club features in Arthur Conan Doyle's classic novel, The Lost World.

The club moved from its original home at the Crown Tavern, the next year to the Nell Gwynne Tavern. In 1863 it moved to Gordon's Hotel in Covent Garden, then to 6–7 Adelphi Terrace, later to 9 Fitzmaurice Place, Berkeley Square, London W1, and, from 1936 to the end of 1963, Carlton House Terrace in St James's (previously the home of the Conservative statesman Lord Curzon). In 1990, the club moved to a room within the National Liberal Club at 1 Whitehall Place, London SW1. In 2020 it was issued with a year's notice by the General Committee of the National Liberal Club as part of a negotiation around its future occupancy. A source at the National Liberal Club commented: "The red line for us is whether one of our members, of any sex, could use the Savage Club's bar whenever it is opened." Members of the National Liberal Club (or indeed of any other non-reciprocal Club) would however not be allowed to use the Savage Club's facilities unless invited as guests, as is the case with any private Members' club, and the Savage Club does admit ladies as guests to the whole of its premises.

The club today
In 1962, the club had around 1,000 members, at present, there are over 300. It remains one of the small number of London clubs that does not admit women as members, although women are admitted as guests. The club maintains a tradition of regular dinners for members and their guests, always followed by entertainment, often featuring distinguished musical performers from the club's membership. Several times a year members invite ladies to share both the dinner and the entertainment, and on these occasions guests always include widows of former Savages, who are known as Rosemaries (after rosemary, a symbol of remembrance). There are also monthly lunches, which are followed by a talk given by a member or an invited guest on a subject of which he has specific expert knowledge.

Membership
Members are classified into one of six categories which best describes their main interest: art, drama, law, literature, music or science. They must be proposed and seconded by two existing members, and if unknown by any other members, are required to attend a club function in order to meet some members. The category of membership might mirror a member's profession, though there are many members with an interest in one or more of the membership categories, but who practise none professionally. There is a range of membership fees depending on membership category.

During the weekend, members are permitted to use the East India Club in St James's Square and the Oxford and Cambridge Club in Pall Mall. There are also reciprocal arrangements with other clubs internationally. Members of the Savage Club may also use accommodation at the Savile, Farmers and Lansdowne Clubs.

Notable members

 * James Agate
 * Norman Allin
 * Richard Arnell
 * Arthur Askey
 * Alfred Louis Bacharach
 * George Baker
 * Sir J. M. Barrie, Bt.
 * A. H. Behrend
 * Webster Booth
 * Collin Brooks
 * Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin (Charlie Chaplin)
 * Albert Chevalier
 * Alan Civil
 * Samuel Langhorne Clemens (Mark Twain)
 * Edward John Cobbett
 * Sir Hal Pateshall Colebatch
 * Mortimer Collins
 * Wilkie Collins
 * Robert Courtneidge
 * Most of the members of The Crazy Gang
 * Augustin Daly
 * Richard Davey
 * Sir Edward Elgar
 * Bernard Walter Evans
 * Herman Finck
 * Sir Alexander Fleming
 * Brian J. Ford
 * C. B. Fry
 * W. S. Gilbert
 * Dan Godfrey
 * Walter Goodman
 * George Grossmith
 * Weedon Grossmith
 * Charles Groves
 * Mark Hambourg (pianist)
 * Tommy Handley and the cast of It's That Man Again (ITMA)
 * John Hassall (illustrator)
 * Macdonald Hastings
 * Jack Hawkins
 * Will Hay
 * A. P. Herbert
 * Stanley Holloway
 * Tom Hood
 * Keble Howard (writer)
 * Sir Henry Irving
 * Alex James
 * C.E.M. Joad panellist on The Brains Trust
 * Evan Rowland Jones
 * Gwynn Parry Jones
 * Mark Lemon (Editor of Punch)
 * Sidney Kilner Levett-Yeats
 * Lord Kitchener
 * David Low (Colonel Blimp)
 * Arthur Lucan, aka Old Mother Riley
 * Phil May
 * Malcolm McEachern ('Mr. Jetsam')
 * Charles Millward
 * Arthur Moreland
 * Benno Moiseiwitsch
 * Earl Mountbatten
 * Fridtjof Nansen
 * Prof. R. G. W. Norrish
 * Norman O'Neill
 * E. Phillips Oppenheim
 * Robert Young Pelton
 * King Edward VII
 * King George V
 * King George VI
 * Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
 * Bertram Prance
 * John Proctor
 * Dr. Magnus Pyke
 * Sergei Rachmaninov
 * Arnold Ridley
 * Heath Robinson
 * Carl Rosa
 * L. Arthur Rose
 * Dante Rossetti
 * Rafael Sabatini
 * George Augustus Sala
 * Leonard Salzedo
 * Charles Santley
 * Robert Wilfred Scarff
 * Captain Scott
 * Harry Secombe
 * E. H. Shepard
 * W. Somerset Maugham
 * George Loraine Stampa
 * Dylan Thomas
 * Charles John Tibbits
 * Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree
 * Tommy Trinder
 * Peter Underwood
 * Stanley Unwin
 * Sir Peter Ustinov
 * Edgar Wallace
 * Artemus Ward
 * Alec Waugh
 * James McNeill Whistler
 * Henry Williamson
 * Hugh Ross Williamson
 * Sir P. G. Wodehouse
 * Wee Georgie Wood (music hall comedian)
 * Henry Wood (conductor)
 * Lewis Pinhorn Wood (artist)
 * John Worsley
 * Sir Charles Wyndham
 * Oswald Yorke actor

The Savage Club Masonic Lodge
On 11 February 1882, the Prince of Wales (later Edward VII), attended a dinner in his honour at the Savage Club, before becoming a member. The Prince suggested a Masonic lodge, associated with the club, should be formed.

The Savage Club Lodge, No. 2190 received its Warrant of Constitution on 18 December 1886, and was consecrated on 18 January 1887, with war correspondent Sir John Richard Sommers Vine as the first Master. The first treasurer was the actor Sir Henry Irving, followed by the actor Edward O'Connor Terry in 1888. This tendency towards the arts continued to be reflected in the Lodge's membership for many years.

The club and lodge have never been formally connected except in name. Lodge membership is not restricted to Savage Club members; however, most who join still have a professional life in literature, art, drama, music, science or law.

Founders of the Savage Club Lodge

 * Sir Francis Wyatt Truscott, PGW
 * John Maclean
 * Sir J. R. Somers Vine, PGD
 * Thomas Catling, PAGDC
 * Sir Henry Irving
 * Archibald McNeill
 * W. E. Chapman, PAGDC
 * Raymond Tucker, PPGSB Berks.
 * Thomas Burnside
 * Earl of Dunraven, PC KP
 * John Paige
 * Gustav von Franck

title: Savage Club