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Manusmriti

The Manusmṛti (मनुस्मृति), also known as the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra or the Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitutions among the many  of Hinduism.

Over fifty manuscripts of the Manusmriti are now known, but the earliest discovered, most translated and presumed authentic version since the 18th century has been the "Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) manuscript with Kulluka Bhatta commentary". Modern scholarship states this presumed authenticity is false, and the various manuscripts of Manusmriti discovered in India are inconsistent with each other.

The metrical text is in Sanskrit, is dated to the 1st to 3rd century CE, and presents itself as a discourse given by Manu (Svayambhuva) and Bhrigu on dharma topics such as duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and others. The text's influence had historically spread outside India. The text influenced Hindu kingdoms in Cambodia and Indonesia.

In 1776, Manusmriti became one of the first Sanskrit texts to be translated into English, by British philologist Sir William Jones. Manusmriti was used to construct the Hindu law code for the East India Company-administered enclaves.

Nomenclature
The title Manusmriti is a relatively modern term and a late innovation, probably coined because the text is in a verse form. The over-fifty manuscripts discovered of the text never use this title, but state the title as Manava Dharmashastra (Sanskrit: मानव धर्मशास्त्र) in their colophons at the end of each chapter. In modern scholarship, these two titles refer to the same text.

Chronology
Philologists Jones and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel, in the 18th century, dated Manusmriti to around 1250 BCE and 1000 BCE respectively, which, from later linguistic developments, is untenable due to the language of the text which must be later than the late Vedic texts such as the Upanishads, themselves dated a few centuries later, around 500 BCE. Later scholars shifted the chronology of the text to between the 1st or 2nd century CE. Olivelle adds that numismatic evidence and the mention of gold coins as a fine suggest the text may date to the 2nd or 3rd century CE.

Most scholars consider the text a composite produced by many authors put together over a long period. Olivelle states that the various ancient and medieval Indian texts claim revisions and editions were derived from the original text with 100,000 verses and 1,080 chapters. However, the text version in modern use, according to Olivelle, is likely the work of a single author or a chairman with research assistants.

Manusmriti, Olivelle states, was not a new document - it drew on other texts, and reflects "a crystallization of an accumulated knowledge" in ancient India. The root of theoretical models within Manusmriti rely on at least two shastras that pre-date it: artha (statecraft and legal process) and dharma (an ancient Indian concept that includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and others discussed in various Dharmasutras, older than Manusmriti). Its contents can be traced to Kalpasutras of the Vedic era, which led to the development of Smartasutras consisting of Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras. The foundational texts of Manusmriti include many of these sutras, all from an era preceding the common era. Most of these ancient texts are now lost, and only four have survived: the law codes of Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana and Vasishtha.

Structure
The ancient version of the text has been subdivided into twelve Adhyayas (chapters), but the original text had no such division. The text covers different topics, and is unique among ancient Indian texts in using "transitional verses" to mark the end of one subject and the start of the next. The text can be broadly divided into four, each of different length. and each further divided into subsections:
 * 1) Creation of the world
 * 2) Source of dharma
 * 3) The dharma of the four social classes
 * 4) Law of karma, rebirth and final liberation

The text is composed in metric Shlokas (verses), in the form of a dialogue between an exalted teacher and disciples who are eager to learn about the various aspects of dharma. The first 58 verses are attributed by the text to Manu, while the remaining more than two thousand verses are attributed to his student Bhrigu. Olivelle lists the subsections as follows:

Sources of the law
The Dharmasya Yonih (Sources of the Law) has twenty-four verses and one transition verse. These verses state what the text considers as the proper and just sources of law:

"वेदोऽखिलो धर्ममूलं स्मृतिशीले च तद्विदाम् । आचारश्चैव साधूनामात्मनस्तुष्टिरेव च ॥

Translation 1: The whole Veda is the (first) source of the sacred law, next the tradition and the virtuous conduct of those who know the (Veda further), also the customs of holy men, and (finally) self-satisfaction (Atmana santushti).

Translation 2: The root of the dharma is the entire Veda, and (then) the tradition and customs of those who know (the Veda), and the conduct of virtuous people, and what is satisfactory to oneself."

- Manusmriti 2.6

"वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद् धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥

Translation 1: The Veda, the sacred tradition, the customs of virtuous men, and one's own pleasure, they declare to be the fourfold means of defining the sacred law.

Translation 2: The Veda, tradition, the conduct of good people, and what is pleasing to oneself – they say that is four-fold mark of dharma."

- Manusmriti 2.12

This section of Manusmriti, like other Hindu law texts, includes fourfold sources of Dharma, states Levinson, which include Atmana santushti (satisfaction of one's conscience), Sadachara (local norms of virtuous individuals), Smriti and Sruti.

Dharma of the four Varnas

 * 3.1 Rules Relating to Law (2.25 – 10.131)
 * 3.1.1 Rules of Action in Normal Times (2.26 – 9.336)
 * 3.1.1.1 Fourfold Dharma of a Brahmin (2.26 – 6.96) (contains the longest section of Manusmriti, 3.1, called dharmavidhi)
 * 3.1.1.2 Rules of Action for a King (7.1 – 9.324) (contains 960 verses, includes description of institutions and officials of state, how officials are to be appointed, tax laws, rules of war, the role and limits on the power of the king, and long sections on eighteen grounds for litigation, including those related to non-delivery under contract, breach of contract, non-payment of wages, property disputes, inheritance disputes, humiliation and defamation, physical assault, theft, violence of any form, injury, sexual crimes against women, public safety, and others; the section also includes rules of evidence, rules on interrogation of witnesses, and the organisation of court system)
 * 3.1.1.3 Rules of Action for Vaiśyas and Śūdras (9.326 – 9.335) (shortest section, eight rules for Vaishyas, two for Shudras, but some applicable laws to these two classes are discussed generically in verses 2.26 – 9.324)
 * 3.1.2 Rules of Action in Times of Adversity (10.1 – 11.129) (contains revised rules on the state machinery and four varnas in the times of war, famine or other emergencies)
 * 3.2 Rules Relating to Penance (11.1 – 11.265) (includes rules of proportionate punishment; instead of fines, incarceration or death, discusses penance or social isolation as a form of punishment for certain crimes)

The verses 6.97, 9.325, 9.336 and 10.131 are transitional verses. Olivelle notes instances of likely interpolation and insertions in the notes to this section, in both the presumed vulgate version and the critical edition.

Determination of Karmayoga
The verses 12.1, 12.2 and 12.82 are transitional verses. This section is in a different style than the rest of the text, raising questions whether this entire chapter was added later. While there is evidence that this chapter was extensively redacted over time, it is unclear whether the entire chapter is of a later era.
 * 4.1 Fruits of Action (12.3–81) (section on actions and consequences, personal responsibility, action as a means of moksha – the highest personal bliss)
 * 4.2 Rules of Action for Supreme Good (12.83–115) (section on karma, duties and responsibilities as a means of supreme good)

The closing verses of Manusmriti declares, "एवं यः सर्वभूतेषु पश्यत्यात्मानमात्मना । स सर्वसमतामेत्य ब्रह्माभ्येति परं पदम् ॥ He who thus recognizes in his individual soul (Self, Atman), the universal soul that exists in all beings, becomes equal-minded towards all, and enters the highest state, Brahman."

- Manusmriti 12.125, Calcutta manuscript with Kulluka Bhatta commentary

Contents
The structure and contents of the Manusmriti suggest it to be a document predominantly targeted at the Brahmins (priestly class) and the Kshatriyas (king, administration and warrior class). The text dedicates 1,034 verses, the largest portion, on laws for and expected virtues of Brahmins, and 971 verses for Kshatriyas. The statement of rules for the Vaishyas (merchant class) and the Shudras (artisans and working class) in the text is extraordinarily brief. Olivelle suggests that this may be because the text was composed to address the balance "between the political power and the priestly interests", and because of the rise in foreign invasions of India in the period it was composed.

On virtues and outcast
Manusmriti lists and recommends virtues in many verses. For example, verse 6.75 recommends non-violence towards everyone and temperance as key virtues, while verse 10.63 preaches that all four varnas must abstain from injuring any creature, abstain from falsehood and abstain from appropriating the property of others.

Similarly, in verse 4.204, states Olivelle, some manuscripts of Manusmriti list the recommended virtues to be, "compassion, forbearance, truthfulness, non-injury, self-control, not desiring, meditation, serenity, sweetness and honesty" as primary, and "purification, sacrifices, ascetic toil, gift giving, Vedic recitation, restraining the sexual organs, observances, fasts, silence and bathing" as secondary. A few manuscripts of the text contain a different verse 4.204, according to Olivelle, and list the recommended virtues to be, "not injuring anyone, speaking the truth, chastity, honesty and not stealing" as central and primary, while "not being angry, obedience to the teacher, purification, eating moderately and vigilance" to desirable and secondary.

In other discovered manuscripts of Manusmriti, including the most translated Calcutta manuscript, the text declares in verse 4.204 that the ethical precepts under Yamas such as Ahimsa (non-violence) are paramount while Niyamas such as Ishvarapranidhana (contemplation of personal god) are minor, and those who do not practice the Yamas but obey the Niyamas alone become outcasts.

On personal choices, behaviours and morals
Manusmriti has various verses on duties a person has towards himself and to others, thus including moral codes as well as legal codes. Olivelle states that this is similar to the modern contrast between informal moral concerns to birth out of wedlock in the developed nations, along with simultaneous legal protection for children who are born out of wedlock.

Personal behaviours covered by the text are extensive. For example, verses 2.51–2.56 recommend that a monk must go on his begging round, collect alms food and present it to his teacher first, then eat. One should revere whatever food one gets and eat it without disdain, states Manusmriti, but never overeat, as eating too much harms health. In verse 5.47, the text states that work becomes without effort when a man contemplates, undertakes and does what he loves to do and when he does so without harming any creature.

Numerous verses relate to the practice of meat eating, how it causes injury to living beings, why it is evil, and the morality of vegetarianism. Yet, the text balances its moral tone as an appeal to one's conscience, states Olivelle. For example, verse 5.56 as translated by Olivelle states, "there is no fault in eating meat, in drinking liquor, or in having sex; that is the natural activity of creatures. Abstaining from such activity, however, brings greatest rewards."

On rights of women
Manusmriti offers an inconsistent and internally conflicting perspective on women's rights. The text, for example, declares that a marriage cannot be dissolved by a woman or a man, in verse 8.101–8.102. Yet, the text, in other sections, allows either to dissolve the marriage. For example, verses 9.72–9.81 allow the man or the woman to get out of a fraudulent or abusive marriage and remarry.The text also provides legal means for a woman to remarry when her husband has been missing or has abandoned her.

While preaching chastity to widows such as in verses 5.158–5.160, and opposing a woman marrying someone outside her own social class in verses 3.13–3.14, in other verses, such as 2.67–2.69 and 5.148–5.155, Manusmriti preaches that as a girl, she should obey and seek protection of her father, as a young woman her husband, and as a widow her son; and that a woman should always worship her husband as a god and a man should consider his wife an embodiment of goddess. In verses 3.55–3.56, Manusmriti also declares that women must be honored, and "[w]here women are revered, there the gods rejoice; but where they are not, no rite bears any fruit". Elsewhere, in verse 5.148, states Olivelle, the text declares, "[a woman] must never seek to live independently".

Simultaneously, states Olivelle, the text enumerates numerous practices such as marriages outside one's varna (see anuloma and pratiloma), such as between a Brahmin man and a Shudra woman in verses 9.149–9.157, a widow becoming pregnant by a man she is not married to in verses 9.57–9.62, marriage where a woman elopes with her lover, and then grants legal rights in these cases such as property inheritance rights in verses 9.143–9.157, and the legal rights of the children so born. The text also provides for a situation when a married woman may become pregnant by a man other than her husband, and dedicates verses 8.31–8.56 to conclude that the child's custody belongs to the woman and her legal husband, and not to the biological father.

Manusmriti provides a woman with property rights to six types of property in verses 9.192–9.200. These include those she received at her marriage, or as gift when she eloped or when she was taken away, or as token of love before marriage, or as gifts from her biological family, or as received from her husband subsequent to marriage, and also from inheritance from deceased relatives.

Flavia Agnes states that Manusmriti is a complex commentary from women's rights perspective, and the British colonial era codification of women's rights based on it for Hindus, and from Islamic texts for Muslims, picked and emphasised certain aspects while it ignored other sections. This construction of personal law during the colonial era created a legal fiction around Manusmriti's historic role as a scripture in matters relating to women in South Asia.

On statecraft and rules of war
Chapter 7 of the Manusmriti discusses the duties of a king, what virtues he must have, what vices he must avoid. In verses 7.54–7.76, the text identifies precepts to be followed in selecting ministers, ambassadors and officials, as well as the characteristics of well fortified capital. Manusmriti then lays out the laws of just war, stating that first and foremost, war should be avoided by negotiations and reconciliations. If war becomes necessary, states Manusmriti, a soldier must never harm civilians, non-combatants or someone who has surrendered, that use of force should be proportionate, and other rules. Fair taxation guidelines are described in verses 7.127–7.137.

Authenticity and inconsistencies in various manuscripts
Patrick Olivelle, credited with a 2005 translation of Manusmriti published by the Oxford University Press, states the concerns in postmodern scholarship about the presumed authenticity and reliability of Manusmriti manuscripts. He writes (abridged),

"The MDh [Manusmriti] was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794. ... All the editions of the MDh, except for Jolly's, reproduce the text as found in the [Calcutta] manuscript containing the commentary of Kulluka. I have called this as the "vulgate version". It was Kulluka's version that has been translated repeatedly: Jones (1794), Burnell (1884), Buhler (1886) and Doniger (1991). ...

The belief in the authenticity of Kulluka's text was openly articulated by Burnell (1884, xxix): "There is then no doubt that the textus receptus, viz., that of Kulluka Bhatta, as adopted in India and by European scholars, is very near on the whole to the original text." This is far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over fifty manuscripts that I collated actually follow the vulgate in key readings."

- Patrick Olivelle

Other scholars point to the inconsistencies and have questioned the authenticity of verses, and the extent to which verses were changed, inserted or interpolated into the original, at a later date. Sinha, for example, states that less than half, or only 1,214 of the 2,685 verses in Manusmriti, may be authentic. Further, the verses are internally inconsistent. Verses such as 3.55–3.62 of Manusmriti, for example, glorify the position of women, while verse such as 9.3 and 9.17 do the opposite. Other passages found in Manusmriti, such as those relating to Ganesha, are modern era insertions and forgeries. Robert E. Van Voorst states that the verses from 3.55–60 may be about respect given to a woman in her home, but within a strong patriarchal system.

Nelson in 1887, in a legal brief before the Madras High Court of British India, had stated, "there are various contradictions and inconsistencies in the Manu Smriti itself, and that these contradictions would lead one to conclude that such a commentary did not lay down legal principles to be followed but were merely recommendatory in nature." Mahatma Gandhi remarked on the observed inconsistencies within Manusmriti as follows:

"I hold Manusmriti as part of Shastras. But that does not mean that I swear by every verse that is printed in the book described as Manusmriti. There are so many contradictions in the printed volume that, if you accept one part, you are bound to reject those parts that are wholly inconsistent with it. ... Nobody is in possession of the original text."

- Mahatma Gandhi

Commentaries
There are numerous classical commentaries on the  written in the medieval period.

Bhāruci is the oldest known commentator on the . Kane places him in the late 10th or early 11th century, Olivelle places him in the 8th century, and Derrett places him between 600 and 800 CE. From these three opinions we can place Bhāruci anywhere from the early 7th century CE to the early 11th century CE. Bhāruci's commentary, titled Manu-sastra-vivarana, has far fewer number of verses than the Kullūka-Calcutta vulgate version in circulation since the British colonial era, and it refers to more ancient texts that are believed to be lost. It is also called Raja-Vimala, and J. Duncan M. Derrett states Bharuci was "occasionally more faithful to his source's historical intention" than other commentators.

Medhātithi's commentary on  has been widely studied. Scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat believe he was from north India, likely the Kashmir region. His commentary on Manusmriti is estimated to be from 9th to 11th century.

Govindarāja's commentary, titled Manutika, is an 11th-century commentary on Manusmriti, referred to by Jimutavahana and Laksmidhara, and was plagiarised by Kullūka, states Olivelle.

Kullūka's commentary, titled Manvarthamuktavali, along with his version of the Manusmrti manuscript has been "vulgate" or default standard, most studied version, since it was discovered in 18th-century Calcutta by the British colonial officials. It is the most reproduced and famous, not because, according to Olivelle, it is the oldest or because of its excellence, but because it was the lucky version found first. The Kullūka commentary dated to be sometime between the 13th to 15th century, adds Olivelle, is mostly a plagiary of Govindaraja commentary from about the 11th century, but with Kullūka's criticism of Govindaraja.

Nārāyana's commentary, titled Manvarthavivrtti, is probably from the 14th century and little is known about the author. This commentary includes many variant readings, and Olivelle found it useful in preparing a critical edition of the Manusmriti text in 2005.

Nandana was from south India, and his commentary, titled Nandini, provides a useful benchmark on Manusmriti version and its interpretation in the south.

Other known medieval era commentaries on Manusmriti include those by Sarvajnanarayana, Raghavananda and Ramacandra.

In ancient and medieval India
Scholars doubt Manusmriti was ever administered as law text in ancient or medieval Hindu society. David Buxbaum states, "in the opinion of the best contemporary orientalists, it [Manusmriti] does not, as a whole, represent a set of rules ever actually administered in Hindustan. It is in great part an ideal picture of that which, in the view of a Brahmin, ought to be law".

Donald Davis writes, "there is no historical evidence for either an active propagation or implementation of Dharmasastra [Manusmriti] by a ruler or any state – as distinct from other forms of recognizing, respecting and using the text. Thinking of Dharmasastra as a legal code and of its authors as lawgivers is thus a serious misunderstanding of its history". Other scholars have expressed the same view, based on epigraphical, archaeological and textual evidence from medieval Hindu kingdoms in Gujarat, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, while acknowledging that Manusmriti was influential to the South Asian history of law and was a theoretical resource.

Outside India
The Dharma-sastras, particularly Manusmriti, states Anthony Reid, were "greatly honored in Burma's (Myanmar) Wareru Dhammathat, Siam (Thailand), Cambodia and Java-Bali (Indonesia) as the defining documents of the natural order, which kings were obliged to uphold. They were copied, translated and incorporated into local law code, with strict adherence to the original text in Burma and Siam, and a stronger tendency to adapt to local needs in Java (Indonesia)". The medieval era derived texts and Manusmriti manuscripts in Southeast Asia are, however, quite different than the "vulgate" version that has been in use since its first use in British India. The role of then extant Manusmriti as a historic foundation of law texts for the people of Southeast Asia has been very important, states Hooker.

In British India
Prior to the British colonial rule, Sharia (Islamic law) for Muslims in South Asia had been codified as Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, but laws for non-Muslims – such as Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains, Parsis – were not codified - both in regions of the subcontinent that witnessed anything up to 600 years of Islamic rule - as well as others. With the arrival of the British colonial officials, Manusmriti played a historic role in constructing a legal system for non-Muslims in South Asia and early Western perceptions about the ancient and medieval Indian society.

In the 18th century, the earliest British of the East India Company acted as agents of the Mughal emperor. As the British colonial rule took over the political and administrative powers in India, it was faced with various state responsibilities such as legislative and judiciary functions. The East India Company, and later the British Crown, sought profits for its British shareholders through trade as well as sought to maintain effective political control with minimal military engagement. The administration pursued a path of least resistance, relying upon co-opted local intermediaries that were mostly Muslims and some Hindus in various princely states. The British exercised power by avoiding interference and adapting to law practices as explained by the local intermediaries. The existing legal texts for Muslims, and resurrected Manusmriti manuscript thus helped the colonial state sustain the pre-colonial religious and political law and conflicts, well into the late nineteenth century. The colonial policy on the system of personal laws for India, for example, was expressed by Governor-General Hastings in 1772 as follows,

"That in all suits regarding inheritance, marriage, caste and other religious usages or institutions, the law of the Koran with respect to Mahometans [Muslims], and those of the Shaster with respect to Gentoos [Hindus] shall be invariably be adhered to."

- Warren Hastings

For Muslims of India, the British accepted sharia as the legal code for Muslims, based on texts such the al-Sirjjiyah and Fatawa-i Alamgiri written under sponsorship of Aurangzeb. For Hindus and other non-Muslims such as Buddhists, Sikhs, Jains, and Parsis, this information was unavailable. The substance of Hindu law, was derived by the British colonial officials from Manusmriti, and it became the first Dharmasastra that was translated in 1794. The British colonial officials, for practice, attempted to extract from the Dharmaśāstra, the English categories of law and religion for the purposes of colonial administration.

The British colonial officials, however, mistook the Manusmriti as codes of law, failing to recognise that it was a commentary on morals and law and not a statement of positive law. The colonial officials of the early 19th century also failed to recognise that Manusmriti was one of many competing Dharmasastra texts, it was not in use for centuries during the Islamic rule period of India. The officials resurrected Manusmriti, constructed statements of positive law from the text for non-Muslims, in order to remain faithful to its policy of using sharia for the South Asian Muslim population. Manusmriti thus played a role in constructing the Anglo-Hindu law, as well as Western perceptions about ancient and medieval era Hindu culture from the colonial times. Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im states the significance and role of Manusmriti in governing India during the colonial era as follows (abridged),

"The [British] colonial administration began the codification of Hindu and Muslim laws in 1772 and continued through the next century, with emphasis on certain texts as the authentic "sources" of the law and custom of Hindus and Muslims, which in fact devalued and retarded those dynamic social systems. The codification of complex and interdependent traditional systems froze certain aspects of the status of women, for instance, outside the context of constantly evolving social and economic relations, which in effect limited or restricted women's rights. The selectivity of the process, whereby colonial authorities sought the assistance of Hindu and Muslim religious elites in understanding the law, resulted in the Brahminization and Islamization of customary laws [in British India]. For example, the British orientalist scholar William Jones translated the key texts Al Sirjjiyah in 1792 as the Mohammedan Law of Inheritance, and Manusmriti in 1794 as the Institutes of Hindu Law or the Ordinances of Manu. In short, British colonial administrators reduced centuries of vigorous development of total ethical, religious and social systems to fit their own preconceived European notions of what Muslim and Hindu "law" should be."

- Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im

Comparison with other dharmasastras
Along with Manusmriti (Manava Dharmasastra), ancient India had between eighteen and thirty six competing Dharma-sastras, states John Bowker. Many of these texts have been lost completely or in parts, but they are referred to in other ancient Indian texts suggesting that they were influential in some regions or time. Of the numerous jurisprudence-related commentaries and Smriti texts, after Manu Smriti and other than the older Dharma Sutras, Yajnavalkya Smriti has attracted the attention of many scholars, followed by Narada Smriti and Parashara Smriti (the oldest Dharma-smriti). According to Ghose and other scholars, evidence suggests that Yajnavalkya Smriti was the more referred to text than Manu Smriti in matters of governance and practice. This text, of unclear date of composition but likely to be a few centuries after Manusmriti, is more "concise, methodical, distilled and liberal". According to Jois,

"Regarding the 18 titles of law, Yajnavalkya follows the same pattern as in Manu with slight modifications. On matters such as women's rights of inheritance and right to hold property, status of Sudras, and criminal penalty, Yajnavalkya is more liberal than Manu. ... He deals exhaustively on subjects like creation of valid documents, law of mortgages, hypothecation, partnership and joint ventures."

- M. Rama Jois

Jois suggests that the Yajnavalkya Smriti text liberal evolution may have been influenced by Buddhism in ancient India. The Yajnavalkya text is also different from Manu text in adding chapters to the organisation of monasteries, land grants, deeds execution and other matters. The Yajnavalkya text was more referred to by many Hindu kingdoms of the medieval era, as evidenced by the commentary of 12th-century Vijñāneśvara, titled Mitakshara.

Modern reception
The Manusmrti has been subject to appraisal and criticism. Among the notable Indian critics of the text in the early 20th century was B. R. Ambedkar, who held Manusmriti as responsible for caste system in India. In protest, Ambedkar burnt Manusmrti in a bonfire on 25 December 1927. While Ambedkar condemned Manusmriti, Mahatma Gandhi opposed the book burning. The latter stated that while caste discrimination was harmful to spiritual and national growth, it had nothing to do with Hinduism and its texts such as Manusmriti. Gandhi argued that the text recognises different callings and professions, defines not one's rights but one's duties, that all work from that of a teacher to a janitor are equally necessary, and of equal status. Gandhi considered Manusmriti to include lofty teachings but a text with inconsistency and contradictions, whose original text is in no one's possession. He recommended that one must read the entire text, accept those parts of Manusmriti which are consistent with "truth and ahimsa (non-injury or non-violence to others)" and the rejection of other parts.

The Manu Smriti was one of the first Sanskrit texts studied by the European philologists. It was first translated into English by Sir William Jones. His version was published in 1794. This interest in its translation was encouraged by British administrative requirements, which they believed to be legal codes. In fact, states Romila Thapar, these were not codes of law but social and ritual texts.

A Louis Jacolliot translation of the Calcutta version of "Law of Manu" was reviewed by Friedrich Nietzsche. He commented on it both favourably and unfavorably:
 * He deemed it "an incomparably spiritual and superior work" to the Christian Bible, observed that "the sun shines on the whole book" and attributed its ethical perspective to "the noble classes, the philosophers and warriors, [who] stand above the mass". Nietzsche does not advocate a caste system, states David Conway, but endorses the political exclusion conveyed in the Manu text. Nietzsche considered Manu's social order as far from perfect, but considers the general idea of a caste system to be natural and right, and stated that "caste-order, order of rank is just a formula for the supreme law of life itself", a "natural order, lawfulness par excellence". According to Nietzsche, states Julian Young, "Nature, not Manu, separates from each other: predominantly spiritual people, people characterized by muscular and temperamental strength, and a third group of people who are not distinguished in either way, the average". He wrote that "To prepare a book of law in the style of Manu means to give a people the right to become master one day, to become perfect, – to aspire to the highest art of life."
 * The Law of Manu was also criticised by Nietzsche. He, states "These regulations are instructive enough: here we encounter for once Aryan humanity, quite pure, quite primordial,—we learn that the concept of "pure blood" is the opposite of a harmless concept".

B. R. Ambedkar asserted that Manu Smriti was written by a sage named Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Shunga in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of Buddhism. However, historian Romila Thapar considers these claims to be exaggerations. Thapar writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra. Support of the Buddhist faith by the Shungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Shungas".

Pollard et al. state that the code of Manu was derived to answer questions on how men could rebuild their societies following a series of floods. Swami Dayananda Saraswati, the founder of Arya Samaj, held the text to be authentic and authoritative. Other admirers of the text have included Annie Besant.

Friedrich Nietzsche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti. It has an affirmation of life, a triumphing agreeable sensation in life and that to draw up a lawbook such as Manu means to permit oneself to get the upper hand, to become perfection, to be ambitious of the highest art of living."

Editions and translations

 * Ganganath Jha, Manusmriti with the Commentary of Medhatithi, 1920, ISBN 8120811550
 * J. I. Shastri (ed.), Manusmriti with Kullukabhatta Commentary (1972–1974), reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120807662.
 * Pranjivan Harihar Pandya (ed.), Manusmriti; With a commentary called Manvarth Muktavali by Kullooka Bhatt, Bombay, 1913.
 * Ramacandra Varma Shastri, Manusmr̥ti: Bhāratīya ācāra-saṃhitā kā viśvakośa, Śāśvata Sāhitya Prakāśana, 1997.
 * The Institutes of Hindu Law: Or, The Ordinances of Manu, Calcutta: Sewell & Debrett, 1796.
 * Pranjivan Harihar Pandya (ed.), Manusmriti; With a commentary called Manvarth Muktavali by Kullooka Bhatt, Bombay, 1913.
 * Ramacandra Varma Shastri, Manusmr̥ti: Bhāratīya ācāra-saṃhitā kā viśvakośa, Śāśvata Sāhitya Prakāśana, 1997.
 * The Institutes of Hindu Law: Or, The Ordinances of Manu, Calcutta: Sewell & Debrett, 1796.

title: Manusmriti


text:
1931 in rail transport

January events

 * January 1 – Ernest Lemon succeeds Sir Henry Fowler as Chief Mechanical Engineer of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway.
 * January 11 – The Boston and Maine Railroad runs its first “Snow Train” for skiers and other winter vacationers.

March events

 * March 17 – Sangu Express Railway Line, Osaka Uehonmachi to Ujiyamada of Ise route officially completed in Japan (as predecessor of Kintetsu Osaka Line and Kintetsu Yamada Line).

May events

 * May 23 – The North Bay Railway (20 in (508 mm)) opens at Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England, with the world's first diesel-hydraulic locomotive, 4-6-2 1931 Neptune, Hudswell Clarke works no. D565.
 * May 24 – The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad inaugurates the first air conditioned passenger train, the Columbian, between Jersey City, New Jersey, and Washington, DC.
 * May 30 – Maine Central Railroad ends train service to the Bar Harbor ferry.

June events

 * June – The County Donegal Railways Joint Committee in Ireland (3 ft (914 mm) gauge) introduces the first diesel engined railcar to enter regular passenger service in the British Isles.
 * June 10 – The German rail zeppelin (Schienenzeppelin), an experimental propeller driven railcar, sets up a new world railway speed record of 230 km/h on its way from Hamburg to Berlin which was not surpassed by any other train for 24 years.
 * June 13 – Switzerland's Brienz Rothorn Bahn mountain railway reopens after a 17-year stoppage due to World War I.

July events

 * July 1 – Rebuilt Milano Centrale railway station opens in Italy.
 * July 19 – Sudbury Town station on London Underground Piccadilly line opens as rebuilt by Charles Holden, the first of his iconic modern designs for the network.

August events

 * August 6 – Ferrovie del Sud Est established in Italy.

September events

 * September 1 – Joetsu Line, Miyauchi of Nagaoka to Takasaki, including Shimizu Tunnel route officially completed, as same time, Ueno of Tokyo to Niigata direct express train service start in Japan.
 * September 12 – Just outside Budapest, a bomb planted by a Hungarian Fascist destroys a section of the Biatorbágy Viaduct, plunging the Orient Express into the ravine below. Twenty people are killed. Entertainer Josephine Baker, one of the surviving passengers, gives an impromptu concert to calm other survivors.

October events

 * October 17 – The Japanese Government Railways Hanawa Line in Iwate and Akita prefectures reaches Rikuchū-Ōsato Station.

November events

 * November 12 – The Smithsonian Institution commemorates the 100th birthday of the John Bull by operating its mechanism with compressed air.

December events

 * December 29 – Willingdon Bridge (modern-day Vivekananda Setu) is opened, carrying rail and road over the Hooghly River in West Bengal between Howrah and Calcutta.

Unknown date events

 * Voroshilovgrad Locomotive Factory turns out first Class FD (Felix Dzerzhinsky) 2-10-2 steam locomotive which will become the USSR’s principal freight type, with 3213 being built up to 1942.
 * A wide gauge railway line connecting Estonian towns Tartu and Pechory is opened; thereby Estonian seaports are directly connected to central areas of Russia and Ukraine.

Unknown date births

 * Nelson W. Bowers, president of the National Railway Historical Society (1983–1987) (died 2004).

January deaths

 * January 13 – Kálmán Kandó, Hungarian engineer who designed the world's first AC traction electric railway in Italy in 1902 (born 1869).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1931 in rail transport


text: User talk:68.50.216.171

title: User talk:68.50.216.171


text:
Violin Sonata No. 9 (Beethoven)

The Violin Sonata No. 9 in A major, Op. 47, by Ludwig van Beethoven, is an 1803 sonata for piano and violin notable for its technical difficulty, unusual length (around 40 minutes), and emotional scope. It is commonly known as the Kreutzer Sonata (Kreutzer-Sonate) after the violinist Rodolphe Kreutzer, to whom it was ultimately dedicated, but who thoroughly disliked the piece and refused to play it.

Composition
In the composer's 1803 sketchbook, the work was titled "Sonata per il Pianoforte ed uno violino obligato in uno stile molto concertante come d’un concerto" ("Sonata for the piano and one obligatory violin in a highly concertante style like a concerto"). The final movement of the work was originally written for another, earlier, sonata for violin and piano by Beethoven, the Sonata No. 6, Op. 30, No. 1, in A major.

Beethoven gave no key designation to the work. Although the work is usually titled as being in A major, the Austrian composer and music theoretician Gerhard Präsent has published articles indicating that the main key is in fact A minor.

Premiere and dedication
The sonata was originally dedicated to the violinist George Bridgetower (1778–1860) as "Sonata mulattica composta per il mulatto Brischdauer [Bridgetower], gran pazzo e compositore mulattico" (Mulatto Sonata composed for the mulatto Brischdauer, great madman mulatto composer). Shortly after completion the work was premiered by Bridgetower and Beethoven on 24 May 1803 at the Augarten Theatre at a concert that started at the unusually early hour of 8:00 am. Bridgetower sight-read the sonata; he had never seen the work before, and there had been no time for any rehearsal.

After the premiere performance, Beethoven and Bridgetower fell out: while the two were drinking, Bridgetower apparently insulted the morals of a woman whom Beethoven cherished. Enraged, Beethoven removed the dedication of the piece, dedicating it instead to Rodolphe Kreutzer, who was considered the finest violinist of the day.

Structure
The piece is in three movements, and takes approximately 43 minutes to perform: 1. Adagio sostenuto – Presto (A major – A minor, sonata form, about 15 minutes in length)
 * The sonata opens with a slow 18-bar introduction, of which only the first four bars of the solo violin are in the A-Major-key. The piano enters, and the harmony begins to turn darker towards the minor key, until the main body of the movement — an angry A-minor Presto— begins. Here, the piano part matches the violin's in terms of difficulty. Near the end, Beethoven brings back part of the opening Adagio, before closing the movement in an anguished coda.

2. Andante con variazioni (F major, variation form, with the third variation in F minor, about 18 minutes)
 * There could hardly be a greater contrast with the second movement, a placid tune in F major followed by five distinctive variations. The first variation transliterates the theme into a lively triple meter while embellishing it with trills, while in the second the violin steals the melody and enlivens it even further. The third variation, in F minor, returns to a darker and more meditative state. The fourth recalls the first and second variations with its light, ornamental, and airy feel. The fifth and final variation, the longest, caps the movement with a slower and more dramatic feel, nevertheless returning to the carefree F major.

3. Presto (A major, sonata form, about 10 minutes)
 * The calm is broken by a crashing A major chord in the piano, ushering in the virtuosic and exuberant third movement, a 6/8 tarantella in sonata form. After moving through a series of slightly contrasting episodes, the theme returns for the last time, and the work ends jubilantly in a rush of A major.

Reception
After its successful premiere in 1803, the work was published in 1805 as Beethoven's Op. 47, with its re-dedication to Rudolphe Kreutzer, which gave the composition its nickname. Kreutzer never performed the work, considering it "outrageously unintelligible". He did not particularly care for any of Beethoven's music, and they only ever met once, briefly.

Referring to Beethoven's composition, Leo Tolstoy's novella The Kreutzer Sonata was first published in 1889. That novella was adapted in various stage and film productions, contributing to Beethoven's composition becoming known to the general public.

Rita Dove's 2009 Sonata Mulattica reimagined the life of Bridgetower, the sonata's original dedicatee, in poetry, thus writing about the sonata that connected the composer and the violinist who first performed it.

Reference in Film
Within Bernard Rose's autobiographical film of Beethoven's life, Immortal Beloved, Beethoven (as played by Gary Oldman) relates to Anton Schindler (Jeroen Krabbé) the inspiration for the first movement Adagio-Presto, where Schindler is listening to the rehearsal prior to the premier performance by George Bridgetower and Ignaz Schuppanzigh. As recorded by Schindler in his biography of the composer, Beethoven then gave an explanation of what the music represented to him - and this then had bearing on the identity of the immortal beloved in turn.

"...So now, what was in my mind when I wrote this ? ... A man is trying to reach his lover. His carriage has broken down in the rain, the wheel is stuck in the mud. She will only wait so long. This - is the sound of his agitation."

title: Violin Sonata No. 9 (Beethoven)


text:
Troy Glaus

Troy Edward Glaus (born August 3, 1976) is an American former professional baseball third baseman and first baseman. Glaus played in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the Anaheim Angels (1998–2004), Arizona Diamondbacks (2005), Toronto Blue Jays (2006–2007), St. Louis Cardinals (2008–2009), and the Atlanta Braves (2010). Glaus lettered in baseball while attending UCLA. He won a bronze medal in baseball at the 1996 Summer Olympics as a member of the U.S. national baseball team. Glaus was a four-time All-Star and won World Series MVP honors in.

Professional career
In 13 seasons, Glaus hit .254 with 320 home runs and 950 RBI in 1537 games. In 19 postseason games, he hit .347 with nine home runs and 16 RBI. Glaus has been selected to four All-Star Games, three with the Angels and one with the Blue Jays.

Anaheim Angels

Glaus began his career with the Angels in 1998 and was installed as the team's starting third baseman in 1999.

Glaus had a breakout season in 2000, becoming the all-time single season home run leader in Angels history with 47 while leading third baseman in adjusted range factor (2.95) in 2000.

Glaus participated in the 2001 MLB All-Star Game and posted his second consecutive 40 home run season with 41 on the year.

In 2002, Glaus failed to reach the 40 home run club for the first time since the 1999 season, but he managed to hit thirty home runs in helping the Angels make the playoffs for the first time in 16 years. The Angels beat the San Francisco Giants in seven games in the 2002 World Series to win their first world championship title in team history. Glaus was awarded the World Series MVP award as he hit .385 with three home runs and eight RBIs and hit a go-ahead double in Game 6 to finish a five-run comeback for the Angels. Glaus had another All-Star year in 2003.

Glaus missed much of the 2004 season with a shoulder injury. 2004 was the last year of his contract with the Angels. As an established veteran, he was in demand on the free agent market and able to field lucrative offers for long-term contracts. Although Glaus had spent his entire career an Angel, and was a fan favorite, the team decided not to pursue Glaus' return. Amid concerns about Glaus' future health after his injury, the team decided to go with the much lower-priced alternative of turning the third base position over to young prospect Dallas McPherson, whom they felt had a good chance to soon become as productive as Glaus had been.

Arizona Diamondbacks
Glaus ultimately signed with the Arizona Diamondbacks for US$45 million over four years. He worked through his back problems in the 2005 season with the Diamondbacks, hitting 37 home runs with 97 RBIs. He also led the league in adjusted range factor (2.92), but his 24 errors tied him with David Wright for the most errors by a third baseman in the Major Leagues, and he had a Major League-low .946 fielding percentage at third.

Toronto Blue Jays
After the 2005 season, Glaus was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays in the off-season along with minor league shortstop Sergio Santos. The trade sent pitcher Miguel Batista and second baseman Orlando Hudson to the Diamondbacks. The Jays badly needed a power bat a year after letting go of Carlos Delgado, however the emergence of Hudson at second base gave the statistical advantage of this trade to the Diamondbacks. Although Glaus was converted from shortstop to third base in the minors (and played 10 games at shortstop for the Angels), he started at shortstop for the Toronto Blue Jays against the Chicago White Sox on May 26, 2006, due to the demotion of shortstop Russ Adams. Glaus was not expected to do much fielding due to the fact the pitcher that day was known to induce many fly balls, instead of ground balls. This defensive alignment didn't affect his hitting, collecting two hits with a home run. Glaus made several starts at shortstop for the Blue Jays, usually when Toronto was facing National League opponents at their home ballpark, where there is no DH.

After hitting 38 home runs and 104 RBI in the 2006 season, Glaus earned a single 10th place vote for the 2006 American League MVP Award.

In 2006, Glaus had the lowest zone rating of any Major League third baseman (.741).

In 2007 Glaus's production was hampered all year by foot injuries and his production fell.

On December 13, 2007, he was cited in the Mitchell Report.

St. Louis Cardinals
Glaus was traded to the St. Louis Cardinals in exchange for fellow third baseman Scott Rolen on January 14, 2008. This worked out well for the Cardinals, as Glaus did about as well as, or better than, his career rates in most offensive categories. Furthermore, Glaus committed only seven errors in 146 games and led the league with a .982 fielding percentage at 3B.

On September 3, 2008, he hit his 300th career home run off Doug Davis of the Arizona Diamondbacks in the third inning.

He underwent arthroscopic right shoulder surgery on January 21, 2009. The Cardinals initially expected him to be ready around the start of 2009 season, but after a setback in his rehabilitation he was placed on the 15-day DL; after another reassessment the Cardinals announced that they did not expect him to return until June 2009. On July 11, 2009, he was assigned to the Palm Beach Cardinals of the Florida State League on a rehabilitation assignment. He returned September 2, against the Brewers in the bottom of the 6th inning.

Atlanta Braves
Following an injury-shortened 2009 season with the St. Louis Cardinals, Glaus signed a one-year $1.75 million contract with the Atlanta Braves, a deal that allowed him to earn an additional $2.25 million in performance and roster bonuses. He became the starting first baseman in 2010.

After a rough April in which he hit below the Mendoza Line, Glaus rebounded to become Player of the Month in May, hitting .330 with six home runs and 28 RBI. As of August 9, Glaus was hitting .242 with 14 home runs and 63 RBI.

Glaus's production faltered in July and August. After Atlanta acquired Derrek Lee on August 18 to play first base, Glaus was placed on the DL with knee fatigue. Glaus had a few setbacks, but returned to Atlanta in a back-up role behind Derrek Lee and rookie Freddie Freeman.

Glaus made only one appearance at third base during the regular season, but was used at third base in Game 2 of the NLDS against the San Francisco Giants, starting a key double play. Glaus then started Game 4 of the series at third base.

Personal life
Glaus relocated to San Diego in 2020, with his wife, Ann. He also has one son, Ty.

title: Troy Glaus


text:
Rabble.ca

rabble.ca is an alternative, left-leaning English-language Canadian online magazine founded in 2001. It features podcasts, videos and a discussion board called babble.

History
Judy Rebick and Mark Surman founded rabble.ca on April 18, 2001. The launch coincided with the Summit of the Americas in Quebec, and rabble covered the Summit during its first week of operation.

Anti-globalization activist Jaggi Singh became one of the website's most active contributors. Due to his participation in protests at the Summit of the Americas he was jailed for offences including possession of a weapon. Rabble, along with other left-wing organisations and activists, wrote an open letter calling for his release.

Upon its launch, the website raised $200,000, which included $120,000 from the Atkinson Foundation.

On September 7, 2008, rabble.ca launched a multi-author election blog. The blog featuring authors such as Maude Barlow and the Council of Canadians and organizations such as the Rideau Institute.

Contributors
Judy Rebick, Naomi Klein, Francine Pelletier, Anna Dashtgard, Patty Barrera, Priscilla Settee, Penney Kome, Doris Anderson, Ann Shin and Sandra DeLaronde were among the original contributors at the launch of the website.

Judy Rebick retired in 2006 and was replaced by Amnesty International member Kim Elliott.

Former Financial Post columnist Murray Dobbin is the guest senior contributing editor for rabble.ca.

The advisory committee of rabble.ca is composed of Dave Mitchell, Fred Wilson, John Urquhart, Linda McQuaig, Lynn Coady, and Sharon Fraser.

Reception
rabble.ca has received both praise and criticism from a range of media analysts. Shauna Rempel of the Toronto Star praised Rabble for its use of the Internet to propel activism, while journalist Colby Cosh dismissed it as "a hobby for Judy Rebick [...] on the Canadian left" and a "vanity web project".

title: Rabble.ca


text:
Kreutzer Sonata

Kreutzer Sonata or Kreutzer's Sonata may refer to:

Music, literature and stage

 * Violin Sonata No. 9 (Beethoven), Ludwig van Beethoven's 1803 sonata Op. 47, dedicated to Rodolphe Kreutzer
 * Any of the sonatas composed by Rodolphe Kreutzer, the dedicatee of Beethoven's sonata
 * Any of the sonatas composed by Conradin Kreutzer
 * The Kreutzer Sonata, Leo Tolstoy's 1889 novella, taking its title from Beethoven's sonata
 * Di Kreytser sonata (The Kreutzer Sonata), a 1902 stage adaptation of Tolstoy's novel by Jacob Gordin
 * String Quartet No. 1 (Janáček), subtitled Kreutzer Sonata, Leoš Janáček's 1923 composition inspired by Tolstoy's novel

Film

 * The Kreutzer Sonata (1911 film), a Russian silent film directed by Pyotr Chardynin
 * The Kreutzer Sonata, a 1914 Russian film directed by Vladimir Gardin
 * The Kreutzer Sonata (1915 film), an American silent film directed by Herbert Brenon
 * The Kreutzer Sonata (1920 film), an Italian silent film directed by Umberto Fracchia
 * The Kreutzer Sonata (1922 film), a German silent film directed by Rolf Petersen
 * The Kreutzer Sonata (1927 film), a Czech silent film directed by Gustav Machatý
 * The Kreutzer Sonata (1937 film), a German film directed by Veit Harlan
 * La Sonate à Kreutzer, a 1956 French short film directed by Éric Rohmer
 * The Kreutzer Sonata (1987 film), a Soviet film directed by Mikhail Shveytser
 * The Kreutzer Sonata (2008 film), an American film by Bernard Rose

title: Kreutzer Sonata


text:
1884 in rail transport

February events

 * February 22 – Brooks Locomotive Works in the United States completes its 1,000th new steam locomotive.

March events

 * March 17 – The Southern Pacific Railroad is incorporated in Kentucky.
 * March – Central Pacific Railroad's El Gobernador, at the time the largest locomotive in the world, enters service.

April events

 * April 2 – Melton railway station opens in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
 * April 26 – The British-owned Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway opens Bahía Blanca Sud railway station in Argentina.

May events

 * May 1 – Nippon Railroad Line, Ueno of Tokyo to Takasaki of Gunma Prefecture route officially completed in Japan.(as predecessor of Takasaki Line)

June events

 * June 11 – The Pine Bluff and Swan Lake Railway, in Arkansas (later to become part of the Cotton Belt Railroad), is incorporated.

July events

 * July 23 – The Iron Railroad in Ohio is reincorporated as the Iron Railway.

September events

 * September 15 – Opening of first railway in Serbia, from Belgrade to Niš (243 km).
 * September 20 - Opening of the Arlberg Railway Tunnel (10.25 km), completing the Arlberg railway in Austria, the main east–west rail link through the Alps.

October events

 * October – John King succeeds Hugh J. Jewett as president of the Erie Railroad.

November events

 * November 13 – The Hagener Straßenbahn-Gesellschaft in Hagen, Germany, opens its first 2 km long horse-car line.
 * November 28 – Northern Pacific Railroad establishes the town of Pasco, Washington, at the junction of its lines between Seattle, Tacoma, Spokane, and Portland, Oregon.

December events

 * December 10 – Narrow gauge Franklin and Megantic Railway opens to Kingfield, Maine.

Unknown date events

 * Summer - The Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, later to become part of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, completes its connection between Needles and Mojave, California.
 * The Santa Fe Refrigerator Despatch (SFRD) is established as a subsidiary of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway.
 * The Smithsonian Institution acquires the John Bull from the Pennsylvania Railroad as the museum's first example of railroad technology.
 * Charles Francis Adams, Jr. becomes president of the Union Pacific Railroad.

July births

 * July 6 – Harold Stirling Vanderbilt, heir to Cornelius Vanderbilt and president of the New York Central railroad system (d. 1970).

September births

 * September 11 – Robert Eastman Woodruff, president of Erie Railroad 1939–1949, is born (d. 1957).

December births

 * December 9 – Ernest Lemon, Chief Mechanical Engineer (1931–1932) and later Vice President for the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (d. 1954).

March deaths

 * March 23 – Henry C. Lord, president of Indianapolis and Cincinnati Railroad in the 1850s, president of Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway 1868–1869, founding president of Indianapolis Belt Railroad in 1873 (b. 1824).

May deaths

 * May 17 – George Muirson Totten, chief construction engineer for the Panama Railway (b. 1808).

September deaths

 * September 4 – Wilhelm Engerth, German steam locomotive designer (b. 1814).
 * September 26 – John W. Garrett, president of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 1858– (b. 1820).

Unknown date deaths

 * Wendel Bollman, American designer of the Bollman Truss Railroad Bridge (b. 1814).

title: 1884 in rail transport


text:
User talk:KagomeShuko

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! --Flockmeal 00:53, Dec 10, 2004 (UTC)
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High Church Lutheranism
Yes, I am Lutheran. I don't know any more about it than you do. My edits to that page were mostly cleaning up what others had written; taking the information that was there and rephrasing it more clearly. I have learned, though, in the course of various religious debates on Wikipedia, that it is unwise to assume that a set of religious beliefs or practices don't exist just because you have never heard of them. The Lutheran Church is worldwide, and it's not too surprising that practices and terminology vary from place to place. For example, I had a debate here some months ago with another Lutheran (in the same country as me! In the same Church!) who insisted that in his Lutheran church they practice reservation of the sacrament, and that most Lutheran churches in his area have tabernacles for this purpose. I have never heard of such a thing where I'm from. It's a big world, and we each see only our little piece of it.

The article may well need to put this movement in context, to better explain who practices it and where. That can only be done by someone familiar with it, though.--Srleffler 04:21, 8 June 2006 (UTC)

The link you posted leads to a chat forum where many people seem to be using "high church" quite happily to describe Lutheran practices. Maybe I'm not seeing the same discussion as you were. As to your other questions, yes this is not a "traditional" Lutheran term, and not one likely to have been used in seminary education. It's a terminology that has been "imported" from the Anglicans, who refer to their more liturgically-oriented branch as "high" and their less liturgical branch as "low". The worldwide Lutheran community has member churches that are more and less liturgical. Some people have begun to use the Anglican terminology of "high" and "low" to refer to these differences. It's just a convenient description. It doesn't imply that "high" church Lutherans are better than "low" church ones. Note also that it doesn't necessarily correlate with "liberal" and "conservative". In general, a "high" church (of any denomination) is one that has a very traditional and formal (liturgical) style of worship. Such churches may in general have either liberal or conservative social values. My impression is that most of the major North American Lutheran denominations (ELCA, LCMS, ELCiC) are fairly "high church". ELCA and ELCiC are relatively liberal. LCMS is more conservative. In Lutheranism, "low church" is mostly related to pietism, which all of the major North American Lutheran denominations reject. I think some of the Lutheran churches in Europe are still pietist, but I'm not sure which ones.

From what I have read on Wikipedia, it appears that the history of the Lutheran church and its theological and liturgical practices has been pretty complicated. My impression is that the early Lutherans were pretty similar to the Catholics in religious practice, which is not surprising since Luther was not trying to start his own church, but to reform the Catholic church. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Lutherans in Europe absorbed worship practices and doctrinal views from the Calvinist Reformed churches, forming what is called "pietism". Some Lutherans resisted this trend, forming separate "confessional" churches dedicated to the Lutheran Confessions and traditional Lutheran practices and doctrine. The LCMS is descended from those Lutherans. Meanwhile, the pietist movement lost some of its hold on the church in the late 19th century. There was a movement within the church to return to traditional Lutheran beliefs (neo-Lutheranism). I don't know for sure, but I'm guessing the ELCA and ELCiC traditions come from this branch of the Lutheran family: Lutherans who returned to the traditions of Lutheranism after the century or two of Pietism ran its course.--Srleffler 05:28, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

OK, I read more of that chat forum. It seems to me that NordicLutheran misread the Wikipedia article, projecting his own prejudices into it. The others on the forum are primarily refuting his interpretation. "High" vs. "low" is primarily about worship practices rather than liberal vs. conservative. The article more or less says this, but the issue is confused because many of the "high church" reform movements also happened to be conservative. Not all are, though. The article does mention that high church groups eventually developed liberal forms. The article isn't all that well-written.--Srleffler 05:46, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Lost and Found (Christian rock band)
I've nominated Lost and Found (Christian rock band), an article you created, for deletion. We appreciate your contributions, but in this particular case I do not feel that Lost and Found (Christian rock band) satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion; I have explained why in the nomination space (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and the Wikipedia deletion policy). Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at Articles for deletion/Lost and Found (Christian rock band) and please be sure to sign your comments with four tildes ( ~ ). You are free to edit the content of Lost and Found (Christian rock band) during the discussion but should not remove the articles for deletion template from the top of the article; such removal will not end the deletion discussion. Thank you.RJASE1 Talk  05:13, 10 March 2007 (UTC)

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Lutheranism
The WikiProject Lutheranism Collaboration Project is under way. Please help improve this month's article, or make a suggestion for next month's article. To add the collaboration banner to your userpage or talk page, use Lutheran COTM. -- Pastordavid 20:24, 19 April 2007 (UTC)

Barnstars
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Lost and Found
Hi Kagome - I wasn't proposing the article for deletion, just questioning its notability. Per the WP:MUSIC notability guideline, having an entry at Allmusic and some trivial coverage elsewhere doesn't necessarily make a band notable enough; and to me, that's what this case kind of looked like at first. The second "Articles for Deletion" nomination was two years ago (and sometimes standards change), but it looks like there was good consensus to keep, so I'm not concerned about that anymore. Feel free to remove that "notability" tag at the top of the page now. :) I re-added those references that you mentioned: I wasn't aware that TheLutheran.org was a reliable magazine which has an article on here. Thank you for letting me know. Best, Jamie ☆S93  16:16, 22 April 2009 (UTC)

Nomination of Preacher's kid for deletion
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 * Actually, the discussion is at Articles for deletion/Preacher%27s kid %282nd nomination%29. You are welcome to participate in the discussion, and to add material to the article that is backed up by reliable sources. 202.124.73.65 (talk) 05:42, 26 June 2011 (UTC)

Ichthus: January 2012
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Your draft article, Draft:Ed Debevic's

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In accordance with our policy that Wikipedia is not for the indefinite hosting of material deemed unsuitable for the encyclopedia mainspace, the draft has been nominated for deletion. If you plan on working on it further, or editing it to address the issues raised if it was declined, simply and remove the, , or  code.

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title: User talk:KagomeShuko


text:
Talk:Wallace Breen

Quotes
Should we put up a quote or two from one of his ingame speeches? I'm looking for a transcript of the "Collaborator" speech he makes in Anticitizen One, or better still the one he makes referring to the suppression field. It'll give the reader insight into his mindset.By the way gordon take a bath you smell like shit. Qjuad 18:25, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Collaboration:
 * It has come to my attention that some have lately called me a Collaborator, as if such a term were shameful. I ask you, what greater endeavor exists than that of collaboration? In our current unparalleled enterprise, refusal to collaborate is simply a refusal to grow; an insistence on suicide, if you will. Did the lung fish refuse to breathe air? It did not. It crept forth, boldly, while its brethren remained in the blackest ocean abyss, with lidless eyes forever staring at the dark, ignorant and doomed despite eternal vigilance. Would we model ourselves on the trilobite? Are all the accomplishments of humanity fated to be nothing more than a layer of broken plastic shards, thinly strewn across a fossil bed, sandwiched between the burgess shale, and an eon's worth of mud? In order to be true to our nature, and our destiny, we must aspire to greater things. We have outgrown our cradle. It is futile to cry for mother's milk when our true sustenance awaits us among the stars. And only the Universal Union, that small minds call the Combine, can carry us there. Therefore I say yes, I am a collaborator. We must all collaborate, willingly, eagerly, if we expect to reap the benefits of unification. And reap we shall.

 * Suppression field:
 * ''Let me read a letter I recently received. "Dear Dr. Breen, why has the Combine seen fit to suppress our reproductive cycle? Sincerely, a concerned citizen." Thank you for writing, concerned. Of course, your question touches on one of the basic biological impulses, with all of its associated hopes and fears for the future of the species. I also detect some unspoken questions. Do Our Benefactors really know what's best for us? What gives them the right to make this kind of decision for mankind? Will they ever deactivate the suppression field and let us breed again? Allow me to address the anxieties underlying your concerns, rather than try to answer every possible question you might have left unvoiced. First, let us consider the fact that for the first time ever, as a species, immortality is within our reach. This simple fact has far reaching implications; it requires radical rethinking and revision of our genetic imperatives. It also requires planning and forethought that run in direct opposition to our neural presets. I find it helpful at times like these to remind myself that our true enemy is instinct. Instinct was our mother when we were an infant species. Instinct coddled us and kept us safe in those hardscrabble years when we hardened our sticks and cooked our first meals above a meager fire, and started at the shadows that leapt upon the cavern's walls. But inseparable from instinct, is its dark twin, superstition. Instinct is inextricably bound to unreasoning impulses, and today we clearly see its true nature. Instinct has just become aware of its irrelevance, and like a cornered beast, it will not go down without a bloody fight. Instinct would inflict a fatal injury on our species. Instinct creates its own oppressors, and bids us rise up against them. Instinct tells us that the unknown is a threat, rather than an opportunity. Instinct slyly and covertly compels us away from change and progress. Instinct, therefore, must be expunged. It must be fought tooth and nail, beginning with the basest of human urges: the urge to reproduce. We should thank Our Benefactors for giving us respite from this overpowering force. They have thrown a switch and exercised our demons in a single stroke. They have given us the strength we never could have summoned to overcome this compulsion. They have given us purpose. They have turned our eyes toward the stars. Let me assure you that the suppressing field will be shut off on the day that we have mastered ourselves, the day we can prove we no longer need it. And that day of transformation, I have it on good authority, is close at hand.''

 * Add them how you see fit. Nufy8 18:56, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Another quickie at the start:
 * Welcome! Welcome to City 17. You have chosen, or have been chosen, to relocate to one of our finest remaining urban centers.  I thought so much of City 17 that I elected to establish my administration here, in the citadel so thoughtfully provided by our benefactors.  I've been proud to call City 17 my home.  And so, whether you are here to stay, or passing through on your journey to parts unknown, welcome to City 17.  It's safer here.
 * Anonymous 14:39, 22 December 2005 (PST)

 * Speech in Water Hazard:
 * We now have direct confirmation of a disruptor in our midst, one who has acquired an almost messianic reputation in the minds of certain citizens. His figure is synonymous with the darkest urges of instinct, ignorance and decay. Some of the worst excesses of the Black Mesa Incident have been laid directly at his feet. And yet unsophisticated minds continue to imbue him with romantic power, giving him such dangerous poetic labels as the One Free Man, the Opener of the Way. Let me remind all citizens of the dangers of magical thinking. We have scarcely begun to climb from the dark pit of our species' evolution. Let us not slide backward into oblivion, just as we have finally begun to see the light. If you see this so-called Free Man, report him. Civic deeds do not go unrewarded. And contrariwise, complicity with his cause will not go unpunished. Be wise. Be safe. Be aware.

 * Transhuman army:
 * ''I have been asked to say a few words to the transhuman arm of Sector Seventeen Overwatch, concerning recent successes in containing members of the resistance Science Team. Let me say up front that I regret having to temper my heartfelt congratulations with a strong measure of disappointment. But I wouldn't be doing my duty as your Administrator if I didn't pass along the message I have received from our Benefactors. The capture of Eli Vance is an event of major significance, make no mistake. And while it's true that conceivably we could have taken him at almost any time in the last several years, the manner of his capture may prove to have unexpected benefits. It cannot have gone unnoticed by all resistance members that Doctor Vance's capture coincided with the act of giving shelter to Gordon Freeman. This might cause other resistance members to think twice before harboring Doctor Freeman. It might cause them to question his allegiance; even prompt some to turn him out, or turn him over to our cause. However, we cannot count on such developments. Doctor Freeman's reputation is such that other desperate renegades are likely to grant him a great deal of license in the spirit of spreading general chaos and terror. This brings me to the one note of disappointment I must echo from our Benefactors. Obviously I am not on the ground to closely command or second-guess the dedicated forces of the Overwatch, but this does not mean I can shirk responsibility for recent lapses and even outright failures on their part. I have been severely questioned about these shortcomings, and now must put the question to you: How could one man have slipped through your forces' fingers time and time again? How is it possible? This is not some agent provocateur or highly trained assassin we are discussing. Gordon Freeman is a theoretical physicist who had barely earned the distinction of his Ph.D. at the time of the Black Mesa Incident. I have good reason to believe that in the intervening years, he was in a state that precluded further development of covert skills. The man you have consistently failed to slow, let alone capture is by all standards just that--an ordinary man. How could you have failed to apprehend him? Well...I will leave the upbraiding for another time; to the extent it proves necessary. Now is the moment to redeem yourselves. If the transhuman forces are to prove themselves an indispensable augmentation to the Combine Overwatch, they will have to earn the privilege. I'm sure I don't have to remind you that the alternative, if you can call it that, is total extinction--in union with all the other unworthy branches of the species. Let's not allow it to come to that. I have done my best to convince our benefactors that you are the finest the species has to offer. So far they have accepted my argument, but without concrete evidence to back it up, my words sound increasingly hollow even to me. The burden of proof is on you. As is the consequence of failure. I'll just leave it at that.''

 * Dr. Breen also questioned Gordon Freeman directly:

 * I'd like to take a moment to address you directly, Dr. Freeman. Yes, I'm talking to you. The so-called One Free Man. I have a question for you. How could you have thrown it all away? It staggers the mind. A man of science, with the ability to sway reactionary and fearful minds toward the truth choosing instead to embark on a path of ignorance and decay. Make no mistake, Dr. Freeman. This is not a scientific revolution you have sparked...this is death and finality. You have plunged humanity into freefall. Even if you offered your surrender now, I cannot guarantee that our benefactors would accept it. At the moment, I fear they have begun to look upon even me with suspicion. So much for serving as humanities representative. Help me win back their trust, Dr. Freeman. Surrender while you still can. Help ensure that humanities trust in you is not misguided. Do what is right, Dr. Freeman. Serve mankind.

 * Then, later on, in the Citadel, Dr. Breen talks to him and to him alone (no one else can hear this):

 * So, this is Dr. Freeman, at last. I wish I could say this was a pleasant surprise, but it's neither a surprise, nor, as you would surely agree, very pleasant. Well, I am nothing if not pragmatic.

 * ''Well, Dr. Freeman, under other circumstances I like to think we might have been able to work together in an atmosphere of mutual trust and respect. Certainly judging from your brief tenure at Black Mesa while I was its Administrator, you showed every promise of becoming a valuable and productive contributor to the scientific process. And yet, I'm not sure what spurred you to it, but there is no place in this enterprise for a rogue physicist.

 * Your mentors are partly to blame, of course; my disappointment in Isaac Kleiner and Eli Vance is far greater than my sorrow over your unfortunate choice of career path. In a way I suppose you could not have done otherwise. Who knows what seeds of iconoclasm they planted when you were young and gullible. But while they certainly share a great part of the responsibility for the recent troubles, it is you alone who have chosen to act in such willful disregard for humanity's future.

 * Tell me, Dr. Freeman, if you can. You have destroyed so much. What is it, exactly, that you have created? Can you name even one thing? I thought not.

 * I have laid the foundation for humanity's survival, and not as we have narrowly defined ourselves, but as something far greater than we could ever imagine. Something we can now only begin to glimpse.

 * Look, Gordon. Look at what you are throwing away. Is it worth it?! (at this point it sounds like Dr. Breen is pleading with Gordon, probably because Overwatch still hasn't managed to kill him and he's starting to get scared; later, when Gordon is safely secure in one of those containment carriers, his confidence has once again skyrocketed)

 * Half-Life 2 has a section for WikiQuotes. You could try placing these quotations there.--WaltCip 17:42, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

 * It would be interesting to note on the page, since the one quote that is transcribed is the one that ends with "Serve mankind," that this may be a reference to the Twilight Zone episode, "To Serve Man."

Picture
[]

Wallace Breen
Shouldn't this article be moved to an article called "Wallace Breen" so as to keep in line with encyclopedic standards? This current article could then be a redirect to Wallace Breen.--SOCL 15:21, 26 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Naming conventions (common names) says to use the most common name a subject is referred to as. I think Mossman calls him Wallace a few times at the end, but it seems to me that he's mostly known as Dr. Breen. Nufy8 16:05, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

Video Propaganda
Well this is more of a technical question. But when you see Breen on those screens in the game is he actually transmitting (the live video) from one location?

 * Yes. The game does those videos using invisible "rendered camera" entities that can be placed anywhere on the map and used to transmit feeds. If you have Garry's Mod, you'll note that the interface allows spawning of remote camera entities, which are the same ones the game uses. They have no models attached to them, so they appear invisible in-game. They're shown as sprites in the Source map editor. CABAL 11:32, 1 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Just to note, if you put on "noclip" in the first level, you can fly through the map and spot Breen's broadcast room, and you'll even be able to see the small Combine symbol that's over his shoulder on the screen. Also, you can fly to a mini version of Kleiner's lab that you sort of see when he's talking to Barney, and you can fly to the infamous test chamber from Half-Life and an incomplete version of the Combine Citadel that was in the background when the G-Man was speaking. Nufy8 16:20, 1 August 2005 (UTC)

That's pretty cool. I had anticipated the answer to my question but I wanted confirmation. Is there any sort of article on this "Camera rendering"? -- Psi edit

 * Not really. The technology itself has been around for a while. Have you played any of the Serious Sam games and noted that portals could show a live view of their destination area? Nothing new here. CABAL 10:50, 2 August 2005 (UTC)

 * This may not be enough help, but here is the article regarding the entity used on the Valve Developer Community. Better than nothing, eh? --Charron 21:06, 25 August 2005 (UTC)

Dr. Breen as a host for a Combine creature?
As you're riding the elevator with Alyx after Dr. Breen hits you with the gravity gun, you can hear him arguing with the Combine about his destination being barely acceptable for the host body.

I can go back and find the dialogue in the game, but someone who has the know-how could probably isolate the file and get a more accurate transcript.

 * "There's no way I can survive in that environment. A host body? You must be joking! I can't possibly... oh, alright damnit, if that's what it takes." I'm thinking Dr. Breen needs a host body to teleport to his destination, rather than being a host body. Nufy8 21:24, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Yeah, that. There goes one theory.

 * In HL2:RTB, there's a sketch and dialogue of a concept of Breen at the end of the game. Like in the final version, he would make his Breencasts as normal, but, at the end of the game, Breen was to be revealed as being half-transformed into a Combine "grub" so as to gain immortality. Pretty much the only thing out of the flesh and technology that resembled him would be his head.--YoungFreud 18:47, 24 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Shouldn't we had info about the "host body" quote? We could at least post that info as a curiosity.

Oh, come on. I've played HL2 and ep1 and it's pretty obvious that Breen would receive a host body to teleport into, so as to survive whatever world he'll end up in. It's in the quote the fella above, er, quoted and it is very obvious. --Haris 03:19, 4 June 2006 (UTC)

request for more breencasts
There's really only a few more Breencasts. Request that somebody fill them in for completeness.
 * Done. Nufy8 02:26, 10 September 2005 (UTC)

Killing Dr. Breen
Added the cheat that allowed you to kill Breen. JAF1970 18:36, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

He survived?
Where's the proof that he survived the explosion? I played through Episode One and couldn't find out what happened to him. Knowitall 00:49, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

Breen's surrender
I have RTB and I cannot find anywhere in it anything regarding Dr. Breen's surrender to the Combine. Can someone either point me to a page number that I keep missing, or the supposed picture of him with the radio gear on? 216.68.209.189 22:00, 9 June 2006 (UTC)dethtoll

 * Some in-game newspaper clippings from Black Mesa East mention it.--Name Theft Victim 21:50, 20 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Yeees, but that doesn't actually answer my question. 216.68.209.189 19:15, 1 July 2006 (UTC)dethtoll

 * I also checked RTB and couldn't find such a picture.

Facial Basis?
Anyone know who's face Dr. Breen's was derived from? 02:08, 19 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Wouldn't it be in RTB? I'll go find my copy in the morning and check for you. 216.68.209.189 08:00, 12 July 2006 (UTC)dethtoll
 * It's in page 122 of h-l2:Raising the Bar, but it is not mentioned what is the model's name.
 * I always thought he looked (and sounded) like Dennis Hopper.

Dr.Breen and Dr.Green and Trevor Goodchild
Is it possible that the Administrator's name is a parody of the ER character?

Personally, I think it's more likely a reference to Trevor Goodchild, who is the leader of the nation of Bregna...whose citizens are called Breens. Trevor is a doctor/dictator known for long-winded speeches and probably-evil motives. I suppose it could be both though. --24.46.164.83 18:39, 3 May 2007 (UTC)

Should slight resemblances of sean connery be noted?
See subject.

Flashn00b 16:33, 16 January 2007 (UTC)

He reminds me more of Dennis Hopper. Ednel 18:42, 20 October 2007 (UTC)

Black Mesa Research Facility Administrator
Dr. Breen is clearly a classic case of Retcon - In Half-Life the only two non-generic characters were Gordon Freeman and the GMan. Every single appearance of the G-Man within HL1 made it clear that he was the "administrator" who was spoken of. My guess is that as Gordon was now employed by the GMan, they needed a new antagonistic human character to play off of, and it was easier to retcon Breen as the Administrator than to create a totally new character with their own backstory.

 * Every single appearance of the G-Man, save one, contains no dialogue. Twice he appears in the pre-disaster phase of the game standing near or arguing with another scientist. At the end of the game he talks about wide-sweeping things. Never even briefly is it even remotely hinted that he is the 'Administrator.' Even if he was intended to be interpreted this way, it is not at all a retcon to create a separate character since it's quite possible to play the entire game and never connect the two characters at all. 74.13.60.110 (talk) 22:31, 21 September 2008 (UTC)

Dr Breen and Mr Breen from Razor 1911
Was the name Breen taken from the name of a leader of Razor 1911? (Razor 1911)(Scroll down to 'Members raided' paragraph 2) 88.104.106.107 11:16, 8 July 2007 (UTC)

'Some lengths' equals a trade?
I've only very recently pieced this together, but in the beginning of Half Life, one of the scientists says the administrator went through 'some lengths' to get the sample that ultimately caused the resonance cascade. Later in the game, we see HEV scientists dead, etc. But later we find out it was actually the Gman who got the sample, and with Breen saying Gordon was open to the 'highest bidder' I'm thinking maybe Breen traded Gordon for the sample after he was unable to get it himself. Does this contradict any known facts? 68.18.154.24 (talk) 16:13, 5 October 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wallace Breen