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User talk:Cdosoftei

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Champagne gene

The champagne gene is a simple dominant allele responsible for a number of rare horse coat colors. The most distinctive traits of horses with the champagne gene are the hazel eyes and pinkish, freckled skin, which are bright blue and bright pink at birth, respectively. The coat color is also affected: any hairs that would have been red are gold, and any hairs that would have been black are chocolate brown. If a horse inherits the champagne gene from either or both parents, a coat that would otherwise be chestnut is instead gold champagne, with bay corresponding to amber champagne, seal brown to sable champagne, and black to classic champagne. A horse must have at least one champagne parent to inherit the champagne gene, for which there is now a DNA test.

Unlike the genes underlying tobiano, dominant white, frame overo spotting and the Leopard complex common to the Appaloosa, the champagne gene does not affect the location of pigment-producing cells in the skin. Nor does the champagne gene remove all pigment from the skin and hair, as in albinism. Instead, the champagne gene produces traits known as hypomelanism, or dilution. Champagne is not associated with any health defects. Other dilution genes in horses include the Cream gene, Dun gene, Pearl gene and Silver dapple gene. Horses affected by these genes can sometimes be confused with champagnes, but champagnes are genetically distinct. Champagnes are not palominos, buckskins, or grullos, nor does the word champagne indicate that a horse is a shiny or light shade of another coat color.

This gene and the associated coat colors are only known in American breeds, especially the American Cream Draft, Tennessee Walker, American Saddlebred and Missouri Fox Trotter. The Source of this Gen is found in very old pony horses of Tibet Plateau e.g. Yushu Horse, Debao Pony and others, perfect for hypomelanism.

Coat colors

Champagne is a dominant trait, based on a mutation in the SLC36A1 gene. A horse with either one or two champagne genes will show the effects of the gene equally. However, if a horse is homozygous for a dominant gene, it will always pass the gene on to all of its offspring, while if the horse is heterozygous for the gene, the offspring will not always inherit the color. Horses with the champagne gene may also carry other coat color genes that affect their phenotype, or outward color.

Horses with the champagne gene have a lightened hair coat and specific eye and skin color traits. Black pigment in the coat, if present, is lightened to chocolate, while red pigment is lightened to gold. The precise champagne dilute coat color produced depends on the underlying base coat color. The effects of champagne plus additional coat color genes have their own distinct vocabulary and appearances;

It is difficult to distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous champagne, which is different from incomplete dominant dilutions such as the cream gene. However the 2008 study that mapped the gene and identified it as a dominant trait noted in passing that homozygotes may have less mottling or a slightly lighter hair color. The authors of this study noted that

The following are considered the most "basic" champagne coat colors:

Classic champagne is, as its name suggests, the coat color most associated with the champagne gene. It is produced by the action of champagne on a black coat. The body coat is chocolate, the mane and tail a darker shade. The legs may also be slightly darker. The overall effect has also been described as lilac, dark taupe, and even green. This color is most often misclassified as grullo, and in the past was sometimes called "lilac dun."

Sable champagne is produced by the action of champagne on a seal brown coat. It is visually difficult to distinguish from classic champagne, and can be confirmed by a DNA test negative for the recessive black (a) allele at Agouti.

Amber champagne is produced by the action of champagne on a bay coat. The coat is gold with chocolate points. Just as there are varying shades of bay, the gold body coat may vary in shade as well. The legs are often lighter than the mane and tail, and the colored points may be difficult to see. The mane and tail may also have "frosting" or light edges, a trait that also occurs in bay duns and some buckskins. Amber champagne can be confused with buckskin or bay dun.

Gold champagne is produced by the action of champagne on a chestnut coat. The coat is gold, and the mane and tail are typically ivory. In some cases, the mane and tail may be self-colored, matching the body coat. These gold champagnes are sometimes called "dark gold" and may be an all-over apricot shade. Dark gold champagnes can be confused with red dun, while those with paler manes and tails were historically called "pumpkin-skinned palominos."

Apart from the unique shades, there are several qualities of the champagne coat that may be used to help identify them. Champagne coats often have an unusual sheen. This sheen makes champagnes difficult to photograph accurately, as the appearance of the coat depends on the lighting. Not all champagne horses have this sheen, and there are many extremely shiny non-champagne horses, so a "sheen" in and of itself does not indicate the champagne gene. The coat may also exhibit reverse dappling, though this is also an unreliable indicator.

Skin, eyes, and hooves
The color of the skin is the single most important visual identifier of champagne horses: in the adult horse, the skin is "pink with abundant dark freckles, except under white markings." The freckles - not mottles, splotches, specks, or blotches - are dark and may have a purple cast, and are small and numerous. By comparison, mottling associated with the Leopard complex is large and blocky alternations between true black or charcoal-colored skin and pigmentless-pink skin. The skin of cremellos and perlinos is pigmented-pink, and exhibit a scant few tiny black specks. Homozygous pearls and pearl-cream combinations also exhibit some freckling of the skin, however this is muted in comparison to the freckles of champagne skin. The skin may exhibit an overall lavender tone. The color qualities of the skin are most evident around the eyes and muzzle, under the tail, and on the udder or sheath.

The eyes of an adult champagne horse are most often described as hazel or amber. In the newborn or very young foal, the eyes are bright blue to blue-green and the skin is bright pink. The champagne blue foal eye is creamier than other types of blue eye such as the bright, unpigmented blue seen on some pinto horses.

In the past, some breeders and horse owners had concerns that horses with light-colored skin and eyes were not healthy. However, the lightening of these parts of the horse due to the champagne gene is not known to be linked to any health or genetic defects. While horses with white markings may sunburn on exposed unpigmented skin, the freckled-pink skin of a champagne horse is said to tan instead. In addition, the color of the hoof has no bearing on its strength.

Interaction with other coat color factors
The presence of other coat color modifying alleles has no effect on whether or not a horse has the champagne trait. However, different traits may interact; they may suppress, enhance, obscure or cancel out various tell-tale clues to the genetic identity of a coat color. Coat colors involving multiple genes often have an unexpected appearance and unique terminology. This type of genetic interaction is called epistasis.

Horses with both the champagne gene and the cream gene are the most common combination. The cream gene is responsible for the palomino, buckskin and cremello coat colors, and is a dose-dependent or incomplete dominant, meaning that a horse with only one copy is visibly different from a horse with two copies of the gene. A single copy of the cream gene dilutes red pigment in the coat to gold or yellow, and has a slight effect on the skin and eye color. The black pigment is lightened little, if at all. Two copies of the cream gene dilute both red and black pigments in the hair to cream or ivory, dilute the skin to a rosy-pink and the eyes to pale blue. The cream gene and champagne gene have an additive or enhancing interaction. Horses with the champagne gene and a single cream gene typically have lighter yellowish or blue eyes and paler, more faintly freckled skin.
 * Gold cream or Ivory champagne refers to an otherwise-chestnut coat affected by the champagne gene and a single copy of the cream gene. The mane, tail, and coat of gold creams are typically ivory and difficult to distinguish from cremello, other than by the skin and eyes.
 * Amber cream, similarly, is an otherwise-bay coat affected by the champagne gene and a single copy of the cream gene. The mane and tail of a typical amber cream are a warm yellowish-brown and are often frosted. The legs may also be a light chocolate brown, but need not be. The body coat is a shade of ivory, usually darker than a gold cream. Their points are substantially darker than those of a perlino, and they have champagne skin and eye traits.
 * Sable cream is a seal brown coat affected by champagne and a single copy of the cream gene. Sable creams may more closely resemble amber cream or classic cream. Most are several shades darker, with a cooler hue, than amber creams.
 * Classic cream is a black coat affected by champagne and a single copy of the cream gene. Classic cream coats should resemble classic champagne shades, being only slightly lightened by the cream gene. Their coats may have a cooler hue.
 * Double cream champagne is a coat of any color affected by champagne and both copies of the cream gene. Unlike the coat colors associated with only a single cream gene, double cream champagnes (respectively prefixed with "gold," "amber," etc.) retain no obvious champagne traits. Their skin is clear pink without freckling, and the eyes are pale blue. The terms "cremello champagne", "perlino champagne" and so forth are also acceptable.

Horses with both the champagne gene and the dun gene are also well-recorded. The dun gene is responsible for flat, diluted coat colors and vivid primitive markings. Bay dun is thought to be the wildtype horse coat color. Dun does not affect skin or eye color, but dilutes red pigment to yellow and black pigment to slate gray. Champagne horses with the dun gene will have slightly further-diluted coats compared to non-dun champagnes, and will always exhibit striking primitive markings, such as a dorsal stripe and zebra-like stripes on the legs. Naming schemes are much the same as with champagne-cream combinations. Champagne-dun combinations retain their champagne eye and skin traits. The coats are distinguishable from non-champagne duns in that they are several shades lighter, black pigment is chocolate rather than slate, and they may exhibit a sheen. The coats are distinguishable from non-dun champagnes in the presence of primitive markings and a flatter tone.
 * Gold dun refers to an otherwise-chestnut coat affected by both the champagne gene and dun gene. The mane and tail may be ivory or self-colored; the body coat ranges from a warm cream to apricot color with primitive markings a shade darker. The coat is substantially paler and more "yellow" than that of a chestnut dun, and flatter than that of a gold champagne.
 * Amber dun refers to an otherwise-bay coat affected by both the champagne gene and dun gene. The mane and tail and primitive markings are warm chocolate brown with a buff tan-colored body. The legs may, or may not, be dark as well.
 * Sable dun refers to an otherwise-seal brown coat affected by both the champagne gene and dun gene. The points are chocolate-colored and the coat is darker than the amber dun.
 * Classic dun or Classic grulla refers to an otherwise-black coat affected by both the champagne gene and dun gene. The coat possesses more cool slate-gray tones than a classic champagne, while the points are warmer than a grulla.

The silver dapple gene in horses does not affect the eyes, skin, or red pigment. Chestnuts are unaffected, but in bay, seal brown, and black horses, the black pigment is diluted to a chocolate or silver. The mane and tail are most commonly affected. Champagne horses with the silver gene will retain their champagne skin and eye traits, but the black pigment will be further diluted. Silvers vary tremendously in shade and so defining a "typical" example is difficult.
 * Amber silver refers to an otherwise-bay coat affected by both the champagne gene and silver gene. The interaction of these two genes - one diluting black to warm chocolate and red to gold, and the other diluting black further to silver - creates an unexpected phenotype. The more closely resembles colors in the red family, mostly deprived of black pigment. The mane and tail may be self-colored, and the coat is buttery and pale.
 * Classic silver refers to an otherwise-black coat affected by both the champagne gene and silver gene. The darkest examples resemble classic champagnes with a silvery mane and tail. The palest are a very pale pewter. Some have warm chocolate tones, others do not.

The champagne gene, in combination with some white patterning genes, can also produce unexpected phenotypes. Horses with the leopard gene or Appaloosas exhibit starkly mottled skin around the muzzle, eyes, anus and sheath or udder. Most commonly, the mottling is blocky patches of normal, black skin and unpigmented pink. When a horse has both the leopard gene and the champagne gene, the champagne-associated skin is present only where the skin would be otherwise black.

In combination with gray, champagne produces very unusual coat behavior. Typically, gray horses are born a dark shade of their natural color, and begin to develop gray hairs around the eyes and muzzle. With each shed, the coat becomes lighter and lighter. Many older grays develop the "fleabitten" trait, in which small, interspersed flecks of red occur and often increase in density with age, even as the rest of the coat loses pigment. A few grays will also develop vitiligo in which the skin also progressively loses pigment. When a horse carries both gray and champagne, additional traits occur: Gray-champagnes are born with darker coats than the usual champagne foal, but still exhibiting the expected bright blue eyes and pink skin. The freckling that develops on the skin is also exceptionally dark and dense. Gray-champagnes appear more likely to experience vitiligo. The most unexpected quality of gray-champagnes is the intensity of the fleabitten trait. Flecks of champagne-colored hair are thickly interspersed in the unpigmented white hairs.

Champagne mimics
Many coat color modifying genes affect the skin and eyes as well as the coat color. Several of these may be confused with champagne. Today, when the visible cues are insufficient, horses can be DNA tested for the champagne gene, Cream gene, Pearl gene, and Silver dapple gene.

Palomino or Chestnut vs. Gold champagne: The most common confusion, as both of these genetically distinct coat colors feature a gold or yellow coat and ivory or cream mane and tail. As adults, the pinkish freckled skin and hazel eyes indicate gold champagne, while gray or black skin and light or dark brown eyes indicate palomino. At birth, palominos may have pink skin and blue or grey eyes, however these darken within days or weeks. Occasionally, chestnuts are also born with blue eyes and pink skin, and as gold champagnes often have chestnut-colored foal coats, the two can be difficult to distinguish. Again, the skin and eyes of the chestnut will darken quickly. In all cases, pedigrees can provide important information. Palominos will have a parent that is palomino, buckskin, smoky black, or blue-eyed cream. Champagnes will have a champagne parent.

Buckskin and Bay dun vs. Amber champagne: All three of these genetically distinct coat colors feature a lighter bronze or tan coat with darker points. As adults, the pinkish freckled skin and hazel eyes indicate amber champagne, while gray or black skin and light or dark brown eyes indicate buckskin or bay dun. Duns do not exhibit unusually colored skin, though buckskins, like palominos, may be born with blue eyes that darken within days or weeks. In the adult, the points of a buckskin or bay dun will be black, not chocolate as in the amber champagne. Bay dun horses also exhibit primitive markings, especially a dorsal stripe, though amber duns will also possess these marks. The eyes and skin remain the best identifying feature. Buckskins, like palominos, will a parent that is palomino, buckskin, smoky black, or blue-eyed cream. Bay duns will have a parent that is bay dun, red dun, or grullo. Champagnes will have a champagne parent.

Grullo vs. Classic champagne or Sable champagne: Classic and sable champagnes are difficult to distinguish without a DNA test. Grullos and classic champagnes are both dilutions of the black coat, and typically have black or dark points and dove-gray coats. However, Grullos, in absence of any other dilution factors, are not born with pink skin and blue eyes, while champagnes always have these traits. As adults, grullos will retain their dark brown eyes and black skin, while champagnes have pinkish freckled skin and hazel eyes. Grullos, like all duns, will possess primitive markings, and their coats are typically a cooler, slate shade, while classic and sable champagnes are chocolate-toned. The points and primitive markings on the grullo are black, while the points on classic and sable champagnes are brown. Grullos will have dun ancestry and champagnes will have champagne ancestry.

Red dun vs. Dark gold champagne: Some gold champagnes have darker bodies and self-colored manes and tails. These horses may resemble red duns, however red duns have distinct primitive markings and do not possess pinkish freckled skin or hazel eyes as adults, nor the bright pink skin and bright blue eyes of champagne foals.

Blue-eyed cream vs. Champagne: Blue-eyed cream is a collective term for any horse homozygous for the Cream gene (cremello, perlino, etc.). Blue-eyed creams, as their name suggests, have blue eyes from birth through adulthood and also have pink skin. Typically their blue eyes are quite pale, and are easy to distinguish from the sky blue eyes of champagne foals and the hazel eyes of adult champagnes. Their skin may have a scant few black flecks, but the abundant freckles of champagne skin are absent. The respective shades of pink skin and blue eyes are slightly different.

Leopard vs. Champagne: The Leopard complex is responsible for the spotted coat of the Appaloosa and other breeds. Even when a spotted hair coat is absent, other traits produced include mottled skin and a white sclera around the eye but generally the eye itself is dark brown. These mottles are alternations between unpigmented pink skin and pigmented skin, which is usually black (thus the mottles are black on a pink background). The mottles are substantially larger than the freckles of champagne skin, and leopard complex horses do not necessarily have light eyes.

Pearl vs. Champagne: In the homozygous state, or when combined with cream, the Pearl gene produces a diluted apricot to buff color, pale eyes and pale skin. Heterozygous pearls (one copy of the gene) often exhibit dark skin with some pinkish freckles, while homozygous pearls (two copies of the gene) have champagne-like skin. The freckles on homozygous pearls and pearl-creams are pale and muted.

Prevalence
Compared to the cream gene, which is widespread throughout many breeds on different continents, the champagne gene is rare and found almost exclusively among American horse breeds. Nearly all American Cream Draft horses are gold champagne. The champagne gene is also found in the Tennessee Walking Horse, American Saddlebred, Missouri Fox Trotter, Racking horse, Kentucky Mountain Saddle Horse, Spanish Mustang, American Quarter Horse, American Paint Horse, Appaloosa and Miniature horse breeds.

History
The champagne gene was located in 2008, but is not a new mutation. It is widespread among American horses, and has likely been present in the genepool for more than a century. The Palomino Horse Breeders Association (PHBA), which registers "palomino" horses based on appearance, includes allowances for freckle-skinned and hazel-eyed palominos. Furthermore, while the registry typically disallows horses with pink skin, it allows American Saddlebreds with skin of any color to be registered. The PHBA was incorporated in 1941. Further back, the foundation mare of the American Cream Draft horse breed, "Old Granny", was born around 1905 in Iowa. Her cream-colored coat, pink skin and amber eyes are defining standards for the breed of her descendants, which are now known to be gold champagne. The superficial similarities between gold champagne and palomino, and amber champagne and buckskin, may account for the relatively recent identification of champagne as a separate trait. Gold champagnes were sometimes called "pumpkin-skinned palomino." Classic champagnes, which lack the primitive markings of true duns, were similarly called "lilac duns." The mare that brought the champagne coat color family to the attention of modern researchers was a Tennessee Walking Horse named "Champagne Lady Diane" born in 1969. A classic champagne, Champagne Lady Diane was described as "a genetic color accident" after her hairs were sent to several universities, although current evidence suggests that the champagne gene predates Champagne Lady Diane.

It was not until many years after the name "champagne" was ascribed to Champagne Lady Diane that the term appeared in scientific literature. It was first studied and described by Sponenberg and Bowling in 1996. They studied the ratio of champagne-to-non-champagne offspring of champagne horses, and designated the causal mutation as the dominant Ch allele on the hypothetical Champagne locus.

Inheritance and expression
The champagne locus is on exon 2 of the SLC36A1 gene, which is on chromosome 14 (ECA14); a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) exchanges a C for a G at base 76 (c.188C>G) resulting in a missense mutation. On a protein level, this SNP is predicted to result in the replacement of a threonine with arginine at amino acid 63 (T63R). SLC36A1 is not associated with pigmentation phenotypes in other species, and its role in most tissues is poorly understood. SLC36A1 is a member of a loosely united group of over 300 proteins responsible for active transport and facilitated diffusion called the Solute carrier family. Other members of this family include SLC45A2, which is responsible for pigmentation variations of many types in humans, as well as the cream coat color in horses; and SLC24A5, which is responsible for the Golden dilution in mice.

Dilution genes such as champagne and cream affect the nature or density of the pigments produced by melanocytes. On the other hand, genes in horses which produce white spotting, such as Frame and Sabino1, interrupt or limit the migration of melanocytes from the neural crest. In other words, the skin, eyes, and hair of horses with the champagne mutation do not lack melanocytes, melanosomes, or melanins, but rather exhibit hypomelanism. However, the specific role of SLC36A1 in pigmentation and how the champagne coat colors are created on a molecular level is not known. The researchers who identified the mutation in 2008 suggested that melanosome pH may be affected, which in turn might affect the processing of tyrosine, a critical element of melanogenesis.

There are two alleles in this series: the recessive, wildtype allele ch and the dominant CH. The CH allele represents the T63R SLC36A1 mutation.
 * ch/ch recessive homozygotes are not affected by champagne and have no true champagne traits.
 * CH/ch heterozygotes have one champagne allele, and one wildtype non-champagne allele. The skin is bright pink and the eyes bright blue at birth, darkening to freckled and hazel with age, respectively. Both red and black pigment in the hair are diluted.
 * CH/CH homozygotes (homozygous champagnes) have no wildtype non-champagne alleles. Such horses are indistinguishable from heterozygotes, except that their freckles may slightly sparser and the coat slightly lighter.

The DNA test for champagne detects the c.188C>G mutation on SLC36A1.

title: Champagne gene


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Stéphane Chapuisat

Stéphane Chapuisat (born 28 June 1969) is a Swiss former professional footballer who played as a striker.

A prolific goalscorer for both club and country (for which he appeared more than 100 times), he spent most of his career with Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund. He represented Switzerland at the 1994 World Cup and two European Championships.

Chapuisat is currently the sporting director of BSC Young Boys.

Club career
Born in Lausanne, Chapuisat started his professional career with hometown club FC Lausanne-Sport, moving in January 1991 to Bundesliga's Bayer Uerdingen and switching to powerhouse Borussia Dortmund in that summer.

Chapuisat scored 20 league goals in his first season, two short of Torjäger Fritz Walter of the eventual champions VfB Stuttgart. He stayed with Borussia until 1999, conquering back-to-back titles – although he played sparingly in 1995–96 due to injuries – and adding the following campaign's UEFA Champions League, where he netted three in ten games during the victorious run.

Chapuisat then transferred to Grasshopper Club Zürich, playing there for three years and helped them winning the league title in 2001. In 2002, he moved to fellow Swiss Super League side BSC Young Boys, before rejoining Lausanne now in the second division, retiring at 37 with 106 goals in 228 Bundesliga matches to his credit; he was also voted Swiss Footballer of the Year four times (1992, 1993, 1994 and 2001).

In November 2003, to celebrate UEFA's Jubilee, Chapuisat was selected as the Golden Player of Switzerland by the Swiss Football Association as their most outstanding player of the past 50 years.

International career
Chapuisat scored 21 goals in 103 caps for Switzerland, and played in the 1994 FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro 1996 and Euro 2004.

In the 1994 World Cup, appearing in four complete contests as the nation reached the round-of-16, he scored in a 4–1 win over Romania on 22 June.

Personal life
Chapuisat's father, Pierre-Albert, was also a professional footballer. A defender, he too represented Lausanne and the national team, going on to have a lengthy career as a manager.

Honours
Borussia Dortmund
 * Bundesliga: 1994–95, 1995–96
 * DFB-Supercup: 1995, 1996
 * UEFA Champions League: 1996–97
 * Intercontinental Cup: 1997

Grasshoppers
 * Swiss Super League: 2000–01

Individual
 * Ballon d'Or: 1991 (13th), 1992 (9th), 1993 (9th)
 * kicker Bundesliga Team of the Season: 1991–92
 * Swiss Super League top scorer: 2000–01, 2003–04
 * UEFA Jubilee Awards – Greatest Swiss Footballer of the last 50 Years: 2003

title: Stéphane Chapuisat


text: User talk:212.158.205.24

title: User talk:212.158.205.24


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Innatism

In the philosophy of mind, innatism is the view that the mind is born with already-formed ideas, knowledge, and beliefs. The opposing doctrine, that the mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth and all knowledge is gained from experience and the senses, is called empiricism.

Difference from nativism
Innatism and nativism are generally synonymous terms referring to the notion of preexisting ideas in the mind. However, more specifically, innatism refers to the philosophy of Descartes, who assumed that God or a similar being or process placed innate ideas and principles in the human mind. The innatist principles in this regard may overlap with similar concepts such as natural order and state of nature, in philosophy.

Nativism represents an adaptation of this, grounded in the fields of genetics, cognitive psychology, and psycholinguistics. Nativists hold that innate beliefs are in some way genetically programmed in our mind—they are the phenotypes of certain genotypes that all humans share in common. Nativism is a modern view rooted in innatism. The advocates of nativism are mainly philosophers who also work in the field of cognitive psychology or psycholinguistics: most notably Noam Chomsky and Jerry Fodor (although the latter adopted a more critical attitude toward nativism in his later writings). The nativist's general objection against empiricism is still the same as was raised by the rationalists; the human mind of a newborn child is not a tabula rasa but is equipped with an inborn structure.

History
Although individual human beings vary in many ways (culturally, ethnically, linguistically, and so on), innate ideas are the same for everyone everywhere. For example, the philosopher René Descartes theorized that knowledge of God is innate in everybody. Philosophers such as Descartes and Plato were rationalists. Other philosophers, most notably the empiricists, were critical of innate ideas and denied they existed.

The debate over innate ideas is central to the conflict between rationalists (who believe certain ideas exist independently of experience) and empiricists (who believe knowledge is derived from experience).

Many believe the German philosopher Immanuel Kant synthesized these two early modern traditions in his philosophical thought.

Plato
Plato argues that if there are certain concepts that we know to be true but did not learn from experience, then it must be because we have an innate knowledge of it and that this knowledge must have been gained before birth. In Plato's Meno, he recalls a situation where his mentor Socrates questioned a slave boy about geometry. Though the slave boy had no previous experience with geometry, he was able to answer correctly. Plato reasoned that this was possible because Socrates' questions sparked the innate knowledge of math the boy had from birth.

Descartes
Descartes conveys the idea that innate knowledge or ideas is something inborn such as one would say, that a certain disease might be 'innate' to signify that a person might be at risk of contracting such a disease. He suggests that something that is 'innate' is effectively present from birth and while it may not reveal itself then, is more than likely to present itself later in life. Descartes’ comparison of innate knowledge to an innate disease, whose symptoms may show up only later in life, unless prohibited by a factor like age or puberty, suggests that if an event occurs prohibiting someone from exhibiting an innate behaviour or knowledge, it doesn't mean the knowledge did not exist at all but rather it wasn't expressed – they were not able to acquire that knowledge. In other words, innate beliefs, ideas and knowledge require experiences to be triggered or they may never be expressed. Experiences are not the source of knowledge as proposed by John Locke, but catalysts to the uncovering of knowledge.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz suggested that we are born with certain innate ideas, the most identifiable of these being mathematical truisms. The idea that 1 + 1 = 2 is evident to us without the necessity for empirical evidence. Leibniz argues that empiricism can show us show that concepts are true in the present; the observation of one apple and then another in one instance, and in that instance only, leads to the conclusion that one and another equals two. However, the suggestion that one and another will always equal two requires an innate idea, as that would be a suggestion of things unwitnessed.

Leibniz called such concepts as mathematical truisms "necessary truths". Another example of such may be the phrase, "What is, is" or "It is impossible for the same thing to be and not to be". Leibniz argues that such truisms are universally assented to (acknowledged by all to be true); this being the case, it must be due to their status as innate ideas. Often some ideas are acknowledged as necessarily true but are not universally assented to. Leibniz would suggest that this is simply because the person in question has not become aware of the innate idea, not because they do not possess it. Leibniz argues that empirical evidence can serve to bring to the surface certain principles that are already innately embedded in our minds. This is similar to needing to hear only the first few notes to recall the rest of the melody.

John Locke
The main antagonist to the concept of innate ideas is John Locke, a contemporary of Leibniz. Locke argued that the mind is in fact devoid of all knowledge or ideas at birth; it is a blank sheet or tabula rasa. He argued that all our ideas are constructed in the mind via a process of constant composition and decomposition of the input that we receive through our senses.

Locke, in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, suggests that the concept of universal assent in fact proves nothing, except perhaps that everyone is in agreement; in short universal assent proves that there is universal assent and nothing else. Moreover, Locke goes on to suggest that in fact there is no universal assent. Even a phrase such as "What is, is" is not universally assented to; infants and severely mentally disabled adults do not generally acknowledge this truism. Locke also attacks the idea that an innate idea can be imprinted on the mind without the owner realizing it. For Locke, such reasoning would allow one to conclude the absurd: "All the Truths a Man ever comes to know, will, by this account, be, every one of them, innate." To return to the musical analogy, we may not be able to recall the entire melody until we hear the first few notes, but we were aware of the fact that we knew the melody and that upon hearing the first few notes we would be able to recall the rest.

Locke ends his attack upon innate ideas by suggesting that the mind is a tabula rasa or "blank slate", and that all ideas come from experience; all our knowledge is founded in sensory experience.

Essentially, the same knowledge thought to be a priori by Leibniz is, according to Locke, the result of empirical knowledge, which has a lost origin [been forgotten] in respect to the inquirer. However, the inquirer is not cognizant of this fact; thus, he experiences what he believes to be a priori knowledge.

1) The theory of innate knowledge is excessive. Even innatists accept that most of our knowledge is learned through experience, but if that can be extended to account for all knowledge, we learn color through seeing it, so therefore, there is no need for a theory about an innate understanding of color.

2) No ideas are universally held. Do we all possess the idea of God? Do we all believe in justice and beauty? Do we all understand the law of identity? If not, it may not be the case that we have acquired these ideas through impressions/experience/social interaction.

3) Even if there are some universally agreed statements, it is just the ability of the human brain to organize learned ideas/words, that is, innate. An "ability to organize" is not the same as "possessing propositional knowledge" (e.g., a computer with no saved files has all the operations programmed in but has an empty memory).

Linguistics
In his Meno, Plato raises an important epistemological quandary: How is it that we have certain ideas that are not conclusively derivable from our environments? Noam Chomsky has taken this problem as a philosophical framework for the scientific inquiry into innatism. His linguistic theory, which derives from 18th century classical-liberal thinkers such as Wilhelm von Humboldt, attempts to explain in cognitive terms how we can develop knowledge of systems which are said, by supporters of innatism, to be too rich and complex to be derived from our environment. One such example is our linguistic faculty. Our linguistic systems contain a systemic complexity which supposedly could not be empirically derived: the environment seems too poor, variable and indeterminate, according to Chomsky, to explain the extraordinary ability to learn complex concepts possessed by very young children. Essentially, their accurate grammatical knowledge cannot have originated from their experiences as their experiences are not adequate. It follows that humans must be born with a universal innate grammar, which is determinate and has a highly organized directive component, and enables the language learner to ascertain and categorize language heard into a system. Chomsky states that the ability to learn how to properly construct sentences or know which sentences are grammatically incorrect is an ability gained from innate knowledge. Noam Chomsky cites as evidence for this theory, the apparent invariability, according to his views, of human languages at a fundamental level. In this way, linguistics may provide a window into the human mind, and establish scientific theories of innateness which otherwise would remain merely speculative.

One implication of Noam Chomsky's innatism, if correct, is that at least a part of human knowledge consists in cognitive predispositions, which are triggered and developed by the environment, but not determined by it. Chomsky suggests that we can look at how a belief is acquired as an input-output situation. He supports the doctrine of innatism as he states that human beliefs gathered from sensory experience are much richer and complex than the experience itself. He asserts that the extra information gathered is from the mind itself as it cannot solely be from experiences. Humans derive excess amount of information from their environment so some of that information must be pre-determined.

Classical texts

 * Descartes, René. Meditations on First Philosophy with Selections from the Objections and Replies, translated by John Cottingham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
 * Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. 1690.
 * Leibniz, Gottfried. Discourse on Metaphysics and Related Writings, edited and translated by R. N. D. Martin and Stuart Brown (Manchester and New York:Manchester University Press, 1988).

Recent studies

 * Carruthers, Peter. Human Knowledge and Human Nature. A New Introduction to an Ancient Debate, New York : Oxford University Press, 1992.
 * Chomsky, Noam. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. (Cambridge, Mass, 1965)
 * Kaldis, Byron. "Leibniz' Argument for Innate Ideas" in Just the Arguments: 100 of the Most Important Arguments in Western Philosophy edited by M Bruce & S Barbone (Blackwell, 2011).
 * Ridling, Zaine (2001). "Philosophy: Then and Now A look back at 26 centuries of thought." Types and Expressions of Rationalism, pp. 514–515. Access Foundation.
 * Unger, Wolfgang. "Nativism in the Light of Locke's Critique on Innate Principles." Term Paper in Phil 702, Locke's Essay. Department of Philosophy, University of Massachusetts, Amhernt.
 * University of California Santa Barbara, Department of Philosophy: PowerPoint: Locke's attack on innatism.

title: Innatism


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Project Falcon

Project Falcon was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

Probably just a joke on someone's part, though unworthy of mention even if real. CJCurrie 00:21, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Wikipedia is not a fortune-teller. Niteowlneils 01:42, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Unverifiable future event. Of the 49 Google hits for "Project Falcon" Canada party, none are relevant. [[User:Livajo|Ливай | ☺]] 01:55, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I would consider this notable with evidence of public political activity as a party, certainly registration and perhaps an attempt to register with Elections Canada, evidence of a group of prospective candidates or potentially even members, etc. Unless somebody provides such verifiable evidence... Samaritan 02:06, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Prediction of a party due to start in 2006. Not verifiable, not real at present.  Geogre 02:23, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * It seems to be a vanity page. I'd say delete so long as if it does become registered with Elections Canada that it can then be re-created and expanded. Spinboy 02:32, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Political parties can be included once they run in some election or show other notable activity, not before. - Andre Engels 02:59, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, political advertisement. Wyss 03:23, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete --fvw *  03:36, 2004 Dec 17 (UTC)
 * Delete. not yet notable. P Ingerson 07:42, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. wp is not a speculative fiction site. GrantNeufeld 08:16, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete'. This is the first time I've ever voted to delete sometyhing. This is just so egregious for the reasons others have identified. Kevintoronto 14:23, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Busby (military headdress)

Busby is the English name for the Hungarian prémes csákó ('fur shako') or kucsma, a military head-dress made of fur, originally worn by Hungarian hussars. In its original Hungarian form the busby was a cylindrical fur cap, having a bag of coloured cloth hanging from the top. This bag could be filled with sand and the end attached to the right shoulder as a defence against sabre cuts.

History
The popularity of the military headdress in its hussar form reached a height in the years immediately before World War I (1914–1918). It was widely worn in the Belgian (Guides and field artillery), British (hussars, yeomanry, and horse artillery), Dutch (cavalry and artillery), Italian (light cavalry) German (hussars), Russian (hussars), Serbian (Royal Guard) and Spanish (hussars and mounted cazadores) armies. Several armies have continued to use the headdress as a part of their full dress uniforms.

There were some variations in the materials of which cavalry busbies were made. Russian Cossacks of the Imperial Guard used black sheepskin, Guard Hussars dark brown long-haired fur, and line Hussars black lambswool. All but one of the twenty Prussian Hussar regiments wore sealskin busbies dyed in black, while their officers favoured dark brown otter-skin. The Brunswick Hussar Regiment No. 17 had the distinction of being issued busbies made of bearskin.

With the general conversion of British Light Dragoon regiments to hussars during the 19th century the cloth busby bag with its braided edgings became a useful means of regimental distinction. By 1900 busby bags of red, crimson, blue, white and French grey were being worn by different regiments.

Etymology
Possibly the name's original sense of a "busby wig" came from association with Richard Busby, headmaster of Westminster School in the late seventeenth century; the phrase buzz wig may have supplied the derivation for busby. An alternative explanation is that the British hussar cap of the early 19th century was named after the hatter who supplied the officer's version—W. Busby of the Strand London.

Canada
The Canadian Forces dress instructions authorise the busby as a part of the full dress uniform for hussars, artillery and rifle regiments.

Netherlands
The historic busby is still worn by ceremonial detachments of the Dutch Hussars and Royal Gendarmerie in full dress uniform.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom busbies are of two kinds: (a) the hussar busby, cylindrical in shape, with a bag and cap lines (cords to connect the cap to the tunic); this is worn by hussars and the Royal Horse Artillery; (b) the rifle busby, a folding cap of astrakhan (curly lambswool) formerly worn by rifle regiments, in shape somewhat resembling a Glengarry but taller. Both have straight plumes in the front of the headdress. The headdress is worn with full dress by the Waterloo Band of The Rifles, the Royal Horse Artillery and ceremonial detachments at regimental expense. In its hussar version it is now made of black nylon fur, although Bandmasters still retain the original animal fur. The busby should not be mistaken for the much taller bearskin cap, worn most notably by the five regiments of Foot Guards of the Household Division (Grenadier, Coldstream, Scots, Irish and Welsh Guards). Around 1900 the word "busby" was used colloquially to denote the tall bear and racoonskin "caps" worn by foot guards and fusiliers and the feather bonnets of Highland infantry. This usage is now obsolete.

title: Busby (military headdress)


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Karl Theodor Hartweg

Karl Theodor Hartweg (18 June 1812 – 3 February 1871) was a German botanist. He collected numerous new species of plants in Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico and California in the United States, collecting for the London Horticultural Society. Many of the species he discovered were formally published, with attribution, by George Gordon, the Foreman of the London Horticultural Society Gardens and a specialist in the conifers which were well represented in Hartweg's collections.

Many plants collected in Mexico by Hartweg from 1836 onward were identified and catalogued by George Bentham in Plantas Hartwegianas.

title: Karl Theodor Hartweg


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Category:Liliales

This category is for plants that by the APG IV system have been assigned to the order Liliales. APG IV places this order in the clade monocots.

title: Category:Liliales


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Glimmerglass

Glimmerglass may refer to:

 * Otsego Lake (New York), called "Glimmerglass" in the Leatherstocking Tales of James Fenimore Cooper
 * Glimmerglass Festival, formerly Glimmerglass Opera
 * Glimmerglass State Park, NY, US
 * Glimmerglass Lagoon, State University of New York at Oswego, Oswego NY, US
 * The Glimmer Glass, a tidal Inlet with a lift bridge, on Manasquan River, NJ
 * Glimmerglass Systems, manufacturer of photonic switches used in the Amsterdam Internet Exchange
 * Glimmerglass Vodka, a brand of vodka made by the Cooperstown Distillery.

title: Glimmerglass


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Mana Island (New Zealand)

Mana Island is the smaller of two islands that lie off the southwest coast of the North Island of New Zealand (the larger is Kapiti Island). The name of the Island is an abbreviation of the Maori name Te Mana o Kupe, which means "The Mana of Kupe".

Mana Island is a 3 km long, 2.17 km² table, with cliffs along much of its coast and a plateau occupying much of the interior. It lies 3 km off the North Island coast in the Tasman Sea, west of the city of Porirua and south of the entrance to Porirua Harbour. In 2009, it was selected by the Global Restoration Network as one of New Zealand's top 25 sites for ecological restoration. Although a wildlife sanctuary, and thus with no permanent human population, the island is officially defined as a suburb of Porirua City.

History
Mana was settled by Māori from the 14th century. In the early 1820s, the Ngāti Toa iwi, led by Te Rauparaha established bases on Mana.

European occupation began 1830s with a whaling station, and bush was cleared for an early sheep farm. A lighthouse was built to the north in 1863, but shipwrecks were caused due to confusion between this light and Pencarrow light at the entrance to Wellington Harbour, a new lighthouse was constructed on the summit of North Brother Island and the lighthouse was removed to Cape Egmont in Taranaki, where it still stands. It became Crown property in 1865 and was subsequently leased to J. F. E. Wright of Wellington.

The Vella family
In 1886 Mariano Vella obtained a sublease of Mana from Wright. He knew little of farming, and arranged that Harry Harris of Pauatahanui would teach him sheep husbandry and farming practice. The Vella family lived in Station Road at Paremata, while Mariano sailed to and from the island on most days. At first he devoted his energy to stocking the island's 536 acre with sheep. The Mana Island lighthouse, built in 1864 and discontinued in 1877, had been shifted to Cape Egmont. Mariano Vella bought one remaining keeper's cottage, dismantled it and rebuilt it close to an existing store shed on the eastern side of the island. In 1887 he built a small woolshed that still stands. At shearing time Mary and the children would come across to live at Mana. The life of the family was shattered when Mary died of a heart attack on 22 December 1889 at the age of 20.

Mariano Vella continued with his development of Mana. Wright had found it difficult to farm there profitably, but Vella, with his native skill in handling boats and his newly acquired experience of farming, was able to manage the island farm very effectively. In 1894 he visited Dalmatia and on 3 September that year married Elizabetta Caterina Tarabochia at Lussinpiccolo on the small island of Lussin (Lošinj) in the Adriatic Sea. The couple returned to New Zealand, and for the last part of their voyage travelled from Sydney to Auckland on the Wairarapa. The ship was wrecked on Great Barrier Island on 29 October 1894 with the loss of 121 lives; Mariano and Elizabetta reached the shore but all their possessions were lost.

The head-lease of Mana expired in December 1893 and when a 14-year lease was auctioned in 1894 Mariano Vella was the successful bidder, as he was again in 1908 and in 1922. He and Elizabetta (known in New Zealand as Elizabeth) raised a family of two girls, Mattea and Antonia (Anne), and two boys, Giovanni (Jack) and Mariano junior. Such was Mariano Vella's success as a farmer that in 1909 he was able to retire. He and Elizabetta returned to her home on Lussin, on a visit that lasted six years. Mattea went with them and attended school there and in Gorizia, Italy, before the family came back to New Zealand in 1915. The family then moved to Plimmerton and lived in a large two-storeyed house close to the sea. Andrew and William, the two eldest sons, both farmed Mana for a time but eventually the management and the lease passed to Andrew who held it until his death in 1951. The lease was transferred from the Vella family to John Gault in 1953.

In June 1972 three scientists from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research visited the island and made an inventory of the fauna and flora on the island.

In 1973 the government purchased the lease from the Gault family in order to allow the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF) to establish a branch of the Ruakura research station on the island. The intention was to use it to undertake research on imported exotic sheep breeds (which could be kept quarantined on the island) with the objective of improving the quality of the country's sheep flock. More than $2 million dollars was invested in the construction of a research laboratory, a new woolshed, hay barns, a mating shed, equipment buildings, accommodation and diesel generators to provide electricity, while two windmills were installed to pump ground up the surface.

By 1976 the sheep population had grown to 2,500 when on 28 September of that year a suspected scrapie (a very contagious and debilitating condition) was detected. An estimated 280 sheep were slaughtered, burnt and buried. After another suspected outbreak of scrapie in 1979 all 2,000 of the sheep on the island were slaughtered and the facility abandoned. For the next five years a strict quarantine was imposed on the island by the Lands and Survey Department, who following the departure of the research staff had sole responsibility for the island. They established a cattle farm on the island in order to use bulls to keep the grass down in order to reduce the fire risk. Restrictions still remained in place as to who and what could both visit and be taken of the island.

Following a land-use study a proposal was made in 1986 by the Lands and Survey Department for the island to be reverted for conservation purposes to bush and forest. This was agreed to and the remaining livestock was removed. In 1987 the island was designated as a scientific reserve and its ownership transferred to new New Zealand Department of Conservation (DOC).

Conservation
In 1987 the first takahē were introduced to the island. Following a proposal by the Wellington branch of the Forest & Bird Society a seven month long eradication program (which began in July 1989) removed all mice from the island. Following its completion the first tree planting began, with over 500,000 trees being planted so far by volunteers, with the peak year being 1996 when approximately 30,000 were planted. Subsequently, a wetland on the island was restored and several threatened bird, lizard and plant species translocated to Mana.

Five-minute bird counts made before and after mouse eradication showed an increase in 13 of the island's 22 bird species, particularly amongst insect-eating passerine birds, with whom the mice were presumably competing for food.

A ranger from DOC lives on the island, which has its own native plant nursery, electric generator and boat shed. The DOC staff haul their boat out of the water up a ramp with a winch. Some structures on the island provide habitat for native animals; for example, little penguins roost under the old woolshed.

Habitat restoration

The restoration program has been characterised by a high level of community involvement, led by groups such as the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand, the Friends of Mana Island, tramping clubs and school children. This effort has resulted in it being selected as one of the top ecological restoration projects in Australasia by the Global Ecological Restoration Network.

Seedlings from a 5 km radius of the island are brought to the plant nursery where they are raised until ready for planting out. Although over half a million native plants have been established under a planting programme, two-thirds of island will remain in grass and coastal shrublands. Planting has been mostly in gullies and sheltered parts of the island, which experiences strong winds. The strategy has been to plant native shrubs in connecting corridors. This suits most bird life and allows for natural regeneration. The plantings have been mainly of hardy pioneer species best able to withstand the rigorous conditions. When there has been enough shelter established, the forest area will be inter-planted with a variety of less robust species to establish a typical Wellington coastal forest.

Animals
The island is a scientific reserve holding many native animals and plants that are rare on the mainland. Notable species on the island include the Cook Strait giant wētā, shore plover, North Island robin, takahē, Wellington green gecko, yellow-crowned parakeet, and brown teal. The most recent example is the critically endangered Wellington speargrass weevil from the Wellington South Coast in 2006.

The Department of Conservation and the Friends group also collaborated on a five-year program to establish the threatened tūturuatu / shore plover on the island. The birds, of which only about 200 remain in the wild, were sourced from a captive population at the Pukaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre. A rat exterminated the population in 2011 and another attempt at reintroduction in 2020 failed after attacks by a kārearea/New Zealand falcon.

Mana Island was formerly home to translocated kākāpō. After the kākāpō recovery plan was established in 1995, one of the first actions was to move kākāpō to the island. The last two males found on Stewart Island were moved to the island. Both of the males released onto the island died, suggesting that the island may not be suitable for the kākāpō. However, the birds were also at an extremely light weight when moved to the island, which might have been a factor.

Planned projects include the transfer to the island of a wide range of other species, many of which are rare and endangered. Notable amongst these will be the tuatara, the little spotted kiwi, a subspecies of the carnivorous Powelliphanta snail, and a range of threatened plants endemic to the Wellington Region.

Seabirds
Recent projects have included the successful translocations to the island of diving-petrels, fairy prions and fluttering shearwater chicks, with the progeny of several transferees later successfully fledging – the first to do so on Mana Island for many centuries. These species are an important part of the restoration of the island because of their nutrient inflows (free fertiliser) and the habitats their burrows provide for reptiles and invertebrates. The seabird translocation techniques perfected on Mana Island are being used with rare and endangered species elsewhere in New Zealand, such as the Chatham Island taiko, Chatham petrel and Hutton's shearwater.

Gannets formerly nested on Mana Island. From 1998, after mice were eliminated, conservationists have attempted to restart a colony, using a false colony of birds made of concrete, and installing sound systems that make gannet sounds, in the hope that real ones will be attracted to nest there. A male gannet, nicknamed Nigel, arrived in 2015 and over the next two years courted one of the concrete decoys. A second male gannet, nicknamed Norman, resided on Mana Island during 2017. In January 2018, three gannets settled on the island. In February 2018, Nigel died. The same combination of techniques is showing good results in a similar project at Young Nicks Head, near Gisborne.

Geology
Mana Island is unusual compared to both Kapiti Island and the nearby mainland, in that it is topped by a plateau rather than rolling hills. The plateau slopes gently to the south-east, with deeply-incised valleys on the eastern half and cliffs on the north and west sides. There is no clear evidence to correlate the plateau with any equivalent feature on the mainland; continuity of features is unlikely owing to the earthquake faults that lie between the island and the mainland. It has been suggested that the plateau is the remains of a marine bench from which all overlying material has long since eroded.

title: Mana Island (New Zealand)


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Jungian cognitive functions

Psychological functions, as described by Carl Jung in his book Psychological Types, are particular mental processes within a person's psyche that are present regardless of common circumstances. This is a concept that serves as one of the foundations for his theory on personality type. In his book, he noted four main psychological functions: thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. He introduced them with having either an internally focused (introverted) or externally focused (extraverted) tendency which he called "attitude". He also categorizes the functions as either rational (thinking and feeling) or irrational (intuition and sensation).

Psychological functions and attitudes
The four psychological functions may be subjugated to the control of consciousness, which can take two attitudes:
 * Extraversion: "a strong, if not exclusive, determination by the object." Consciously, in an extravert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the extraverted 'general attitude of consciousness': "Now, when the orientation to the object and to objective facts is so predominant that the most frequent and essential decisions and actions are determined, not by subjective values but by objective relations, one speaks of an extraverted attitude. When this is habitual, one speaks of an extraverted type. If a man so thinks, feels, and acts, in a word so lives, as to correspond directly with objective conditions and their claims, whether in a good sense or ill, he is extraverted."
 * Introversion: "a turning inwards of the libido, whereby a negative relation of subject to object is expressed. Interest does not move towards the object, but recedes towards the subject." Consciously, in an introvert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the introverted 'general attitude of consciousness'. "Everyone whose attitude is introverted thinks, feels, and acts in a way that clearly demonstrates that the subject is the chief factor of motivation while the object at most receives only a secondary value."

The difference between extraversion and introversion comes from the source of the decisive factor in forming motivation and developing ideas, whether it is objective (i.e., the external environment) or subjective (experienced within the mind, or "processes inherent in the psyche"). When discussing function types, Jung ascribed movements of the libido in both directions for each function in each function type, with one direction being that final judge.

To summarize Jung's views, as discussed in Psychological Types and maintained until his death, Jung posited that each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" where every conscious act is directed by the tendency to follow introversion for introverts and extraversion for extraverts. Jung's definition of the general attitude was not to limit the individual from experiencing the opposing attitude but to offer "decisive determination". The primary, or most developed, differentiated, and conscious function, is entirely positioned in the service of the conscious attitude of introversion or extraversion, but even if all other functions can be conscious and made to follow the general attitude, they are of less differentiation and are hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious. Later in the book, Jung describes the auxiliary function as being capable of some significant development or differentiation if it remains less differentiated from that of the primary. His views on the primary and auxiliary functions, both being of enough differentiation to be considered conscious and set aside with the primary as opposed to the most inferior two functions, can be noted as early as psychological Types.

The four basic psychological functions—thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition—are "basic functions" that can be briefly defined as follows.

Thinking
According to Jung, thinking is "that psychological function which, in accordance with its own laws, brings given presentations into conceptual connection". Jung said that the thinking function should be delegated solely to 'active thinking' in contrast to 'passive thinking'. According to him, active thinking uses concepts to connect information, which is considered judgement as a result. He writes that passive thinking "lacks any sense of direction", since it is not in accordance with an aim. He refers to it as 'intuitive thinking' instead.

Later, some interpreted Jung's extraverted thinking and introverted thinking to mean something other than the function of thought as represented by extraverts and introverts respectively. In Adler and Hull's translation of Jung's Psychological Types, Jung states:

"Apart from the qualities I have mentioned, the undeveloped functions possess the further peculiarity that, when the conscious attitude is introverted, they are extraverted and vice versa. One could therefore expect to find extraverted feelings in an introverted intellectual..."

Extraverted thinking
Extraverted thinking is a thinking function that is objective (being extraverted). Extraverted thinking often places information, such as facts in high order; it is a process that is concerned with organisation and hierarchy of phenomena.

"In accordance with his definition, we must picture a man whose constant aim—in so far, of course, as he is a [p. 435] pure type—is to bring his total life activities into relation to intellectual conclusions, which in the last resort are always oriented by objective data, whether objective facts or generally valid ideas. This type of man gives the deciding voice—not merely for himself alone but also on behalf of his entourage—either to the actual objective reality or to its objectively oriented, intellectual formula. By this formula, good and evil are measured, and beauty and ugliness determined. All is right that corresponds with this formula; all is wrong that contradicts it; and everything that is neutral to it is purely accidental."

Introverted thinking
Introverted thinking is the thinking function that is subjective (being introverted). The nature of introverted thinking means that it is primarily concerned with its "subjective idea" and insights gained by formulation over facts and objective data. Whereas extraverted thinking is most like Empiricism, introverted Thinking is most similar to Rationalism.

"Just as Darwin might possibly represent the normal extraverted thinking type, we might point to Kant as a counter-example of the normal introverted thinking type. The former speaks with facts; the latter appeals to the subjective factor. Darwin ranges over the wide fields of objective facts, while Kant restricts himself to a critique of knowledge in general. But suppose a Cuvier be contrasted with a Nietzsche: the antithesis becomes even sharper."

"The introverted thinking type is characterized by a priority of the thinking I have just described. Like his [p. 485] extraverted parallel, he is decisively influenced by ideas; these, however, have their origins not in the objective data but in the subjective foundation. Like the extravert, he too will follow his ideas, but in the reverse direction: inwardly, not outwardly. Intensity is his aim, not extensity. In these fundamental characters, he differs markedly, indeed quite unmistakably, from his extraverted parallel. Like every introverted type, he is almost completely lacking in that which distinguishes his counter type, namely, the intensive relatedness to the object."

Feeling
Jung defined feeling as "primarily a process that takes place between the ego and a given content, a process, moreover, that imparts to the content a definite value in the sense of acceptance or rejection [...] Hence, feeling is also a kind of judging, differing, however, from an intellectual judgment in that it does not aim at establishing an intellectual connection but is solely concerned with the setting up of a subjective criterion of acceptance or rejection." Also, Jung made distinctions between feeling as a judging function and emotions (affect): "Feeling is distinguished from affect by the fact that it gives rise to no perceptible physical innervation's." Von Franz wrote that there are "clichés" with regard to the feeling function, which are that musicians and people with "good eros" are feeling types. She also wrote that another cliché was the notion that women are better at feeling "just because they are women". Later, some interpreted Jung's extraverted feeling and introverted feeling to mean something other than the function of feeling as represented in extraverts and introverts respectively.

Extraverted feeling
Overall, extraverted feeling is concerned with phenomena being harmonious with their external environment. Jung writes of extraverted feelers as those where feeling "loses its personal character—it becomes feeling per se; it almost seems as though the personality were wholly dissolved in the feeling of the moment. Now, since actual life situations constantly and successively alternate, in which the feeling-tones released are not only different but are actually mutually contrasting, the personality inevitably becomes dissipated in just so many different feelings."

Introverted feeling
Introverted feeling is "very hard to elucidate since so little of it is openly displayed." Jung writes of feeling in introverted feelers: "[Introverted feeling] is continually seeking an image which has no existence in reality but which it has seen in a kind of vision. It glides over all objects that do not fit in with its aim. It strives for inner intensity, for which the objects serve at most as a stimulus. The depth of this feeling can only be guessed—it can never be clearly grasped. It makes people silent and difficult to access; it shrinks back like a violet from the brute nature of the object in order to fill the depths of the subject. It comes out with negative judgments or assumes an air of profound indifference as a means of defense." Introverted feelings can therefore be thought of as subjective, personal ideals and values, that the person protects and defends against the thoughts and judgements of others.

Sensation
Jung presented sensation as "that psychological function that transmits a physical stimulus to perception. [...] not only to the outer stimuli but also to the inner, i.e., to changes in the internal organs. Primarily, therefore, sensation is sense-perception, i.e., perception transmitted via the sense organs and 'bodily senses' (kinaesthetic, vaso-motor sensation, etc.)." Also, since the process of conscious perception is a psychological phenomenon representing a physical phenomenon, and not the physical phenomenon itself, he adds: "On the one hand, it is an element of presentation, since it transmits to the presenting function the perceived image of the outer object; on the other hand, it is an element of feeling, because through the perception of bodily changes it lends the character of affect to feeling."

Extraverted sensation
Extraverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives sensations from the external world in an objective manner. For example, since an extraverted sensor type's source of reward gravitates around perceiving and feeling external phenomena, he often has a good sense of aesthetics—whether this be the taste of food or a new trend in clothing. Extraverted sensors may be more attuned to spatial awareness and physical reality. Note that a bodily sensation is still considered extraverted sensing, as the sensation is being perceived in objective reality. For example, drinking caffeine will objectively create a stimulating sensation in the person's physiology. This is contrasted to the subjective sensor, who may be concerned with a subjective response to the same drink (e.g., nostalgia that is tied to that specific cup of coffee, or whether or not they prefer the flavor).

Introverted sensation
Introverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in such a way as extraverted sensation does above, but in a subjective manner. Jung wrote that "the subject perceives the same things as everybody else; he never stops at the purely objective effect but concerns himself with the subjective perception released by the objective stimulus. Subjective perception differs remarkably from the objective. It is either not found at all in the object or, at most, merely suggested by it[...] Subjective sensation apprehends the background of the physical world rather than its surface. The decisive thing is not the reality of the object but the reality of the subjective factor, i.e., the primordial images, which in their totality represent a psychic mirror world. It is a mirror, however, with the peculiar capacity of representing the present contents of consciousness not in their known and customary form but in a certain sense sub specie aeternitatis, somewhat as a million-year old consciousness might see them. Such a consciousness would see the becoming and the passing of things beside their present and momentary existence, and not only that, but at the same time it would also see that Other, which was before their becoming and will be after their passing hence."

Introverted sensation also perceives things in a very detailed manner, as per Emma Jung.

Intuition
Intuition is also presented as a basic psychological function, as hunches and visions provide an alternative means of perception to sensation. "It is that psychological function that transmits perceptions in an unconscious way. Everything, whether outer or inner objects or their associations, can be the object of this perception. Intuition has this peculiar quality: it is neither sensation nor feeling, nor intellectual conclusion, although it may appear in any of these forms."

Extraverted intuition
Extraverted intuition takes in intuitive information from the world around. Whereas introverted intuition refers to Jung's idea of the collective unconscious, extraverted intuition is concerned with the collective conscious. People with high extraverted intuition are attuned to current events, media, trends, and developments. The collective unconscious sees the world in terms of primordial archetypes such as The Hero, The Sage, the outlaw, etc. The collective conscious used by the Extraverted Intuitive, however, sees archetypes reflected through the subcultures, celebrities, organizations, events, and ideas of their times.

Introverted intuition
Introverted intuition is the intuition that acts in an introverted and, thus, subjective manner. Jung wrote: "Intuition, in the introverted attitude, is directed upon the inner object, a term we might justly apply to the elements of the unconscious. The relation of inner objects to consciousness is entirely analogous to that of outer objects, although theirs is a psychological and not a physical reality. Inner objects appear to the intuitive perception as subjective images of things, which, though not met with in external experience, really determine the contents of the unconscious, i.e., the collective unconscious, in the last resort. [...] Although this intuition may receive its impetus from outer objects, it is never arrested by external possibilities but stays with the factor that the outer object releases within. [...] Introverted intuition apprehends the images that arise a priori, i.e., the inherited foundations of the unconscious mind. These archetypes, whose innermost nature is inaccessible to experience, represent the precipitate of psychic functioning of the whole ancestral line, i.e., the heaped-up, or pooled, experiences of organic existence in general, a million times repeated and condensed into types. Hence, in these archetypes all experiences are represented, which since ancient times have happened on this planet. Their archetypal distinctness is more marked, the more frequently and intensely they have been experienced. The archetype would be—to borrow from Kant—the noumenon of the image which intuition perceives and, in perceiving, creates."

Jung differentiates between introverted intuition and introverted sensation by writing that introverted sensation is 'confined' to the perception of events, while introverted intuition instead perceives "the image that has really occasioned the innervation", repressing its actual qualities. He uses the example of "a psychogenic attack of giddiness," writing that the sensation will perceive the qualities and sensations of the giddiness without paying attention to the image that caused it. Intuition, on the other hand, does perceive the image that caused it, perceiving it and its course in a very detailed manner rather than the giddiness itself, which is "the image of a tottering man pierced through the heart by an arrow".

"For intuition, therefore, the unconscious images attain the dignity of things or objects. But, because intuition excludes the cooperation of sensation, it obtains either no knowledge at all or, at best, a very inadequate awareness of the innervation disturbances or of the physical effects produced by the unconscious images. Accordingly, the images appear as though detached from the subject, as though existing in themselves without relation to the person. Consequently, in the above-mentioned example, the introverted intuitive, when affected by the giddiness, would not imagine that the perceived image might also in some way refer to himself. Naturally, to one who is rationally orientated, such a thing seems almost unthinkable, but it is none the less a fact, and I have often experienced it in my dealings with this type."

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Isabel Myers, an early pioneer of psychometrics, formalized these ideas and proposed that the mixture of types in an individual's personality could be measured through responses to a personality test she devised along with her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. In this model, four "dichotomies" are defined, each labelled by two letters (one for each of the opposites in question), as shown by the emboldened letters in the table. Individuals' personalities fall into sixteen different categories depending on which side of each dichotomy they belong to, labelled by the four applicable letters (for example, an "ENTP" type is someone whose preferences are extraversion, intuition, thinking and perceiving).

Controversy over attitudes
Myers interpreted Jung as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant, though some views differ. In support of Myers' (and/or Briggs') interpretation, in one sentence Jung seems to state that the "three inferior" functions of an (extreme) extravert are introverted. The "most differentiated function is always employed in an extraverted way, whereas the inferior functions are introverted".

More recently, typologists such as John Beebe and Linda Berens have introduced theoretical systems in which all people possess eight functions—equivalent to the four functions as defined by Jung and Myers but in each of the two possible attitudes—with the four in the opposite attitude to that measured, known as the "shadow functions", residing largely in the unconscious.

Furthermore, the evidence given by Myers for the orientation of the auxiliary function relies on the sentence from Jung:

"For all the types met with in practice, the rule holds good that besides the conscious, primary function, there is a relatively unconscious, auxiliary function which is in every respect different from the nature of the primary function."

But the sentence justifying this interpretation is in fact a mistranslation. Thus rendering this interpretation obsolete. "Unconscious" being in fact "conscious" makes a significant difference, given the importance of these two notions in psychological types. The correct translation is: "For all the types met with in practice, the rule holds good that besides the conscious, primary function, there is a relatively conscious, auxiliary function which is in every respect different from the nature of the primary function."

Different models
The tables below give different theorists' ideas about personality types in terms of "cognitive functions".

Carl Jung
Carl Jung developed the theory of cognitive processes in his book Psychological Types, in which he defined only four psychological functions, which can take introverted or extraverted attitudes, as well as a judging (rational) or perceiving (irrational) attitude determined by the primary function (judging if thinking or feeling, and perceiving if sensation or intuition). He used the terms dominant, auxiliary, and inferior, in which there is one dominant function, two auxiliary functions, and one inferior function. Each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" in which the function is conscious. The more conscious a function is, the higher the tendency and potential it has to develop. The less differentiation is hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious and manifest in "happening" to the person and not under conscious control. Therefore, there is a significant difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the orientation of the functions.

The following table is a summarized model of Jung's conception of personality types based on the four functions of introversion, and extraversion.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The third edition of the MBTI Manual lists the types function order according to the table below:

John Beebe
Though John Beebe has not published a type table, the format that Isabel Myers devised can also be applied to his theory. Beebe describes the different cognitive functions' role in the overall personality in terms of various mythic archetypes. John Beebe's model is based on Jung's theory of the collective unconscious, which is not part of the current scientific consensus and may be unfalsifiable.

Linda Berens
The layout of Linda Berens's type table is unique, and her terminology differs from that of Beebe; however, the ordering of cognitive processes in her and Beebe's models are the same.

Lenore Thomson
Lenore Thomson offers yet another model of cognitive functions. In her book, Personality Type: An Owners Manual, Thomson advances the hypothesis of a modular relationship between the cognitive functions paralleling left-right brain lateralization. In this approach, the judging functions are in the front-left and back-right brains, and the perception functions are in the back-left and front-right brains. The extraverted functions are in the front of the brain, while the introverted functions are in the back of the brain. The order of the cognitive functions are then determined not by an archetypal hierarchy (as supposed by Beebe) but by an innate brain lateralization preference.

title: Jungian cognitive functions


text: User talk:69.209.5.45

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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Spiritual or Material Problems

Spiritual or Material Problems was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was DELETE

Original research. --Viriditas | Talk 00:28, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC) This was not a theory to sell anyone on spirituality. It was new theory for solving problems in a material world dominated by spiritually motivated people, like suicide bombers. I thought, if it had potential, other users would ask questions or correct the language. I guess the wikipedia is not a source for new theories. Does anyone know of a popular free source for new theories on the web? I'd hate to think this rapidly changing world of free knowledge is limited to old theories. --Billfmsd
 * Delete. Original research, personal essay, rant, whatever you want to call it, it's not encyclopedic.  -- Antaeus Feldspar 01:24, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I followed the instructions, and I worked it the number of times as I had in my question, and the result was that I had Cooties and Despair. Delete for original research and Deep Thoughts. Geogre 02:20, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, original research and just weirdly non-encyclopedic. --Spangineer ∞ 02:35, Dec 17, 2004 (UTC)
 * I am doubting whether to delete or speedy delete. - Andre Engels 02:57, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, original research... or Speedy as patent nonsense. Wyss 03:28, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete --fvw *  03:34, 2004 Dec 17 (UTC)
 * Delete. Original pseudo-philosophy. jni 07:04, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. If being in touch with your spiritual side means you ending up posting nonsense like this, then I'm glad to be materialistic... P Ingerson 07:37, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * del. Mikkalai 08:52, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't know any specific sites for it. But you could always sign up with some free webhosting service. - Andre Engels 09:42, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Wikinfo has more liberal rules about original research, you could try submitting it there .   Shanes 11:45, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. utcursch 13:24, Dec 20, 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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User:Gospodin~enwiki

Hi, I'm Gospodin :-)

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User:Jeremykemp

Jeremy Kemp, Ed.D., M.Ed., M.S.J.

Faculty San José State University jkemp {at} alumni.stanford.edu http://slisweb.sjsu.edu/people/faculty/kempj/kempj.php

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Margaret Farrow

Margaret Ann Farrow (Nemitz; November 28, 1934 – March 8, 2022) was an American Republican politician who was the 42nd lieutenant governor of Wisconsin (the first woman to hold the office) and also served in both houses of the state legislature.

Early and personal life
Farrow was born and raised in Kenosha, Wisconsin. She was the daughter of William Nemitz, who worked at Snap-On Tool Corporation, and Margaret (née Horan) who was a corporate executive assistant. She attended St. Catherine's High School in Racine. She then attended Rosary College in River Forest, Illinois, for one year before receiving her B.A. from Marquette University. Farrow was married and had five children.

Elected office (1971–2003)
Farrow served on the Elm Grove, Wisconsin Board of Appeals from 1971 to 1974 and the Village Board from 1976 to 1987, spending the last five years of her tenure as president. After her time with the Village Board, Farrow was elected to the Wisconsin State Assembly, and later the Wisconsin State Senate, from a district comprising most of Waukesha County, Wisconsin. The first female lieutenant governor of Wisconsin, Farrow was appointed to the position after then-Lieutenant Governor Scott McCallum was elevated to the office of governor upon the departure of Gov. Tommy Thompson to join the administration of George W. Bush in January 2001.

As Lieutenant Governor, she served as chair of the Governor's Work-Based Learning Board, co-chair of the Governor's Task Force on Invasive Species, and chair of the Wisconsin's Women's Council. Farrow authored and served as vice chair of the SAVE Commission and was appointed by Governor Tommy Thompson to serve on the Governor's Blue-Ribbon Commission on State-Local Partnerships for the 21st Century. Farrow also served on the Governor's Blue Ribbon Task Force on Passenger Rail.

McCallum and Farrow ran for a full four-year term in 2002, but their Republican ticket lost the race to Democrat Jim Doyle.

Post-Lieutenant Governor
Farrow was publicly touted by Mark Neumann as the best candidate to take on Democrat Russ Feingold in 2004. Without putting her name forward for consideration, she won a straw poll at the 2003 Republican State Convention. During the 2008 campaign, she was a member of the "Palin Truth Squad" for the McCain Campaign.

She was chairman of the board of directors of WisconsinEye Public Affairs Network, Inc., which produces the Wisconsin equivalent of C-SPAN. In 2010, WCAN (Waukesha County Action Network), the advocacy organization Farrow had created, combined with the Waukesha County Chamber of Commerce to create the Waukesha County Business Alliance, a county-wide chamber of commerce representing over 1,100 member businesses in southeastern Wisconsin. Farrow also served on the Board of Directors as well as the Policy Board of the Waukesha County Business Alliance.

In 2013, she became the inaugural winner of the annual Margaret Thatcher Award, which honored her contributions, courage, and leadership as one of "Wisconsin's Iron Ladies".

Farrow later resided in Pewaukee, Wisconsin with her husband. Her son Paul Farrow was elected Waukesha County Executive in 2015 and previously served in both chambers of the Wisconsin Legislature. In 2013, she was appointed by Governor Scott Walker to serve on the University of Wisconsin System Board of Regents. On December 7, 2017, she announced her immediate retirement from the UW System Board of Regents, stepping down before her term expired in 2020.

Farrow died on March 8, 2022, at the age of 87 at her home in Pewaukee, Wisconsin.

title: Margaret Farrow


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User talk:Gospodin~enwiki

Heya Gospodin! Welcome to wikipedia. Here, have a standard welcome template:

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome!
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Teres minor muscle

The teres minor (Latin teres meaning 'rounded') is a narrow, elongated muscle of the rotator cuff. The muscle originates from the lateral border and adjacent posterior surface of the corresponding right or left scapula and inserts at both the greater tubercle of the humerus and the posterior surface of the joint capsule.

The primary function of the teres minor is to modulate the action of the deltoid, preventing the humeral head from sliding upward as the arm is abducted. It also functions to rotate the humerus laterally. The teres minor is innervated by the axillary nerve.

Structure
It arises from the dorsal surface of the axillary border of the scapula for the upper two-thirds of its extent, and from two aponeurotic laminae, one of which separates it from the infraspinatus muscle, the other from the teres major muscle.

Its fibers run obliquely upwards and laterally; the upper ones end in a tendon which is inserted into the lowest of the three impressions on the greater tubercle of the humerus; the lowest fibers are inserted directly into the humerus immediately below this impression.

A normal anatomical variant of this is a much smaller appearing muscle with an intact tendon. This is referred to as the teres minimis; some literature refer to it as teres micro.

Relations
The teres minor originates at the lateral border and adjacent posterior surface of the scapula. It inserts at the greater tubercle of the humerus. The tendon of this muscle passes across, and is united with, the posterior part of the capsule of the shoulder-joint.

Innervation
The muscle is innervated by the posterior branch of axillary nerve where it forms a pseudoganglion. A pseudoganglion has no nerve cells but nerve fibres are present. Damage to the fibers innervating the teres minor is clinically significant.

Variation
Sometimes a group of muscle fibres from teres minor may be fused with infraspinatus.

Function
The infraspinatus and teres minor attach to head of the humerus; as part of the rotator cuff they help hold the humeral head in the glenoid cavity of the scapula. They work in tandem with the posterior deltoid to externally (laterally) rotate the humerus, as well as adduction. Teres Minor can produce only very small scapular plane adduction during maximal contraction (Hughes RE, An KN 1996) with adductor moment arm of approximately 0.2 cm at 45° of shoulder internal rotation and approximately 0.1 cm at 45° of shoulder external rotation.

Injury
There are two types of rotator cuff injuries: acute tears and chronic tears. Acute tears occur as a result of a sudden movement. This might include throwing a powerful pitch, holding a fast moving rope during water sports, falling over onto an outstretched hand at speed, or making a sudden thrust with the paddle in kayaking. A chronic tear develops over a period of time. They usually occur at or near the tendon, as a result of the tendon rubbing against the underlying bone. The teres minor is typically normal following a rotator cuff tear.

Imaging

Atrophy of the teres minor muscle is often a consequence of a rotator cuff tear, but common isolated teres minor atrophies have also been found. A quadrangular space syndrome causes excessive and or chronically compression of the structures which pass through this anatomical tunnel. The axillary nerve and the posterior humeral circumflex artery pass through the space. People affected note shoulder pain and paresthesia down the arm first and foremost in abduction, extension, external rotation and overhead activity. Selective atrophy of the teres minor muscle has been seen and pulled together directly with compression of the corresponding axillary nerve branch or posterior humeral circumflex artery. Fibrous bands, cysts of the glenoid labrum, lipoma or dilated veins can occupy the quadrilateral space pathologically. Similar symptoms are common with anterior shoulder dislocation, humeral neck fracture, brachial plexus injury and thoracic outlet and inlet syndrome. It is important to include those pathologies for a complete as possible differential diagnosis.

Ultrasonography is a tool to detect a fatty degenerative atrophy of the teres minor and shows in affected muscles increased echogenicity and betimes a slight reduction in muscle bulk. MR imaging helps to consolidate the diagnosis of neurogenic muscle atrophy. Extracellular edema after traumatic events causing neural damage show an increased signal intensity on T2-weighted MRI sequences and normal intensity on T1-weighted sequences. Posterior humeral circumflex artery compression and reduced blood flow in stressful arm positions and or maneuvers can be diagnosed by a Doppler ultrasonography. The nerve should be detected adjacent to the vessel. In an elevated arm position the axillary neurovascular bundle can be seen at the posterior axillary fold just before it perforates the deltoideus, while the posterior course is well visible in the neutral position. For a detailed assessment of the artery, a MR angiography is required. The major task of an ultrasonographic examination is to rule out any space occupying mass. Additional electromyography is helpful to reveal any decelerated nerve conduction velocity, and thus denervation of the concerned muscle.

title: Teres minor muscle