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Alyxia stellata

Alyxia stellata, known as maile in Hawaiian, is a species of flowering plant in the dogbane family, Apocynaceae, that is native to Hawaii. It grows as either a twining liana, scandent shrub, or small erect shrub, and is one of the few vines that are endemic to the islands. The leaves are usually ternate, sometimes opposite, and can show both types on the same stem. Flowers are quite inconspicuous and have a sweet and light fragrance of honey. The bark is most fragrant and exudes a slightly sticky, milky sap when punctured, characteristic of the family Apocynaceae. The entire plant contains coumarin, a sweet-smelling compound that is also present in vanilla grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), woodruff (Galium odoratum) and mullein (Verbascum spp.). Fruit are oval and dark purple when ripe. Maile is a morphologically variable plant and the Hawaiian names reflect this (see Ethnobotany section).

Distribution and habitat
Maile can occur in most types of vegetation at elevations from 50 to 2000 m on all of the main Hawaiian Islands, however it is believed that both Kahoolawe and Niihau likely had populations of the species before large-scale disturbances occurred. Lowland wet forests occur from 100 – elevation in the Hawaiian Islands and are prime habitat for maile, receiving 150–500 cm of rainfall annually. Maile is also found in montane mesic and wet communities.

Lei
Maile is traditionally and still most popularly used in lei. The vines are prepared and twined together to make an open lei or if people prefer they can close it. In more rural areas it is typical for someone to pick their own maile if accessible, however because lei maile is so desirable, many floral shops carry these kinds of lei. It is one of the only endemic Hawaiian plants grown commercially for lei. Commercial maile plantations have become more common as some people feel that imported (non-Hawaiian) maile is not as fragrant as Hawaiian maile.

Lāau Lapaau
This plant was used medicinally to treat puho, puka puhi, kaupo, and  na eha moku kukonukonu e ae (other cuts). Maile kaluhea was mashed with aukoi (Senna occidentalis) stalks, ahakea (Bobea spp.) and koa (Acacia koa) bark. After water is added to this mixture and heated, it is put on infected areas to clean.

Local tradition
Lei maile are often worn by the groom, and also by the groom's men in weddings which is a lovely sight. For high school proms in Hawaii, the boy is often given a lei maile. Birthdays, graduations, anniversaries and any celebration for that matter are all an occasion for lei maile, however many responsible stewards to the land understand there is not enough maile to go around for everyone. This ties back in to local maile plantations that have started up.

Kapa
Kapa, pounded wauke (Broussonetia papyrifera) is traditionally scented using fragrant plants such as maile, mokihana (Melicope anisata), lauae (Phymatosorus scolopendria), iliahi (Santalum spp.) and kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum).

Conservation
Because maile is desirable for harvesting it is often incorporated into restoration plantings which can help bring the community into the conservation process. One study looked at the potential of planting native Hawaiian plants as an understory layer to reduce weedy seedlings from sprouting up and gaining hold again in a restored area. Maile, māmaki (Pipturus albidus) and palapalai (Microlepia strigosa) were the plants used.

Folklore
Mention of the maile plant occurs in various stories (moolelo), proverbs (ōlelo noeau), and in the song (mele) "Lei Awapuhi".

Lāieikawai
The maile sisters are a favorite stock characters in Hawaiian romance tales. The story of Lāieikawai tells of five Maile sisters. Maile hai wale (brittle maile), Maile lau lii (small-leaved maile), Maile lau nui (large-leaved maile), Maile kaluhea (sweet-scented maile), and Maile pakaha (blunt-leaved maile). Kauai's maile lau lii is often celebrated in song and chant. The ōlelo noeau, Ka maile lau lii o Koiahi speaks of the "fine-leaved" maile of Kokee, Kauai which had one of the best and most fragrant maile lau lii in Hawaii and was praised in old chants. Because maile was often placed on heiau in traditional times, the older generations of Hawaiians say that the fragrance of maile still lingers in those areas where heiau once stood or are still standing.

Puna and Panaewa
Several ōlelo noeau from the Hilo and Puna districts on Hawaii Island paint a wonderfully fragrant picture of Puna and Panaewa. Ka makani hali ala o Puna, the fragrance-bearing wind of Puna;, Hanakahi is adorned with the fragrance and perfume of Panaewa. These were both places that had a moist climate suitable for maile and other fragrant ferns, as well as the famous hala (Pandanus tectorius) from Puna. The phrase Puna paia ala, fragrant walls of Puna, gives reference to the hīnano blossom which was famously hung inside hale of that district to scent the house. People traveled to both Puna and Panaewa in order to pick maile, hence those areas being remembered as fragrant.

Mōlī
Mary Kawena Pukui tells a story from Kaū on Hawaii Island of a beautiful young woman, Mōlī, whose father will let none other than a fisherman marry her (a good fisherman is well liked and prosperous because of the food he catches; it is also a sign of a much desired hard-working man). A certain worthless fisherman who tricked Mōlī's father by rubbing fish guts (which were thrown out by others) on himself took her hand in marriage and did no work afterwards. Driven to desperation, Mōlī decorated herself with a beautiful lei of ginger (Zingiber zerumbet), fern and maile and threw herself over the cliffs at Waiahukini. It is said each year around the time of her death, Mōlī returns and when the wind blows, moaning and wailing can be heard. The maile fragrance of her lei can also be smelled and if anyone goes there wearing a maile lei, they will be knocked to the ground.

Keaoua Kekuaokalani
Keaoua Kekuaokalani, a cousin to Liholiho (Kamehameha II), objected to the overturn of the kapu system and with supporters, they gathered together with weapons at the battle of Kuamoo in attempt to restore the kapu taken away. Hawaiians from the area where the battle took place hold that the fragrance of maile worn by the Kekuaokalani's warriors into battle can still be smelled.

title: Alyxia stellata


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User talk:Andyault

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! Hope you like it here, and stick around.

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[[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 17:57, Dec 17, 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Andyault


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Talk:Inverurie

Religion
This article is probably around 50% about the religious state of the town. This seems a little inappropriate, and has potential implications for the neutrality of the article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.113.139.124 (talk) 18:59, 28 March 2011 (UTC)

Religion... churches listed include CoS and "Presbyterian", which is meant by the last? UP?
 * It was me that included that info- isnt there some kind of presbyterian kirk (UP?) between the 'Bank of Ury' pub and the 'Tastie Bite' chipper on Inverurie High Street? --Fergie 07:13, 6 May 2005 (UTC)

being a bit picky here but the use of the word 'conurbation' seems a bit rich - its usually only used for large metropolitan areas which have merged - not tow small settlements as in this case - however I can't suggest a better word - any one got an idea? Alimat 09:08, 9 May 2006 (UTC)

how about the entire area or town or something like that.

Laconia 22:32, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

LOL @ the "wealth of experience" of Mr Brian P Smith - did he write that stuff himself?! Keep it in, for the unintentional humour value!Draggleduck (talk) 18:31, 11 July 2009 (UTC)

Fastest growing town in GB
This article contains a claim that Inverurie is the fastest growing town in Great Britain. What is the source of this, it appears to have no source. Tektim (talk) 18:04, 25 May 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Inverurie


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Criggion Radio Station

Criggion Radio Station was a transmitter site latterly operated by BT on behalf of the UK Ministry of Defence. It was located near the village of Criggion in the parish of Bausley with Criggion, which lies in the county of Powys, Wales.

It was established in World War II as a back-up unit for Rugby Radio Station and took over the latter's traffic for a short period in 1943 following a fire at Rugby. Operating on 19.6 kHz with the callsign GBZ, the station was used until its shutdown on 1 April 2003 for sending messages to submarines. This task (and that of Rugby) is now carried out by the Anthorn radio station. Criggion's VLF antenna was hung from three free-standing steel lattice towers at 182.9 m tall, three guyed masts at 213.4 m tall and a rock anchor. The towers and masts were demolished in August 2003 but, although there is now less obvious visible evidence that a large radio station existed on the site, the derelict main transmitting building still survived in 2011 and the foundation sites of the former masts can be still be located on satellite and aerial photographs.

the remaining parts of the station were reported to be in a state of disrepair.

title: Criggion Radio Station


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Olympic Park (Buffalo)

Olympic Park is the name shared by two former baseball grounds located in Buffalo, New York, United States.

Prelude
From 1878 through 1883, Buffalo's baseball teams had played at an initially unnamed ballpark at Fargo Avenue and Rhode Island Street. The club's owners named it "Riverside Park" in 1882, although it was actually over 1000 ft from the Niagara River. The owner of the site, Alexander Culbert, decided to develop the property and the team left the site for Olympic Park (I).

First Olympic Park
Olympic Park (I) was home to the Buffalo Bisons baseball club of the National League for two seasons, 1884 and 1885. It was located on the block bounded by Richmond Avenue (west); Summer Street (south); and Norwood Avenue (east). After the National League dropped the Bisons franchise, professional baseball continued to be played there by the Buffalo Bisons of the International League, until the lease expired following the 1888 season. The last professional game in Olympic Park (I) was played on September 28, 1888, when the Buffalo Bisons played the Cuban Giants.

The site of Olympic Park (I) is currently occupied by a residential neighborhood, including the Richmond-Summer Recreation Center.

Second Olympic Park
The Bisons found a new location at a block bounded by East Ferry Street (north, third base); Masten Avenue (east, left field); Woodlawn Avenue (south, right field); and Michigan Avenue (west, first base). This site would remain the primary location of Buffalo professional baseball through the 1960 season. In the late winter and early spring of 1889, the club's owner had the existing (wooden) stands disassembled at the old location, and moved section by section to the new location. The club decided to continue the name because of its familiarity to the public, so it became the new Olympic Park (II).

The club held the grounds for the 1889 season, but in 1890 the Players' League version of the Bisons secured a lease on it. The minor league club had to find another location, and they played the season at grounds in the eastern part of the city, near Genesee Street and the Belt Line Railroad, which was primarily the home field of the amateur Buffalo Baseball League organization.

The Players' League folded after the 1890 season, enabling the minor league Bisons to move back to Olympic Park (II). This would be the Bisons' home stadium through the early part of the 1923 season. During the summer, they demolished the old wooden stands and began building a new set of stands in steel and concrete. It was originally named Bison Stadium, and in 1935 was renamed Offermann Stadium in memory of the club's owner.

In addition to baseball, Olympic Park (II) was also used for football, serving as the home of the Buffalo All-Americans of the National Football League, and several iterations of the New York Pro Football League Championship. The UB Bisons college football squad played its games at the stadium until 1919, after which they moved to Rotary Field on-campus.

The site of Olympic Park (II) / Offermann Stadium is currently occupied by the Buffalo Academy for Visual and Performing Arts and a church. In August 2012, a historical plaque was dedicated at the site in remembrance of over 72 years of baseball played on the grounds. Local Buffalo sports historian John Boutet spearheaded the project and raised the funds through the Facebook group Buffalo Sports Museum, the Greater Buffalo Sports Hall of Fame and the Buffalo Bisons.

"Buffalo Baseball Park"
In July 1907, Bisons' owner Alexander Potter announced that the ballpark was to be renamed, from Olympic Park to Buffalo Baseball Park. This decision was not binding on news writers, and the Olympic Park name was kept alive for years, by referring to "Buffalo Baseball Park" and "Olympic Park" interchangeably, or by saying "Buffalo Baseball Park (formerly Olympic Park)". By the early 1920s, the name "Olympic Park" was fading from use. During the 1923 season, with construction on the new steel-and-concrete stadium under way, papers continuing calling it "Buffalo Baseball Park" and also "new Bison stadium", unwittingly anticipating its new name. Meanwhile, the name "Buffalo Baseball Park" continued to be used, posted on the signs above the gates, even after Bison Stadium had been renamed Offermann Stadium in 1935. "Buffalo Baseball Park" continued to appear under that name in Buffalo city directories as late as 1957.

title: Olympic Park (Buffalo)


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Yucca pallida

Yucca pallida, sometimes called pale yucca, is a species of yucca native to Northern Mexico and parts of the blackland prairies of northern and central Texas, and notable for its light-colored leaves that range from a pale blue-gray to sage-green in color.

The rosettes average 20–50 cm tall and 30–80 cm in diameter, with leaves 15–40 cm long and 2–3 cm wide, being widest around the midpoint. The rosettes sit directly on the ground, with little or no trunk. The leaves have a yellow to brown terminal spine, and are generally flat, possibly with some waviness or rolling along the edges. The inflorescence is a panicle, 1–2.5 m tall, with up to 100 bell-shaped flowers, each 5–7 cm long, with color ranging from light green to cream.

Yucca pallida is known to hybridize with Yucca rupicola Scheele, which has a similar appearance, but whose leaves are more twisted and curved.

Although not common in horticulture, its color, size, and moderate hardiness (down to −18 °C or 0 °F) make it a good gardening alternative to other species of yuccas.

title: Yucca pallida


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Massive resistance

Massive resistance was a strategy declared by U.S. senator Harry F. Byrd Sr. of Virginia and his son Harry Jr.'s brother-in-law, James M. Thomson, who represented Alexandria in the Virginia General Assembly, to get the state's white politicians to pass laws and policies to prevent public school desegregation, particularly after Brown v. Board of Education.

Many schools and an entire school system were shut down in 1958 and 1959 in attempts to block integration. This lasted until the Virginia Supreme Court and a special three-judge panel of federal district judges from the Eastern District of Virginia, sitting at Norfolk, declared those policies unconstitutional.

Although most of the laws created to implement massive resistance were overturned by state and federal courts within a year, some aspects of the campaign against integrated public schools continued in Virginia for many more years.

Byrd Organization and opposition to racial integration
After Reconstruction ended in 1877 and the local Readjuster Party fell in the 1880s, Virginia's conservative Democrats actively worked to maintain legal and cultural racial segregation in Virginia through the Jim Crow laws. To complete white supremacy, after the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), Virginia adopted a new constitution in 1902 effectively disenfranchising African Americans through restrictions on voter registration and also requiring racially segregated schools, among other features. In the early 20th century, Harry Flood Byrd (1887–1966), a Democrat who served as Governor of Virginia U.S., led the Byrd Organization. Continuing a legacy of segregationist Democrats, from the mid-1920s until the late 1960s the Byrd Organization was a political machine that effectively controlled Virginia politics through a network of courthouse cliques of local constitutional officers in most of the state's counties. The Byrd Organization's greatest strength was in the rural areas of the state. It never gained a significant foothold in the independent cities, nor with the emerging suburban middle-class of Virginians after World War II. One of the Byrd Organization's most vocal, though moderate, long-term opponents proved to be Benjamin Muse, who served as a Democratic state senator from Petersburg, Virginia, then unsuccessfully ran for Governor as a Republican in 1941 and became a publisher and Washington Post columnist.

Using legal challenges, by the 1940s, black attorneys who included Thurgood Marshall, Oliver W. Hill, William H. Hastie, Spottswood W. Robinson III and Leon A. Ransom were gradually winning civil rights cases based upon federal constitutional challenges. Among these was the case of Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, which was initiated by students to protest poor conditions at R. R. Moton High School in Farmville, Virginia. Their case became part of the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision in 1954. That decision overturned Plessy and declared that state laws that established separate public schools for black and white students denied black children equal educational opportunities and were inherently unequal. As a result, de jure (legalized) racial segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, thereby paving the way for desegregation and the Civil Rights Movement.

Gray Commission
A little more than a month after the Supreme Court's decision in Brown, on June 26, 1954, Senator Byrd vowed to stop integration attempts in Virginia's schools. By the end of that summer, Governor Thomas B. Stanley, a member of the Byrd Organization, had appointed a Commission on Public Education, consisting of 32 white Democrats and chaired by Virginia Senator Garland "Peck" Gray of rural Sussex County. This became known as the Gray Commission. Before the commission issued its final report on November 11, 1955, the Supreme Court had responded to segregationists' delaying tactics by issuing the Brown II decision and directing federal district judges to implement desegregation "with all deliberate speed." The Gray Plan recommended that the General Assembly pass legislation and allow for amendment of the state constitution so as to repeal Virginia's compulsory school attendance law, to allow the Governor to close schools rather than allow their integration, to establish pupil assignment structures, and finally to provide vouchers to parents who chose to enroll their children in segregated private schools. Virginia voters approved the Gray Plan Amendment on January 9, 1956.

1956: Circumventing Brown via the Stanley Plan
On February 24, 1956, Byrd declared a campaign which became known as "massive resistance" to avoid implementing public school integration in Virginia. Leading the state's conservative Democrats, he proclaimed "If we can organize the Southern States for massive resistance to this order I think that in time the rest of the country will realize that racial integration is not going to be accepted in the South." Within a month, Senator Byrd and 100 other conservative Southern politicians signed what became known as the "Southern Manifesto", condemning the Supreme Court's decisions concerning racial integration in public places as violating states' rights.

Before the next school year began, the NAACP filed lawsuits to end school segregation in Norfolk, Arlington, Charlottesville and Newport News. To implement massive resistance, in 1956, the Byrd Organization-controlled Virginia General Assembly passed a series of laws known as the Stanley Plan, after Governor Thomas Bahnson Stanley. One of these laws, passed on September 21, 1956, forbade any integrated schools from receiving state funds, and authorized the governor to order closed any such school. Another of these laws established a three-member Pupil Placement Board that would determine which school a student would attend. The decision of these Boards was based almost entirely on race. These laws also created tuition grant structures which could channel funds formerly allocated to closed schools to students so they could attend private, segregated schools of their choice. In practice, this caused the creation of "segregation academies".

History
On January 11, 1957, U.S. district judge Walter E. Hoffman, in consolidated cases concerning Norfolk's schools, declared the Pupil Placement Act unconstitutional. However, this decision was on appeal as the next school year started. Nonetheless, Virginians could see that President Eisenhower was willing to use the US military to enforce federal court orders to desegregate after he federalized the National Guard and sent the 101st Airborne Division into Little Rock, Arkansas to enforce a similar decision after Governor Orval Faubus ordered the Arkansas National Guard to surround Central High School in Little Rock to prevent black students who became known as the Little Rock Nine from entering. In November 1957, Virginians elected Attorney General J. Lindsay Almond, another member of the Byrd Organization, to succeed Stanley as governor.

Closed schools in Norfolk, Charlottesville, and Warren County
Governor Almond took office on January 11, 1958, and soon matters had come to a head. Federal courts ordered public schools in Warren County, the cities of Charlottesville and Norfolk and Arlington County to integrate, but local and state officials appealed. Local authorities also tried delaying school openings that September. When they opened late in the month, Almond ordered various schools subject to federal court integration orders closed, including Warren County High School, two City of Charlottesville schools (Lane High School and Venable Elementary School), and six schools in the City of Norfolk. Warren County (Front Royal) and Charlottesville cobbled together education for their students with the help of churches and philanthropic organizations such as the American Friends Service Committee. The larger and poorer Norfolk school system had a harder time—one-third of its approximately 10,000 students did not attend any school. A group of families whose white children were locked out of the closed Norfolk schools also sued in federal court on the grounds that they were not being granted equal protection under the law, since they had no schools. Ironically, a Norfolk parochial school, Blessed Sacrament, had accepted its first black pupil in November 1953, even before Brown.

Moderate white parents throughout Virginia that fall formed local committees to Preserve our Schools, as well as conducting letter writing and petition campaigns. When Almond refused to allow Norfolk's six previously all-white junior and senior high schools to open in September, that local parents' group was renamed the Norfolk Committee for Public Schools. In December 1958 various similar committees statewide combined under an umbrella organization called the Virginia Committee for Public Schools. Furthermore, 29 prominent businessmen met with Governor Almond in that same month and told him that massive resistance was hurting Virginia's economy. Almond responded by calling for a "Pilgrimage of Prayer" on January 1, 1959.

James v. Almond was heard in November 1958, and the three-judge panel of federal district judges gave their decision on January 19, 1959, Virginia's traditional holiday celebrating Confederate generals Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson, declaring for the plaintiffs and ordering that the schools be opened. On the same day the Virginia Supreme Court issued Harrison v. Day and found that Governor Almond had violated the state constitution by closing schools, despite the other provision which had required segregation, and which was invalid after Brown. While the Virginia Supreme Court found that funneling local school funds through the new state agency violated another state constitutional provision, it condemned the U.S. Supreme Court's Brown decision as showing lack of judicial restraint and respect for the sovereign rights of the Commonwealth and allowed the tuition grant program to continue through local authorities. Shortly thereafter, Edward R. Murrow aired a national TV documentary titled The Lost Class of '59 that highlighted the Norfolk situation. Nonetheless, Norfolk's government, led by Mayor Duckworth, attempted to prevent the schools' reopening by financial maneuvering, until the same three-judge federal panel found again for the plaintiffs.

Charlottesville, Virginia
Massive resistance in Charlottesville was prompted when Federal Judge John Paul ordered the Charlottesville School Board to end segregation commencing when schools were to open in September 1956. Twelve students, whose parents had sued for the right to transfer, were to attend two all-white schools: three Burley High School students would attend Lane High School and nine Jefferson School elementary students would attend Venable Elementary School. The students became known as "The Charlottesville Twelve." The decree was received in Charlottesville on August 7, 1956. City Attorney John S. Battle indicated their intent to appeal the decree.

Arlington loses its school board
While campaigning in Arlington before his election, Almond had said that he favored a more flexible approach to school desegregation than Byrd's massive resistance. In 1946, when the nearby District of Columbia schools started charging fees for black children from Arlington, the suburban city/county combination with a burgeoning population of federal civil servants had petitioned a special session of Virginia's General Assembly for the right to hold a referendum to become the only Virginia community with an elected school board. In October 1948, the Virginia Supreme Court upheld that new board against a challenge raised by the old appointed board. However, even the new board's policy of building and improving schools proved inadequate given the county's financial limitations; black students were still sent to segregated and inferior schools, including Hoffman-Boston School for the small number of black middle and high school students. A federal lawsuit was initially dismissed by U.S. District Judge Albert V. Bryan, but in June 1950 the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit had ordered the county to provide equal facilities for blacks, and equal pay for black teachers.

Arlington's Catholic schools integrated almost immediately after Brown v. Board of Education, with no disorder or public outcry. However, when Arlington's elected school board announced in January 1956 that it planned to begin integration in selected schools, shortly before the General Assembly met, it soon found that the state would not allow localities to determine their own positions on racial matters. The legislature dismantled Arlington's elected public school board, instead allowing the conservative Arlington County Board to appoint school board members. This—with other aspects of massive resistance—delayed Arlington's public school integration for years. County voters (95% white) had voted in early 1956 against the Gray Commission's proposals, although that referendum passed statewide. However, the American Nazi Party at that time maintained its headquarters in Arlington, and it, with the Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties (a segregationist group), disrupted school board meetings and distributed tracts against integration.

Arlington's new appointed school board delayed integration, so the NAACP filed another lawsuit in May 1956 demanding desegregation, similar to lawsuits filed in three other Virginia counties. Arlingtonians also formed a Committee to Preserve Public Schools to keep their schools open against threats of massive resistance proponents. This time, Judge Bryan, on July 31, 1956, ordered Arlington's school integrated. However, his injunction lacked teeth. He did not try to circumvent the Pupil Placement Act passed that summer, aware that not only had the Commonwealth again appealed his ruling to the Fourth Circuit (which was also considering desegregation lawsuits from Southside Virginia), the Virginia Supreme Court would soon rule on challenges to the Pupil Placement Act's validity based on Virginia's constitution. Meanwhile, Arlington parents hoped for peaceful desegregation, but believed strongly that northern Virginians should not lead the statewide movement of moderates, but instead jointly resolve their situation with those in Norfolk, Charlottesville and Front Royal.

After the federal and state court decisions of January 19, 1959, struck down the new Virginia mandatory closing law, Arlington integrated its Stratford Junior High School (now called H-B Woodlawn ) on February 2, 1959, the same day as Norfolk integrated its schools. The Arlington County Board's new chairman proudly called the massively prepared-for event, "The Day Nothing Happened".

Perrow Commission
Having lost James v. Almond and Harrison v. Day, Governor Almond publicly reversed his defiant stance within a few months. The special legislative session formed a commission led by Mosby Perrow Jr. of Lynchburg, which issued a report backing acceptance of limited desegregation, leaving the burden on black parents, repealing the compulsory attendance law in favor of a "school choice" program and relying on the Pupil Placement Board to keep desegregation to a minimum. Almond's legislative plan barely passed despite the Byrd Organization's opposition. This earned Senator Byrd's wrath, and after Almond's term expired, Byrd tried to block Almond's appointment as a federal judge by President John F. Kennedy, although Almond was confirmed and served on the U.S. Court of Customs and Patent Appeals from June 1963 until his death in 1986. Perrow also paid a price, for he failed to win reelection, losing to a challenger in the next Democratic primary, although Perrow later served as President of the Virginia State Board of Education.

Prince Edward County
Despite Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County being one of the companion cases in Brown v. Board of Education, Prince Edward County schools took even longer to desegregate. The county's board refused to appropriate any money to operate the schools, which closed rather than comply with the federal desegregation order effective September 1, 1959. It was the only school district in the country to resort to such extreme measures. White students took advantage of state tuition vouchers to attend segregation academies (as discussed below), but black students had no educational alternatives within the county. Edward R. Murrow brought such students' plight to national attention. Finally, in 1963, Prince Edwards' schools were ordered to open, and when the Supreme Court agreed to hear the county's appeal, supervisors gave in rather than risk prison. Then 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court decided Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, and segregationists could appeal no longer. However, when Prince Edward County's schools opened on September 8, 1964, all but 8 of the 1500 students were black, and observers noted the difference between the black children sent elsewhere for education by the American Friends Service Committee, and those who remained unschooled through the hiatus and became the "crippled generation."

During the county's public school closure, white students could attend Prince Edward Academy, which operated as the de facto school system, enrolling K-12 students at a number of facilities throughout the county. Even after the re-opening of the public schools, the Academy remained segregated, although it briefly lost its tax-exempt status in 1978 for its discriminatory practices. White students gradually drifted back to the public schools as tuition at the Academy crept higher. In 1986, Prince Edward Academy changed its admission policies and began accepting black students, but few non-whites attend the school. Today it is known as the Fuqua School.

Segregation academies
Public schools in the Commonwealth's western counties that lie outside the Black Belt, and have much smaller black populations, were integrated largely without incident in the early 1960s. By the fall of 1960, NAACP litigation had resulted in some desegregation in eleven localities, and the number of at least partially desegregated districts had slowly risen to 20 in the fall of 1961, 29 in the fall of 1962, and 55 (out of 130 school districts) in 1963. However, by 1963, only 3,700 black pupils or 1.6% of Virginia's black student population attended integrated schools.

For example, Warren County High School re-opened as a de facto all-black school after no white students enrolled. Their parents had opted instead to send their children to the John S. Mosby Academy, one of many segregation academies — private schools opened throughout the state as part of the massive resistance plan.

Over the course of the 1960s, white students gradually returned to Warren County High School, with the Mosby Academy eventually becoming the county's middle school.

Freedom of Choice plans
Multiple school systems replaced massive resistance with "Freedom of Choice" plans, under which schools allowed families and students to opt to attend the public schools of their choice. This way, schools were able to comply with court rulings against segregation, while remaining partially or fully segregated in practice.

In New Kent County, a black parent, Calvin Green, sued the county school system to implement a more effectual desegregation scheme. This resulted in the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Green v. County School Board of New Kent County that freedom of choice plans were unconstitutional.

Court-ordered busing: Richmond and back to Norfolk
The Richmond City Public Schools had attempted various schemes to avoid integration, including dual attendance zones and the "Freedom of Choice" Plan. After an unsuccessful annexation suit against Henrico County to the north, the city successfully annexed 23 sqmi of neighboring Chesterfield County to its south on January 1, 1970 in what the federal court later determined to be an attempt to stem white flight, as well as dilute black political strength. In 1970, District Court Judge Robert Merhige Jr., ordered a desegregation busing scheme established to integrate Richmond schools. However, beginning the following school year, thousands of white students did not go to the city's schools, but instead began attending existing and newly formed private schools and/or moving outside the city limits.

A forced consolidation of the Richmond City, Chesterfield County and Henrico County public school districts was proposed and approved by Judge Merhige in 1971, but the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals overturned this decision, barring most busing schemes that made students cross county/city boundaries. Richmond City Schools then went through a series of attendance plans and magnet school programs. By 1986, Judge Merhige approved a system of essentially neighborhood schools, ending Virginia's legal struggles with segregation.

In 1970, the Norfolk City Public Schools and several other Virginia communities were also subjected to busing schemes, also returning to more or less neighborhood school plans some years later.

Bussing plans were implemented in school districts across the north and south as well. White women, specifically mothers, who were pro-integration staunchly opposed bussing. Evidently, the racist beliefs that upheld massive resistance were not isolated in the south. Massive resistance was formed in response to legislation yet the racist motive behind the movement persisted across the country as displayed by protests against bussing plans.

Aftermath
Virginia experienced no incidents which required National Guard intervention. In 1969, Virginians elected Republican A. Linwood Holton Jr., who had opposed massive resistance and labeled it "the state's pernicious anti-desegregation strategy," as governor. The following year, Gov. Holton placed his children (including future Virginia First Lady Anne Holton) in Richmond's mostly African-American public schools, to considerable publicity. He also increased the number of blacks and women employed in the state government and in 1973 created the Virginia Governor's Schools Program. Furthermore, when Virginia revised its state constitution in 1971, it included one of the strongest provisions concerning public education of any state in the country.

In 2009, as part of their "American Soil Series", the Virginia Stage Company featured Line in the Sand, a play by Chris Hannah. It reflects the emotions and tensions in Norfolk during massive resistance in both the political arena and through the eyes of the students of the "Lost Class".

On July 16, 2009, the Richmond Times-Dispatch apologized in an editorial for its role and the role of its parent company and its sister newspaper, The Richmond News Leader, in championing massive resistance to human rights, acknowledging that "the Times-Dispatch was complicit" in an "unworthy cause": "The record fills us with regret, which we have expressed before. Massive Resistance inflicted pain then. Memories remain painful. Editorial enthusiasm for a dreadful doctrine still affects attitudes toward the newspaper."

At the Episcopal Diocese of Southern Virginia's service of Repentance, Reconciliation & Healing on November 2, 2013, specific mention was made of the actions of C. G. Gordon Moss, Dean of Longwood College in attempting to heal the divisions in Prince Edward County in 1963, and the retaliation he experienced. Several months earlier, the vestry of Johns Memorial Episcopal Church in Farmville, Virginia issued a similar apology during the 50th anniversary commemoration of the school closings.

Most segregation academies founded in Virginia during Massive Resistance are still thriving more than a half century later and some like Hampton Roads Academy, the Fuqua School, Nansemond-Suffolk Academy and Isle of Wight Academy continue to expand in the 21st century. Enrollment at Isle of Wight Academy now stands at approximately 650 students, the most ever enrolled at the school. In 2016 Nansemond Suffolk Academy opened a second campus, that includes an additional 22,000 square foot building for students in pre-kindergarten through grade 3. All of these schools had officially adopted non-discrimination policies and begun admitting non-white students by the end of the 1980s and like other private schools, are now eligible for federal education money through what are known as Title programs that flow through public school districts. However, few blacks can afford the high cost of tuition to send their children to these private schools. In some cases their association with "old money" and past discrimination still cause some tension in the community, especially among non-whites and students of the local public schools. Their racist past may cause black parents who can afford the tuition to be reluctant to enroll their children in these schools.

The abandonment of public schools by most whites in Virginia's rural counties that lie within the Black Belt and white flight from inner cities to suburbs after the failure of "Massive Resistance" has ultimately led to increasingly racially and economically isolated public schools in Virginia. In total, as of 2016 there were 74,515 students in these isolated schools, including 17 percent of all black students in Virginia’s public schools and 8 percent of all Hispanic students. Many of these isolated schools are inner city schools in Richmond, Norfolk, Petersburg, Roanoke, and Newport News. In contrast, less than 1 percent of Virginia's non-Hispanic white students attended these isolated schools.

title: Massive resistance


text:
Wax motor

A wax motor is a linear actuator device that converts thermal energy into mechanical energy by exploiting the phase-change behaviour of waxes. During melting, wax typically expands in volume by 5–20%.

A wide range of waxes can be used in wax motors, ranging from highly refined hydrocarbons to waxes extracted from vegetable matter. Specific examples include paraffin waxes in the straight-chain n-alkanes series. These melt and solidify over a well-defined and narrow temperature range.

Design
The principal components of a wax motor are:
 * An enclosed volume of wax
 * A plunger or stroke-rod to convert the thermo-hydraulic force from the wax into a useful mechanical output
 * A source of heat such as:
 * Electric current; typically a PTC thermistor, that heats the wax
 * Solar radiation; e.g. greenhouse vents
 * Combustion heat; e.g. excess heat from internal combustion engines
 * Ambient heat
 * A sink to reject heat energy such as:
 * Convection to cooler ambient air
 * Peltier effect device arranged to transfer heat energy away

When the heat source is energized, the wax block is heated and it expands, driving the plunger outwards by volume displacement. When the heat source is removed, the wax block contracts as it cools and the wax solidifies. For the plunger to withdraw, a biasing force is usually required to overcome the mechanical resistance of seals that contain the liquid wax. The biasing force is typically 20% to 30% of the operating force and often provided by a mechanical spring or gravity-fed dead weight applied externally into the wax motor.

Depending on the particular application, wax motors potentially have advantages over magnetic solenoids:
 * They provide a large hydraulic force from the expansion of the wax in the order of 4000 N (corresponding to roughly 400 kg or 900 lb at standard gravity).
 * Both the application and the release of the wax motor is not instantaneous, but rather, smooth and gentle.
 * Because the wax motor is a resistive load rather than an inductive load, wax motors controlled by TRIACs do not require snubber circuits.
 * Wax motors can be operated entirely passively by exploiting ambient sources of energy. Given that a variety of melting-points are possible for the wax used inside the motor, one can be selected to match the range of ambient operating temperatures in a given application. In this way the wax can be melted and solidified within this range by the transfer of thermal energy. When co-located with the heat source, wax motors can be operated without the need for an additional external power source.

Aerospace Controls
Wax motors are used heavily in the aerospace industry where they are utilized to control fuel, hydraulic, and other oils critical to safe flight today in modern airplanes.

Mixing Valves - HVAC
Wax motors are contained inside "self actuating" thermostatic mixing valves, where the wax motor senses thermal change and responds accordingly to yield a desired mixed fluid temperature.

Laundry washing machines
Some front load washing machines use wax motors to engage the door lock assembly. When a cycle is started, a wax motor is actuated pushing a pin outward and locking the door. This design has cost, reliability and safety advantages. In moist conditions a wax motor costs less for equivalent reliability than an electromagnetic solenoid or motor latch. It has a predictable passive release delay. If power is lost the door remains briefly locked, designed to be longer than the high speed spin cycle coast-down time, then reliably unlocks as the wax cools.

Water heating systems
Wax motors are also commonly used to drive zone valves in hydronic (hot water) heating systems.

Dishwashers
They are used in many dishwashers to release the detergent dispenser door latch. The wax motor acts like a solenoid when activated by the dishwasher's timer or control, and the piston operates the mechanism which then releases the catch for the dispenser door. They are also used to control the exhaust vent for the drying cycle.

Greenhouse vents
Wax motors are widely used to operate the temperature regulating vents of greenhouses.

In this application, as the ambient temperature within the greenhouse increases, the wax melts, activating the plunger and opening the vents. When the greenhouse temperature has cooled sufficiently, the wax cools and solidifies, allowing the vents to close again.

Paraffin microactuator
A paraffin microactuator is a type of wax motor, often fabricated by microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) technology or sometimes precision mechanics.

title: Wax motor


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Charles Spearman

Charles Edward Spearman, FRS (10 September 1863 – 17 September 1945) was an English psychologist known for work in statistics, as a pioneer of factor analysis, and for Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. He also did seminal work on models for human intelligence, including his theory that disparate cognitive test scores reflect a single general intelligence factor and coining the term g factor.

Biography
Spearman had an unusual background for a psychologist. In his childhood he was ambitious to follow an academic career. But first he joined the army as a regular officer of engineers in August 1883, and was promoted to captain on 8 July 1893, serving in the Munster Fusiliers. After 15 years he resigned in 1897 to study for a PhD in experimental psychology. In Britain, psychology was generally seen as a branch of philosophy and Spearman chose to study in Leipzig under Wilhelm Wundt, because it was a centre of the "new psychology"—one that used the scientific method instead of metaphysical speculation. As Wundt was often absent due to his multiple duties and popularity, Spearman largely worked with Felix Krueger and Wilhelm Wirth, both of whom he admired. He started in 1897, and after some interruption (he was recalled to the army during the Second Boer war, and served as a Deputy Assistant Adjutant General from February 1900 ) he obtained his degree in 1906. He had already published his seminal paper on the factor analysis of intelligence (1904). Spearman met and impressed the psychologist William McDougall who arranged for Spearman to replace him when he left his position at University College London. Spearman stayed at University College until he retired in 1931. Initially he was Reader and head of the small psychological laboratory. In 1911 he was promoted to the Grote professorship of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic. His title changed to Professor of Psychology in 1928 when a separate Department of Psychology was created.

When Spearman was elected to the Royal Society in 1924 the citation read: "Dr. Spearman has made many researches in experimental psychology. His many published papers cover a wide field, but he is especially distinguished by his pioneer work in the application of mathematical methods to the analysis of the human mind, and his original studies of correlation in this sphere. He has inspired and directed research work by many pupils."Chief amongst these achievements was the discovery of the general factor in human intelligence, and his subsequent development of a theory of "g" and synthesis of empirical work on ability.

Spearman was strongly influenced by the work of Francis Galton. Galton did pioneering work in psychology and developed correlation, the main statistical tool used by Spearman.

In statistics, Spearman developed rank correlation (1904), a non-parametric version of the conventional Pearson correlation, as well as both the widely used correction for attenuation (1907), and the earliest version of a 'factor analysis' (Lovie & Lovie, 1996, p. 81). His statistical work was not appreciated by his University College colleague Karl Pearson and there was a long feud between them.

Although Spearman achieved most recognition in his day for his statistical work, he regarded this work as subordinate to his quest for the fundamental laws of psychology, and he is now similarly renowned for both.

Charles Spearman always insisted that his work be applied in psychiatry and urged so in his Maudsley lecture to the Royal Medico-Psychological Association. While some work has been made on these lines by pupils and associates of his, the development of factor analysis as a tool of psychiatry followed a different path than he had intended. Regardless, his indirect contributions towards psychiatry were considerable.

Spearman's life both began and ended in the city of London. He had three daughters, and a son who died in 1941 in Crete.

Theory of intelligence
A record of Spearman's views on g (and also those of Godfrey Thomson and Edward Thorndike) was made in the course of the Carnegie-sponsored International Examinations Inquiry Meetings.

Here, Spearman gives a compact summary of his findings and theory of g:"When asked what g is, one has to distinguish between the meanings of terms and the facts about things. g means a particular quantity derived from statistical operations. Under certain conditions the score of a person at a mental test can be divided into two factors, one of which is always the same in all tests, whereas the other varies from one test to another; the former is called the general factor or g, while the other is called the specific factor. This then is what the g term means, a score-factor and nothing more. But this meaning is sufficient to render the term well defined so that the underlying thing is susceptible to scientific investigation; we can proceed to find out facts about this score-factor, or g factor. We can ascertain the kind of mental operations in which it plays a dominant part as compared with the other or specific factor. And so the discovery has been made that g is dominant in such operations as reasoning, or learning Latin; whereas it plays a very small part indeed in such operation [sic] as distinguishing one tone from another. . . g tends to dominate according as the performance involves the perceiving of relations, or as it requires that relations seen in one situation should be transferred to another. . . . On weighing the evidence, many of us used to say that this g appears to measure some form of mental energy. But in the first place, such a suggestion is apt to invite needless controversy. This can be avoided by saying more cautiously that g behaves as if it measured an energy. In the second place, however, there seems to be good reason for changing the concept of energy to that of 'power' (which, of course, is energy or work divided by time). In this way, one can talk about mind power in much the same manner as about horse power. . . . . . .g is in the normal course of events determined innately; a person can no more be trained to have it in higher degree than he can be trained to be taller. (pp. 156 –157)."There was also another co-factor as proposed by Spearman that was special intelligence. The special intelligence was for individuals who accomplished high success results in the same tests. However, later Spearman introduced group factor that was particular to those correlations that were not a result of factor g or s. His ideas were in 1938 criticized on paper by psychologist Louis L. Thurstone who argued his own experiments showed that intelligence formed seven primary categories: numerical, reasoning, spatial, perceptual, memory, verbal fluency and verbal comprehension. Thurstone ultimately agreed with Spearman that there was a general factor among ability measures. Subsequently, Raymond Cattell supported a version of the general ability concept theorized by Spearman but highlighted two forms of ability, distinguished by their noegenetic properties: fluid and crystallized intelligence.

As time progressed, Spearman increasingly argued that g was not, from a psychological point of view, a single ability but composed of two very different abilities which normally worked closely together. These he called "eductive" ability and "reproductive" ability. The former term comes from the Latin root "educere" – which means to "draw out" and thus refers to the ability to make meaning out of confusion. He claimed that to understand these different abilities "in their trenchant contrast, their ubiquitous cooperation, and their genetic interlinkage" would, for the study of "individual differences – and even cognition itself" – be "the very beginning of wisdom."

Despite Spearman arguing that g was what emerged from a large battery of tests, i.e., that it was not measured perfectly by any single test, the fact that g-theory suggested that much of ability could be captured in a single factor, and his suggestion that "the eduction of relations and correlates" underlay this general factor led to the quest for tests of this general ability. Raven's Progressive Matrices might be regarded as one of these although Raven himself clearly stated that his tests should not be regarded as "intelligence" tests.

While arguing consistently that g accounted for much of individual differences in "ability" (as measured by tests which had "no place in schools"), Spearman also acknowledged that "Every normal man, woman, and child is … a genius at something … It remains to discover at what …" He thought that detecting these areas of genius required procedures very different from "any of the testing procedures at present in current usage", though he felt these to be capable of "vast improvement".

Spearman felt that though g could be detected in any sufficiently-broad set of cognitive measures, he felt that the tests from which his g had emerged "had no place in schools" because they "deflected" teachers', pupils', parents' and politicians' attention from the business of education which, as the Latin root of the word implies, should be concerned with "drawing out" whatever talents a student may have.

He presented a digest of his views in the entry "Abilities, general and special" in the 14th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Spearman's model was influential, but was also critiqued by others, such as Godfrey Thomson. In particular the move from a psychological g to a biological g – that is a unitary biological mechanism or mechanisms has remained a matter of active research. Nonetheless, Thomson's disagreements with Spearman had more to do with methodology and epistemology than data or interpretations thereof. It was Thomson who authored Spearman's biographical memoir for the Royal Society.

Factor analysis
Factor analysis is a statistical test that is used to find relationships between multiple correlated measures and Spearman played a clear part in its development. Spearman coined the term factor analysis and used it extensively in analyzing multiple measures of cognitive performance. It was factor analytic data which led Spearman to postulate his original general and specific factor models of ability. Spearman applied mathematical procedures to psychological phenomena and moulded the outcome of his analysis into a theory – which has greatly influenced modern psychology. Factor analysis and its modern relations confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling underlie much of modern behaviour research.

title: Charles Spearman


text:
David Ruffin

David Ruffin (born Davis Eli Ruffin; January 18, 1941 – June 1, 1991) was an American soul singer most famous for his work as one of the lead singers of the Temptations (1964–1968) during the group's "Classic Five" period as it was later known. Ruffin was the lead voice on such famous songs as "My Girl" and "Ain't Too Proud to Beg." He later scored two top-ten singles as a solo artist, "My Whole World Ended (The Moment You Left Me)" and "Walk Away from Love."

Known for his unique raspy and anguished tenor vocals, Ruffin was ranked as one of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time by Rolling Stone magazine in 2008 and again in 2023. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989 for his work with the Temptations. Fellow Motown recording artist Marvin Gaye once said admiringly of Ruffin that, "I heard [in his voice] a strength my own voice lacked."

Early life
Ruffin was born Davis Eli Ruffin on January 18, 1941, in the rural unincorporated community of Whynot, Mississippi, 15 miles southeast of Meridian. He was the third born son of Elias "Eli" Ruffin, a Baptist minister, and Ophelia Ruffin. His siblings were Quincy B. Ruffin, Rita Mae Ruffin, and Jimmy Lee Ruffin. Ruffin also had another sister Rosine, who died in infancy.

Ancestry
Ruffin's parents were both natives of Mississippi. His father, Eli, worked as a truck driver at numerous lumber mills, and his mother, Ophelia, worked out of their home. Eli's parents had moved from Alabama to Mississippi, because of the harsh circumstances of living after the American Civil War. Prior to living in Alabama, David Ruffin's great-grandparents, John and Clara Ruffin, had moved from Bertie County, North Carolina. John Ruffin was a Civil War Veteran, fighting with the 14th United States Colored Heavy Artillery Regiment.

Childhood and adolescence
Ruffin's father was strict and at times violently abusive. Ruffin's mother died from complications of childbirth ten months after his birth in 1941; and his father later married Earline, a schoolteacher, in 1942.

As a young child, Ruffin, along with his other siblings (older brothers Quincy and Jimmy, and sister Reada Mae) traveled with their father and their stepmother as a family gospel group, opening shows for Mahalia Jackson and The Five Blind Boys of Mississippi, among others. Ruffin sang in the choir at Mount Salem Methodist Church, talent shows and wherever else he could. In 1955, at the age of 14, Ruffin left home under the guardianship of a minister, Eddie Bush, and went to Memphis, Tennessee, with the purpose of pursuing the ministry.

At age 15, Ruffin went to Hot Springs, Arkansas, with the jazz musician Phineas Newborn, Sr. There, they played at the Fifty Grand Ballroom and Casino. Billed as Little David Bush, Ruffin continued to sing at talent shows, worked with horses at a jockey club and eventually became a member of The Dixie Nightingales. He also sang with The Soul Stirrers briefly after the departure of Johnnie Taylor.

After some of his singing idols such as Sam Cooke and Jackie Wilson had left gospel music and gone secular, Ruffin also turned in that direction. Eddie Bush and his wife, Dorothy Helen, took the then-16-year-old Ruffin to Detroit, Michigan, where his brother, Jimmy, was pursuing a career in music while simultaneously working at the Ford Motor Company.

Early years
After moving to Detroit with the Bushes, Ruffin recorded his first released record with the songs "You and I" (1958) b/w "Believe Me" (1958). These songs were recorded at Vega Records and released under the name "Little David Bush", using the last name of his guardian. Ruffin would later recall how he initially recorded "a different kind of music", strongly influenced by the smoother pop and R&B of the time, when he first recorded in Detroit for Vega.

In 1957, Ruffin met Berry Gordy Jr., then a songwriter with ambitions of running his own label. Ruffin lived with Gordy's father, a contractor, and helped "Pops" Gordy do construction work on the building that would become Hitsville USA, the headquarters for Gordy's Tamla Records (later Motown Records) label. Jimmy Ruffin would eventually be signed to Tamla's Miracle Records label as an artist.

Ruffin also worked alongside another ambitious singer, Marvin Gaye, as an apprentice at Anna Records, a Chess-distributed label run by Gordy's sister Gwen Gordy Fuqua and his songwriting partner Billy Davis.

Asked about Ruffin in the Detroit Free Press in 1988, Gordy Fuqua said: "He was very much a gentleman, yes ma'am and no ma'am, but the thing that really impressed me about David was that he was one of the only artists I've seen who rehearsed like he was on stage". According to Ruffin, both he and Gaye would pack records for Anna Records.

Ruffin created music as both the vocalist and drummer in the Voice Masters, a doo-wop style combo and eventually started recording at Anna Records, and recorded the song "I'm in Love" b/w "One of These Days" (1961), with the Voice Masters, a group which included future Motown producer, Lamont Dozier. Other group members included members of The Originals: Ty Hunter, CP Spencer, Hank Dixon and (Voice Masters and The Originals founder) Walter Gaines. (At one time, The Voice Masters also included another future Temptations member, Melvin Franklin, one of numerous people David would claim as a cousin). Ruffin did sign to Anna Records as a solo artist, but his work in that time was unsuccessful.

Ruffin eventually met an up-and-coming local group by the name of the Temptations. His older brother Jimmy went on a Motortown Revue tour with the Temptations, and he told David that they needed someone to sing tenor in their group. Ruffin shared his interest in joining the group with Otis Williams, who also lived in Detroit.

In January 1964, Ruffin became a member of the Temptations after founding member Elbridge "Al" Bryant was fired from the group. Ruffin's first recording session with the group was January 9, 1964. Ruffin and his brother both auditioned to join the group, but they ultimately chose David after he performed with them on stage during the label's New Year's Eve party in 1963.

With the Temptations (1964–1968)
After joining the Temptations, the bespectacled Ruffin initially sang backgrounds while the role of lead singer mostly alternated between Eddie Kendricks and Paul Williams. Ruffin did sing a few lead parts, both on stage and in the studio, during his first year with the group, but his leads on these studio tracks would not be released for over a year, as they were not considered good enough to showcase his vocals. However, Smokey Robinson, who produced and co-wrote most of the Temptations' material at this point, saw Ruffin during this period as a "sleeping giant" in the group with a unique voice that was "mellow" yet "gruff." Robinson thought that if he could write just the 'perfect song' for Ruffin's voice, then he could have a smash hit. The song was to be something that Ruffin could "belt out" yet something that was also "melodic and sweet". When Robinson achieved his goal, the song, "My Girl", was recorded in November 1964 and released a month later. It became the group's first number-one single in 1965. "My Girl" subsequently became the Temptations' signature song, and elevated Ruffin to the role of lead singer and frontman.

The follow-ups to "My Girl" were also extremely successful singles, and included the Ruffin-led hits "It's Growing" (1965), "Since I Lost My Baby" (1965), "My Baby" (1965), "Ain't Too Proud to Beg" (1966), "Beauty Is Only Skin Deep" (1966), "(I Know) I'm Losing You" (1966), "All I Need" (1967), "(Loneliness Made Me Realize) It's You That I Need" (1967), "I Wish It Would Rain" (1967), and "I Could Never Love Another (After Loving You)" (1968). Ruffin also shared lead vocals on the 1967 hit single "You're My Everything" with Eddie Kendricks. The tall, 6'3", Ruffin's passionate and dramatic performances endeared him to the Temptations' audiences and fans. According to Otis Williams, Ruffin (playfully nicknamed "Ruff" by the group) was a natural comedian and a hard-working singer when he first joined the group.

Ruffin's most notable non-vocal contribution to the Temptations was the masterminding of their trademark four-headed microphone stand. This enabled the other members to sing and do their dances without having to crowd around one microphone while the lead singer would sing into a separate microphone.

However, by 1967, difficulties with Ruffin became an issue for the group. He became addicted to cocaine and began missing rehearsals and performances. Refusing to travel with the other Temptations, Ruffin and his then-girlfriend, Tammi Terrell, traveled in a custom limo (with the image of his trademark black rimmed glasses painted on the door). After the Supremes had their name changed to Diana Ross & the Supremes in early 1967, Ruffin felt that he should become the focal point of the Temptations, just as Diana Ross was for her group, and began demanding that the group name be changed to David Ruffin & the Temptations. This led to a number of disagreements between Ruffin and the group's de facto leader, Otis Williams. In addition to the group's problems with Ruffin's ego, he began inquiring into the Temptations' financial records, demanding an accounting of the group's money. This caused friction between Ruffin and Gordy.

In June 1968, the Temptations agreed that Ruffin had finally crossed the line when he missed a June 22 Cleveland, Ohio, date with the Temptations in order to attend a performance by his new girlfriend, Barbara Gail Martin (Dean Martin's daughter). Ruffin was fired on June 27, and replaced with Dennis Edwards, a former member of the Contours, who had been a friend of Ruffin and the group as a whole beforehand. Though Ruffin himself personally encouraged Edwards to take his place, Ruffin began turning up unannounced at Temptations concerts during Edwards' first few dates with the group. When the group started to perform a Ruffin-era song such as "My Girl" or "Ain't Too Proud to Beg", Ruffin would suddenly walk on to the stage, take the microphone from Edwards' hands, and steal the show, embarrassing the group but entertaining the fans. According to Edwards, the adulation and Ruffin's pleas convinced the other four Temptations to give Ruffin a second chance, but when he arrived late to what was to be his return show with the group in Gaithersburg, Maryland, the Temptations decided to keep Edwards and drop considerations of rehiring Ruffin. However, Otis Williams has always maintained that Ruffin's firing was permanent and he was never considered for rehiring.

In October 1968, Ruffin filed suit against Motown Records, seeking a release from the label and an accounting of his money. Motown counter-sued to keep the singer from leaving the label and eventually the case was settled. The settlement required Ruffin to remain with Motown to finish out his initial contract (Ruffin joined Motown as a solo artist and always had a separate contract from the other Temptations, which some felt caused a lot of the in-fighting within the group).

Solo years
Ruffin's first solo single was a song originally intended for the Temptations, "My Whole World Ended (The Moment You Left Me)". The single (from the album also titled My Whole World Ended) was released in 1969, and reached the US Pop and R&B Top Ten. This was followed by the 1969 album Feelin' Good. A third album, titled David, was recorded in 1970–71, but was shelved by Motown and did not see commercial release until 2004.

In 1970, Ruffin recorded an album with his brother Jimmy, I Am My Brother's Keeper, for which they had minor hits with "When My Love Hand (Comes Tumbling Down)" and "Your Love Was Worth Waiting For". His next official release for Motown did not arrive until 1973 when David Ruffin was released. While his solo career initially showed promise, Ruffin went into decline, reportedly in part because of his cocaine addiction and the lack of support from Motown.

Ruffin’s final top ten hit was "Walk Away from Love" in 1975, produced by Van McCoy, which reached number nine on the Pop Charts. It was also Ruffin's only entry into the UK Charts (as a solo artist), and was a hit there as well, making it into the Top Ten (peaking at number 10) in early 1976. The single sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc by the R.I.A.A. in February 1976.

Other notable recordings from Ruffin's solo career include "I Lost Everything I've Ever Loved" (1969); the gospel-inflected "I'm So Glad I Fell For You" (1970); "Blood Donors Needed (Give All You Can)" (1973); "Common Man" (1973) (which was sampled on the 2001 Jay-Z song "Never Change"); "No Matter Where" (1974); "Who I Am" (1975); "Statue of a Fool" (1975); and cover versions of the Jackson Five's "I Want You Back", "Rainy Night in Georgia" (popularized by Brook Benton)—both recorded for the shelved 1970 album; and Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes' "I Miss You" (1973), featuring Eddie Kendricks (later Kendrick).

After leaving Motown in 1977, Ruffin recorded for Warner Bros. Records, releasing the albums So Soon We Change (1979) and Gentleman Ruffin (1980). He later signed with RCA Records, accompanied by former Temptations colleague Eddie Kendricks, who chose to rekindle their friendship when Kendricks himself started experiencing problems with the Temptations.

Collaborations
In 1982, Ruffin and Eddie Kendricks re-joined the Temptations for the recording of their album Reunion and a tour to promote the album. The album included the R&B hit "Standing on the Top" with Rick James. The reunion tour was short-lived, however, as Ruffin started to miss shows as a result of his cocaine addiction, leading the group to be fined thousands of dollars. Otis Williams fired Ruffin from the group for the second and final time (along with Kendricks, whose voice was weakened due to heavy smoking) by Christmas 1982.

Ruffin started touring with Kendricks (who dropped the "s" from his last name at this time) as a duo act in 1985. That year, longtime Temptations fans Hall & Oates teamed up with Ruffin and Kendrick to perform at the re-opening of the Apollo Theater in New York. Their performance was released as a successful live album and single. The four singers also sang a medley of Temptations hits at Live Aid on July 13, 1985. In 1985, a live medley of "The Way You Do the Things You Do" and "My Girl" was released by Hall & Oates featuring Ruffin and Kendrick. It reached number 20 on the Billboard Hot 100, number 12 on the Adult Contemporary chart, and number 40 on the R&B chart. The single earned Ruffin his first and only Grammy nomination. John Oates later wrote a minor hit single for Ruffin and Kendrick, but the two duos fell out, allegedly due to Daryl Hall's objections to Ruffin's heavy drug use.

After being inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame with the Temptations in 1989, Ruffin, Kendrick and Dennis Edwards began touring and recording as "Ruffin/Kendrick/Edwards: Former Leads of The Temptations". In 1991, they completed a successful month-long tour of England which grossed nearly $300,000. At the time of his death they were planning a European tour. He had finished recording the single "Hurt the One You Love" for Motorcity Records.

Relationships, children and domestic abuse
Ruffin was married twice. His first marriage was to Sandra Barnes in 1961, with whom he had three daughters: Cheryl, Nedra, and Kimberly. He had a son with his long-term girlfriend, Genna Sapia, whom he met in 1964. She named their son David E. Sapia, but Ruffin later changed his name to David Eli Ruffin, Jr. The three lived together for years. In 1976, Ruffin married Joy Hamilton. After his death, Sapia would add "Ruffin" to her last name in tribute to their relationship, and for continuity with her son. In 2003, Sapia-Ruffin published A Memoir: David Ruffin--My Temptation, which details Ruffin's infidelity and abusive behavior.

In 1966, Ruffin began dating Tammi Terrell after she joined the Motortown Revue; opening for the Temptations. They had a tumultuous relationship. Ruffin surprised her with a marriage proposal, but after she announced their engagement onstage she learned he was already married. Ruffin became increasingly violent towards Terrell as his drug abuse worsened. Terrell ended their relationship after Ruffin hit her in the head with his motorcycle helmet in 1967. Though she had migraines since childhood, Terrell told Ebony magazine in 1969 that she believed her emotional state during this relationship was a contributing factor to her headaches. Terrell died from a brain tumor in 1970.

At the time of his death, Ruffin had been living in Philadelphia since 1989 with his girlfriend Diane Showers, who met him as a 14-year-old fan.

Drug addiction and legal issues
Ruffin first sought treatment for his drug addiction in 1967.

In 1978, Ruffin was arrested at a birthday party in Memphis. He was charged with disorderly conduct "for refusing several requests" to leave the area after he allegedly made threats against some policemen and their families while being transported to jail. Ruffin denied making threats and was released on his own recognizance.

In 1982, Ruffin was charged $5,000 and sentenced to six months in a low-security prison in Terre Haute, Indiana, for failing to pay taxes amounting to more than $310,000 over two years (1975–1977). He served four months and was released early for good behavior.

On May 19, 1986, he pleaded no contest to a charge of receiving and concealing stolen property worth less than $100 (a Colt .32-caliber handgun) and was fined $50 plus $100 in court costs. Charges of assault and battery and receiving stolen property worth more than $100 were dropped.

In July 1987, Ruffin spent a night in jail after he was arrested after a raid at a Detroit house. He was charged with cocaine possession with intent to distribute less than 20 grams of cocaine. He was released after posting a $1,500 bond. Ruffin was found not guilty of possession, but was found guilty of using the drug. He was sentenced to two years' probation and 50 days of community service. In 1989, he was ordered to enter a drug rehabilitation center after violating his probation three times. He completed a 28-day drug treatment program at the Areba Casriel Institute in New York.

Death
After completing a successful month-long tour of England with Kendricks and Edwards, Ruffin died on June 1, 1991, from an accidental overdose of crack cocaine. He had reportedly collapsed at a West Philadelphia crack house, where he had gone with his friend Donald Brown, according to authorities. Brown then drove Ruffin to the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, where he was declared dead at 3:55 a.m. that morning from "an adverse reaction to drugs (cocaine)" after emergency room personnel spent almost an hour attempting to revive him. The Associated Press reported that Ruffin and a man named William Nowell split ten vials of crack cocaine inside of Nowell's West Philadelphia home hours before he died. Although the cause of death was ruled an accident, Ruffin's family and friends suspected foul play, claiming that a money belt containing $40,000 was missing from his body. However, his girlfriend at the time, Diane Showers, was not surprised when she was informed of his death. "When David had a lot of money, he would be able to do things that he wanted to do," she said.

In The Temptations television miniseries, Ruffin's beaten body is depicted as being dumped in the street in front of a hospital where he dies. It was also stated in the miniseries that his body remained unclaimed in a morgue for a week after his death. As a result, Ruffin's estate filed suit against NBC and other major players involved in the making of the series, claiming defamation. According to the plaintiffs in the case, Ruffin was actually taken to the hospital by a limousine and was escorted to the waiting area by his driver, who informed the attendants of his identity. Ruffin's children further stated that his body was claimed by one of them within a few days of his death. Ruffin's estate lost the lawsuit, and the ruling against it was upheld on appeal.

Ruffin's funeral was held at New Bethel Baptist Church in Detroit. Surviving members of the Temptations sang "My Girl". Stevie Wonder and Aretha Franklin also sang at the funeral. Michael Jackson volunteered to pay for the funeral expenses, but did not attend the service. Jackson, Rod Stewart, Daryl Hall and John Oates, Diana Ross, the Spinners, and Martha Reeves and the Vandellas sent floral arrangements.

Ruffin is buried in section three at Woodlawn Cemetery in Detroit.

Legacy
Ruffin had many admirers among his fellow artists. "Nobody could sing like David Ruffin", said his close friend and colleague Martha Reeves (of Martha and the Vandellas fame). His contemporary, label-mate, and long-time acquaintance Marvin Gaye was particularly impressed with the virility of Ruffin's voice. Gaye said Ruffin's work "made me remember that when a lot of women listen to music, they want to feel the power of a real man."

Daryl Hall said, "His voice had a certain glorious anguish that spoke to people on many emotional levels". Ruffin himself said, "I don't know what kind of voice I have, I really don't...it's just about the feeling I get for the song".

Rod Stewart said: "'I Wish It Would Rain' jumped out of the speakers and ravished my soul". Stewart would later become friends with Ruffin. "His voice was so powerful—like a foghorn on the Queen Mary", Stewart told Rolling Stone in 2005.

The cover art of Ruffin's last album, Gentleman Ruffin, was the inspiration for the art of rapper Wiz Khalifa's mixtape Kush & Orange Juice.

In 2013, David Ruffin was inducted twice into the Rhythm & Blues Music Hall of Fame at Cleveland State University. He is inducted as a solo artist and member of the Temptations. Ruffin is also inducted into the Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fame.

In June 2019, the city of Detroit unveiled "David Ruffin Avenue" as the secondary street name where he formerly lived at 17385 Parkside. The ceremony was hosted by the founder LaMont Robinson of the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame. It was attended by Ruffin's family and friends including Martha Reeves and Mary Wilson.

On October 26, 2019, the city of Meridian ceremonially named a section of 8th Street near the Temple Theatre "David Ruffin Boulevard." Ruffin was born in nearby rural Whynot, but claimed Meridian as home. Ruffin's family was in attendance for honor and the unveiling of his star on Mississippi's Arts + Entertainment Experience's walk of fame. During the celebrations, Jackson State University's "Sonic Boom of the South" marching band led a parade. Lamont Robinson, head of the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame and also Ruffin's son-in-law, presented the idea to Meridian.

In popular culture
In early November 1998, NBC aired The Temptations, a four-hour television miniseries about the group's career, Ruffin was portrayed by Leon Robinson, who won high praise for his performance, but Ruffin's family was upset with the way the series portrayed him, and filed a lawsuit against the series' producers and Otis Williams, whose memoir had been the source material. The case was dismissed in favor of the defendants, with Williams later claiming that he had no real control over the presentation of the material.

Grand Puba of Brand Nubian referenced the singer on the 1990 single "All for One", stating: "I hit a beat and swing a note as if my name was David Ruffin."

Rapper Machine Gun Kelly also referenced the singer on his 2013 song "See My Tears" stating: "Fought every temptation shit, I guess I'm David Ruffin, huh?" In 2019, rapper Lil Durk referenced David Ruffin on a song of the same name, off his mixtape "Love Songs 4 the Streets 2.", with lyrics such as "I know a killer who got inside that jam ... we call him David Ruffin, and they didn't even use his statement so he sang for nothin'." (The track references Ruffin's singing abilities metaphorically, as "singing" is slang in many urban neighborhoods for snitching, or telling on someone to law enforcement in order to get a lighter sentence. But, the Feds didn't end up using his statement, so he did it all for nothing.)

Paul K and the Weatherman have a song on the 1996 Love is a Gas LP titled "David Ruffin's Tears".

Little Brother sampled Ruffin's song Slow Dance for their song Slow It Down.

The first song on Fall Out Boy's 2005 CD From Under the Cork Tree was to have been titled "My Name is David Ruffin...and These are The Temptations," but for legal reasons the name was changed to "Our Lawyer Made Us Change the Name of This Song So We Wouldn't Get Sued".

Hip hop group Hotstylz used Ruffin's song and referred his name on their single "Lookin' Boy".

NLE Choppa referenced Ruffin on Polo G's 2020 single, "Go Stupid" stating: "Givin' niggas temptation like he David Ruffin".

American rap rock group Gym Class Heroes references Ruffin in the 2008 song "Like Father, Like Son (Papa's Song)" from their album The Quilt stating: "I never understood temptation. But I guess we both got a little David Ruffin in us."

Ruffin was portrayed in the Broadway musical, Ain't Too Proud, by Ephraim Sykes.

Ruffin's performance at the 1969 Harlem Cultural Festival was featured in the award-winning documentary film Summer of Soul, directed by Questlove.

Studio albums

 * 1969: My Whole World Ended
 * 1969: Feelin' Good
 * 1970: I Am My Brother's Keeper (The Ruffin Brothers: David & Jimmy Ruffin)
 * 1973: David Ruffin
 * 1974: Me 'N Rock 'N Roll Are Here To Stay
 * 1975: Who I Am
 * 1976: Everything's Coming Up Love
 * 1977: In My Stride
 * 1979: So Soon We Change
 * 1980: Gentleman Ruffin
 * 1987: Ruffin & Kendrick (Ruffin & Kendrick: David Ruffin and Eddie Kendrick)
 * 2004: David (recorded between 1969 and 1971)

title: David Ruffin


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Anthorn Radio Station

Anthorn Radio Station is a naval and government radio transmitting station located near Anthorn, Cumbria, England, overlooking the Solway Firth, and is operated by Babcock International (with whom former operators VT Communications are now merged). It has three transmitters: one VLF; one LF; and an eLORAN transmitter.

It is on the site of the World War II military airfield which was operated by the Fleet Air Arm as HMS Nuthatch.

RNAS Anthorn
John Laing & Son began building an airfield at Anthorn for the Fleet Air Arm in late 1943, and Royal Naval Air Station, Anthorn, was commissioned as HMS Nuthatch on 7 September 1944, with three tarmacadam runways. It was the base of No. 1 Aircraft Receipt and Despatch Unit (No. 1 ARDU), which had the job of receiving aircraft fresh from manufacturers, modifying them to Service standards and despatching them to operational squadrons, with the unit specialising in the Vought F4U Corsair, Supermarine Seafire, Fairey Barracuda and Fairey Firefly types. No. 1 ARDU continued to operate from Anthorn following the end of the Second World War, while a number of Fleet Air Arm Squadrons were also based at the airfield in the immediate post war years. The airbase shut down in March 1958. The present road to Cardurnock runs partially along the airfield perimeter track. Several firing butts, for synchronising aircraft machine guns, can still be seen on the seaward side of the road.

VLF transmitter
The VLF transmitter is used primarily for transmitting orders to submarines and transmits on 19.6 kHz with an output power of 550 kilowatts. Its callsign is GQD. VLF transmissions are relatively unaffected by atmospheric nuclear explosions and Anthorn was once part of the link between Fylingdales early warning radar, North Yorkshire, and the United States' air defence system.

A large part of the site is taken up by the VLF transmitter's large trideco wire umbrella antenna. This consists of a 748 ft central mast with 6 vertical wire radiators suspended from its top fed at the base of the mast, attached to 6 rhombic-shaped 2148 ft long horizontal multiwire toploads which radiate from the central mast at angles of 60°, supported by 12 surrounding masts, giving the antenna the shape of a 6-pointed star when seen from above. The cables supporting the endpoints of the wire antenna carry a load of 31 tons and are attached to computer controlled winches which automatically adjust the tension. The high voltage of several hundred kilovolts on the topload wires during transmission requires long strings of insulators where the wires are attached to the towers.

It is a NATO facility, controlled from Northwood Headquarters along with three other VLF transmitters in Norway, Germany and Italy. In accordance with the procedure for NATO projects, the project was the subject of a competition among the organisation's member countries. The British Post Office, acting as technical adviser and agent of the Ministry of Defence, chose the site, negotiated the contract and supervised the work, with the assistance of the Ministry of Public Building and Works. The contract was placed on 26 October 1961 with Continental Electronics Systems Incorporated of Dallas, Texas. This firm had already built a similar but much larger station in Maine, USA. Work began in 1962 and the station was accepted on behalf of the MoD in November 1964.

Originally, the station was designed to radiate a single telegraph channel at up to 45.5 baud and at powers ranging from 50 kW at 16 kHz to 100 kW at 20 kHz. The carrier frequency was to be stable to one part in 108 over a month. Subsequently, the data rate was increased to 50 baud and the carrier stability improved.

LF transmitter: National Physical Laboratory time signal
The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) has installed three atomic clocks at Anthorn, and on 27 February 2007 Britain’s national time signal transmissions, retaining their original call sign of MSF, were transferred there on a trial basis, moving formally on 1 April 2007. The signals were previously transmitted from a transmitter at Rugby, administered by BT. The data transmitted includes time and date information which can be decoded using readily available software, and the signals are transmitted at an accurate frequency of 60 kHz to provide a national frequency standard. The transmitting aerial uses an auxiliary mast adjacent to the VLF array.

Monitoring and logging of the clocks and control of the transmissions is by Internet link from the NPL offices at Teddington, using comparison with GPS signals at both locations. Signal monitoring is by radio. To ensure accuracy, dynamic adjustment of the aerial according to local conditions (such as wind distortion) is controlled from computers on site. The effective radiated power is 17 kW.

LORAN
The general lighthouse authorities for Britain and Ireland have contracted VT Communications to develop eLORAN (enhanced LORAN) radio navigational aid for mariners. The transmitter is at Anthorn. The transmitting aerial uses an auxiliary mast adjacent to the VLF array. Due to the closure of the eLORAN service in Germany and Norway the eLORAN service was discontinued on 31 December 2015. However, the eLoran timing signal is still active to allow for research and support purposes.

title: Anthorn Radio Station


text:
2–3–4 tree

In computer science, a 2–3–4 tree (also called a 2–4 tree) is a self-balancing data structure that can be used to implement dictionaries. The numbers mean a tree where every node with children (internal node) has either two, three, or four child nodes:
 * a 2-node has one data element, and if internal has two child nodes;
 * a 3-node has two data elements, and if internal has three child nodes;
 * a 4-node has three data elements, and if internal has four child nodes;

2–3–4 trees are B-trees of order 4; like B-trees in general, they can search, insert and delete in O(log n) time. One property of a 2–3–4 tree is that all external nodes are at the same depth.

2–3–4 trees are closely related to red–black trees by interpreting red links (that is, links to red children) as internal links of 3-nodes and 4-nodes, although this correspondence is not one-to-one. Left-leaning red–black trees restrict red–black trees by forbidding nodes with a single red right child, which yields a one-to-one correspondence between left-leaning red–black trees and 2–3–4 trees.

Properties

 * Every node (leaf or internal) is a 2-node, 3-node or a 4-node, and holds one, two, or three data elements, respectively.
 * All leaves are at the same depth (the bottom level).
 * All data is kept in sorted order.

Insertion
To insert a value, we start at the root of the 2–3–4 tree:
 * 1) If the current node is a 4-node:
 * 2) * Remove and save the middle value to get a 3-node.
 * 3) * Split the remaining 3-node up into a pair of 2-nodes (the now missing middle value is handled in the next step).
 * 4) * If this is the root node (which thus has no parent):
 * 5) ** the middle value becomes the new root 2-node and the tree height increases by 1. Ascend into the root.
 * 6) * Otherwise, push the middle value up into the parent node. Ascend into the parent node.
 * 7) Find the child whose interval contains the value to be inserted.
 * 8) If that child is a leaf, insert the value into the child node and finish.
 * 9) * Otherwise, descend into the child and repeat from step 1.

Example
To insert the value "25" into this 2–3–4 tree:
 * 2-3-4-tree-insertion-stage-1.svg

 * Begin at the root (10, 20) and descend towards the rightmost child (22, 24, 29). (Its interval (20, ∞) contains 25.)
 * Node (22, 24, 29) is a 4-node, so its middle element 24 is pushed up into the parent node.
 * 2-3-4-tree-insertion-stage-2.svg

 * The remaining 3-node (22, 29) is split into a pair of 2-nodes (22) and (29). Ascend back into the new parent (10, 20, 24).
 * Descend towards the rightmost child (29). (Its interval (24, ∞) contains 25.)
 * 2-3-4-tree-insertion-stage-3.svg

 * Node (29) has no leftmost child. (The child for interval (24, 29) is empty.) Stop here and insert value 25 into this node.
 * 2-3-4-tree-insertion-stage-4.svg

Deletion
The simplest possibility to delete an element is to just leave the element there and mark it as "deleted", adapting the previous algorithms so that deleted elements are ignored. Deleted elements can then be re-used by overwriting them when performing an insertion later. However, the drawback of this method is that the size of the tree does not decrease. If a large proportion of the elements of the tree are deleted, then the tree will become much larger than the current size of the stored elements, and the performance of other operations will be adversely affected by the deleted elements.

When this is undesirable, the following algorithm can be followed to remove a value from the 2–3–4 tree:

 * 1) Find the element to be deleted.
 * 2) * If the element is not in a leaf node, remember its location and continue searching until a leaf, which will contain the element's successor, is reached. The successor can be either the largest key that is smaller than the one to be removed, or the smallest key that is larger than the one to be removed. It is simplest to make adjustments to the tree from the top down such that the leaf node found is not a 2-node. That way, after the swap, there will not be an empty leaf node.
 * 3) * If the element is in a 2-node leaf, just make the adjustments below.

Make the following adjustments when a 2-node – except the root node – is encountered on the way to the leaf we want to remove:

 * 1) If a sibling on either side of this node is a 3-node or a 4-node (thus having more than 1 key), perform a rotation with that sibling:
 * 2) * The key from the other sibling closest to this node moves up to the parent key that overlooks the two nodes.
 * 3) * The parent key moves down to this node to form a 3-node.
 * 4) * The child that was originally with the rotated sibling key is now this node's additional child.
 * 5) If the parent is a 2-node and the sibling is also a 2-node, combine all three elements to form a new 4-node and shorten the tree.  (This rule can only trigger if the parent 2-node is the root, since all other 2-nodes along the way will have been modified to not be 2-nodes.  This is why "shorten the tree" here preserves balance; this is also an important assumption for the fusion operation.)
 * 6) If the parent is a 3-node or a 4-node and all adjacent siblings are 2-nodes, do a fusion operation with the parent and an adjacent sibling:
 * 7) * The adjacent sibling and the parent key overlooking the two sibling nodes come together to form a 4-node.
 * 8) * Transfer the sibling's children to this node.

Once the sought value is reached, it can now be placed at the removed entry's location without a problem because we have ensured that the leaf node has more than 1 key.

Deletion in a 2–3–4 tree is O(log n), assuming transfer and fusion run in constant time (O(1)).

Parallel operations
Since 2–3–4 trees are similar in structure to red–black trees, parallel algorithms for red–black trees can be applied to 2–3–4 trees as well.

title: 2–3–4 tree