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Nelson A. Miles

Nelson Appleton Miles (August 8, 1839 – May 15, 1925) was a United States Army officer who served in the American Civil War, the American Indian Wars and the Spanish–American War. From 1895 to 1903, Miles served as the last Commanding General of the United States Army, before the office was transformed into the Chief of Staff of the Army.

Early life
Miles was born in Westminster, Massachusetts, on his family's farm. He worked in Boston, read military history, and mastered military principles and techniques, including battle drills. He attended Fort Wayne College.

Civil War

Miles was working as a crockery store clerk in Boston when the American Civil War began. He joined the Union Army as a volunteer on September 9, 1861, and fought in many crucial battles. He became a lieutenant in the 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry and was commissioned a lieutenant colonel of the 61st New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment on May 31, 1862. He was promoted to colonel after the Battle of Antietam.

Other battles he participated in include Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville (during which he was shot in the neck and abdomen), the Overland Campaign, and the Appomattox Campaign. Wounded four times in battle, on March 2, 1867, Miles was brevetted a brigadier general in the regular army in recognition of his actions at Chancellorsville. He was again brevetted, this time to the rank of major general, for his actions at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House. He received the Medal of Honor on July 23, 1892, for his gallantry at Chancellorsville. He was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers as of May 12, 1864, for the Battles of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania Court House. On October 21, 1865, he was appointed a major general of volunteers at the age of 26. After the war, he was commandant of Fort Monroe, Virginia, where former Confederate President Jefferson Davis was held prisoner. During his tenure at Fort Monroe, Miles was forced to defend himself against charges that Davis was being mistreated.

Indian Wars

In July 1866, Miles was appointed a colonel in the Regular Army. In April 1867 he was appointed assistant commissioner of the North Carolina Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, serving under bureau commissioner Brigadier General Oliver O. Howard. On June 30, 1868, he married Mary Hoyt Sherman (daughter of Charles Taylor Sherman, niece of William T. Sherman and John Sherman, and granddaughter of Charles R. Sherman). In March 1869, he became commander of the 5th U.S. Infantry Regiment, a position he held until 1880.

Miles played a leading role in nearly all of the U.S. Army's campaigns against the American Indian tribes of the Great Plains, among whom he was known as "Bearcoat" (for his characteristic bearskin coat). In 1874–1875, he was a field commander in the force that defeated the Kiowa, Comanche, and the Southern Cheyenne along the Red River. Between 1876 and 1877, he participated in the campaign that scoured the Northern Plains after Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer's defeat at the Battle of the Little Big Horn and forced the Lakota and their allies onto reservations. In the winter of 1877, he drove his troops on a forced march across eastern Montana to intercept the Nez Perce band led by Chief Joseph after the Nez Perce War. For the rest of his career, Miles would quarrel with General Oliver O. Howard over credit for Joseph's capture. While on the Yellowstone, he developed expertise with the heliograph for sending communications signals, establishing a 140 mi line of heliographs connecting Fort Keogh and Fort Custer, Montana, in 1878. The heliographs were supplied by Brig. Gen. Albert J. Myer of the Signal Corps.

In December 1880, Miles was promoted to brigadier general in the Regular Army. He was then assigned to command the Department of the Columbia (1881–85) and the Department of Missouri (1885–86). In 1886, Miles replaced General George Crook as commander of forces fighting against Geronimo, a Chiricahua Apache leader, in the Department of Arizona. Crook had relied heavily on Apache scouts in his efforts to capture Geronimo. Instead, Miles relied on white troops, who eventually traveled 3000 mi without success as they tracked Geronimo through the tortuous Sierra Madre Mountains. Finally, First Lieutenant Charles B. Gatewood, who had studied Apache ways, succeeded in negotiating a surrender, under the terms of which Geronimo and his followers agreed to spend two years on a Florida reservation. Geronimo agreed on these terms, being unaware of the real plot behind the negotiations (that there was no intent to let them go back to their native lands). The exile included even the Chiricahuas who had worked for the army, in violation of Miles' agreement with them. Miles denied Gatewood any credit for the negotiations and had him transferred to the Dakota Territory. During this campaign, Miles' special signals unit used the heliograph extensively, proving its worth in the field. The special signals unit was under the command of Captain W.A. Glassford. In 1888, Miles became the commander of the Military Division of the Pacific and the Department of California.

In April 1890, Miles was promoted to major-general in the Regular Army and became the commander of the Military Division of the Missouri. The Ghost Dance movement of the Lakota people, which started in 1889, led to the Pine Ridge Campaign and Miles being brought back into the field. During the campaign, he commanded U.S. Army troops stationed near Indian reservations in South Dakota and hoped that Lakota chief Sitting Bull could be peacefully removed from the Standing Rock Indian Reservation. However, on December 15, Sitting Bull was killed by Indian agency police attempting to arrest him, and 14 days later American troops massacred hundreds of Lakota at Wounded Knee. Miles was not directly involved in the massacre, and was critical of the commanding officer in the field, James W. Forsyth. Just two days after the massacre, Miles wrote to his wife, describing it as "the most abominable criminal military blunder and a horrible massacre of women and children". After his retirement from the army, he fought for compensation payments to the survivors of the massacre. Overall, he believed that the United States should have authority over the Indians, with the Lakota under military control.

Spanish–American War and later life

In his capacity as commander of the Department of the East from 1894 to 1895, Miles commanded the troops mobilized to put down the Pullman strike riots. He was named Commanding General of the United States Army in 1895, a post he held during the Spanish–American War. Miles commanded forces at Cuban sites such as Siboney.

After the surrender of Santiago de Cuba by the Spanish, he led the invasion of Puerto Rico, landing in Guánica in what is known as the Puerto Rican Campaign. He served as the first head of the military government established on the island, acting as both heads of the army of occupation and administrator of civil affairs. Upon returning to the United States, Miles was a vocal critic of the Army's quartermaster general, Brigadier General Charles P. Eagan, for providing rancid canned meat to troops in the field during what was known as the Army beef scandal. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general in 1900 based on his performance in the war. Miles was an opponent of the Philippine–American War and supported as well the brutality of American troops in the Philippines. In response, President Roosevelt called Miles a hypocrite and reminded him of his complicity in the Wounded Knee massacre. Miles would release his own report on U.S. atrocities in the Philippines to the public. He condemned the use of concentration camps and said that the use of torture was widespread and was undertaken with the knowledge of some senior officers.

To show that he was still physically able to command, on July 14, 1903, less than a month before his 64th birthday, General Miles rode the 90 miles from Fort Sill to Fort Reno, Oklahoma, in eight hours' riding time (10 hrs 20 mins total), in temperatures between 90 and 100 F. The distance was covered on a relay of horses stationed at 10-mile intervals; the first 30 miles were covered in 2 hours, 25 minutes. This was the longest horseback ride ever made by a commanding general of the army.

Called a "brave peacock" by President Theodore Roosevelt, Miles nevertheless retired from the army in 1903 upon reaching the mandatory retirement age of 64. Upon his retirement, the office of Commanding General of the United States Army was abolished by an Act of Congress and the Army Chief of Staff system was introduced. A year later, standing as a presidential candidate at the Democratic National Convention, he received a handful of votes. The Prohibition Party was going to give him their nomination, but an hour before balloting he sent a telegram to the convention stating that he did not want the nomination which went to Silas C. Swallow instead. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, the 77-year-old general offered to serve, but President Woodrow Wilson turned him down.

Miles died in 1925 at the age of 85 from a heart attack while attending the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus in Washington, D.C., with his grandchildren. First Lady Grace Coolidge was also in attendance at the circus that day, and upon arriving at the showgrounds the general told circus owner John Ringling that he never missed a circus. Nelson was one of the last surviving general officers who served during the Civil War on either side. He is buried at Arlington National Cemetery in the Miles Mausoleum. It is one of only two mausoleums within the confines of the cemetery. George Burroughs Torrey painted his portrait.

Military awards

 * Medal of Honor
 * Civil War Campaign Medal
 * Indian Campaign Medal
 * Spanish Campaign Medal
 * Army of Puerto Rican Occupation Medal

Medal of Honor citation
Rank and Organization:
 * Colonel, 61st New York Infantry. Place and date: At Chancellorsville, Va., May 3, 1863. Entered service at: Roxbury, Mass. Birth: Westminster, Mass. Date of issue: July 23, 1892.

Citation:
 * Distinguished gallantry while holding with his command an advanced position against repeated assaults by a strong force of the enemy; was severely wounded.

Memberships
General Miles was a member of several hereditary and military societies, including the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States (MOLLUS), serving as Commander-in-Chief from 1919 to 1925, the Grand Army of the Republic, Sons of the American Revolution and the Military Order of Foreign Wars. He was also an honorary member of the Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati. He was also a member of the Union League Club of New York, where his portrait hung in the main bar area for many years.

Legacy

Miles City, Montana is named in his honor, as is Miles Street and the Miles Neighborhood in Tucson, Arizona. Miles Canyon on the Yukon River near Whitehorse, Yukon, was named after him in 1883 by Lt. Frederick Schwatka during his exploration of the river system. A steamship, General Miles, was likely named for him. Nelson M. Holderman, himself a Medal of Honor recipient, was also named after Miles. Fort Miles at Cape Henlopen near Lewes, Delaware, was named for Miles on 3 June, 1941.

Miles' legacy as an Indian fighter has seen him portrayed by Kevin Tighe in the film Geronimo: An American Legend, by Hugh O'Brian in the film Gunsmoke: The Last Apache, and by Shaun Johnston in the film adaptation of Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. There is a bust of General Miles in the Massachusetts State Capitol in Boston. General Miles' son, Sherman Miles (1882–1966), was a career Army officer who graduated from West Point in 1905 and rose to the rank of major general during World War II. His daughter Cecelia was the wife of Colonel Samuel Reber II, and the mother of Miles and Samuel Reber III.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nelson A. Miles


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List of theosophical glossaries

This is a list of theosophical glossaries. Some important theosophical glossaries are the Theosophical Glossary by Helena Blavatsky, first published in 1892; the Encyclopedic Theosophical Glossary by Gottfried de Purucker; and the Collation of Theosophical Glossaries.

List of some other theosophical glossaries

 * EG | Encyclopedic Theosophical Glossary - 1999 | G. de Purucker, ed.
 * FY | Five Years of Theosophy - 1885 | H. P. Blavatsky, ed.
 * GH | Gods and Heroes of the Bhagavad Gita - 1939 | Geoffrey A. Barborka
 * IN | An Invitation to the Secret Doctrine - 1988 | Grace F. Knoche, ed.
 * IU | Isis Unveiled - 1877 | H. P. Blavatsky
 * KT | Key to Theosophy - 1889 | H. P. Blavatsky
 * MO | The Masks of Odin - 1985 | Elsa-Brita Titchenell
 * OG | Occult Glossary - 1933, 1996 | G. de Purucker
 * PV | Esotericism of the Popol Vuh | Raphael Girard (glossary by Blair A. Moffett)
 * SD INDEX | Index to The Secret Doctrine - 1997 | John P. Van Mater
 * SF | Search and Find - 1978 | Elsie Benjamin
 * SK | Sanskrit Keys the Wisdom Religion - 1940 | Judith Tyberg
 * SKf | Sanskrit terms from Fundamentals of the Esoteric Philosophy, by G. de Purucker, 1932.
 * SKo | Sanskrit terms from The Ocean of Theosophy, by William Q. Judge, 1893.
 * SKs | Sanskrit terms from The Secret Doctrine, by H. P. Blavatsky, 1888.
 * SKv | Sanskrit terms from The Voice of the Silence, by H. P. Blavatsky, 1889.
 * SP | Sanskrit Pronunciation - 1992 | Bruce Cameron Hall
 * TG | Theosophical Glossary - 1892 | H. P. Blavatsky
 * VS | Voice of the Silence - 1889 | H. P. Blavatsky
 * WG | The Working Glossary - 1892 | W. Q. Judge
 * WGa | Terms from The Working Glossary Appendix
 * WW | Word Wisdom in the Esoteric Tradition - 1980 | G. de Purucker

title: List of theosophical glossaries


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Talk:RC5/to do

 * Create an infobox
 * Provide an overview of the literature on RC5 cryptanalysis
 * Describe the main algorithm and the key schedule

title: Talk:RC5/to do


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African civet

The African civet (Civettictis civetta) is a large viverrid native to sub-Saharan Africa, where it is considered common and widely distributed in woodlands and secondary forests. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 2008. In some countries, it is threatened by hunting, and wild-caught individuals are kept for producing civetone for the perfume industry.

The African civet is primarily nocturnal and spends the day sleeping in dense vegetation, but wakes up at sunset. It is a solitary mammal with a unique coloration: the black and white blotches covering its coarse pelage and rings on the tail are an effective cryptic pattern. The black bands surrounding its eyes closely resemble those of the raccoon. Other distinguishing features are its disproportionately large hindquarters and its erectile dorsal crest. It is an omnivorous generalist, preying on small vertebrates, invertebrates, eggs, carrion, and vegetable matter. It is one of the few carnivores capable of eating toxic invertebrates such as termites and millipedes. It detects prey primarily by smell and sound rather than by sight. It is the only living member of the genus Civettictis.

Taxonomy and evolution
Viverra civetta was the scientific name introduced in 1776 by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber when he described African civets based on previous descriptions and accounts. Schreber is therefore considered the binomial authority. In 1915, Reginald Innes Pocock described the structural differences between feet of African and large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha) specimens in the zoological collection of the Natural History Museum, London. Because of marked differences, he proposed Civettictis as a new genus, with C. civetta as only species. The following subspecies were proposed in the 20th century:
 * C. c. congica described by Ángel Cabrera in 1929 was a zoological specimen from the upper Congo River.
 * C. c. schwarzi was proposed by Cabrera in 1929 for African civet specimens from East Africa.
 * C. c. australis described by Bengt G. Lundholm in 1955 was based on a male type specimen and three paratype specimens collected near the Olifants River in northeastern Transvaal province.
 * C. c. volkmanni also described by Lundholm in 1955 was a specimen from the vicinity of Otavi in Namibia.
 * C. c. pauli described in 2000 by Dieter Kock, Künzel and Rayaleh was a specimen collected close to the coast near Djibouti.

A 1969 study noted that this civet showed enough differences from the rest of the viverrines in terms of dentition to be classified under its own genus.

Evolution
A 2006 phylogenetic study showed that the African civet is closely related to the genus Viverra. It was estimated that the Civettictis-Viverra clade diverged from Viverricula around 16.2 Mya; the African civet split from Viverra 12.3 Mya. The authors suggested that the subfamily Viverrinae should be bifurcated into Genettinae (Poiana and Genetta) and Viverrinae (Civettictis, Viverra, and Viverricula). The following cladogram is based on this study.

Etymology
The generic name Civettictis is a fusion of the French word civette and the Greek word ictis, meaning "weasel". The specific name civetta and the common name "civet" come from the French civette or the Arabic zabād or sinnawr al-zabād ("civet cat").

Local and indigenous names

 * In Tigrinya: ዝባድ (zibad)
 * In Akan: kankane
 * In Yoruba: Ẹtà, àgútà
 * In Igbo: Edi

Characteristics
The African civet has a coarse and wiry fur that varies in colour from white to creamy yellow to reddish on the back. The stripes, spots, and blotches are deep brown to black. Horizontal lines are prominent on the hind limbs, spots are normally present on its midsection and fade into vertical stripes above the forelimbs. Its muzzle is pointed, ears small and rounded. A black band stretches across its small eyes, and two black bands are around its short broad neck. Following the spine of the animal extending from the neck to the base of the tail is the erectile dorsal crest. The hairs of the erectile crest are longer than those of the rest of the pelage.

The sagittal crest of its skull is well-developed providing a large area for attachment of the temporal muscle. The zygomatic arch is robust and provides a large area for attachment of the masseter muscle. This musculature and its strong mandible give it a powerful bite. Its dental formula is. Its black paws are compact with hairless soles, five digits per manus in which the first toe is slightly set back from the others. Its long, curved claws are semi-retractile. Its head-and-body length is 67 - 84 cm, with a 34 - 47 cm long tail. The average weight is 11 to 15 kg within a range of 7 to 20 kg. It is the largest viverrid in Africa. Only the binturong is likely heavier among the world's viverrids. Its shoulder height averages 40 cm. Both male and female have perineal and anal glands, which are bigger in males. The perineal glands are located between the scrotum and the penis in males, and between the anus and the vulva in females.

Distribution and habitat
African civets typically sleep during the day in the tall grasses near water sources in central and southern Africa. It often inhabits savannahs, forests, and sometimes near rivers as the tall grasses and thickets present provide them with necessary cover during the day. In Guinea's National Park of Upper Niger, it was recorded during surveys conducted in 1996 to 1997. In Gabon's Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, it was photographed close to forested areas during a survey in 2012. In Batéké Plateau National Park, it was recorded in gallery forest along the Mpassa River during surveys conducted between June 2014 and May 2015.

In the Republic of Congo, it was recorded in the Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic of Odzala-Kokoua National Park during surveys in 2007.

In the transboundary Dinder–Alatash (Sudan and Ethiopia) protected area complex it was recorded during surveys between 2015 and 2018. It is also frequently spotted in Ethiopia's northern Degua Tembien massif.

Behaviour and ecology
African civets deposit their feces in large piles called latrines, or specifically "civetries". The latrines are characterized by fruits, seeds, exoskeletons of insect and millipede rings, and occasionally clumps of grass. The role of civet latrines as a mechanism of seed dispersal and forest regeneration is still being researched. Like felids, male African civets scent mark by spraying urine backwards.

African civets are typically solitary creatures. They use their perineal gland secretion to mark their territories around their civetries. These markings typically follow common routes and paths and lie within 100 meters of civetries 96.72% of the time.

If an African civet feels threatened, it raises its dorsal crest to make itself look larger and thus more formidable and dangerous to attack. This behavior is a predatory defense.

Feeding
Research in southeastern Nigeria revealed that the African civet has an omnivorous diet. It feeds on rodents like giant pouched rats (Cricetomys), Temminck's mouse (Mus musculoides), Tullberg's soft-furred mouse (Praomys tulbergi), greater cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus), and typical striped grass mouse (Lemniscomys striatus), amphibians and small reptiles like Hallowell's toad (Amietophrynus maculatus), herald snake (Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia), black-necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis), common agama (Agama agama), and Mabuya skinks, birds, millipedes, and insects such as Orthoptera, Coleoptera, and Blattodea, as well as carrion, eggs, fruits (such as Strychnos), berries and seeds. African civets can take prey as large as hares but can be somewhat clumsy killers with sizable prey. Stomach content of three African civets in Botswana included foremost husks of fan palm (Hyphaene petersiana) and jackalberry (Diospyros mespiliformis), and some remains of African red toad (Schismaderma carens), Acrididae grasshoppers and larvae of Dytiscidae beetles.

Green grass is also frequently found in feces, and this seems to be linked to the eating of snakes and amphibians.

Reproduction
Captive females are polyestrous. Mating lasts 40 to 70 seconds. In Southern Africa, African civets probably mate from October to November, and females give birth in the rainy season between January and February.

The average lifespan of a captive African civet is 15 to 20 years. Females create a nest which is normally in dense vegetation and commonly in a hole dug by another animal. Female African civets normally give birth to one to four young. The young are born in advanced stages compared to most carnivores. They are covered in a dark, short fur and can crawl at birth. The young leave the nest after 18 days but are still dependent on the mother for milk and protection for another two months.

Threats
In 2006, it was estimated that about 9,400 African civets are hunted yearly in the Nigerian part and more than 5,800 in the Cameroon part of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests. Skins and skulls of African civets were found in 2007 at the Dantokpa Market in southern Benin, where it was among the most expensive small carnivores. Local hunters considered it a rare species, indicating that the population declined due to hunting for trade as bushmeat.

The African civet has historically been hunted for the secretion of perineal glands. This secretion is a white or yellow waxy substance called civetone, which has been used as a basic ingredient for many perfumes for hundreds of years. In Ethiopia, African civets are hunted alive, and are kept in small cages. Most die within three weeks after capture, most likely due to stress. Extraction of the civetone is cruel and has been criticised by animal rights activists. The writer Daniel Defoe once invested in a scheme to raise civets in captivity for their secretions.

The population of African civet in Botswana is listed under Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

title: African civet


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Hlučín Region

Hlučín Region (Hlučínsko, Hultschiner Ländchen, Ziemia hulczyńska) is a historically significant part of Czech Silesia, now part of the Moravian-Silesian Region in the Czech Republic. It is named after its largest town, Hlučín. Its area is 316.9 km2, and in 2021, it had 66,750 inhabitants.

Municipalities
In terms of the current municipal division, the region consists of the following 27 municipalities. Towns are shown in bold.

Bělá (Bielau) – Bohuslavice (Buslawitz) – Bolatice (Bolatitz) – Chlebičov (Klebsch) – Chuchelná (Kuchelna) – Darkovice (Groß Darkowitz) – Dolní Benešov (Beneschau) – Hať (Haatsch) – Hlučín (Hultschin) – Hněvošice (Schreibersdorf) – Kobeřice (Köberwitz) – Kozmice (Kosmütz) – Kravaře (Deutsch Krawarn) – Ludgeřovice (Ludgierzowitz) – Markvartovice (Markersdorf) – Oldřišov (Odersch) – Píšť (Pyschcz / Sandau) – Rohov (Rohow) – Šilheřovice (Schillersdorf) – Služovice (Schlausewitz) – Štěpánkovice (Schepankowitz) – Strahovice (Strandorf) – Sudice (Zauditz) – Třebom (Thröm) – Velké Hoštice (Groß Hoschütz) – Vřesina (Wreschin) – Závada (Zawada bei Beneschau)

These municipalities cooperate in microregion Sdružení obcí Hlučínska since 1992.

Also, the former municipalities of Malé Hoštice (Klein Hoschütz), now district of Opava, and Hošťálkovice (Hoschialkowitz), Lhotka (Ellguth), Petřkovice (Petershofen), Koblov (Koblau) and Antošovice (Antoschowitz), now districts or parts of Ostrava, once belonged to the region.

Geography
Hlučín Region lies in the Opava Hilly Land within the Silesian Lowlands. The Opava River flows through the region. Hlučín Region contains several water bodies, the largest of which are the artificial lakes Hlučínské and Jezero, and the Nezmar fish pond.

History
Archaeological finds suggest that the area was inhabited since 4500 to 2500 BC.

The mediaeval bishoprics of both Olomouc and Wrocław attempted to control it. In the end, Olomouc won the dispute, and the area became part of the March of Moravia. In 1269, Hlučín belonged to the lands that were split off Moravia by King Ottokar II of Bohemia as the Duchy of Opava, ruled by his illegitimate son Duke Nicholas I. Differences in culture, traditions and economic development from the rest of Moravia then grew, mainly caused by Germanisation during the course of the Ostsiedlung. From 1526 onwards, the Duchy of Troppau, along with the Lands of the Bohemian Crown, was part of the Habsburg monarchy. The history of Hlučín Region as an entity began with the Treaty of Breslau, signed on 11 June 1742 between King Frederick II of Prussia and Empress Maria Theresa of Austria. In 1740, Prussia started the First Silesian War and conquered most of Silesia. According to the terms of the treaty, the Duchy of Troppau was partitioned: the lands south of the Opava River remained with Austrian Silesia, whereas the northern part around Hlučín fell to Prussia and was incorporated into the Province of Silesia in 1815.

With Prussia becoming part of the German Empire in 1871, Hlučín, after the German defeat in World War I, became the site of an international dispute, as it was inhabited mostly by Czech speakers. On 4 February 1920, Hlučín Region was handed over without a referendum to Czechoslovakia, according to Article 83 of the Treaty of Versailles, though surveys suggested that its people felt more as being part of Upper Silesia and mostly would have preferred to join the German Weimar Republic.

Czechoslovak troops and authorities did not receive the friendly reception that they had expected as "liberators". When the Czechoslovaks moved into Deutsch-Krawarn, the whole population was in the streets and sang in unison the Deutschlandlied. Minor border corrections followed in the next few years.

Even though the region's German speakers were officially protected in their rights by Czechoslovakia, repressions on language policy and schooling in German were instituted. The enforcement of a Czechoslovak identity on the citizens also raised public opposition.

On 1 October 1938, Hlučín Region was occupied by Nazi Germany, as part of the area taken from Czechoslovakia, with the Munich Agreement. However, unlike the other formerly Czechoslovak domains, it was not attached to the Reichsgau Sudetenland but again to the Prussian Province of Silesia (Upper Silesia from 1941).

After World War II, Hlučín Region, like the rest of the Sudetenland, was returned to Czechoslovakia. However, unlike millions of other German speakers in the country, the region was spared a mass expulsion, and only 3000 citizens had to emigrate.

After the 1993 dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the region became part of the Czech Republic. Today, a sizable number of the region's citizens are binationals and also have German citizenship.

Sights
The main sights of the region are:
 * Nature reservation Dařanec near Vřesina
 * Castles in Hlučín, Kravaře, Šilheřovice, Dolní Benešov, Velké Hoštice, Chuchelná and Oldřišov
 * Open-air museums in Bolatice and Kobeřice
 * Museum of the fortifications in Hlučín
 * Church buildings in Ludgeřovice, Hněvošice, pilgrimage place in Píšť
 * Hlučín Lake

Partner regions

 * 🇵🇱 Plateau of the Good Land LAG, Poland

title: Hlučín Region


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Talk:Elizabeth Robins

Untitled
I deleted most of the conent. I need to clarify use of biographical information from the Fales Library archive. --michael t zimmer 22:54, Dec 17, 2004 (UTC)

I changed stub to start for the politics project. I couldn't find any guidelines at the project's page. Overall, I think it has reached start although certainly the activism needs the most development. Bob Burkhardt (talk) 21:35, 28 January 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Elizabeth Robins


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Booty Call

Booty Call is a 1997 American buddy comedy film directed by Jeff Pollack, and written by J. Stanford Parker (credited as Bootsie) and Takashi Bufford. The film stars Jamie Foxx, Tommy Davidson, Vivica A. Fox, and Tamala Jones. It received generally negative reviews.

Plot
Rushon Askins, a tender-hearted, upwardly-mobile man, has been dating his self-righteous-to-a-fault girlfriend Nikki for seven weeks. They really like each other, but their relationship has not yet been consummated; Nikki is unsure if their relationship is ready for the next stage.

Rushon asks Nikki out to dinner, but Nikki wants it to be a double date. She brings her opinionated friend and neighbor Lysterine "Lysti", and Rushon comes with his "bad boy" buddy Bunz. Lysti and Bunz soon end up bonding as both are sexually adventurous and completely uninhibited, despite some initial bickering and resentment towards one another as each of them overplayed their roles by trying to come off as a player (Bunz) or overly high-maintenance (Lysti). Meanwhile, the more conservative and prudish Nikki decides it is time for her and Rushon to take their relationship to the next level, much to Rushon's surprise and excitement. However, they have one small problem: this is the 1990s, and Nikki wants to practice safe sex. Rushon produces a condom and just as he removes the wrapper, Nikki's mischievous, poorly trained, small terrier dog named "Killer" snatches and destroys Rushon's only condom, forcing him to have to go out and buy more condoms. Nikki then calls Lysterine and urges her to make Bunz (also condomless) use a condom as well. Therefore, Rushon (who has to take Killer along for his walk) and Bunz go on wild, late night adventures from store to store trying to find "protection" before everyone's mood evaporates. The two friends run across a wild assortment of characters which includes a Chinese medicine store owner, wacky Punjabi convenience store owners, a would-be armed robber, a hypocritical judge (Bernie Mac) and his female clerk/secret lover, and last but not least, a disobedient Killer who escapes his leash while Rushon and Bunz are in a store and leads them on a blocks-long chase.

Things soon lead to all four friends being at the hospital when Bunz accidentally shoots Rushon in the leg with a gun he took from a paranoid cabbie moments earlier. The group initially encounters a rude, unsympathetic admissions nurse who denies Rushon entry into the hospital because he has no insurance until Bunz runs across a doctor's credentials and impersonates the doctor to get his buddy admitted into the facility. However, "Doctor" Bunz is soon called in to help deliver a baby, which takes priority over a flesh wound, and he loses track of Rushon who is mistaken for a patient who is scheduled to be castrated (that patient shrewdly switched charts with Rushon upon finding out about his operation). The real doctor whom Bunz is impersonating eventually surfaces which leads the admissions nurse and security to search the hospital for the group. Bunz, Lysterine, and Nikki frantically search for Rushon who is soon anesthetized and prepared for castration. Nikki finds him right before the surgery begins and abruptly stops it by yelling that Rushon has no insurance. As both couples leave the hospital, everyone make up as both women take their men home for some long-delayed, kinky but safe sex.

Cast

 * Tommy Davidson – Rushon Askins
 * Jamie Foxx – Bunz
 * Vivica A. Fox – Lysterine
 * Tamala Jones – Nikki
 * Amy Monique Waddell – Arguing Woman
 * Art Malik – Akmed
 * Bernie Mac – Judge Peabody
 * David Hemblen – Dr. Blade
 * Amanda Tapping – Dr. Moore
 * Gedde Watanabe – Chan
 * Karen Robinson – Admitting Nurse
 * Ric Young – Mr. Chiu
 * Scott LaRose – Singh

Production
The original script was heavily rewritten by director Jeff Pollack and Tommy Davidson. Prior to the film's release, it was noted that there were similarities with its condom plot to another film in development, Trojan War, which featured an all-white cast and which would also be released in 1997. Takashi Bufford said Booty Call was written entirely without knowledge of Trojan War's existence and said "Sometimes these things just bubble up from the zeitgeist."

Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes it has a 31% rating based on reviews from 13 critics. Siskel and Ebert gave the film two thumbs up on a 1997 episode of their program. They praised the crude humor, comparing it to Beavis and Butt-head. Ebert in particular said the scenes involving Nikki's pet Jack Russell Terrier were "very, very funny." In his review, Stephen Holden of The New York Times observed "this contemporary sex farce, directed by Jeff Pollack, has the attention span of a hyperactive child." Leonard Klady of Variety labelled it "oddly effective", and said "a mixed bag of street humor, broad, bawdy jokes and hip-hop music, the film is very much on target to score a bull’s-eye with African-American auds."

A mixed review at the time came from Mike D'Angelo of Entertainment Weekly who gave it a C rating. D'Angelo wrote, "no, Booty Call has nothing to do with pirates and their ill-gotten gain. Then again, maybe there is: Two modern-day swashbucklers (Jamie Foxx and Tommy Davidson) yearn to plunder two willing maidens (Vivica A. Fox and Tamala Jones), but first they have to locate a couple of sheaths for their swords, if you know what I mean." D'Angelo went on to write, "most of the time, the amiable foursome is left ambling aimlessly from one so-so sketch concept to the next: four characters in search of a comedy." Bruce Walker of The Washington Post also had a mixed review, writing, "the name is enough to clue you in that this is not highbrow humor. In fact, it will appeal mostly to those who can appreciate basic juvenile humor." He added, "the movie seems more like a series of skits, some of which work and some of which don't."

In a 1997 interview with Charlie Rose, black actor and filmmaker Charles S. Dutton criticized young African-Americans who went to see Booty Call rather than the historical drama Rosewood, which was released around the same time. It was later referenced in a 1999 episode of The Simpsons titled Beyond Blunderdome, where a film executive character labels a fictitious director's cut of Booty Call as "fabulous."

title: Booty Call


text:
TCL Technology

TCL Technology Group Corp. (originally an abbreviation for Telephone Communication Limited) is a Chinese partially state-owned electronics company headquartered in Huizhou, Guangdong Province. It designs, develops, manufactures, and sells consumer products including television sets, mobile phones, air conditioners, washing machines, refrigerators, and small electrical appliances. In 2010, it was the world's 25th-largest consumer electronics producer. It became the second-largest television manufacturer by market share by 2019.

On 7 February 2020, TCL Corporation changed its name to TCL Technology.

TCL comprises five listed companies: TCL Technology, listed on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange (szse: 000100), TCL Electronics Holdings, Ltd., TCL Communication Technology Holdings, Ltd. (former code ; delisted in 2016), China Display Optoelectronics Technology Holdings Ltd. (sehk: 334), and Tonly Electronics Holdings Ltd. (sehk: 1249), listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange.

TCL Technology's business structure is focused on three major sectors: semiconductor display, semiconductor and semiconductor photovoltaic, and industrial finance and capital.

History
The company was founded in 1981 by 2 close friends, Tomson Li Dongsheng and Luca Situ under the brand name TTK as an audio cassette manufacturer. It was founded as a state-owned enterprise.

In 1985, after being sued by TDK for intellectual property violation, the company changed its brand name to TCL by taking the initials from Telephone Communication Limited.

In 1999, TCL entered the Vietnamese market.

On 19 September 2002, TCL announced the acquisition of all consumer electronics related assets of the former German company Schneider Rundfunkwerke, including the right to use its trademarks as Schneider, Dual, Albona, Joyce and Logix.

In July 2003, TCL chairman Li Dongsheng formally announced a "Dragon and Tiger Plan" to establish two competitive TCL businesses in global markets ("Dragons") and three leading businesses inside China ("Tigers").

In November 2003, TCL and Vantiva (then-named Thomson SA) of France announced the creation of a joint venture to produce televisions and DVD players worldwide. TCL took a 67 percent stake in the joint venture, with Thomson SA holding the rest of the shares, and it was agreed that televisions made by TCL-Thomson would be marketed under the TCL brand in Asia, and the Thomson and RCA brands in Europe and North America.

In April 2004, TCL and Alcatel announced the creation of a mobile phone manufacturing joint venture: Alcatel Mobile. TCL injected 55 million euros in the venture in return for a 55 per cent shareholding.

In April 2005, TCL closed its manufacturing plant in Türkheim, Bavaria, laying off 120 former Schneider employees.

In May 2005, TCL announced that its Hong Kong-listed unit would acquire Alcatel's 45 per cent stake in their mobile-phone joint venture for consideration of HK$63.34 million ($8.1 million) worth of TCL Communication shares.

In June 2007, TCL announced that its mobile phone division planned to cease using the Alcatel brand and switch entirely to the TCL brand within five years.

In April 2008, Samsung Electronics announced that it would be outsourcing the production of some LCD TV modules to TCL.

In July 2008, TCL announced that it planned to raise 1.7 billion yuan ($249 million) via a share placement on the Shenzhen Stock Exchange to fund the construction of two production lines for LCD televisions; one for screens of up to 42 inches, and the other for screens of up to 56 inches. TCL sold a total of 4.18 million LCD TV sets in 2008, more than triple the number during 2007.

In January 2009, TCL announced plans to double its LCD TV production capacity to 10 million units by the end of 2009.

In November 2009, TCL announced that it had formed a joint-venture with the Shenzhen government to construct an 8.5-generation thin film transistor-liquid crystal display production facility in the city at a cost of $3.9 billion.

In March 2010, TCL Electronics raised HK$525 million through the sale of shares on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, in order to fund the development of its LCD and LED businesses and to generate working capital.

In May 2011, TCL launched the China Smart Multimedia Terminal Technology Association in partnership with Hisense Electric Co. and Sichuan Changhong Electric Co., with the aim of helping to establish industry standards for smart televisions.

In January 2013, TCL bought the naming rights for Grauman's Chinese Theatre for $5 million.

In 2014, TCL changed the meaning of its identifying initials from "Telephone Communication Limited" to a branding slogan, "The Creative Life", for commercial purposes.

In February 2014, TCL spent 280 million RMB to purchase 11 percent shareholdings of Tianjin 712 Communication & Broadcasting Co., Ltd, a Chinese military-owned company which produces communication devices and navigation systems for the Chinese army.

In August 2014, TCL partnered with Roku for use as TCL's primary Smart TV platform. TCL Corporation and Tonly Electronics was implicated in bribing a government official in Guangdong province in exchange for government subsidies.

In October 2014, TCL acquired the Palm brand from HP for use on smartphones.

In 2016, TCL reached an agreement with BlackBerry Limited to produce smartphones under the BlackBerry brand, under BlackBerry Mobile. This deal ceased on 31 August 2020.

In 2019, due to restructuring, TCL completed the handover of major assets and was split into TCL Technology Group Corporation (TCL Technology) and TCL Industrial Holdings (TCL Industrials).

In 2020, TCL Technology acquired Samsung Display's assets in Suzhou, China, including a Gen 8.5 fab and a co-located LCD module plant.

Operations
TCL is organized into five business divisions:

 * Multimedia: TV sets
 * Communications: cell phones and MIFI devices
 * Home Appliances: AC units and laundry machines
 * Home Electronics / Consumer Electronics: ODM products, like DVD, etc.
 * Semiconductor Display and Materials: including China Star Optoelectronics Technology (CSOT), Guangdong Juhua Printing Display Technology Co., Ltd. and Guangzhou ChinaRay Optoelectronic Materials Co., Ltd.

In addition, it has four affiliated business areas covering real estate and investment, logistics services, online education services, and finance.

In 2021, TCL had 28 research and development (R&D) organizations, 10 joint laboratories, and 22 manufacturing bases. TCL Corporation also has its own research facility called TCL Corporate Research, which is located in Shenzhen, with the objective to research cutting-edge technology innovations for other subsidiaries.

Technology
In 2020, TCL introduced an innovative display technology known as TCL NXTPAPER, characterized by its reduction of blue light and anti-glare capabilities, aimed at enhancing visual comfort.

Products

TCL's primary products are TVs, DVD players, air conditioners, mobile phones, home appliances, electric lighting, and digital media. They also sell robot vacuum cleaners.

It primarily sells its products under the following brand names: The company, as of April 2012, is in venture with Swedish furniture giant IKEA to provide the consumer electronics behind the Uppleva integrated HDTV and entertainment system product.
 * TCL (in Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, North America, South America, and Russia (TV, air conditioners);
 * Alcatel Mobile and Thomson mobile phones (global)
 * RCA branded electrical products in the United States.
 * some Roku models in United States
 * Beginning in 2019, JB Hifi Electronics in Australia started selling a new line of budget Smart TV's under the brand name FFalcon, which are manufactured by TCL, and contain TCL firmware, software and components.

Smartphones
In 2016, it contract manufactured the Blackberry DTEK for BlackBerry Limited, under their flagship BlackBerry brand. In December 2016, it became a licensee of the BlackBerry brand, to manufacture, distribute, and design devices for the global market. Until August 2020, it distributed BlackBerry devices under the name of BlackBerry Mobile.

TCL is also the owner of the Palm brand. The company launched the Palm "ultra-mobile companion" smartphone in 2018.

In late 2019, TCL released their first own-branded Android phone, called the TCL Plex.

TCL announced the 10 series for 2020, consisting of the TCL 10 SE, TCL 10L, TCL 10 Pro, TCL 10 Plus and TCL 10 5G.

TCL Channel
Since 2015, TCL offers its own Streaming Television: GoLive TV or simply GoLive. It was later renamed TCL Channel in 2021.

title: TCL Technology


text:
Fargo–Moorhead

Fargo–Moorhead, also known as the FM area, is a common name given to the metropolitan area comprising Fargo, North Dakota; Moorhead, Minnesota; and the surrounding communities. These two cities lie on the North Dakota–Minnesota border, on opposite banks of the Red River of the North. The region is the cultural, retail, health care, educational, and industrial center of southeastern North Dakota and northwestern Minnesota.

The Fargo–Moorhead area is defined by the Census Bureau as comprising all of Cass County, North Dakota and Clay County, Minnesota, which includes the cities of Dilworth, Minnesota, West Fargo, North Dakota, and numerous other towns and developments from which commuters travel daily for work, education, and regular activities. A July 1, 2015 census estimate placed the population at 233,836, an increase of 34% from the 2000 census.

Core cities

 * Fargo, North Dakota
 * Moorhead, Minnesota
 * West Fargo, North Dakota
 * Dilworth, Minnesota

Suburbs/Adjacent towns

 * Briarwood, North Dakota
 * Frontier, North Dakota
 * Harwood, North Dakota
 * Horace, North Dakota
 * North River, North Dakota
 * Prairie Rose, North Dakota
 * Reile's Acres, North Dakota

Bedroom communities

 * Barnesville, Minnesota
 * Sabin, Minnesota
 * Mapleton, North Dakota
 * Casselton, North Dakota
 * Davenport, North Dakota
 * Glyndon, Minnesota
 * Hawley, Minnesota
 * Hickson, North Dakota
 * Kindred, North Dakota
 * Leonard, North Dakota
 * Oxbow, North Dakota
 * Walcott, North Dakota

Age
According to the American Community Survey, the age distribution was as follows:

 * Under 5 years: 6.8%
 * 5–9 years: 6.1%
 * 10–14 years: 5.9%
 * 15–19 years: 8.0%
 * 20–24 years: 11.9%
 * 25–34 years: 16.0%
 * 35–44 years: 12.8%
 * 45–54 years: 13.2%
 * 55–59 years: 5.1%
 * 60–64 years: 3.7%
 * 65–74 years: 4.9%
 * 75–84 years: 3.7%
 * 85 years and over: 1.8%
 * Median age: 31.6 years

Race
According to the same survey, the racial composition was as follows:

 * White: 93.3% (Non-Hispanic Whites: 92.0%)
 * Black or African American: 1.6%
 * American Indian: 1.4%
 * Asian: 1.4%
 * Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 0.1%
 * Some other race: 0.8%
 * Two or more races: 1.4%
 * Hispanic or Latino (of any race): 2.5%

There were 3,032 African Americans, who made up 1.6% of the population.

The Asian American population is not dominated by a single ancestry group, and is fairly diverse. The largest Asian American group are those of Chinese descent, who number at 928 and make up 0.5% of the population. Other sizable groups include Indians, Vietnamese, and Koreans, who number at 393, 379, and 360 respectively; all three groups comprise roughly 0.2% of the population. There are 134 Filipinos, making up roughly 0.1% of the population. People of Japanese descent were very few, with only 40 people identifying themselves as Japanese; they make up a mere 0.02% of the population.

Pacific Islander Americans numbered at 119, and made up approximately 0.06% of the population.

Multiracial Americans make up 1.4% of the metro area's population. Those of white and Native American ancestry made up 0.5% of the population, and numbered at 938. People of white and Asian ancestry numbered at 557, and those of white and black ancestry numbered at 571. Both groupings made up roughly 0.3% of the population. Approximately 72 people identified themselves as black and Native American.

Hispanics and Latinos are the largest minority group in Fargo–Moorhead. Hispanics and Latinos make up 2.5% of the population, of which 2.0% are of Mexican descent. Of the 4,786 Hispanics, 3,846 are Mexican. There were 196 Puerto Ricans and 136 Cubans; both of these groups made up roughly 0.1% of the population. In addition, 608 individuals identified themselves with other Hispanic or Latino groups other than Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban, making up 0.3% of the population.

The Native American population is predominantly Ojibwe, with a Sioux minority. Of the 2,679 Native Americans, 1,447 are of the Chippewa tribal grouping. The Chippewa alone make up 0.8% of the population. The 444 Sioux make up 0.2% of the population. In addition, 20 people identified themselves as a member of the Cherokee tribal grouping.

NOTE: The source above contains all of the information on population, age, and race.

Ancestry
The European American population is overwhelmingly German and Scandinavian. Most of the Scandinavian population is of Norwegian descent. Smaller Euro-American groups include those of English, Irish, and French descent.

As of the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, the top ten largest European ancestry groups were the following:

 * German: 42.9% (82,398)
 * Norwegian: 36.4% (69,964)
 * Irish: 8.6% (16,589)
 * Swedish: 6.6% (12,641)
 * English: 4.8% (9,286)
 * French: 4.3% (8,283)
 * Polish: 3.2% (6,180)
 * Russian: 2.0% (3,783)
 * Czech: 1.6% (3,047)
 * Scottish: 1.5% (2,871)

Language spoken at home

 * Population 5 years and over: 179,175
 * English only: 93.6% (167,729)
 * Language other than English: 6.4% (11,446)
 * Spanish: 2.1% (3,771)
 * Other Indo-European languages: 2.5% (4,393)
 * Asian and Pacific Islander languages: 0.9% (1,659)
 * Other languages: 0.9% (1,623)

NOTE: The source above contains all of the information on ancestry and language.

Politics
The Fargo–Moorhead area has generally leaned Republican, voting for that party's presidential candidate in every election between 1968 and 2004. While Clay County is a swing county which has voted for Democrats 9 times and Republicans 7 times since 1960, Cass County has only voted Democratic twice: for Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964 and Barack Obama in 2008.

In recent years, however, Fargo–Moorhead has become very competitive. In 2008, it voted for Obama by a nearly-10-point margin, followed by just 0.2% in 2012. In 2016, it flipped Republican once again, voting for Donald Trump by 8 points, and it voted for Trump again in 2020, albeit by a narrow margin of less than a percentage point.

Fargo/Wahpeton CSA
The Census Bureau also tracks a Fargo–Wahpeton Combined Statistical Area, consisting of Cass and Clay counties, as well as the Wahpeton micropolitan area of Richland County, North Dakota and Wilkin County, Minnesota. This area includes the twin cities of Wahpeton, North Dakota and Breckenridge, Minnesota.

The Fargo–Moorhead urban core is actually about forty-five minutes of highway travel from the Wahpeton–Breckenridge core. The main connection between these two pairs of cities is the Red River Valley, the flat, fertile land that both depend upon for a major part of their economies. Potatoes and sugar beets are important crops in the region, in addition to most of the other crops produced elsewhere in Minnesota and North Dakota.

title: Fargo–Moorhead


text:
Backfeeding

Backfeeding is the flow of electric power in the direction reverse to that of the generally understood or typical flow of power. Depending on the source of the power, this reverse flow may be intentional or unintentional. If not prevented (in the case of unintentional backfeeding) or properly performed (in cases of intentional backfeeding), backfeeding may present unanticipated hazards to electrical grid equipment and service personnel.

Intentional backfeeding
Development and economization of consumer power generation equipment such as wind turbines and photovoltaic systems has led to an increase in the number of consumers that may produce more electrical power than they consume during peak generating conditions. If supported by the consumer's electric utility provider, the excess power generated may be fed back into the electrical grid. This process makes the typical consumer a temporary producer while the flow of electrical power remains reversed. When backfeeding is performed this way, electric utility providers will install a specially engineered electrical meter that is capable of net metering.

Unintentional backfeeding
A common source of unintentional backfeeding is an electrical generator (typically a portable generator) that is improperly connected to a building electrical system. A properly installed electrical generator incorporates the use of a transfer switch or generator interlock kit to ensure the incoming electrical service line is disconnected when the generator is providing power to the building. In the absence (or improper usage) of a transfer switch, unintentional backfeeding may occur when the power provided by the electrical generator is able to flow over the electrical service line. Because an electrical transformer is capable of operating in both directions, electrical power generated from equipment on the consumer's premises can backfeed through the transformer and energize the distribution line to which the transformer is connected.

Intrinsic backfeeding
Backfeeding also exists in other instances where a location that is typically a generator becomes a consumer. This is commonly seen when an electrical generation plant is shut down or operating at such a reduced capacity that its parasitic load becomes greater than its generated power. The parasitic power load is the result of the usage of: pumps, facility lighting, HVAC equipment, and other control equipment that must remain active regardless of actual electrical power production. Electrical utilities often take steps to decrease their overall parasitic load to minimize this type of backfeeding and improve efficiency.

Grid design considerations
For manufacturing cost and operational simplicity reasons, most circuit (overcurrent) protection and power quality control (voltage regulation) devices used by electric utility companies are designed with the assumption that power always flows in one direction. An interconnection agreement can be arranged for equipment designed to backfeed from the consumer's equipment to the electrical utility provider's distribution system. This type of interconnection can involve nontrivial engineering and usage of costly specialized equipment designed to keep distribution circuits and equipment properly protected. Such costs may be minimized by limiting distributed generation capacity to less than that which is consumed locally, and guaranteeing this condition by installing a reverse-power cutoff relay that opens if backfeeding occurs.

Safety and operational hazards
Because it involves transfer of significant amounts of energy, backfeeding must be carefully controlled and monitored. Personnel working on equipment subject to backfeeding must be aware of all possible power sources, and follow systematic protocols to ensure that equipment is fully de-energized before commencing work, or use special equipment and techniques suitable for working on live equipment.

When working on de-energized power conductors, lineworkers attach temporary protective grounding assemblies or "protective ground sets", which short all conductors to each other and to an earth ground. This ensures that no wires can become energized, whether by accidental switching or by unintentional backfeeding.

Because of the hazards presented by unintentional backfeeding, the usage of equipment that defeats engineered or standardized safety mechanisms such as double-ended power cords (an electrical cord that has a male electrical plug on both ends) is illegal and against the United States National Electrical Code.

title: Backfeeding


text: Category:Japanese mathematicians

title: Category:Japanese mathematicians


text:
Dietrich Mateschitz

Dietrich Markwart Eberhart Mateschitz (, ดีทริช เมเทสซิทซ์; 20 May 1944 – 22 October 2022) was an Austrian billionaire businessman. He was the co-founder and 49% owner of Red Bull GmbH. In April 2022, Mateschitz's net worth was estimated at US$27.4 billion.

Mateschitz worked in marketing for Unilever and Blendax. While travelling in Thailand, he discovered the drink Krating Daeng, which he adapted into Red Bull. He founded Red Bull GmbH in 1984 and launched it in Austria in 1987. His company acquired or founded several sports teams around the world, including six-time Constructors' Champions Red Bull Racing and sister team RB in Formula One, and association football teams including FC Red Bull Salzburg and RB Leipzig.

Early life and education
Mateschitz was born on 20 May 1944, in Sankt Marein im Mürztal, Styria, Austria, to a family of Slovene-Styrian or Croatian ancestry. His mother's side was from present-day Styria, his father's side was from Maribor (then still part of Styria, but now in Slovenia); some sources place his ancestry in the area of Zadar where he allegedly had relatives and the surname Matešić was common. He declared himself a "Styrian cosmopolitan". Both his parents were school teachers. He attended the Hochschule für Welthandel (now Vienna University of Economics and Business), where after ten years, he graduated with a marketing degree in 1972. He was keen and passionate about extreme sports at an early age.

Career
Mateschitz's first employer was Unilever, where he worked marketing detergents. He subsequently moved to Blendax, the German cosmetics company (since bought by Procter & Gamble), where he worked on, among other things, the marketing of Blendax toothpaste. It was as part of his travels for Blendax, on the way from Bangkok airport to the city centre, that Mateschitz bought a bottle of Krating Daeng, the drink that would later become Red Bull. "One glass [of Krating Daeng] and the jet lag was gone", he recalled. Sensing the commercial opportunities of this drink in Europe, Mateschitz struck a partnership deal with the Thai businessman Chaleo Yoovidhya who had already been successfully selling Krating Daeng to lorry drivers and factory workers.

In 1984, he founded Red Bull GmbH with Yoovidhya, launching the brand in Austria in 1987. Subsequently, he turned the Red Bull drink into a world market leader among energy drinks. It was revealed that he worked on the formula for around three years before the modified drink was launched under the new name Red Bull in 1987.

Mateschitz also owned Seitenblicke, Austria's top society magazine, but avoided the celebrity circuit and watched most Formula One races on TV despite owning two teams. He also founded Media House in Austria in 2007 by providing various digital entertainment and thousands of hours of images to interested broadcasters.

Mateschitz owned ServusTV, a television channel based in Salzburg. The channel was criticised for allegedly downplaying the seriousness of the COVID-19 pandemic. The channel is considered to have a right-wing position, and was one of only three media outlets given a press pass to the "Defenders of Europe" conference of right-wing and far-right activists in October 2016. In May 2016, Mateschitz announced he would shut down the channel as his employees had requested to form a works council; he changed his mind when no such council was formed.

Sports
Mateschitz's brands are consistently marketed as associated with the physical and mental attributes needed for various types of extreme sports such as surfing, skydiving, cliff diving, winter sports and mountain biking through commercial sponsorship. Under his tenure, Red Bull was widely acclaimed for its creative and intensive marketing of extreme sports. The successful high altitude skydiving exploration from the edge of space which was carried out by Red Bull Stratos in collaboration with Felix Baumgartner in October 2012 is considered as one of the turning points in Red Bull's history in terms of its intensive marketing strategies in the context of extreme sports.

Motorsport
Red Bull formerly owned more than 60 percent of the Sauber Formula One motor racing team, and was the team's main sponsor. However, Red Bull ended its relationship with Sauber at the end of 2001 after the team opted to sign Kimi Räikkönen as one of their drivers for the 2001 season instead of Red Bull protege Enrique Bernoldi. In November 2004, Mateschitz bought the failing Jaguar Racing Formula One team from its previous owners, Ford, and he renamed it as a full-blown Red Bull Racing team for the following season in 2005. The fee was $1. Red Bull recruited former Formula-2 driver Christian Horner as team principal while also bringing one of the sport's leading design engineer Adrian Newey on board as the technical director for a salary of $10m.

In September 2005, Mateschitz joined forces with his close friend and former Formula One driver, Gerhard Berger, to purchase the Italian-registered Minardi team from its Australian owner Paul Stoddart. This team was meant to serve as a Junior team to Red Bull Racing and was renamed as Scuderia Toro Rosso (Red Bull Stable) in 2006, AlphaTauri in 2020, and in 2024 as Visa Cash App RB.

Sebastian Vettel won the 2008 Italian Grand Prix for Toro Rosso. His victory at the 2009 Chinese Grand Prix was the first for Red Bull Racing. In 2010, Red Bull Racing won the Formula One World Constructors' Championship and Vettel won the Drivers' Championship. They then went on to win both titles for the next three years running in 2011, 2012, and 2013. Eight years later they won the Formula One World Drivers' Championship again with Max Verstappen in the 2021 season, while finishing runners-up in the Formula One World Constructors' Championship which was won by Mercedes. In the 2022 season, Verstappen retained his title, the sixth by a Red Bull driver. Prior to Max Verstappen's heroics, Red Bull endured a rough patch and lean phase having gone winless in the Constructor's Championship for around eight years, coinciding with the arrival of F1's turbo-hybrid engines which first came into the picture in 2014 that even led to a fallout with their main engine supplier Renault. Red Bull made a dramatic turnaround in both 2021 and 2022 seasons albeit of a reunion with Honda which put an end to an eight-year title drought that was eluded largely due to the domination of Mercedes from 2014 to 2020.

From 2006 to 2011, Mateschitz also owned Team Red Bull who competed in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series and the K&N Pro Series East.

In late 2004, he bought the A1-Ring racing circuit, which had formerly hosted the Formula One Austrian Grand Prix, and renamed it the Red Bull Ring. The circuit re-opened in May 2011 and hosted a round of the 2011 Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters season. Although Mateschitz had stated that there were no plans for it to return to the Formula One calendar, in December 2012 Red Bull notified the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile they would be open to hosting a Grand Prix. In July 2013, Red Bull announced the return of the Austrian Grand Prix to the Formula One World Championship in 2014. The race took place on 22 June 2014 and was won by Nico Rosberg, driving for Mercedes.

Football and ice hockey
In April 2005, he bought the Austrian football club SV Austria Salzburg, and in March 2006, he bought the American soccer team MetroStars; both clubs were subsequently renamed after his famous drink, as the Red Bull Salzburg and the New York Red Bulls, respectively. In 2007, Red Bull founded Red Bull Brasil, a football team based in Campinas, São Paulo, and in 2019 the company acquired Clube Atlético Bragantino, also in the state of São Paulo. In 2008, Red Bull founded Red Bull Ghana, a football academy in Sogakope which was sold to Dutch club Feyenoord in 2014.

In May 2009, he founded the German football club RB Leipzig, after buying the license from SSV Markranstädt. They debuted in the Oberliga, the fifth tier of the German football league system. The team rose to the top-tier Bundesliga in 2016, made the UEFA Champions League semi-finals in 2020 and won the DFB-Pokal in 2022 and 2023 and the DFL-Supercup in 2023.

He also owned the ice hockey clubs EC Red Bull Salzburg and EHC Red Bull München, which were acquired and rebranded in 2000 and 2012, respectively.

Philanthropy
Mateschitz was co-founder of the Wings for Life foundation that supports spinal cord research together with Heinz Kinigadner. Since 2014, the foundation has organised the Wings for Life World Run to raise funds.

Mateschitz personally donated 70 million euros to Paracelsus Medical University for a research center on spinal cord injuries.

He also initiated the World Stunt Awards, an annual fundraiser to benefit his Taurus Foundation, which, according to its website, helps injured stunt professionals.

Personal life and death
Mateschitz never married; he had a son named Mark, who was born in May 1992. As of the time of Mateschitz's death, his son was the managing director of one of his investment companies. Mateschitz rarely gave interviews, and refused to answer questions about his son. He remained a reclusive figure maintaining low profile despite his heavy involvement with Formula One. He was also known for his simplicity of dress, often being seen wearing casual clothing, including denim pants and sunglasses. Mateschitz was in a relationship with the mother of his son for two years, and later had a long-term partner named Marion Feichtner. He was known as a recluse, stating "I don't believe in 50 friends. I believe in a smaller number. Nor do I care about society events. It's the most senseless use of time. When I do go out, from time to time, it's just to convince myself again that I'm not missing a lot".

He held a pilot's licence and enjoyed flying a Falcon 900 and a Piper Super Cub. He had his own hangar with a collection of old planes, including the last Douglas DC-6B ever produced, and which once belonged to Yugoslav Marshal Josip Broz Tito.

Mateschitz and his Bundesliga club RB Leipzig faced backlash in 2017 over comments he made in a Kleine Zeitung interview in which he suggested that Austria should close its borders to refugees and expressed his support for Donald Trump and other populist positions. He went on to strongly criticize both the Government of Germany and the Government of Austria for their policies during the 2015 European migrant crisis.

Mateschitz lived in Fuschl am See, Austria and also owned the island of Laucala in Fiji, which he bought from the Forbes family for £7 million. He spent millions to acquire and conserve houses and castles in the Austrian Alps, saying "I want to enjoy these places myself, but I also want to take care of them".

He died following a long period of treatment for pancreatic cancer, at his home in St. Wolfgang im Salzkammergut on 22 October 2022, at age 78.

title: Dietrich Mateschitz


text: User talk:82.225.142.4

title: User talk:82.225.142.4


text:
Something in the Way

"Something in the Way" is a song by American rock band Nirvana, written by vocalist and guitarist Kurt Cobain. It is the 12th song on their second album, Nevermind, released in September 1991. It is the final listed song on the album, although most copies of Nevermind also feature the hidden track "Endless, Nameless", which occupies the same track as "Something in the Way" and begins after approximately 10 minutes of silence.

Never released as a single and never a consistent part of the band's live setlist, "Something in the Way" charted for the first time in August 2020, after appearing in the first trailer for the 2022 superhero film, The Batman. The song peaked at number two on Billboard's US Rock Digital Songs Sales chart, and number five on their US Alternative Digital Songs Sales charts. It also reached the top 20 in both Amazon Music's and iTunes' digital music charts.

On the week of March 26, 2022, the song entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 46, becoming the band's fifth entry on the chart and first since "You Know You're Right" in 2002. It also made the Top 40 in Australia, Canada, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Lithuania, New Zealand, Wales and on the Billboard Global 200.

Early history
"Something in the Way" was written by Cobain in 1990. The earliest known version is a solo electric demo that appeared in a medley, along with the abandoned compositions "You Can't Change Me" and "Burn My Britches," first released on the Cobain compilation Montage of Heck: The Home Recordings in November 2015. American director Brett Morgen, who compiled the album as a soundtrack to his 2015 Cobain documentary Montage of Heck, discussed the medley in a 2015 NME interview, saying it was "almost like a rock opera, and to hear 'Something in the Way' emerge from the ashes of those other tracks was quite revealing. Kurt might've done an edit on that track, but I believe it was close to a continuous take."

The first live performance of "Something in the Way" was on November 25, 1990, at The Off Ramp Café in Seattle.

Nevermind
"Something in the Way" was first recorded in the studio in May 1991 at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys, California by Butch Vig, for the band's second album, Nevermind. According to Vig, Cobain had originally wanted to record the song's instruments with the full band, but when initial attempts at this were unsuccessful, Cobain sat on a couch in the control room of studio A and played the song for Vig on acoustic guitar, to show him how he thought it should sound. Vig was impressed with the way Cobain's solo rendition sounded, and after turning off the air-conditioning and unplugging the telephone in the control room, set up microphones and recorded the song this way instead, starting with the guitar and the vocals.

This became the core of the recording, with the first vocal take being used for the verses. Cobain then recorded vocal harmonies, and drummer Dave Grohl and bassist Krist Novoselic added their parts, though both Grohl and Novoselic had difficulty playing in time with Cobain's performance. Novoselic also had trouble tuning his bass to Cobain's guitar, a 12-string Stella acoustic with five nylon guitar strings that Cobain had never tuned, and Grohl had to play more quietly than he was used to, to match the song's gentle mood. "Kurt and I wanted the drums to be very understated," Vig recalled. "Dave was used to playing much louder; plus, it can be very difficult to go back and lay drums over an acoustic guitar track, as the meter may vary a bit". Cobain's harmonies, the bass and the drums were recorded in studio B, a smaller room down the hall from the larger one they generally worked in. On the final day of the Nevermind sessions, Kirk Canning, a friend of the band's they had met through L7, added cello to the recording, although he too had difficulties tuning to Cobain's guitar.

Post-Nevermind
On November 9, 1991, a version of the song was recorded by Miti Adhikari for the BBC program The Evening Session at Maida Vale Studios in London, England. This heavier electric version was more reminiscent of the way the song usually sounded when performed in concert. It was posthumously released on the 20th anniversary "Deluxe" and "Super Deluxe" versions of Nevermind in September 2011.

"Something in the Way" was performed as part of Nirvana's MTV Unplugged concert on November 18, 1993, at Sony Music Studios in New York City. This version featured Pat Smear on second guitar and Lori Goldston on cello. This song was performed live by Nirvana for the final time a week later, on November 26, 1993, at the Morocco Shrine Auditorium.

Music
Describing the song as "sombre and disconsolate," American music journalist Gillian G. Garr wrote that "Something in the Way" "underscores the fact that Nirvana not only realized that emotions didn't always have to be expressed at the highest volume, they were also capable of pulling it off, with Cobain turning in one of his most expressive vocal performances."

Lyrics
"Something in the Way" was originally believed to be based on a period when Cobain was homeless and slept underneath the Young Street Bridge, close to his childhood home in his native town of Aberdeen, Washington. While Cobain did run away from home as a teenager, the belief that he slept under the bridge was refuted by both Novoselic and Kurt's sister, Kim Cobain, in the 2001 Cobain biography, Heavier Than Heaven. Both confirmed that Cobain "hung out" under the bridge, which was a popular recreation area favored by local teenagers, but Novoselic told author Charles R. Cross that the river's "tides" and "muddy banks" would have made staying there for a prolonged period of time impossible. Cross argued that the much larger Sixth Street Bridge, located about half-a-mile away, would have been more suitable to sleep under, but is unlikely to have been used by Cobain.

According to Cross, the reality of Cobain's situation during his approximately four-month period of homelessness was "more poignant" than the version presented in "Something in the Way." At first, Cobain slept "curled up like a kitten" in a cardboard refrigerator box on the porch of Dale Crover, drummer of local band, the Melvins. After this, he would sleep in the hallways of old apartment buildings with central heating, leaving before the residents of the building left their apartments. Occasionally, he and a friend would watch television and sleep in the waiting room of Grays Harbor Hospital, with Cobain getting food from the cafeteria by charging it to invented room numbers.

Cobain himself suggested that the song was not necessarily autobiographical, telling Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad that the lyrics were "like if I was living under the bridge and I was dying of AIDS, if I was sick and I couldn't move and I was a total street person. That was kind of the fantasy of it".

In Azzerad's 1993 biography Come as You Are: The Story of Nirvana, Cobain stated that he used to fish from the Wishkah River close to this bridge, which may have inspired the lyric, "Its okay to eat fish, 'cos they don't have any feelings" in the song.

In a 2021 Los Angeles Times interview, Cobain's widow, Courtney Love, called "Something in the Way" "one of the great rock songs of all time," and described it as Cobain "clawing his way out...He's telling himself anything just to get through." Love cited the line, "It's OK to eat fish cause they don't have any feelings" as the one that affected her the most deeply, saying, "He knows it's a lie — here's a guy who loved turtles — but he thinks that if someone just loves him enough, then maybe, just maybe one day he will become real." In regards to the song's fictionalized aspects, Love said that "the place [Cobain] writes from is so emotionally desperate we all understand it."

Possible co-authorship
According to American musician Nick Oliveri, some of the song's lyrics were contributed by Mark Lanegan, vocalist of Seattle rock band Screaming Trees, who later joined the band in which Oliveri played bass, Queens of the Stone Age, as an additional vocalist. In the 2023 book Lanegan, Oliveri recalled the event: "'Mark said he wrote some lyrics on 'Something in the Way' with Kurt on Nevermind. But Kurt had played on some of Mark’s solo stuff, The Winding Sheet. So, instead of getting paid, they just did this thing where, 'Hey man, I added a lyric on your song and you added a lyric on my song. Let’s just call it even.''" Oliveri told author Greg Prato that he remembered Lanegan "kicking himself in the butt a little bit about that" later on, knowing that "he would have had a lot of money" if he had received a songwriting credit on the song.

Release and reception
In 2015, Rolling Stone listed the song at number five on their ranking of 102 Nirvana songs. In 2019, The Guardian placed it at number 12 in their list of "Nirvana's 20 greatest songs". Stephen Thomas Erlewine ranked it 11th on the A.V. Club's "Essential Nirvana: Their 30 greatest songs, ranked" list in 2023.

In 2017, to mark what would have been Cobain's 50th birthday, the Phonographic Performance Limited released a list of the 20 most played Nirvana songs on the TV and radio in the UK, in which "Something in the Way" was ranked at number 17.

Posthumous chart success
In August 2020, the song reached number two on Billboard's US Rock Digital Songs Sales chart, number five on their US Alternative Digital Songs Sales chart, and number 45 on their all-genre Digital Song Sales chart, as well as number 18 on Amazon Music's Best Sellers in Songs chart, and number 19 on iTunes' top 200 songs chart, after appearing in the first trailer for the film, The Batman.

Streams of the song spiked by 1200% on Spotify shortly after the release of the film on March 4, 2022, helping it reach the top five of Spotify's Daily USA Top 50 songs ranking on March 8. An article published by Variety on March 11 reported that the song was currently third on Spotify's daily list. According to a March 15 Billboard article, the song earned 7.9 million on-demand official U.S. streams during the March 4 to March 10 tracking period, marking a 1,508% increase, and 3,100 downloads, a gain of 1,888%. Interest in the song also helped boost sales of Nevermind, which climbed to number one on the Top Rock Albums and Top Alternative Albums charts.

On the week of March 26, 2022, "Something in the Way" became the fifth Nirvana song to chart on the Billboard Hot 100, appearing at number 46 its one-week on the chart.

Personnel
Personnel adapted from Nevermind liner notes

Nirvana
 * Kurt Cobain – guitar, vocals
 * Dave Grohl – drums
 * Krist Novoselic – bass

Additional Performer
 * Kirk Canning – cello

MTV Unplugged in New York
The MTV Unplugged version of "Something in the Way" was one of two songs not included in the original broadcast of the show. However, it appeared on the live album MTV Unplugged in New York, released in November 1994. It also appeared as the b-side to the album's only commercial single, for the song "About a Girl". In 2002, it was included on vinyl and Japanese CD copies of the band's best-of compilation, Nirvana.

The full MTV Unplugged performance, including "Something in the Way," was released on DVD in November 2007.

In a 2023 Instagram comment, Cobain's and Love's daughter, Frances Bean Cobain, named "Something in the Way" as her favorite performance from the band's MTV Unplugged set, writing, "I like to imagine that if we had been able to grow up together, he would’ve been gentle with me in the same way he was gentle singing that song."

In popular culture
A brief cover of the song, performed by Jerry O'Connell in the role of Frank "Cush" Cushman, appeared in the 1996 romantic comedy Jerry Maguire, directed by Cameron Crowe. The intentionally poor rendition appeared during a hotel room scene in which "Cush disrupts football business talk with a nasally, out-of-tune take on Nirvana’s darkest track off Nevermind," according to Ashley Zlatopolsky of Billboard.

The Nevermind version appeared in the 2005 war drama Jarhead, directed by Sam Mendes. According to Universal Pictures president of film music Kathy Nelson, Mendes had insisted on the song, but a then-ongoing dispute between Cobain's widow, Courtney Love, and surviving Nirvana members had made the licensing of Nirvana songs difficult at the time. However, Love allowed the song's use due to being a "huge fan" of Mendes and actor Peter Sarsgaard. "That's why it's probably the first Nirvana song you've heard in a movie," Nelson said.

On April 24, 2020, American musician Post Malone performed the song during his 15-song Nirvana tribute concert, which was livestreamed on YouTube and raised more than $4 million for the COVID-19 Solidarity Response Fund.

The Batman
American filmmaker Matt Reeves, writer and director of the 2022 film The Batman, revealed in a December 2021 interview with Gizmodo that listening to the song while writing the film's first act played a key role in helping him develop the character of Bruce Wayne. "Rather than make Bruce the playboy version we’ve seen before," Reeves explained, "there’s another version who had gone through a great tragedy and become a recluse. So I started making this connection to Gus Van Sant's Last Days, and the idea of this fictionalized version of Kurt Cobain being in this kind of decaying manor."

In a March 2022 NME interview, American actor Paul Dano revealed that the song also influenced his portrayal of the film's villain, the Riddler. "Well, in the script Matt had actually mentioned ‘Something In The Way’ by Nirvana," Dano told interviewer Olly Richards. "So that right there, that song, those words, that refrain, became hugely important to me. Nirvana became a part of that [character]."

The version featured in the film's August 2020 trailer is a remix of the Nevermind version by Alloy Tracks and Cavalry Music that incorporated themes by the film's composer Michael Giacchino and additional orchestral elements.

The song itself appears twice in the film, serving as a bookend for the first and third acts.

Following the theatrical release of the film in March 2022, audio streaming service Spotify reported a 1,200% increase in streams of the song on the platform, while Billboard reported a 1,508% increase in official U.S. streams and 1,888% increase in downloads. The song once again appeared on several Billboard charts, reaching number two on the Rock Streaming Songs and Rock Digital Song Sales chart, number four on the Alternative Digital Song Sales and Alternative Streaming Songs chart, number 20 on the Digital Song Sales chart, and number 27 on the Billboard Streaming Songs chart. American DJ Illenium remixed the song in collaboration with DC following the success of the film.

Covers
At Sea originally recorded "Something in the Way" for their 2012 album A New Machine. It was eventually used in the E3 2014 trailer for the PlayStation 4 remaster of The Last of Us.

Transgender activist Daniella Carter and J Patt from The Knocks recorded an electronic cover version of the song in 2021. It is the debut single from Nirvana Reimagined as House and Techno by music producer Jonathan Hay.

Other releases

 * A boombox-recorded full-band version, recorded in March 1991 at a barn in Tacoma, Washington the band were using as a rehearsal space, appeared on disc two of the 20th anniversary "Deluxe" and "Super Deluxe" versions of Nevermind, released in September 2011.
 * An early "Devonshire mix" of the Nevermind version appeared on disc four of the 20th anniversary "Super Deluxe" version of Nevermind.
 * Amateur footage of live version, recorded at Kokusai Koryu Center in Osaka, Japan on February 14, 1992, appeared on the live video Live! Tonight! Sold Out!!, released in November 1994.

title: Something in the Way


text:
Pinus monophylla

Pinus monophylla, the single-leaf pinyon, (alternatively spelled piñon) is a pine in the pinyon pine group, native to North America. The range is in southernmost Idaho, western Utah, Arizona, southwest New Mexico, Nevada, eastern and southern California and northern Baja California.

It occurs at moderate altitudes from 1200 to 2300 m, rarely as low as 950 m and as high as 2900 m. It is widespread and often abundant in this region, forming extensive open woodlands, often mixed with junipers in the Pinyon-juniper woodland plant community. Single-leaf pinyon is the world's only one-needled pine.

Species
Pinus monophylla is a small to medium size tree, reaching 10 - 20 m tall and with a trunk diameter of up to 80 cm rarely more. The bark is irregularly furrowed and scaly. The leaves ('needles') are, uniquely for a pine, usually single (not two or more in a fascicle, though trees with needles in pairs are found occasionally), stout, 4 - 6 cm long, and grey-green to strongly glaucous blue-green, with stomata over the whole needle surface (and on both inner and outer surfaces of paired needles). The cones are acute-globose, the largest of the true pinyons, 4.5 - 8 cm long and broad when closed, green at first, ripening yellow-buff when 18–20 months old, with only a small number of very thick scales, typically 8–20 fertile scales. The cones thus grow over a two-year (26-month) cycle, so that newer green and older, seed-bearing or open brown cones are on the tree at the same time.

The seed cones open to 6 - 9 cm broad when mature, holding the seeds on the scales after opening. The seeds are 11 - 16 mm long, with a thin shell, a white endosperm, and a vestigial 1 - 2 mm wing. Empty pine nuts with undeveloped seeds (self-pollinated) are a light tan color, while the "good" ones are dark brown. The pine nuts are dispersed by the pinyon jay, which plucks the seeds out of the open cones, choosing only the dark ones and leaving the light ones (as in image at right). The jay, which uses the seeds as a food resource, stores many of the seeds for later use by burying them. Some of these stored seeds are not used and are able to grow into new trees. Indeed, Pinyon seeds will rarely germinate in the wild unless they are cached by jays or other animals.

Subspecies and genetics
There are three subspecies:
 * Pinus monophylla subsp. monophylla. Most of the range, except for the areas below. Needles more stout, bright blue-green, with 2–7 resin canals and 8–16 stomatal lines. Cones are 5.5 - 8 cm long, often longer than broad.
 * Pinus monophylla subsp. californiarum (D. K. Bailey) Zavarin. Southernmost Nevada, southwest through southeastern California (northwest only as far as the San Jacinto Mountains) to 29°N in northern Baja California. Needles less stout, gray-green, with 8–16 resin canals and 13–18 stomatal lines. Cones are 4.5 - 6 cm long, broader than long.
 * Pinus monophylla subsp. fallax (E. L. Little) D.K. Bailey. Slopes of the lower Colorado River valley and adjacent tributaries from St. George, Utah to the Hualapai Mountains, and along the lower flank of the Mogollon Rim to Silver City, New Mexico. Needles less stout, gray-green, with 2–3 resin canals and 8–16 stomatal lines. Cones are 4.5 - 6 cm long, broader than long.

It is most closely related to the Colorado pinyon, which hybridises with it (both subsps. monophylla and fallax) occasionally where their ranges meet in western Arizona and Utah. It also (subsp. californiarum) hybridises extensively with Parry pinyon. This classification of pinyon species based only upon the presence of single-needle fascicles is brought into doubt by the reporting of trees from both the Pinus monophylla/Pinus edulis and the Pinus monophylla subsp. fallax/Pinus edulis zones as growing more single needle fascicles after dry years and more two-needled fascicles after wet years.

Mojave National Preserve
An isolated population of single-leaf pinyon trees in the Mojave Desert's New York Mountains, within the Mojave National Preserve of southeast California, has needles mostly in pairs and was previously thought to be Colorado pinyons. They have recently been shown to be a two-needled variant of single-leaf pinyon from chemical and genetic evidence.

Occasional two-needled pinyons in northern Baja California are hybrids between single-leaf pinyon and Parry pinyon.

Prehistoric occurrence
Pinus monophylla has been studied with regard to prehistoric occurrence based upon fossil needles found in packrat middens and fossil pollen records. All three of these sub-types of single-needled pinyon have maintained distinctive ranges over the last 40,000 years, although the northerly species (Pinus monophylla) expanded greatly throughout Utah and Nevada since the end of the Pleistocene, 11,700 years ago. The southern California variety has been found to occur within Joshua Tree National Park throughout the last 47,000 years.

Uses and symbolism

The edible seeds, pine nuts, are collected throughout its range; Native American of the Great Basin region commonly ate them. Various birds and mammals eat the seeds as well. The roasted cones are also edible.

Individuals may harvest the seed for personal use on BLM and Forest Service land.

Single-leaf pinyon is also cultivated as an ornamental tree for native plant, drought tolerant, and wildlife gardens, and for natural landscaping. It is used regionally as a Christmas tree. It is rarely seen in nurseries, because it is difficult to germinate.

In 1959, it was designated Nevada's state tree, later to be joined by the Great Basin Bristlecone Pine. Its description is attributed to American politician and explorer John C. Frémont.

Deforestation
During the mid-nineteenth century, many pinyon groves were cut down to make charcoal for ore-processing, threatening the traditional lifestyle of the Native Americans who depended on them for food. When the railroads penetrated these areas, imported coal supplanted locally produced charcoal.

Following the resulting re-establishment of pinyon woodlands after the charcoal era, many cattle ranchers became concerned that these woodlands provided decreased livestock forage in grazing rangeland. Efforts to clear these woodlands, often using a surplus battleship chain dragged between two bulldozers, peaked in the 1950s, but were subsequently abandoned when no long term forage increase resulted. The habitat destruction of large areas of Pinyon woodlands in the interests of mining and cattle ranching is seen by some as an act of ecological and cultural vandalism.

title: Pinus monophylla


text:
Patriot Party (1970s)

The Patriot Party was a socialist organization of the early 1970s in the United States that organized poor, rural whites in the Appalachian South and Pacific Northwest. The party was formed after a split with the Young Patriots Organization. The YPO's membership was drawn from street gangs of Appalachian whites in the Uptown neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois; it became politicized after working with the Young Lords, an ethnic Puerto Rican gang, and the African-American Black Panther Party.

Founding
The Patriot Party was founded in 1970 after infighting among members of the leftist Young Patriots Organization in Chicago. The group sought to improve the condition of disadvantaged whites, particularly recent immigrants, drug-users, the unemployed, welfare-recipients, blue-collar workers, and "dislocated hillbillies" who had left Appalachia.

The Patriot Party was a member of the original Rainbow Coalition, formed by Fred Hampton of the Black Panther Party and others to create a broad-based, multi-racial political coalition. It formed after the United Front Against Fascism conference held in Oakland, California, in 1969. The coalition included the Young Lords, the Brown Berets and I Wor Kuen. Hampton's intention was to have multi-ethnic gangs working together to accomplish peaceful solutions, rather than battling each other.

Strategies
The Patriot Party borrowed strategies of community organizing from the Black Panthers. For instance, they established a Free Breakfast for Children program. They established "liberation schools" to teach their ideology to children. The Eugene, Oregon, chapter, location of the University of Oregon, garnered much community support with its "Free Lumber" program. At this time in the Northwest, some poor people still relied on wood-stoves for cooking and heating, and cheap wood was hard to come by.

The Patriot Party believed that whites would abandon racist beliefs after identifying the capitalist system as their true enemy.

Use of the Confederate flag
Despite the Confederate flag's association with white supremacism, the Patriot Party used it as a symbol. In addition to easy access at military surplus stores, the flag was used, according to Amy Sonnie and James Tracy, "as a symbol of southern poor people's revolt against the owning class". Buttons with the slogan "Resurrect John Brown" – a reference to the avowed abolitionist – were also commonly used. Pamphlets contained slogans such as "The South will rise again, only this time with the North and all the oppressed people of the world."

Downfall and legacy
In 1970, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) arrested the entire central committee of the Patriot Party and charged them with various felonies. They later dropped the charges, but, by the mid-1970s, the FBI's COINTELPRO program had effectively suppressed the organization.

The group was also strongly opposed by far-right white militias.

In 1982, the civil rights activist Jesse Jackson adopted the name of "Rainbow Coalition" for organizing multi-ethnic groups to support and vote for liberal (generally Democratic) candidates for public office, in order to strengthen minority voices by acting in collaboration.

title: Patriot Party (1970s)


text:
User talk:Warzybok

Revolt in the Vendée
Just so I don't blindside you: I've reverted your edit to Revolt in the Vendée and explained at Talk:Revolt in the Vendée. Feel free to discuss the matter there. -- Jmabel | Talk 23:01, Dec 17, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Warzybok