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Battle of Kennesaw Mountain

The Battle of Kennesaw Mountain was fought on June 27, 1864, during the Atlanta Campaign of the American Civil War. The most significant frontal assault launched by Union Major General William T. Sherman against the Confederate Army of Tennessee under General Joseph E. Johnston, it produced a tactical defeat for the Union forces but failed to deliver the result that the Confederacy desperately needed: a halt to Sherman's advance on Atlanta, Georgia.

Sherman's 1864 campaign against Atlanta began with a series of flanking maneuvers that compelled Johnston's forces to withdraw from heavily fortified positions with minimal casualties on either side. After two months and 70 mi of such maneuvering, Sherman's path was blocked by imposing fortifications on Kennesaw Mountain, near Marietta, Georgia. The Union general chose to change his tactics and ordered a large-scale frontal assault on June 27. Major General James B. McPherson feinted against the northern end of Kennesaw Mountain, while his corps under Major General John A. Logan assaulted Pigeon Hill on its southwest corner. At the same time, Major General George H. Thomas launched strong attacks against Cheatham Hill at the center of the Confederate line. Both attacks were repulsed with heavy losses, but a demonstration by Major General John M. Schofield achieved a strategic success by threatening the Confederate army's left flank, prompting yet another Confederate withdrawal toward Atlanta and the removal of General Johnston from command of the army.

Background
In March 1864, Ulysses S. Grant was promoted to lieutenant general and named general in chief of the Union Army. He devised a strategy of multiple, simultaneous offensives against the Confederacy, hoping to prevent any of the rebel armies from reinforcing the others over interior lines. The two most significant of these were by Major General George G. Meade's Army of the Potomac, accompanied by Grant himself, which would attack Robert E. Lee's army directly and advance toward the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia; and Major General William T. Sherman, replacing Grant in his role as commander of the Military Division of the Mississippi, who would advance from Chattanooga, Tennessee, to Atlanta.

Both Grant and Sherman initially had objectives to engage with and destroy the two principal armies of the Confederacy, relegating the capture of important enemy cities to a secondary, supporting role. This was a strategy that President Abraham Lincoln had emphasized throughout the war, but Grant was the first general who actively cooperated with it. As their campaigns progressed, however, the political importance of the cities of Richmond and Atlanta began to dominate their strategy. By 1864, Atlanta was a critical target. The city of 20,000 was founded at the intersection of four important railroad lines that supplied the Confederacy and was a military manufacturing arsenal in its own right. Atlanta's nickname of "Gate City of the South" was apt—its capture would open virtually the entire Deep South to Union conquest. Grant's orders to Sherman were to "move against Johnston's Army, to break it up and to get into the interior of the enemy's country as far as you can, inflicting all the damage you can against their war resources."

Sherman's force of about 100,000 men was composed of three subordinate armies: the Army of the Tennessee (Grant's and later Sherman's army of 1862–63) under Major General James B. McPherson; the Army of the Cumberland under Major General George H. Thomas; and the relatively small Army of the Ohio (composed of only the XXIII Corps) under Major General John M. Schofield. Their principal opponent was the Confederate Army of Tennessee, commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston, who had replaced the unpopular Braxton Bragg after his defeat in Chattanooga in November 1863. The 50,000-man army consisted of the infantry corps of lieutenant generals William J. Hardee, John Bell Hood, and Leonidas Polk, and a cavalry corps under Major General Joseph Wheeler.

Start of the Atlanta campaign

Sherman's campaign began on May 7, as his three armies departed from the vicinity of Chattanooga. He launched demonstration attacks against Johnston's position on the long, high mountain named Rocky Face Ridge while McPherson's Army of the Tennessee advanced stealthily around Johnston's left flank toward the town of Resaca, and Johnston's supply line on the Western & Atlantic Railroad. Unfortunately for Sherman, McPherson encountered a small Confederate force entrenched in the outskirts of Resaca and cautiously pulled back to Snake Creek Gap, squandering the opportunity to trap the Confederate army. As Sherman swung his entire army in the direction of Resaca, Johnston retired to take up positions there. Full scale fighting erupted in the Battle of Resaca on May 14–15 but there was no conclusive result and Sherman flanked Johnston for a second time by crossing the Oostanaula River. As Johnston withdrew again, skirmishing erupted at Adairsville on May 17 and more general fighting on Johnston's Cassville line May 18–19. Johnston planned to defeat part of Sherman's force as it approached on multiple routes, but Hood became uncharacteristically cautious and feared encirclement, failing to attack as ordered. Encouraged by Hood and Polk, Johnston ordered another withdrawal, this time across the Etowah River.

Johnston's army took up defensive positions at Allatoona Pass south of Cartersville, but Sherman once again turned Johnston's left as he temporarily abandoned his railroad supply line and advanced on Dallas. Johnston was forced to move from his strong position and meet Sherman's army in the open. Fierce but inconclusive fighting occurred on May 25 at New Hope Church, May 27 at Pickett's Mill, and May 28 at Dallas. By June 1, heavy rains turned the roads to quagmires and Sherman was forced to return to the railroad to supply his men. Johnston's new line (called the Brushy Mountain Line) was established by June 4 northwest of Marietta, along Lost Mountain, Pine Mountain, and Brush Mountain. On June 14, following eleven days of steady rain, Sherman was ready to move again. While on a personal reconnaissance, he spotted a group of Confederate officers on Pine Mountain and ordered one of his artillery batteries to open fire. Lieutenant General Leonidas Polk, the "Fighting Bishop", was killed and Johnston withdrew his men from Pine Mountain, establishing a new line in an arc-shaped defensive position from Kennesaw Mountain to Little Kennesaw Mountain. Hood's corps attempted an unsuccessful attack at Peter Kolb's farm (the Battle of Kolb's Farm) south of Little Kennesaw Mountain on June 22. Major General William W. Loring succeeded in temporarily commanding Polk's corps.

Sherman was in a difficult position, stalled 15 mi north of Atlanta. He could not continue his strategy of moving around Johnston's flank because of the impassable roads, and his railroad supply line was dominated by Johnston's position on the top of 691 ft Kennesaw Mountain. He reported to Washington "The whole country is one vast fort, and Johnston must have at least 50 mi of connected trenches with abatis and finished batteries. We gain ground daily, fighting all the time. ... Our lines are now in close contact and the fighting incessant, with a good deal of artillery. As fast as we gain one position the enemy has another all ready. ... Kennesaw ... is the key to the whole country." Sherman decided to break the stalemate by attacking Johnston's position on Kennesaw Mountain. He issued orders on June 24 for an 8:00 a.m. attack on June 27.

Battle

Sherman's plan was first to induce Johnston to thin out and weaken his line by ordering Schofield to extend his army to the right. Then McPherson was to make a feint on his extreme left—the northern outskirts of Marietta and the northeastern end of Kennesaw Mountain—with his cavalry and a division of infantry, and to make a major assault on the southwestern end of Little Kennesaw Mountain. Meanwhile, Thomas's army was to conduct the principal attack against the Confederate fortifications in the center of their line, and Schofield was to demonstrate on the Confederate left flank and attack somewhere near the Powder Springs Road "as he can with the prospect of success."

At 8:00 a.m. on June 27, Union artillery opened a furious bombardment with over 200 guns on the Confederate works and the Rebel artillery responded in kind. Lieutenant Colonel Joseph S. Fullerton wrote, "Kennesaw smoked and blazed with fire, a volcano as grand as Etna." As the Federal infantry began moving soon afterward, the Confederates quickly determined that much of the 8 mi wide advance consisted of demonstrations rather than concerted assaults. The first of those assaults began at around 8:30 a.m., with three brigades of Brigadier General Morgan L. Smith's division (Major General John A. Logan's XV Corps, Army of the Tennessee) moving against Loring's corps on the southern end of Little Kennesaw Mountain and the spur known as Pigeon Hill near the Burnt Hickory Road. If the attack were successful, capturing Pigeon Hill would isolate Loring's corps on Kennesaw Mountain. All three brigades were disadvantaged by the approach through dense thickets, steep and rocky slopes, and a lack of knowledge of the terrain. About 5,500 Union troops in two columns of regiments moved against about 5,000 Confederate soldiers, well entrenched.

On the right of Smith's attack, the brigade of Brigadier General Joseph A. J. Lightburn was forced to advance through a knee-deep swamp, and were stopped short of the Confederate breastworks on the southern end of Pigeon Hill by enfilading fire. They were able to overrun the rifle pits in front of the works, but could not pierce the main Confederate line. To their left, the brigades of Colonel Charles C. Walcutt and Brigadier General Giles A. Smith crossed difficult terrain interrupted by steep cliffs and scattered with huge rocks to approach the Missouri brigade of Brigadier General Francis Cockrell. Some of the troops were able to reach as far as the abatis, but most were not and they were forced to remain stationary, firing behind trees and rocks. When General Logan rode forward to judge their progress, he determined that many of his men were being "uselessly slain" and ordered Walcutt and Smith to withdraw and entrench behind the gorge that separated the lines.

About 2 mi to the south, Thomas's troops were behind schedule, but began their main attack against Hardee's corps at 9:00 a.m. Two divisions of the Army of the Cumberland—about 9,000 men under Brigadier General John Newton (Major General Oliver O. Howard's IV Corps) and Brigadier General Jefferson C. Davis (Maj. Gen. John M. Palmer's XIV Corps)—advanced in column formation rather than the typical broad line of battle against the Confederate divisions of major generals Benjamin F. Cheatham and Patrick R. Cleburne, entrenched on what is now known as "Cheatham Hill". On Newton's left, his brigade, under Brigadier General George D. Wagner, attacked through dense undergrowth, but was unable to break through the abatis and fierce rifle fire. On his right, the brigade of Brigadier General Charles G. Harker charged the Tennessee brigade of Brigadier General Alfred Vaughan and was repulsed. During a second charge, Harker was mortally wounded.

Davis's division, to the right of Newton's, also advanced in column formation. While such a movement offered the opportunity for a quick breakthrough by massing power against a narrow point, it also had the disadvantage of offering a large concentrated target to enemy guns. Their orders were to advance silently, capture the works, and then cheer to give a signal to the reserve divisions to move forward to secure the railroad and cut the Confederate army in two. Colonel Daniel McCook's brigade advanced down a slope to a creek and then crossed a wheat field to ascend the slope of Cheatham Hill. When they reached within a few yards of the Confederate works, the line halted, crouched, and began firing. But the Confederate counter fire was too strong and McCook's brigade lost two commanders (McCook and his replacement, Colonel Oscar F. Harmon), nearly all of its field officers, and a third of its men. McCook was killed on the Confederate parapet as he slashed with his sword and shouted "Surrender, you traitors!" Colonel John G. Mitchell's brigade on McCook's right suffered similar losses. After ferocious hand-to-hand fighting, the Union troops dug in across from the Confederates, ending the fighting around 10:45 a.m. Both sides nicknamed this place the "Dead Angle".

To the right of Davis's division, Major General John W. Geary's division of Major General Joseph Hooker's XX Corps advanced, but did not join in Davis's attack. Considerably farther to the right, however, was the site of the only success of the day. Schofield's army had been assigned to demonstrate against the Confederate left and he was able to put two brigades across Olley's Creek without resistance. That movement, along with an advance by Major General George Stoneman's cavalry division on Schofield's right, put Union troops within 5 mi of the Chattahoochee River, closer to the last river protecting Atlanta than any unit in Johnston's army.

Aftermath
Sherman's armies suffered about 3,000 casualties in comparison to Johnston's 1,000. The Union general was not initially deterred by these losses and he twice asked Thomas to renew the assault. "Our loss is small, compared to some of those [battles in the] East." The Rock of Chickamauga replied, however, "One or two more such assaults would use up this army." A few days later Sherman wrote to his wife, "I begin to regard the death and mangling of couple thousand men as a small affair, a kind of morning dash."

Kennesaw Mountain was not Sherman's first large-scale frontal assault of the war, but it was his last. He interrupted his string of successful flanking maneuvers in the Atlanta campaign for the logistical reasons mentioned earlier, but also so that he could keep Johnston guessing about the tactics he would employ in the future. In his report of the battle, Sherman wrote, "I perceived that the enemy and our officers had settled down into a conviction that I would not assault fortified lines. All looked to me to outflank. An army to be efficient, must not settle down to a single mode of offence, but must be prepared to execute any plan which promises success. I wanted, therefore, for the moral effect, to make a successful assault against the enemy behind his breastworks, and resolved to attempt it at that point where success would give the largest fruits of victory."

Kennesaw Mountain is usually considered a significant Union tactical defeat, but Richard M. McMurry wrote, "Tactically Johnston had won a minor defensive triumph on Loring's and Hardee's lines. Schofield's success, however, gave Sherman a great advantage, and the federal commander quickly decided to exploit it." The opposing forces spent five days facing each other at close range, but on July 2, with good summer weather at hand, Sherman sent the Army of the Tennessee and Stoneman's cavalry around the Confederate left flank and Johnston was forced to withdraw from Kennesaw Mountain to prepared positions at Smyrna.

On July 8, Sherman outflanked Johnston again—for the first time on his right—by sending Schofield to cross the Chattahoochee near the mouth of Sope Creek. The last major geographic barrier to entering Atlanta had been overcome. Alarmed at the imminent danger posed to the city of Atlanta, and frustrated with the strategy of continual withdrawals, Confederate president Jefferson Davis relieved Johnston of command on July 17, replacing him with the aggressive John Bell Hood, who was temporarily promoted to full general. Hood proceeded to attack Sherman in battles at Peachtree Creek (July 20), Atlanta/Decatur (July 22), and Ezra Church (July 28), in all of which he suffered enormous casualties without tactical advantage. Sherman besieged Atlanta for the month of August, but sent almost his entire force swinging to the south to cut off the city's last remaining railroad connection. In the Battle of Jonesboro (August 31 and September 1), Hood attacked again to save his railroad, but was unsuccessful and was forced to evacuate Atlanta. Sherman's men entered the city on September 2 and Sherman telegraphed President Lincoln, "Atlanta is ours, and fairly won." This milestone was arguably one of the key factors enabling Lincoln's reelection in November.

A soldier's perspective
The battle is described from the perspective of Sam Watkins, a volunteer in the 1st Tennessee Infantry Regiment of the Confederate Army, in the book Company Aytch (see the section entitled "Dead Angle, on the Kennesaw Line").

Battlefield today
The site of the battle is now part of Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park, where both Confederate deliberate trenches on top of the mountain and some Union rifle pits are still visible. The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have saved almost four acres of battlefield land outside the park as of mid-2023.

title: Battle of Kennesaw Mountain


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Ray Lynch

Raymond Lynch (born July 3, 1943) is an American guitarist, lutenist, keyboardist, and composer. He began his musical career in 1967 by performing in The Renaissance Quartet in New York City before leaving in 1974 and giving up his musical career. During his hiatus, Lynch studied with his spiritual teacher, Adi Da, who would ultimately encourage him to return to music. Lynch released five albums during the 1980s and 1990s, including The Sky of Mind, Deep Breakfast, No Blue Thing, and Nothing Above My Shoulders but the Evening. Initially producing his music independently, Lynch eventually worked with Music West. After Lynch sued and left the company, Lynch joined Windham Hill in 1992 before retiring in 2000. Lynch has won three Billboard awards.

Early life
Lynch was born on July 3, 1943, in Salt Lake City, Utah. As the second of four children, Lynch was raised in West Texas. Lynch's father was a lawyer; Lynch's mother was a noted watercolorist and an amateur pianist who influenced him to create music as a child. Other early influences included hymns and soundtracks. Lynch began studying the piano at the age of six. At age twelve, he was inspired by Andrés Segovia's classical recordings and decided to pursue a career in music. After attending High School in both St. Stephen's Episcopal School and Austin High School, Lynch went to the Austin campus of the University of Texas. After studying there for a year, he moved to Barcelona with his then wife Ginny and his child. Over there, he was apprenticed to Eduardo Sainz de la Maza, a classical guitar teacher. Three years later Lynch returned to the university to study composition with various instruments including guitar, lute, and vihuela. While Lynch went on to become a musician, his siblings ended up becoming lawyers.

Life and career
In 1967, while still in college, Lynch was invited to New York City to join The Renaissance Quartet, performing the lute alongside Robert White (tenor), Barbara Mueser (viol), and Morris Newman (recorder), replacing Joseph Iadone. Lynch also performed with other groups, such as "Festival Winds", as well as collaborative and solo performances. Lynch also taught the guitar, lute, and vihuela in the Mexican city of Taxco in the late 1960s. During his career, Lynch purchased a 125-acre farm in Maine. By 1974, Lynch experienced a "spiritual crisis" that led to his decision to move from Maine to California and give up his musical career. Although he became a carpenter and a purchasing agent in California, Lynch also continued to practice his compositional skills. In an interview with The Arizona Republic, Lynch said that his return to music was prompted by a suggestion from his spiritual teacher, Adi Da, in California.

To prepare for his return to music, Lynch bought an ARP Odyssey with "borrowed money" in 1980; the synthesizer helped him create music in the developing electronic genre. Two years later, Lynch released his first album, Truth Is the Only Profound, which recites the teachings of Adi Da "set to the background of devotional music and songs". Lynch later followed up with an instrumental album, The Sky of Mind. When Lynch released his third album, Deep Breakfast, in 1984 independently, he sold over 72,000 albums out of his small apartment. Lynch was featured on Musical Starstreams on June 1985. Immediately after joining Music West in Winter 1985, he released Deep Breakfast to a wider audience. The album was eventually certified Platinum by the RIAA. In 1989, No Blue Thing became Lynch's first album to hit #1 on Billboard's "Top New Age Albums" chart. No Blue Thing was also his only album to appear on Billboard's "Top 200 Albums", peaking at #197. It won Billboard's "Top New Age Album" in 1990, and Lynch also won Billboard's "Top New Age Artist" in both 1989 and 1990.

During his time with Music West, Lynch was featured on Good Morning America as well as the Spanish La 1 program "Música N.A.". In 1991, Lynch sued Music West for allegedly not paying him for his work. He left Music West, taking the rights to his music with him, and signed up with Windham Hill Records. Under the new label, Lynch's albums The Sky of Mind and No Blue Thing (but not Deep Breakfast) were re-released on September 1992 with new album covers.

Under the new record company, Lynch followed up with his final album, the classical Nothing Above My Shoulders but the Evening, in 1993. The album featured members of the San Francisco Symphony. Like the preceding album, it hit #1 on the "Top New Age Albums" chart. In 1998, Lynch released his first and only compilation album, Ray Lynch: Best Of, Volume One, which included two original tracks and a remix of "Celestial Soda Pop". Lynch left Windham Hill in 2000 and re-released his own catalog of music under his own record company.

On September 2015, Lynch's house was destroyed by the Valley Fire, along with his studio, awards, and the master tapes of his music. As a result, his friend Grant Valdes Huling set up a GoFundMe page, which ultimately raised over $20,000.

Influences
Throughout his career, Lynch did not want his music to be classified as "New Age". In an interview with CD Review in August 1989, Lynch said he didn't really mind being labeled as a "new age" artist, but says that he doesn't like "being grouped with music that I felt is, in general, pretty mediocre and boring". Lynch also said that "'classical' would be the best category for me."

Lynch had been both a student and follower of Adi Da since 1974. In regards to the spiritual nature of his music, Lynch believed that it "has to be judged subjectively by the listener, not the composer." Lynch named several of his songs and albums after the themes found in Da's novel, The Mummery Book. However, in a 1989 Arizona Republic interview, Lynch clarified that he wasn't trying to promote Da's work through his music. After the death of Adi Da, Lynch performed various songs for Da's tribute album, "May You Ever Dwell In Our Heart", in 2009.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ray Lynch


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Wagnerism

Wagnerism may refer to:

 * Composer Richard Wagner's philosophical and artistic ideals
 * Houston Stewart Chamberlain, called the "Champion of Wagnerism"
 * Wagner controversies
 * Richard Wagner's style of music, for example, Alberto Franchetti
 * Wagnerianism and Czech National Identity, 1870 writing by Czech historian and musicologist Otakar Hostinský
 * a form of adversarial labour union legislation represented by the Wagner Act in the United States
 * Wagnerism: Art and Politics in the Shadow of Music (2020), book by music critic Alex Ross

title: Wagnerism


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Assignment Nor'Dyren

Assignment Nor'Dyren is a 1973 science fiction novel by American writer Sydney J. Van Scyoc. It deals with an imagined world, Nor'Dyren, where an alien human-like species has a more structured social system than is the case for human society. When humans come to Nor'Dyren, they discover that there are three specialized types of Nor'Dyrenese.

This three-way division of labor does not seem to be working. Nobody on Nor'Dyren knows how to repair broken machines. Nobody ever creates anything new. Archeological investigation reveals that the world Nor'Dyren has been in decline for 200 years from its cultural and technological apex.

Plot details
Eventually, the humans who are visiting Nor'Dyren discover that until 200 years previously, there were four distinct groups of Nor'Dyrenese. The fourth group (Qattagon) had been specialized to perform all of the creative work of society and was very artistic. However, the Qattagon had gotten too wild and radical and had come into conflict with the Gonnegon. This conflict ended when the administrative Gonnegon engineered the Qattagon out of the social system. This was possible because the Qattagon were not capable of reproducing; Qattagon were the result of interbreeding among the other three groups. To engineer Qattagon out of the society, the administrators decreed that members of each of the other three groups could only mate with other members of their own group. Under this imposed rule, none of the artistic hybrid Qattagon were born anymore.

The reason that the Qattagon had gotten out of control and become a problem for Nor'Dyren was because the balance between the four groups had been engineered to be appropriate for worlds that were part of a large interstellar empire. But in the distant past, that empire had collapsed, leaving the planet Nor'Dyren isolated and unable to absorb the full force of the creativity of its Qattagon.

Implications for human society
Assignment Nor'Dyren is a pleasant mystery novel set on an interesting alien world, but it also leads the reader to think about some issues that are important on Earth.

Genetic engineering of the human species
The most interesting technical issue raised by this book concerns genetic engineering. The Allegon, Berregon, Gonnegon and Qattagon appear to be the result of genetic engineering, four specialized variations of the original species, rationally designed so as to form a stable social system. On Earth, humans now have the technology for genetically modifying our own species. We are also starting to explore space and confronting the problem of how to deal with the changes that come with science and technology. Is any human-like species biologically suited for dealing with the challenges of science, technology and space exploration? Is it inevitable that in order to survive its "technological adolescence", any species must get involved with genetically modifying itself?

Homosexuality and creativity
A major social issue raised by this book is the relationship between creativity and human homosexuality. The possibility of a link between homosexuality and creativity has been a matter of debate for many years.

Some view the idea of a link between creativity and homosexuality as a myth while at the same time taking note of the impact that homosexuals have on society:

Research into possible differences in the brain that might be linked to homosexuality continues at a slow pace and remains fairly primitive.

The hypothesis that homosexuality can be associated with certain behavioral traits such as creativity remains a topic for further research.

title: Assignment Nor'Dyren


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User talk:Kalos~enwiki

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Religion in the Inca Empire

The Inca religion was a group of beliefs and rites that were related to a mythological system evolving from pre-Inca times to Inca Empire. Faith in the Tawantinsuyu was manifested in every aspect of his life, work, festivities, ceremonies, etc. They were polytheists and there were local, regional and pan-regional divinities.

Duality
A theme in Inca mythology is the duality of the Cosmos. The realms were separated into the upper and lower realms, the hanan pacha and the ukhu pacha and urin pacha. Hanan pacha, the upper world, consisted of the deities of the sun, moon, stars, rainbow, and lightning while ukhu pacha and urin pacha were the realms of Pachamama, the earth mother, and the ancestors and heroes of the Inca or other ayllus. Kay pacha, the realm of the outer earth, where humans resided was viewed as an intermediary realm between hanan pacha and ukhu pacha. The realms were represented by the condor (upper world), puma (outer earth) and snake (inner earth).

Asymmetrical dualism is especially important in Andean worldview. Asymmetrical dualism is the idea that reality is built by forces that are different and compromised but need each other to be complete. Additionally, one force is slightly larger or more powerful than the other, leading to a disparity between beings and forces. This disparity is the foundation of reality and which causes things to happen. Throughout Andean thought, this asymmetrical dualism can be seen in the dispersion of life force or vitality throughout the land. Camac is the life force that inhabits everything in reality. It does not distinguish between living and dead and inhabits things in different quantities. This life force permeating different places at different times gives recognition to certain places or objects. These places and objects were regarded as holding special energy and were collected under the title of wak’a.

Sacred sites or things named wak'a were spread around the Inca Empire. In Andean mythology a wak'a was a deific entity which resided in natural objects such as mountains, boulders, streams, battle fields, other meeting places, and any type of place that was connected with past Incan rulers. A wak'a could also be an inanimate object such as pottery which was believed to be a deity-carrying vessel. Spiritual leaders in a community would use prayer and offerings to communicate with a wak'a for advice or assistance. Human sacrifice was part of Incan rituals in which they usually sacrificed a child (qhapaq hucha) or a slave. The Incan people thought it was an honor to die as an offering.

Archaeological remains confirm such human sacrificial practices, according to Reinhard and Ceruti: "Archaeological evidence found on distant mountain summits has established that the burial of offerings was a common practice among the Incas and that human sacrifice took place at several of the sites. The excellent preservation of the bodies and other material in the cold and dry environment of the high Andes provides revealing details about the rituals that were performed at these ceremonial complexes."

Deities
Inca deities occupied the three realms:
 * hanan pacha, the celestial realm in the sky.
 * ukhu pacha, the inner earth realm.
 * kay pacha, the outer earth realm, where humans live.

Deities of the official pantheon

 * Viracocha: He was typically personified as a human male, and known as the creator of humanity and everything else in the world. In Inca Water Worship and Religion, it states, "He created humanity on an island in Lake Titicaca on the border between modern Peru and Bolivia and taught people how to live, assigning them tribal dress and customs and determining where they should live." After this occurred, Viracocha gave control over humanity to lower gods then disappeared. When the Spaniards came to the Inca territory, the Inca thought they were god like because of their similarities in appearance with Viracocha. Viracocha is often depicted as one of a triad of gods with Inti and Inti-Illapa. Not to be confused as a trinity (as later Christians would do), the three gods had multiple, overlapping personalities. There does not seem to be any major ceremonies devoted to him as well, as a small priesthood and only a few shrines dedicated to him.
 * Inti: Inti was one of the most important gods to the Inca people and known as the sun god. He is typically viewed as a boy from the Inca society and was also known as a golden disk with fire-like rays coming and a face in the middle. The image of Inti as a boy with sun rays protruding from his head is reflected in the principal idol of Inti that was created by Pachakuti. Named Punchao, this idol bridged the expanse between the Sun and humanity, as Inca rulers’ vital organs were burned, and the ash stored inside the statue. The Inca believed the sun was a key element for agriculture by protecting and helping with the growth of their crops. The temple dedicated to Inti was the Coricancha (a.k.a. The Golden Enclosure), which was one of the most important temples for the Inca people. Inside Coricancha was a miniature field of corn and the corn was made out of gold. Annually, the emperor would "farm" this as a tradition. Viracocha did not start out as the top deity in Inca religion, Inti was the first original and most powerful god. The transition from Inti to Virachocha has a couple of theories including: 1. The Inca society and people developed intellectually and started to question Inti's power. They questioned why an all-powerful god did the same thing every day. 2. The society moved forward and they started going more towards Henotheism. Since Viracocha was seen as a human, they saw this as being more powerful.
 * Illapa (Inti-Illapa): The name of this god means thunder and controls things like weather, rain, and lightning. The Inca valued this god because Illapa was in control of the weather and the growth of their crops. Many of the Inca society saw the image of this deity as a man wearing a sling. Every time that Illapa used the sling, it would create the thunder heard by the Inca people.
 * Kon(Wakon): The Inca rain god extended beyond its agricultural significance to encompass its role in spiritual beliefs and rituals. This god was perceived as a divine entity capable of both providing life-giving rains and unleashing destructive floods, highlighting the complex relationship between the Inca people and the forces of nature. Integrated into broader cosmological beliefs, reflecting the interconnectedness of water, life, and spirituality in Inca culture
 * Mamaquilla (Kilyamama ): The name of this god in the Inca language can be translated into Mother Moon. The Coya, or Incan queen was considered to be the daughter of Mamaquilla and leader of moon worship. All of the Inca society recognized this deity as female who was also seen as a silver disk with a face in the middle. She was the wife of the deity Inti and was also in control of calendars. This god was in charge of calendars because of the moon's cycle which the Inca could track.  All the temples that worshiped Mamaquilla were worked on by priestesses.
 * Pachamama: The name of this god translates to Earth Mother and is known as a female among the Inca society. The Inca saw her as a protector of their crops/fields and a god of fertility to help their crops grow. Pachamama embodies a gendered understanding of nature, representing both a maternal nurturing force and a powerful deity. Pachamama is portrayed as a source of fertility and abundance in Bolivian indigenous belief systems, influencing agricultural practices and environmental administration. Pachamama embodies the interconnectedness of life and nature, serving as a central figure in rituals and ceremonies that honor the earth and its resources.
 * Mama Cocha: The meaning of this god's name from the Inca language is Mother of Lakes and is widely known as a female. The job of this deity is to keep the world strong and provide sources of water.
 * Stellar Deities: These are deities formed using constellations or other cosmology features and are mostly believed to be of animals or activities. In the book Inca Water Worship and Religion, an example would be "Urcuchillay, which is known to western astronomers as Lira, [who] was thought to protect llamas and alpacas." Another important stellar deity was Qollqa (Pleiades). This constellation was honored because she was the mother of all other stellar deities. When the constellation appeared after not being visible for 37 days, the start of the agricultural year was marked.
 * Huacas : Anything, including people, places, and objects, in the world that the Inca believed had a supernatural spirit, were called Huacas. The size of the Huaca determined how much power it had. For example, mountains were considered some of the more powerful Huacas. The Inca worshiped and cared for them similar to the other deities.

Household gods
In addition to the communally worshiped deities, Incan families sometimes worshiped household gods via their representation as miniature figurines most commonly referred to as chancas or conopas. Conopa were often natural or carved stone objects that resembled crops or livestock, such as zarap conopa for maize, papap conopa for potatoes and caullama for llamas.

Origin
The Incas had an immense number of origin stories that historians and scholars have trouble deciphering and sorting out. These stories often contradict themselves, seeming to retell the story at a later point to include information and events that had occurred. Many of the origin stories of the Incas had life begin at Lake Titicaca. The story has the Creator god Wiraqocha Pachayachachic form giants to see if humans would work well at that size. When he found that they did not, he made them of his own size. These humans were hubristic and greedy, and thus were turned to stone or other forms and some were engulfed by the stone or sea. The Creator then summoned a great flood to destroy the land and all life on it except for three men, who would later help create humans again. At a later point at Lake Titicaca, the Creator made the sun, moon, and stars. The moon shone brighter than the sun, and being filled with jealousy, the sun threw ashes in her face to dim her shine. The Creator then spread out with two servants to call forth the people of every nation, from every mountain, crevice, cave and lake before walking over the water into the west.

The origin stories of the Incas reflect an attitude of change, where the past could be changed to better situate the present. This allowed for the possibility of new peoples and lands being discovered having been present from the very beginning. The origins of the Incas however do not represent the origin stories of other pre-Incan Andean peoples. There are vastly more versions and stories that predate and play into the Incan stories. Inca origin and religion draws from many local and ancestral traditions. The official tradition of the Inca Empire was the cult of the Sun, but the Incas allowed locals to worship their existing beings. Many people thought that their founding ancestor arose from an exact spot, a paqarisqa. These locals worshiped their gods through pilgrimages, offerings, and other rites that allowed them to keep true to tradition while still providing necessary sacrifices and offerings to the Sun god.

Religious expansion
Religious traditions in the Andes tended to vary among different ayllus. While the Inca generally allowed or even incorporated local deities and heroes of the ayllus they conquered, they did bring their gods to those peoples by incorporating them in law such as required sacrifice. The Inca attempted to combine their deities with conquered ones in ways that raised the status of their own. One example of this is Pachamama, the goddess of Earth, who was worshiped long before the rise of the Inca. In the Inca mythology Pachamama having been integrated was placed below the Moon who the Inca believed ruled over all female gods.

Divination
The Incas also used divination. Divination was used to inform people in the city of social events, predict battle outcomes, and ask for metaphysical intervention.

Divination was essential before taking any action. Nearly every religious rite was accompanied by sacrifices. These were usually maize beer, food or llamas, but were occasionally of virgins or children.

Divination was an important part of Inca religion, as reflected in the following quote: "The native elements are more obvious in the case of the sunrise divination. Apachetas, coca and the sun were major elements in pre-Conquest religion, and divination, the worship of sacred mountains and the bringing retribution against enemies were important ritual practices."

Mummification
Rulers in Peru, such as the Inca ruler Huayna Capac, were often mummified upon the time of their death, allowing for their bodies to be worshipped within the palaces. These worshipping events were intercepted by the Spaniards under Polo de Ondegardo, who was newly appointed as Corregidor (Chief Magistrate) of Cuzco in 1559, when it was under Spanish control. Ondegardo conducted a massive effort to prevent the Inca from committing their “idolatrous sins”, mainly by locating the mummified bodies of late Inca kings and sending them to the viceroy in Lima. They remained in a hospital for around 80 years before their whereabouts became unknown. The Inca used to mummify their kings and several times a year they would be aligned in accordance to when they chronologically ruled in Cuzco's plaza for the public to pay their respects. In the other parts of the year, the mummies were returned to the Cuzco palaces and were worshipped privately by groups of visitors. Francisco Pizarro stated that “It was customary for the dead to visit one another, and they held great dances and debaucheries, and sometimes the dead went to the house of the living, and sometimes the living came to the house of the dead”. The kings were thought to have been able to speak back to the worshippers through the use of oracles, and even gave advice to the protection and ruling of the land. The ruling Inca was expected to seek advice from the mummies of his ancestors for important issues. Not all Inca mummies were glorified, however, as in one case Topa Inca Yupanqui's mummified body was torched and his bloodline all killed as they sided with Huascar in the civil war.

Inca mummies were seen as possessing agency, not really alive nor dead, more of an animated death. Terence D'Altroy said that, “royal mummies ate, drank, visited one another, sat at council, and judged weighty questions.” Mummies participated in ceremonial roles that allowed them to be consulted as advisors in times of distress. Originally kept on royal estates, the descendants eventually thought that by staying in his own house, a mummy could be better served and watched over. The mummies played such an important role in politics that there are instances of mummies being married. One such story is that Washkar had his mother marry his father's mummy in order for him to receive a legitimate ruling claim.

Upon the arrival of the Spanish, the Inca started to hide the bodies of the kings and become more secretive with their worship, as stated by Juan de Betanzos. After being appointed, Polo do Ondegardo and his men found most of the mummified kings and took their bodies along with other ritualistic items such as their huaques, or their statues. A popular thought is that Ondegardo had the bodies buried in or around Cuzco in secret so that they would not be uncovered and worshipped again. Garcilaso de la Vega visited Ondegardo's house and was shown an assembly of embalmed kings and attested to the degree of their preservation: “The bodies were perfectly preserved without the loss of hair of the head or brow or an eyelash. They were dressed as if they had been in life, with Ilautus (royal headbands) on their heads... their hands were crossed across their breast.”. The mummies were afterwards sent to the viceroy for him to see them and then afterwards they were brought back to Cuzco and thought to be secretly buried. The viceroy stored the mummies in the Hospital of San Andres in Lima because he was “a major benefactor of it”. Since the hospital was solely for the Spanish residents, they were likely on display for the citizens to view, away from the natives.

In Cusco
Because of their immediate defeat at the hands of the Spanish, much information surrounding Incan religion has been lost. Many historians rely on the religious customs of conquered Incan subjects to gather information about Incan beliefs. The Incans adopted most if not all of their religious beliefs from three main groups that lived around Peru. These groups were the Wari, the Chavin and the Nazca. With the combination of all three of these ancestral societies’ religions, the Incas were able to create a religious system that dominated almost every aspect of life in the empire.

The Inca's were profoundly religious, and so it makes sense that their religious structure was very complicated. The religion was centralized in the capital city of Cusco. Within Cusco, a highly complicated and organized calendar controlled the state religion's festivals and holy days. This calendar was responsible for almost all of the religious ceremonies that took place throughout the empire. Within the city of Cusco, there was also over three hundred and twenty eight huacas or sacred objects. Huacas were located throughout the empire with most of them happening to be around the capital city. Within the capital city there was also a quipa. The quipa described all the sacred places and how they are to be used during ceremonies and sacrifices. Each sacred place or huaca was organized into forty one different directions called ceques. These ceques started from the central temple of the Sun called Coricancha or "the golden enclosure."

There were ten groups of Incan nobility that were in charge of being priests within the city of Cuzco. These ten groups of nobility were called panacas. The panacas had a vital role to Incan society in Cusco because they were in charge of worship for the deities. All of the religious aspects that took place around the city were organized and arranged by this special group of nobility. The members of these ten groups were said to have a first royal ancestor that had conquered the valley. The panacas were decided through mother's rank, fraternal succession, choice, and the success and honor of the individual on the battlefield. These ten groups were then divided into two smaller groups, one representing Hanan who lived north of the valley river and also Hurin who lived south of the valley river. The Hanan and Hurin each consisted of five groups of nobility. It is known that the first group of each of the Panacas dedicated all their sacrifices to the sun. The remaining four were in charge of dedicating their sacrifices to Moon, Thunder, Virachoa, and the Earth. These groups of nobility made up the upper most tier of society and they were highly revered and respected throughout the empire.

These fives gods or entities that received the majority of sacrifices within Cusco represent the most vital aspects of Incan life. The Sun God represented the institutional organization of the society because everything in Incan life revolved around the Sun. Virachoa is also known as Apu Qun Tiqsi Wiraqutra and is considered the creator of civilization. He is one of the most if not the most powerful gods in Incan mythology. The sacrifices done towards Virachoa represents how much the Incans relied on outside forces to explain events in their daily lives. The sacrifices towards Thunder represent the handling of transitions in life and society. The sacrifices towards Earth and Moon show the fertility of the Earth and nature. All ten groups of nobilities had the responsibility to explain and account for all the occurrences of the natural world in and outside of the Incan empire.

Festivals
The Inca calendar had 12 months of 30 days, with each month having its own festival, and a five-day feast at the end, before the new year began. The Incan year started in December, and began with Qhapaq Raymi, the magnificent festival.

The Qhapaq Raymi was the first and biggest festival of the year. During this festival, Inca boys went through their puberty rites as they entered adulthood. Additionally, public events of drinking, dancing, and eating llama blood cakes occurred to venerate the Sun god.

Inti Raymi, perhaps the second most important festival, occurred during the month with June's solstice. Like the Qhapag Raymi, the Inti Raymi focused on celebrating the Sun god, with day-long chanting that escalated at noon and diminished till sunset. The festival lasted eight or nine days and was filled with offerings of chicha, coca, and other items that venerated the Sun god. At the end of the festival, the Inca ruler was the first to plow the earth, signaling the beginning of the plowing season.

In the month of Qoya Raymi the Situa, a ceremony of purification, was performed that started in Cuzco and expanded out in the four directions. Performed in the rainy season, due to a higher number of illnesses, residents of Cuzco beat each other with torches and shook clothing outside to rid themselves of disease. Then four groups of 100 people left with sacrificial ashes along the four roads out of Cuzco, the roads of Kollasuyu, Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, and Cuntisuyu. The runners took the ashes along these roads and passed them off to people of lesser social status who continued the carrying of the burden. When they reached a designated area, they would bathe in a river, ridding Cuzco and its peoples of impurities.

Reading list

 * Sullivan, E. Lawrence. Native Religions and Cultures of Central and South America. New York and Londo: Continuum, 1997.
 * MacCormack, Sabine. Religion in the Andes. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton Press, 1991.
 * "pre-Columbian civilizations." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 19 Sept  2006.
 * Conrad, Geoffrey W. Religion and Empire: the dynamics of Aztec and Inca expansionism. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
 * Pugh, Helen Intrepid Dudettes of the Inca Empire. 2020. ISBN 9781005592318

title: Religion in the Inca Empire


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Hildegard (queen)

Hildegard (c. 757/758 – 30 April 783) was a Frankish queen and the wife of Charlemagne from c. 771 until her death. Hildegard was a noblewoman of Frankish and Alemannian heritage. Through eleven years of marriage with Charlemagne, Hildegard helped share in his rule as well as having nine children with him, including the kings Charles the Younger and Pepin of Italy and the emperor Louis the Pious.

Life
Hildegard was the daughter of the Frankish count Gerold and his wife, the Alemannian noblewoman Imma. Thegan of Trier, a ninth-century biographer of Hildegard's son Louis emphasizes her Alemannian heritage and descent from duke Gotfrid through her mother, indicating that Imma was of higher status than Gerold. Hildegard was likely born in 757 or 758.

Gerold held lands in the vicinity of the Middle Rhine under the Frankish king Carloman I. Carloman died on 4 December 771 and his brother king Charlemagne sought to bring Carloman's lands under his rule. Charlemagne arranged to marry Hildegard and gain Gerold's support. Hildegard married Charlemagne shortly after Carloman's death, certainly before 30 April 772. She was thirteen or fourteen years old at the time of the marriage. By marrying Hildegard, Charlemagne ended his marriage to a daughter of the Lombard king Desiderius. Charlemagne had also had a previous relationship (perhaps a marriage) with the Frankish noblewoman Himiltrude, and had a son with her named Pepin. As queen, Hildegard would have been responsible for administering the royal household and estates. She also joined her husband as the co-signer of charters, including grants of patronage to monasteries.

Charlemagne took Hildegard to the Frankish royal palace at Thionville, where they stayed for two months before he set off on a campaign in Saxony. At the end of the campaigning season, Charlemagne returned to Thionville, and during this period the couple's son Charles was born. At Thionville, Charlemagne received an emissary from Pope Adrian I who was seeking his help against Desiderius. Charlemagne, heeding the Pope's call for aid, invaded Lombardy in late 773 and besieged the Lombard capital of Pavia. In early 774, Charlemagne sent for Hildegard to travel to the Frankish camp at Pavia with Pippin and Charles. Hildegard was heavily pregnant, and gave birth to a daughter named Adelhaid during the siege. They sent the baby back north to Francia for safety, but she died on the way. By June, Charlemagne conquered the city, deposed Desiderius and his wife Ansa, and named himself king of the Lombards. Charlemagne and Hildegard likely went through a ritual installation as the new king and queen in Pavia (though no direct source exists), and a charter issued in Lombardy in July was a grant of Lombard land to the Abbey of St. Martin made in both of their names.

The royal family returned to Francia later in the summer of 774. The next year, as Charlemagne campaigned in Saxony, Hildegard gave birth to their daughter Rotrude. Their next child was Carloman, born in 777. In 778, Hildegard traveled with Charlemagne to Chasseneuil-du-Poitou, where he was amassing his army for a campaign in Spain. Hildegard was pregnant when they arrived, and gave birth to twin boys, Louis and Lothair, while Charlemagne was on campaign. Lothair died in 780 at the age of two, the same year Hildegard gave birth to another daughter, Bertha.

In 781, Charlemagne and Hildegard traveled to Rome with Louis, Carloman, and their daughters at Pope Adrian's request. Carloman was four years old, but his parents had delayed his baptism so that the Pope could perform it. Carloman was baptized, and Adrian then crowned him as king of the Lombards (later styled king of Italy) and Louis as king of Aquitaine. As part of Carloman's baptism, he was renamed Pepin, now sharing a name with his half-brother. The two new kings, still young children, were sent to their new kingdoms to be raised by regents and advisors in their own courts. On this trip to Italy, Hildegard also gave birth to her third daughter, Gisela, and she was baptized in Milan. Around this time, Hildegard and Charlemagne jointly commissioned the Godescalc Evangelistary, a surviving illuminated manuscript of the Gospels and exemplary piece of Carolingian Renaissance art.

Hildegard had her final pregnancy in 782–783, and she and Charlemagne stayed in the palace at Thionville during that winter. Hildegard gave birth to another daughter in late April, but died shortly after on 30 April 783, possibly due to complications from the birth. The baby was named in her mother's honor, but also died less than two months later. Hildegard was buried at the Abbey of Saint-Arnould at Metz, and Charlemagne arranged for her tomb to be perpetually lit and for daily masses to be said there, as well as commissioning an epitaph in her honor from his courtier Paul the Deacon.

Children
In her marriage to Charlemagne, Hildegard had nine children:

 * Charles the Younger (c. 772/773–811), Duke of Maine and king under Charlemagne
 * Adalhaid (773/4–774), born while her parents were on campaign in Italy. She was sent back to Francia, but died before reaching Lyons.
 * Rotrude (or Hruodrud) (c. 775–810)
 * Carloman, renamed Pepin (777–810), King of Italy
 * Louis (778–840), King of Aquitaine and Emperor
 * Lothair (778–779/780), twin of Louis, he died in infancy
 * Bertha (779/780–826)
 * Gisela (b. 782)
 * Hildegard (782–783)

Louis and Pepin both married and had children. Rotrude had been betrothed to Emperor Constantine VI, but this betrothal was ended. None of Hildegard's daughters married, though several had children with unmarried partners: Bertha had two sons, Nithard and Hartnid with Charlemagne's courtier Angilbert; and Rotrude had a son named Louis possibly with Count Rorgon.

title: Hildegard (queen)


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User talk:Rturus

Deleted previous entries - they can be viewed via diffs. rturus (talk) 12:06, 17 December 2009 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rturus


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Teleseism

A teleseism is a tremor caused by an earthquake that is very far away (from the Ancient Greek τῆλε) from where it is recorded. According to the USGS, the term teleseismic refers to earthquakes that occur more than 1000 km from the measurement site. Small teleseismic events register only on sensitive seismometers in low background noise locations. In general, seismic waves from earthquakes of magnitude 5.0 and up can be recorded almost anywhere in the world with modern seismic instrumentation.

title: Teleseism


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Jelínek

Jelínek (feminine Jelínková) is a Czech surname that means "little deer". Notable people include:

 * Antonín Jelínek, Czech wrestler
 * Arthur J. Jelinek (1928 – 2022), American anthropologist specializing in the Eurasian paleolithic
 * Bohumil Jelínek, Czech footballer
 * David Jelínek (born 1990), Czech basketball player
 * Dora Jelínková, Czech volleyball player
 * Ellen Marianne Mattson Jelinek (born 1973), Swedish actress
 * Eloise Jelinek (1924–2007), American linguist
 * Elfriede Jelinek (born 1946), Austrian writer
 * František Cína Jelínek, Czech painter
 * Frederick Jelinek (1932–2010), American information theorist
 * Hanns Jelinek (1901–1969), Austrian composer
 * Jan Jelinek (born 1949), German musician
 * Jan Jelínek (legionary) (1893–1974), Czech writer
 * Jiří Jelínek (ballet dancer) (born 1977), Czech ballet dancer
 * Jiří Jelínek (trumpeter) (1922–1984), Czech musician
 * Josef Jelínek (born 1941), Czech football player
 * Joseph Gelinek (1758–1825), Czech composer
 * Joseph R. Jelinek (1919–1978), American general
 * Karina Jelinek (born 1981), Argentine model and actress
 * Karl Jelinek, Austrian physicist and meteorologist
 * Maria Jelinek (born 1942), Canadian skater
 * Mariann Jelinek (born 1942), American organizational theorist
 * Mercedes Jelinek (born 1985), American photographer
 * Milena Jelinek (1935–2020), Czech-American writer
 * Otto Jelinek (born 1940), Canadian skater and diplomat
 * Pavel Jelínek (born 1972), Czech physicist
 * Petr Jelínek (born 1984), Czech ice hockey player
 * Robert Jelinek (born 1969), Swedish actor
 * Ron Jelinek (born 1945), American politician
 * Šárka Jelínková, Czech politician
 * Tomáš Jelínek, Czech ice hockey player
 * W. Craig Jelinek (born 1952), American businessman
 * Václav Jelínek (1944–2022), a Czechoslovak spy, who worked in London under the assumed identity of Erwin van Haarlem
 * Vladislav Jelínek, Czech footballer
 * Wilhelm Jelinek, Austrian handball player
 * Žuži Jelinek (1920–2016), Croatian writer

title: Jelínek


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File:Jody Watley - Jody Watley.jpg

Summary
Album cover for Jody Watley by Jody Watley

Fair use in Jody Watley (album)

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title: File:Jody Watley - Jody Watley.jpg


text: User talk:65.125.114.98

title: User talk:65.125.114.98


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Dickite

Dickite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) is a phyllosilicate clay mineral named after the metallurgical chemist Allan Brugh Dick, who first described it. It is chemically composed of 20.90% aluminium, 21.76% silicon, 1.56% hydrogen and 55.78% oxygen. It has the same composition as kaolinite, nacrite, and halloysite, but with a different crystal structure (polymorph). Dickite sometimes contains impurities such as titanium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium.

Dickite occurs with other clays and requires x-ray diffraction for its positive identification. Dickite is an important alteration indicator in hydrothermal systems as well as occurring in soils and shales.

Dickite's type location is in Pant-y-Gaseg, Amlwch, Isle of Anglesey, Wales, United Kingdom, where it was first described in 1888. Dickite appears in locations with similar qualities and is found in China, Jamaica, France, Germany, United Kingdom, United States, Italy, Belgium and Canada.

History
In 1888, Allan Brugh Dick (1833–1926), a Scottish metallurgical chemist, was on the island of Anglesey to conduct research on kaolin. He performed various experiments describing the clay mineral. It was not until 1931 that Clarence S. Ross and Paul F. Kerr looked closer at the mineral and concluded that it was different from the known minerals of kaolinite and nacrite. They named it after the first person to describe the mineral.

Composition
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 is the chemical formula of dickite. The calculated percent abundances are very close when compared to other kaolin minerals.

Chemical composition of dickite:
 * SiO2	46.54%
 * Al2O3	39.50%
 * H2O	13.96%

Dickite and other kaolin minerals are commonly developed by weathering of feldspars and muscovite. Through its evolution, dickite, a phyllosilicate mineral, maintains the aluminium and silicon elements influencing the formation of hexagonal sheets common to clay minerals.

The problem of mistaken identity arises when comparing dickite to other kaolin minerals due to the fact that kaolinite, dickite, and nacrite all have the same formula but different molecular structures. The only way to determine the true identity of the mineral is through powder x-ray diffraction and optical means.

Geologic occurrence
Dickite was first discovered in Almwch, Island of Anglesey, Wales, UK. Dickite is scattered across Wales forming occurrences in vein assemblages and as a rock-forming mineral. This area and others where dickite can be found all share similar characteristics. Pockets in phylloid algal limestones, in interstices of biocalcarenites and sandstone are a suitable environment for dickite. Very low pressure and high temperatures are the ideal environment for the formation of dickite. The more perfected crystallization of dickite occurs in porous algal limestones in the form of a white powder. The more disordered dickites can be found in less porous rocks.

Another occurrence spot, as indicated by Brindley and Porter of the American Mineralogists journal, is the Northerly dickite-bearing zone in Jamaica. The dickite in this zone ranges from indurate breccias containing cream to pinkish and purplish fragments composed largely of dickite with subordinate anatase set in a matrix of greenish dickite, to discrete veins and surface coatings of white, cream and translucent dickite. It appears that dickite in the northerly zone were formed by hot ascending waters from an uncertain origin.

Dickite is found worldwide in locations such as Ouray, Colorado, US; San Juanito, Chihuahua, Mexico, in a silicified zone among the rhyolite area; and in St. George, Utah, US, where the mineral is thought to be associated with volcanic rock. An extensive study was done on dickite pertaining to its location in Pennsylvanian limestones of southeastern Kansas, US.

In the dickite deposits of southeast Kansas the distribution is dependent on the following: the stratigraphic alternation of limestones and shales, westward regional dip, thick deposits of highly porous algal limestones, and igneous intrusions. It was found that groundwaters substantially heated along with magmatic waters which made its way up-dip and through the intrusions in the conduit-like algal mounds which allowed the dickite to be deposited in this area and it might be conclusive to say that this trend follows elsewhere in other locations around the world.

Physical properties
Dickite takes on the appearance of a white, brown earthy color and is often found embedded in many other minerals such as quartz.

Dickite has perfect cleavage in the (001) direction. Its color varies from blue, gray, white to colorless. It usually has a dull clay-like texture. Its hardness on the Mohs scale is 1.5–2, basically between talc and gypsum. This is attributed to its loose chemical bonds. It is held with hydrogen bonds, which are otherwise weak. It leaves a white streak and it has a pearly luster. It has a density of 2.6. Dickite is biaxial, its birefringence is between 0.0050–0.0090, its surface relief is low and it has no dispersion. The plane of the optical axis is normal to the plane of symmetry and inclined 160, rear to the normal to (0,0,1).

The atomic structure of dickite, being very similar to that of kaolinite and other kaolin type minerals, has a very specific arrangement that differs slightly enough to set its physical appearance and other physical properties apart from that of its family members kaolinite and nacrite. In a comparison of the family of minerals through experiments examined by Ross and Kerr the similarities between them are clearly evident and can, depending on the samples, be indistinguishable by optical means.

The hexagonal structure and the stacking of the atoms influence the physical properties in many ways including the color, hardness, cleavage, density, and luster. Another important factor in influencing physical properties of minerals is the presence of bonding between atoms. Within dickite there exists dominant O-H bonding, a type of strong ionic bonding.

Structure
Dickite has a monoclinic crystal system and its crystal class is domatic (m). This crystal system contains two non-equal axes (a and b) that are perpendicular to each other and a third axis (c) that is inclined with respect to the a axis. The a and c axes lie in a plane. Dickite involves an interlayer bonding with at least 3 identifiable bonds: an ionic type interaction due to net unbalanced charges on the layers, Van der Waals forces between layers and hydrogen bonds between oxygen atoms on the surface of one layer and hydroxyl groups on the opposing surface. A hydrogen bond, as the term is used here, involves a long range interaction between hydrogen of a hydroxyl group coordinated to a cation and an oxygen atom coordinated to another cation. The reaction is predominantly electrostatic; hence an ionic bonding model is appropriate. Its axial ratio is a=0.576, b=1, c=1.6135.

The hexagonal network of Si-O tetrahedra along with the superimposed layer of Al-O, OH octahedra make up the kaolin layer found in dickite. Dickite is composed of regular sequences of one, two and six kaolin layers. Analysis of the dickite structure reveals the space group to be C4s-Cc. The a and c axis both lie on the glide plane of symmetry. Dickite's structure is made up of a shared layer of corner-sharing tetrahedra filled by a plane of oxygens and hydroxyls along with a sheet of edge-sharing octahedra with every third site left empty.

An experiment was conducted using a pseudo-hexagonal crystal of dickite to determine the unit cell information and the layers that exist within dickite. It was found that there are six layers within the kaolin layer within dickite. This is evidenced in the following findings. There is an oxygen atom from the all oxygen layer that lies at the center. The atoms of the O layer, the Si layer and the O, (OH) layer are situated for the ideal kaolin layer.

X-ray experiments were performed by C. J. Ksanda and Tom F. W. Barth and it was concluded that dickite is composed of tiny layers of cations and anions which are parallel to the a-b plane stacked on top of one another which they found to be exactly as Gruner had described. It was also concluded that the two dimensional arrangement of some of the atoms are not as Gruner described.

title: Dickite


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Mike Holmgren

Michael George Holmgren (born June 15, 1948) is an American former football coach and executive in the National Football League (NFL). He began his NFL career as a quarterbacks' coach and later as an offensive coordinator with the San Francisco 49ers, where they won Super Bowls XXIII and XXIV. He served as the head coach of the Green Bay Packers from 1992 to 1998, where he won Super Bowl XXXI, and of the Seattle Seahawks from 1999 to 2008. His last role in the NFL was as team president of the Cleveland Browns from 2010 to 2012. Prior to his career in the NFL, Holmgren coached football at the high school and collegiate levels.

Holmgren is noted for his role in molding quarterbacks such as Steve Young, Brett Favre, and Matt Hasselbeck during his tenures in San Francisco, Green Bay, and Seattle, respectively. Joe Montana won his two MVP awards under the direction of Holmgren in 1989 and 1990.

Under Holmgren's leadership and play-calling the Green Bay Packers were consistent winners and never had a losing season. He was considered one of the best coaches in the NFL by many fellow coaches and players. He led the Packers to their 12th league championship in Super Bowl XXXI, a 35–21 win over the New England Patriots; and also reached Super Bowl XXXII. Under Holmgren the Seahawks also became a frequent playoff team, including five division titles and the franchise's first Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XL.

As president of the Cleveland Browns, Holmgren failed to improve the team, which had a record of 5–11 the season before his arrival, and 14–34 in his tenure. Despite Holmgren's reputation as a quarterback guru, the Browns fielded three different opening-day starters in his three years with the team. In the face of much criticism in the media and new ownership, he was released by the Browns in November 2012.

He is a weekday daily guest throughout the football season on Seattle radio station Sports Radio KJR across various shows. As of 2021, Holmgren also works as a guest analyst for Super Bowl broadcasts on Westwood One.

Playing career
Holmgren started out as a tight end before becoming a standout quarterback and punter at San Francisco's Abraham Lincoln High School where he was named "Prep Athlete of the Year" in 1965 and graduated in 1966.

Holmgren continued his playing career in Los Angeles as a quarterback at the University of Southern California from 1966 to 1969, and was a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity. As a sophomore, he was on USC's national championship team of 1967. Holmgren played behind starter Steve Sogge in 1967 and 1968. A shoulder injury put him behind sophomore Jimmy Jones in 1969; he earned his bachelor's degree in 1970.

Although a backup, Holmgren was selected in the 1970 NFL Draft by the St. Louis Cardinals; taken in the eighth round (201st overall), he went to camp with both the Cardinals and the New York Jets that year.

High school
Holmgren's coaching career began in 1971 at his alma mater, Abraham Lincoln High School in San Francisco, where he also taught history. One year later, he moved to San Francisco's Sacred Heart Cathedral Preparatory as a teacher and assistant coach. He also coached at Oak Grove High School in San Jose, California, from 1975 to 1980 and won one Central Coast Section championship.

College
In 1981, Holmgren became the offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach for the San Francisco State Gators, working for Vic Rowen.

From 1982 to 1985, Holmgren was the quarterbacks coach at Brigham Young University under LaVell Edwards. During his four-year tenure at BYU, Holmgren not only helped coach the team's potent offense to a national championship in 1984, but in that period mentored and developed two of BYU's future NFL quarterbacks, Steve Young and Robbie Bosco, and one future NFL head coach, Andy Reid.

Bosco would make it to Green Bay several years before Holmgren, but his eventual appointment as Packers head coach would bring him back into contact with Andy Reid and Steve Young.

Under Holmgren, Bosco led the Cougars to a national championship in 1984, finished third in Heisman Trophy balloting and was drafted by the Green Bay Packers in 1985. Bosco's NFL career was cut short by an arm injury, and he returned to BYU as a quarterbacks coach.

In addition to mentoring quarterbacks at BYU, Holmgren also worked with Reid, at the time a graduate assistant. Reid went on to become an offensive line coach at Holmgren's previous school, San Francisco State, and in 1992 rejoined Holmgren in Green Bay as offensive assistant coach. In 1998 Reid became quarterbacks coach and assistant coach, then in 1999 was named head coach of the Philadelphia Eagles.

San Francisco 49ers
Holmgren began his NFL coaching career as an assistant coach of the San Francisco 49ers from 1986 to 1991. He coached the 49ers' quarterbacks from 1986 to 1988 under head coach Bill Walsh, working with Steve Young, whom he had coached at BYU, and Joe Montana. When George Seifert took over as head coach, Holmgren became the team's offensive coordinator and served from 1989 to 1991. In this stretch, Joe Montana won his two MVP awards and had his best season in 1989. During his tenure with San Francisco, the 49ers posted a 71-–23–1 (74.7%) regular season record to reach the postseason each year except 1991. San Francisco won Super Bowl XXIII over the Cincinnati Bengals 20–16 and Super Bowl XXIV over the Denver Broncos 55–10, setting records for most points, most offensive points, and margin of victory in a Super Bowl. As offensive coordinator in 1989, Holmgren's 49er offense was ranked number one in the NFL. His years with the 49ers have led to later success mentoring other young assistants and Holmgren is one of the larger branches of the Sid Gillman coaching tree, from which Walsh and Seifert descended.

Green Bay Packers
Holmgren was head coach of the Green Bay Packers from 1992 to 1998, which became one of the most successful coaching stints in NFL history. As head coach of the Packers, Holmgren posted a 75–37–0 (67.0%) regular-season record, a 9–5 (64.3%) postseason mark, and two Super Bowl appearances, including a 35–21 victory over the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XXXI. By winning at least one game in five consecutive postseasons (1993–1997) Holmgren joined John Madden (1973–1977), John Harbaugh (2008–2012), Bill Belichick (2011–2018), and Pete Carroll (2012–2016) as the only coaches in league history to accomplish the feat. Holmgren's Packers posted an NFL-best 48–16 (75.0%) record, finished first in the NFC Central Division three times and second once, and set a 7–3 mark in the playoffs between 1995 and 1998. By taking the Packers to six consecutive postseasons (1993–1998), Holmgren set a franchise record with a team that had had just two winning seasons in the 19 years before he was hired. Holmgren is well known for molding quarterback Brett Favre from a wild gun slinger to a three time MVP from 1995 to 1997.

Many of Holmgren's 1992 coaches, including Andy Reid, Steve Mariucci, Dick Jauron, Ray Rhodes, and Jon Gruden, would go on to head coaching careers in the NFL. Marty Mornhinweg, an assistant hired later in Holmgren's tenure at Green Bay, also became an NFL head coach, and was previously an offensive coordinator under Reid with the Philadelphia Eagles from 2006 to 2012. Doug Pederson, a backup quarterback for Holmgren's Packers from 1996 through 1998, would also serve as an assistant under Reid in both Philadelphia and with the Kansas City Chiefs, later winning Super Bowl LII as the head coach of the Eagles in 2018.

Seattle Seahawks
Holmgren resigned from the Green Bay Packers after the 1998 season to accept an eight-year, $32 million head coach contract offered by the Seattle Seahawks. Originally, Holmgren was the executive vice president and general manager and head coach of the Seahawks. Following the 2002 season, Holmgren was terminated as general manager.

Holmgren took the Seahawks to their first postseason since 1988 during his first season with the club in 1999, breaking a 10-year playoff drought. Holmgren posted a 72–56 (56.3%) regular season record and a 4–6 postseason record, including an AFC West Division title (1999), one NFC Wildcard berth (2003), four consecutive NFC West Division titles (2004, 2005, 2006 and 2007), an NFC championship (2005), and the Seahawks' first-ever appearance in a Super Bowl.

Holmgren's (and the Seahawks' until they won the Super Bowl in 2013) best season to date was 2005. The team posted the best regular season 13–3 (81.3%) record in franchise history, set a team record 11 consecutive wins, and won their first playoff game since 1984. Holmgren also molded former Green Bay backup quarterback Matt Hasselbeck into a Pro Bowl and Super Bowl quarterback in the 2005 NFL season (much as he did with Favre in the 1990s), and coached Shaun Alexander to the NFL's MVP, a 2005 rushing title, and an NFL record 28 touchdowns in a single season.

With the 2005 NFC Championship win, Holmgren became the fifth member of a small coaching fraternity that has taken two different NFL franchises to the Super Bowl, joining Bill Parcells, Dan Reeves, Don Shula, Dick Vermeil, and later John Fox and Andy Reid. Had the Seahawks won Super Bowl XL, he would have become the first head coach in NFL history to win a Super Bowl with two different franchises, however they fell short, losing 21–10 to the Pittsburgh Steelers.

On January 22, 2008, Holmgren announced he would serve out the remaining year of his contract with a lame duck year and end his tenure as head coach of the Seattle Seahawks at the end of the 2008 NFL season. Jim L. Mora, the defensive backs coach, succeeded Holmgren upon his departure.

On December 19, 2008, Holmgren received the Steve Largent Award, becoming the first coach in Seahawks history to attain the accolade.

Post-coaching career
On February 1, 2009, Holmgren served as an analyst for NBC's coverage of Super Bowl XLIII. Since 2012, He has served as an analyst for Seattle Sports station KJR 950AM and as a color analyst for Westwood One's radio broadcast of Super Bowl LI.

On December 21, 2009, Holmgren accepted the job to be president of the Cleveland Browns. On January 3, 2011, Holmgren fired Browns coach Eric Mangini after a disappointing 5–11 record. On October 16, 2012, Browns owner Jimmy Haslam announced that Holmgren would leave the team at the end of the 2012 season.

In 2015, Holmgren was in consideration for the New York Jets head coaching job, but removed himself from speculation after entertaining the idea. The Jets would end up hiring Todd Bowles.

In 2020, he was named as a coaching finalist for the Pro Football Hall of Fame's "Centennial Slate". He was again up for the class of 2021, but was among the coaches part of the final cut.

He was inducted into the Seahawks Ring of Honor on October 31, 2021.

Coaching tree
Holmgren has worked under two head coaches:
 * Bill Walsh, San Francisco 49ers (1986–1988)
 * George Seifert, San Francisco 49ers (1989–1991)

Eleven of Holmgren's assistant coaches/executives became head coaches in the NFL or NCAA:
 * Ray Rhodes, Philadelphia Eagles (1995–1998), Green Bay Packers (1999)
 * Steve Mariucci, San Francisco 49ers (1997–2002), Detroit Lions (2003–2005)
 * Jon Gruden, Oakland / Las Vegas Raiders (1998–2001, 2018–2021), Tampa Bay Buccaneers (2002–2008)
 * Dick Jauron, Chicago Bears (1999–2003), Buffalo Bills (2006–2009)
 * Andy Reid, Philadelphia Eagles (1999–2012), Kansas City Chiefs (2013–present)
 * Mike Sherman, Green Bay Packers (2000–2005), Texas A&M (2008–2011)
 * Marty Mornhinweg, Detroit Lions (2001–2002)
 * Jim Zorn, Washington Redskins (2008–2009)
 * Jim L. Mora, Seattle Seahawks (2009), UCLA (2012–2017), UConn (2022–present)
 * Stump Mitchell, Southern (2010–2012)
 * Todd Bowles, Miami Dolphins (2011, interim), New York Jets (2015–2018), Tampa Bay Buccaneers (2022–present)

Personal life
Holmgren and his wife, Kathy, met at age 12 and have been married since June 15, 1971; they married on his birthday so he would not forget the date. Holmgren first proposed marriage to Kathy when he was age 15, to which she replied: "Nope." They have four daughters — twins Calla and Jenny (born 1973), Emily (1977), and Gretchen (1981). They also have five granddaughters — Emma, Emerson, Mary, Isabelle and Eloise. He also has four grandsons — Luke, Michael, Samuel and Theodore. Holmgren and his wife currently reside in Seattle, Washington.

The Holmgren family is heavily involved in the Evangelical Covenant Church and the denomination's North Park University, in Chicago. In 2004, they led the fundraising drive to build the university's Holmgren Athletic Complex.

Holmgren's grandfather, Jens Bugge, who served briefly as a commandant at West Point and wrote a book on military strategy, also had the distinction of being eulogized by Gen. Douglas MacArthur. Both of Holmgren's parents were officers in the Salvation Army.

Holmgren is a brother in the Sigma Chi fraternity.

Holmgren Way is a street named for the coach and is located in Green Bay, Wisconsin.

Holmgren endorsed Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election. He endorsed and campaigned for Mandela Barnes in the 2022 U.S. Senate election.

title: Mike Holmgren


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Rinkeby borough

Rinkeby was a borough (stadsdelsområde) in Stockholm, Sweden until 1 January 2007, practically identical to the district of Rinkeby. In 2007, Rinkeby merged with the borough of Kista to form the Rinkeby-Kista borough.

title: Rinkeby borough