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Locri Epizefiri

Epizephyrian Locris, also known as Locri Epizefiri (Λοκροί Ἐπιζεφύριοι), was an ancient city on the Ionian Sea, founded by Greeks coming from Locris at the beginning of the 7th century BC. It is now in an archaeological park near the modern town of Locri.

It was one of the most culturally dazzling cities of Magna Graecia during the Greek Classical and Hellenistic periods and Plato described it as a city "governed by beautiful laws" It was known throughout the Greek world for innovations and expertise in music and dance, for its victorious athletes in the pan-Hellenic games, for its laws and effective government and for its military achievements. It has become known in recent times for the special prominence it gave to women.

Locri played a significant and enduring part in the history of Magna Graecia from its foundation to Roman times, which was well documented by later ancient authors and has the added support of contemporary documents found in recent times in the Olympeion.

The Site
The archaeological area of Locri Epizefiri is in Portigliola, about 3 km south of the current town of Locri. It extends over the flat land between the Portigliola and Gerace rivers, and over the hills of Castellace, Abbadessa and Manella. Its location away from today's population centres has preserved the foundations of the ancient city while over the centuries stone has been taken to build houses in the surrounding area.

Foundation

Locri was the last of the Greek colonies founded on the territory of present-day Calabria, following the second wave of colonisation of the Achaeans who concentrated initially on the Ionian coast (Metapontion, Poseidonia, Sybaris, Kroton), shortly before 720BC.

The date of the foundation of Locri Epizefiri is still debated among experts as ancient authors give three different dates for this event: Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea (4th century AD), in the Armenian translation of his work, indicates the year 673 BC; Jerome (who edited the Latin translation of Eusebius' work) dates the foundation to 679 BC; Pausanias and Polybius connect it to the first Messenian war, therefore at an early date, and Strabo states that the foundation occurred shortly after those of Syracuse (733 BC) and Kroton (709 BC), therefore by the end of the 8th or very early in the 7th century BC.

Recent archaeology shows that an earlier date closer to Strabo's is preferred.

Nevertheless, scholars believe that contacts by Greeks were initially by merchants, explorers and pirates in a "pre-colonisation" period between the end of the 9th and the beginning of the 8th century BC before the period of real colonisation. This makes conceivable the idea of the foundation of Locri by an expedition of colonists, accompanied by Spartan soldiers or even pirates, hired as mercenaries by Sparta who, due to the First Messenian War, probably would have considered this solution as prudent as it did not distract military forces.

Another open question on colonisation is where exactly the Greek colonists came from. As the name of the polis itself suggests (the only case in the Greek West), the colonists came from the Locris region in central Greece but the region was divided into two main sub-regions: Ozolia (Western Locris) and Opunzia (Eastern Locris from the city of Opus with central Locris). Even the ancients did not agree on the origin; Strabo, probably referring to an older source (Antiochus), stated with certainty that Locri Epizefiri had been founded by colonists coming from Locride Ozolia led by an ecyst named Evantes. Ephorus made the settlers come from Locris Opuntia. Both theses are accompanied by arguments more or less favourable to both traditions, which are often based on another unsolved problem: their social origins.

Here too, tradition reports conflicting theses, which are essentially two: the semi-servile one, of Aristotelian origin, confirmed by Polybius which claims that the Locrians were descended from the union of servants (helots) with the wives of their masters who were busy with Sparta in the war against the Messenians; and the noble one, of Timaeus, who said that the Locrians were direct descendants of the hundred most noble families of Locris.

Scholars believe that the origin was Locride Opunzia, and from the helots.

The first settlement was founded near Cape Zefirio (the current Cape Bruzzano) but after a few years the settlers, dissatisfied with the location even though it corresponded to the indication of the oracle, moved north by about 20 km to the Epopis hill where they founded the new city to which they gave the same name probably to feel under the protection of Apollo. The indigenous populations of Sicels were driven out.

Government and organisation
Locri was organised on a similar model to the motherland; a rigid conservative and warlike aristocracy exercised power through the "Assembly of a Thousand" which probably included all citizens who enjoyed full political rights; the population was then divided into three tribes and thirty-six phratries.

The Locrian system was based on the legislation of Zaleucus, the first western legislator, dating most likely to the 7th century BC. It was extraordinary legislation for the time, primarily because it was written and not subject to the arbitrariness of the judges, often a source of social discord. Also it was based on the "law of retaliation" with specific penalties for each crime, which represented progress and avoided serial family feuds and revenge which were customary. It also gave importance to the role and social prestige of women derived from their role in the city's cults, but also notably their right to perpetuate inheritance (and therefore the name) of the family over time even in case of disappearance of men (husbands, sons, brothers, etc.); the nobility also originated from women. This allowed the city to prosper peacefully for a long period with few internal problems, allowing the ruling class to concentrate on the growth of the city and on the expansion and control of new territories.

In the 7th century BC the development of the city was well underway with expansion from the hills onto the plain nearer the sea based on an orderly urban plan. Its sanctuaries and cults began to be known everywhere in the Greek world, in particular two great sanctuaries of Persephone, the most illustrious in Italy (here worshipped as the protector of fertile marriage, a role usually assumed by Hera) and of Aphrodite. The extensive city walls of Locri of 5 miles circumference enclosing a large area up to the summit of the fortified hills were planned at this time, even though they were not completed until the second half of the 6th century BC.

Life in the city
Locri is considered to represent a "third way" in Greek culture, neither like Athens nor Sparta, in particular concerning the distinctive role of women and marriage. Marriage was seen in Locri as a life transformation akin to the eternal bliss hoped for after death.

Banquets were widespread and frequented by men. Women participated only as courtesans or slaves. Locri is, together with the city of Sparta, one of the very few Greek cities where women participated in athletic competitions.

In some children's grave goods are terracotta dolls with articulated limbs, bronze and terracotta balls and miniature objects, such as small lamps.

Black painted pottery (drinking cups, plates and cups) were used in the kitchen. Only the richest could afford glass or metal vases. Amphorae were used for the conservation or transport of wine, oil, olives and sauces.

The population's livelihood relied on cereals and legumes, on the hunting of hares, deer and wild boars. Fishing with line and nets was also practiced as shown by fish hooks in the museum. Dairy products were provided by goats, sheep and pigs. Fruit includes apples, pomegranates, figs, almonds, grapes and honey.

Locri was also the birthplace of skilful athletes and winners of the Olympic Games, such as Euthymus and Hagesidamus.

Expansion
This stability led to an expansion of control over the territory through the foundation of sub-colonies dictated not only by a desire for greater control of the area to oppose the threat of expansion of their enemy Kroton but also by the notable demographic development of the city which risked shaking the existing fragile balance. Thus it extended its control from the Ionian coast to the Tyrrhenian side of present-day Calabria; they founded the two colonies of Medma (today Rosarno) and Hipponion (today Vibo Valentia) between 650 and 600 BC, probably on existing settlements, and occupied Metauros (today Gioia Tauro), previously founded as a colony of Zancle (Messina) or Rhegion (Reggio Calabria).

At the beginning of the 6th c. BC all of the region was under the control of city-states and further expansion meant waging war on beighbours. The rivalry with Kroton and Rhegion increased as they saw Locri as a danger to their expansionist projects, which laid the foundations for future clashes.

War with Kroton

Locri had established good relations with neighbouring Rhegion. The population of Locri Epizefiri, at its greatest did not exceed 40,000 and even with the help of the sub-colonies (and perhaps of Rhegion in this period) the army did not exceed 10-15,000 men. Kroton, however, was able to deploy an army of perhaps 120,000 men (probably excessive) but certainly very unbalanced in power.

At the Battle of the Sagra (560-50 BC) Locri was victorious which stopped Kroton's expansionist drive and confirmed Locri as a new power in the region. Following this victory the cult of the Dioscuri began to be practiced in Reggio and Locri; in the excavations of the Ionic temple of "Marasà" in Locri Epizefiri two marble acroteria statues were found which could represent these twin sons of Zeus (now in the National Museum of Magna Graecia, Reggio).

Locri expanded its control much further north than ever, incorporating Kaulon and probably Skylletion on the Ionian coast and probably Terina and Temesa on the Tyrrhenian. It thus came to control the territory between the gulfs of Squillace and S. Eufemia, leading to a period of great prosperity in the 2nd half of the 6th c. BC.

Subsequently, with the growth of the power of Reggio governed by the tyrant Anaxilas (r.494-476 BC), Locri rejected their hegemony and turned to Syracuse.

Alliance with Syracuse
From the start of the 5th century BC Locri began to lose control of the colonies and cities that it had gained after the Battle of the Sagra, including nearby Kaulon, which again fell under the control of Kroton. These difficulties led to Rhegion also setting its sights on Locri to expand from the close border between the two cities.

Locri therefore established alliances with the Deinomenids (485–465 BC) of Syracuse and later with Dionysius I and his son Dionysius II, thus entering the orbit of the tyrants. In 477 BC Anaxilas of Rhegion was preparing to attack Locri which turned to Hieron I of Syracuse for help and he managed to dissuade Anaxilas.

Subsequently, when Athens organised the expedition to Sicily in the Peloponnesian War, Locri took the side of Syracuse in its war against Rhegion (Athens' ally) which became the base for Athenian naval operations. After 426 BC there followed a period of continuous clashes by both sea and land between the Syracusan/Locrian armies against their Athenian/Regginian enemies which ended around 422 BC.

The alliance between Locri and Syracuse was further strengthened by the marriage between Dionysius I and Doris of Locri in about 406 BC.

When in 389 BC Dionysius I defeated the Italiote League at the Battle of the Elleporus, he donated the lands of Kaulon on the northern border with Kroton and Locri also regained Hipponion (in 388 BC) and of Skylletion (between 386 and 384 BC) expanding towards the north to the detriment of Kroton. Dionysius I also conquered Rhegion after the Siege of Rhegium in 386 BC which lost its independence and ceased to be a threat to Locri, without which and with Kroton suffering constant attacks of Dionysius I, Locri resumed prosperity in peace.

After the death of Dionysius I, Locri hosted Dionysius II who, exiled from Syracuse, established tyranny there between 357 and 347 BC. He aimed only at returning to his homeland with capital to finance his return to Syracuse and therefore, once he had emptied the coffers, the people rose up killing his entire family during his absence and re-established democracy.

The 4th century BC was a period of great artistic, economic and, above all, cultural splendour for Locri. In particular the poet Nossis and the philosophers Echecrates, Timaeus and Acrion, founders of a flourishing Pythagorean school (introduced to Locri at the time of Dionysius I): Plato himself went in person to Locri.

However the Bruttii became an increasing threat from the north from about 356 BC and Syracuse lost its strength. It was around this time that the city walls were renovated with a loan from the sanctuary of Zeus as recorded on thr bronze tablets. The allied Syracuse and Locri army tried to recapture its earlier territory and succeeded in the capture of Crotone in 295 BC and the liberation of Hipponion in 292 BC from the Bruttii, but finally failed due to the death of Agathocles in 289 BC.

Meanwhile Rome was expanding its borders and aiming to control Magna Graecia.

Roman conquest
The weakness of Syracuse was disastrous for all the Greek cities of southern Italy who were unprepared for the threat of the Bruttii, Samnites and Lucanians. Fearing for their survival and not trusting the Italiote League, the Greek cities had to ask for help from Rome which exploited this opportunity to extend its control towards the south by sending military garrisons. Locri received such a Roman garrison before 282 BC.

When Pyrrhus invaded in 280 BC to uphold a previous alliance with Tarentum following the war between the Romans and the Samnites, the power balance changed and Locri allied itself with Pyrrhus as it resented its dependence on Rome, and expelled the Roman garrison. Following the lack of success and unpopularity of the Pyrrhic forces due to his tyrannical behaviour, Locri surrendered to the Romans again in 277. Rome by now controlled most of southern Italy and Pyrrhus, engaged against the Carthaginians in Sicily, was forced to go back to Bruttium to try to stem the Roman advance. He first attacked Locri, retaking and sacking it in 275 BC, harshly taking revenge against the people who handed the city to the Romans and looting the famous temple of Persephone. Soon afterwards, Pyrrhus left Italy and Rome had taken control of Magna Graecia.

In 272 BC Rome established a new garrison in Locri and in exchange for their military support demanded nothing excessive from the cities of Magna Graecia, dispensing them from providing men for the legions and only asking supply of ships when needed. Locri therefore became a socia navalis of Rome and still maintained its Greek characteristics remaining independent and continuing to mint money. In 264 BC Locri provided a few transport ships for Rome in the First Punic War, respecting their treaty.

Second Punic War

After the defeat of the Romans at Cannae (216 BC) the fate of Rome seemed sealed and the cities of southern Italy, which had begun to consider the Romans as occupiers rather than allies, decided to side with the Carthaginians, supported by Hannibal's promises of freedom and independence. Hannibal's priority was to conquer an outlet to the sea in Bruttium and in winter 216/215 BC and, after giving up on Rhegium, ordered Hanno to seize Locri. Hanno sent the cavalry forward under Hamilcar to capture the population outside the city walls and thus a large number of prisoners who were used to obtain the unconditional surrender of the city. At the same time the Locrians secretly allowed the Roman garrison, commanded by Lucius Atilius, to leave the city. Locri was thus granted great freedom, maintaining the port under its control and being able to govern itself provided that it supported the Carthaginian forces.

The cities of southern Italy were gradually retaken by the Romans and, after the Battle of the Metaurus, Locri was the last great city still in the hands of Hannibal. However the army sent in 208 BC to support a naval expedition to recover Locri led by Lucius Cincius Alimentus was annihilated near Petelia and the two Roman consuls, Marcellus and Titus Quinctius Crispinus were killed near the Carthaginian camps. The naval expedition reached Locri and besieged it but fled on the arrival of Hannibal.

In 205 BC the consul Scipio Africanus made another plan to reconquer it and when some inhabitants of Locri fell into the hands of the Romans they informed them that a large part of the population could no longer tolerate the Carthaginian presence, confirmed by the Locrian exiles of Rhegium, he returned the prisoners to Locri who arranged, once inside the walls, to elininate the Carthaginian guards at night and let 3000 Roman troops into the lower part of the city. The Carthaginians, taken by surprise, took refuge in the citadel and began an exhausting battle made up of daily skirmishes between the two enemy garrisons inside the city. Hannibal immediately set off with his army towards Locri and was about to reach the city when the Locrians took the field alongside the Romans making a decisive impact on the battle. The Roman fleet then arrived, led by Scipio, and Hannibal understood that Locri was lost and left.

Aftermath
After ten years Locri had returned under Roman control and Scipio immediately put to death those who had handed over the city to the Carthaginians in 215 BC, ignoring that they had let the Roman garrison escape at that time and also that the entire population had come to the Romans aid in the final battle.

The city was left in the control of Quintus Pleminius and the military tribunes Marcus Sergius and Publius Mazienus. Pleminius took advantage of the confused situation due to the ongoing war to commit every kind of atrocity, violence and theft on the Locrian population. He even went so far as to sack the famous sanctuary of Persephone (as Pyrrhus had done decades earlier), the richest sanctuary in Italy. There are different versions of what happened next but the discontent resulted in increasingly frequent clashes between factions within the garrison after which Pleminius had the military tribunes beaten, whose supporters pounced on Pleminius seriously wounding him who retaliated in turn by having Sergius and Matienus tortured and finally killed. Scipio returned to restore order, arrested Pleminius. Eventually, on direct appeal of the Locrians, the Senate had Pleminius sent to Rome, where he shortly died in prison, restored the losses of the treasury of Persephone from public funds and made the Roman soldiers return their loot while the Locrians were given back their freedom.

In 204 BC, the restoration of the foedus amicitiae and the extensive autonomy that Rome granted it allowed Locria to keep its ancient laws and customs but the vicissitudes of the 3rd century BC caused a notable depression of the city. Large areas of the city were abandoned (e.g. the Centocamere area) and agricultural settlements began to be developed in the surrounding areas. The ancient splendour, therefore, was gradually becoming obscured but the city will continue to have a certain importance in the years following the events just narrated even if the Greek characters of the ancient polis will henceforth always remain more space, as we will see, for Romanism, becoming absorbed in such a way that they can no longer be distinguished from it.

Further Romanisation
Around the end of the 3rd or beginning of the 2nd century BC another desecration of the Persephoneion by the Bruttii caused a new and decisive intervention by the Roman Senate in favour of Locri owing to Rome's desire to respect the oath of faith and mutual aid made with Locri. It was also due to the desecration of the temple being seen as a bad omen by the senate, so that Quintus Minucius' investigations were rapid and soon led to the capture of the culprits and the restitution of the sums of money stolen from the treasury.

Following this, Locri was called upon to respect its military obligations as civitas foederata to provide triremes for the Roman fleet in 191 BC in the first war against Antiochus III the Great and then in 171 BC in the clash against Perseus of Macedonia. But the economic crisis in Locri left the city unable to provide the ships required in 156 BC against the Dalmatians and in the Iberian peninsula and in this case it was the historian Polybius, who enjoyed great favour in Rome, who exempted Locri from sanctions since he often went to Locri where he was popular through his stories of the birth of the city.

Locri probably became a municipium in 89 BC like other foederata cities, following the Lex Julia.

Imperial era
Locri remained an important centre known by personalities such as Cicero, but its importance was more local, confined to a provincial area that was increasingly distant from Roman political interests and the great economic traffic of the empire. It therefore became a smaller administrative centre but numerous agricultural centres and opulent villas grew up which took over from the city from an economic and residential point of view. The discovery of these sites and their study by archaeologists have shed a new light on the Locri area in the Roman period, especially the imperial age, a dynamic historical phase in which the opulence and refinement of Roman aristocracy manifested itself in the creation of monuments as rich as elsewhere in the empire. The city was relatively wealthy at least until the end of the 2nd century AD, and was praised for its healthy climate.

The city
Archaeological excavations carried out by Orsi (between 1908 and 1912), by Arias (between 1940 and 1941) and by Jacopi (in 1951) revealed that the town was organised with a rectangular plan crossed by a wide main street which still retains the Greek name of "dromo" (cf. dromos), and above which the hilly area of the city starts.

The discovery halfway up the Mannella hill of a deposit of important inscriptions for the later administration of the city led to the implication of the presence of the agora at its base.

Centocamere
Locri was bound to have had a wealthy part of town with elegant houses which are yet to be found. The Centocamere houses on the other hand were very basic, put together with cheap materials: cobbles and plastered mud bricks. The Centocamere houses had only one floor above ground and a porch giving on to the street. Typical of Greek houses of the time the rooms were arranged around a central (variously shaped) inner courtyard. This served a variety of purposes, it gave light for the rooms, shelter for the house's animals, a place for an open fire and a space to carry out everyday domestic activities. A part of it could be set aside for a herb garden and vegetable patch as well as light industrial activities. Some houses may not have had a kitchen. Large earthenware jars (pithoi) were used to store foodstuffs, mainly grain. The amphorae, both locally produced and imported, were used to store wine and oil.

There is no clear evidence of latrines or bathrooms. The doors were wooden. Ancient texts recount that timber was easily found on the Aspromonte. There were only a few small windows. The rooms tended to be lit with locally-made terracotta and bronze lamps of which many have been found during excavations. Furniture was basic, made of wood.

The walls
The city was defended by a wall 7 km long which is still visible in many places, including the 3 towers of Abadessa, Manella and Castellace in the highest part, placed to dominate the surrounding land. They were built in the second half of the 6th century BC even if they were in the original plan of the polis dating from the 7th century BC. Over the years there were renovations and integrations; between the second half of the 4th century and the end of the 3rd century BC substantial changes were made when new towers were built, gates were modified and above all new revetments were built to increase their width from 3.4 to 4.6 m. The aim of this was to allow troops to man the wall walk and better defend in particular the eastern curtain by closing several gates and reinforcing key points.

The foundations and the lower rows of the wall used big squared limestone blocks in rows of stretchers and headers. Unbaked bricks were used above these for economic and technical reasons; this material was widely used in the ancient world though not preserved due to its crumbling.

Theatre

The Theatre held up to 4,500 spectators and is located in the Pirettina area. It exploits a natural concavity at the foot of the Casa Marafioti hill below the Cusemi plateau and was excavated by cutting steps in the very soft sandstone and partly arranged with slabs of the same sandstone. It was rebuilt in the 1st century BC on the original Greek layout from the 4th century BC. Numerous alterations were made over time. The Romans built the side corridors and removed the lower rows of steps to build a high semicircular wall protecting spectators and enlarging the area for fights between gladiators or between men and animals.

It was brought to light in 1940 and excavations were completed in 1957.

Sanctuaries and temples

There were numerous sanctuaries sometimes graced with monumental temples especially inside the walls and dating to the archaic period, while those located immediately outside the walls but without monuments were no less important as shown by the abundant votive offerings.

Sanctuaries outside the city walls include those of Aphrodite, Persephone, the nymphs in Contrada Caruso and Demeter in Contrada Paparezza.

The sanctuary of Grotta Caruso, or Grotto of the Nymphs, was a cave with a spring where the nymphs were worshipped from the 6th century BC. It was at the start of rituals for the passage of young girls (parthènoi) where they would prepare to become nymphai, girls who will marry, then going to the Persephoneion to become brides (gyne).

On the Mannella hill within the city was a sanctuary to Athena probably from the 6th century BC. Also the sanctuary of Zeus (possibly the temple of Casa Marafioti) dates from the archaic period, which over time had an increasingly richer structure as revealed by the bronze tablets found in 1959 in a massive cist and dating from the mid 4th c. BC. The tablets show the temple was wealthy as they summarise loans made to citizens and to the city. They also provide valuable information about the institutions and calendar of the city.

The sanctuary of Demeter
The sanctuary of Demeter Thesmophoros located immediately outside the northeast corner of the walls faced the gate and covered about 3000 m2. Demeter, mother of Persephone, was a goddess linked with the cycle of agriculture and was venerated here as Thesmophorus (thesmos = law; phoros = bearer), protectress of marriage and of the rites of passage from girlhood to adulthood. The sanctuary was located where the city met the countryside with a dual purpose of protecting the city through both female and soil fertility and with a political function for the cohesion of the social group and the respect of the laws.

The sanctuaries of Demeter Thesmophoros had no real temples, but green areas where there might be altars and small buildings used either for conducting rites or for keeping the most valuable votive offerings. There is particular evidence of two phases of frequentation: the first in the second half of the 6th to 4th century BC and then the second half of the 4th to 3rd century BC. During the first phase the sanctuary was very extensive and was encircled by an enclosure (témenos) separating it from the town and from the necropolises of Parapezza. There were big votive pits inside it, one of which has been brought to light by the most recent excavations close to the tower (depositary A), and a small sacred building (sacellum). In the 4th century BC when the boundary walls were rebuilt and the corner tower built, the sanctuary was reduced to a small rectangular enclosure containing an altar and small votive depositaries. The importance of the cult of Demeter in Locri can also be seen from the tablets of the archive of the temple of Olympic Zeus and from the representation of the goddess in various local artistic documents (pinakes and some statuettes of the Grotta Caruso sanctuary).

The Thesmophoria, autumn festivities lasting three days, were celebrated here.

The temple of Adonis and House of Lions
The small temple or sacellum was built in 500-480 BC in the Centocamere area just outside the walls but on a different alignment to them. It was where private worship of Adonis took place in the Athenian 'style' led by a female thiasos. The poet Nossis, one of the best preserved Greek women poets, wrote about this Locrian cult around 310 BC as she was perhaps was part of one of the female thiasoi who honoured the goddess.

In the 2nd half of the 4th century BC a refined two-storey house was built over it, but aligned instead with the city walls, from materials of the temple known as "the house of lions" because of the lion's head dripstones from the previous sacellum used in the  foundation.

With a large area of 400 m2, the 6 rooms were arranged around the courtyard, typical of Greek houses, which had channels for the drainage of the water. The rooms included a workshop, vestibule and the andron. The workshop was paved with tiles and is recognisable for its independent entrance facing the street while a second doorway on the inside allowed the owner the passage from the workshop to the rest of the house. The vestibule was characterised by offerings represented by six upended amphorae, without their neck and bottom, containing bone remains and crockery. The andròn, the traditional banquet room, was identified as a wide room that is not placed next to the entrance, the traditional location. It accommodated seven klinai and had refined finishings such as the plastered and painted walls, and tiles on the floor delimitating a central platform used to support banquet furnishings.

The elaborate house underwent several changes between the end of the 4th century and the end of the 3rd century BC. At the beginning of the 3rd century BC there was a monumental change of the house testified by the rich architectural and decorative details such as the roof antefixes and white-plastered columns.

Sanctuary of Aphrodite

The sanctuary of Aphrodite is also located in the Centocamere area in south Marasà just outside the walls near the southeastern gate and near the sanctuary of Adonis. It was in the form of a "U"-shaped stoa and a central courtyard built in two stages in the 7th century and middle of the 6th century BC, and used until the middle of the 4th century BC. It was an imposing structure with a series of six rooms (oikoi, 7 x 5 m), later divided into eleven, on each side of the courtyard of 55 x 66 m. A great deal of curiosity has been raised as to their use; one possibility is that travelling worshippers used them as lodgings and to celebrate sacrificial rituals at sacred banquets as in a hestiatoreion such as at the Temple of Juno Lacinia (Crotone). The residues of the sacrifice would then have been buried in a pit dug in front of each particular room. They may have been used for holy prostitution, sex in the service of Aphrodite recorded by some writers of the time. During religious banquets celebrated here young girls from the poorer classes could have been required to furnish certain services. Given the size of the rooms and the doors' off central position, each room was furnished with a couch (klinai) to one side.

371 bothroi (pits) were found in the U-shaped stoa with remains of meals, evidently intended for the celebration of sacred banquets, with terracotta statuettes and dedications to Aphrodite. Among the sacrificial animal bones, apart from bulls' and pigs' there were also dog remains. Dog sacrifice in ancient times was tied to the moon gods, Aphrodite and Hecate. Amongst the pottery there was a black varnish vase engraved with the name of Cybele, proof that this Eastern mother goddess had reached Locri prior to being incorporated into the worship of Aphrodite. The sacred banquet ritual consumed in the oikoi is echoed in the numerous recumbent statuettes reclining on a kline. In their hands they hold symbolic objects like a patera (a shallow dish for pouring liquids during the sacred rituals).

Sanctuary of Persephone at Manella
The famous Sanctuary of Persephone (queen of the underworld) was located outside the city walls on a narrow terrace in the valley between hills of Mannella and Abbadessa. It was described in Roman times by Diodorus Siculus as "the most famous of the sanctuaries of southern Italy" (but he excluded Sicily). The riches of the temple were often the object of the appetites of foreign sovereigns or common criminals and were plundered by Dionysius II (360 BC), Pyrrhus (276 BC) and by the Roman commander Pleminius, Scipio's lieutenant after his expulsion from Locri during the Second Punic War (205 BC). The votive objects found in the complex (figured terracottas, fragments of vases, arules, pinakes, mirrors and inscriptions dedicated to the goddess) indicate the temple's use was between the 7th and 2nd centuries BC.

It had impressive terrace retaining walls that probably also marked the boundaries of the sanctuary area or temenos. Within was a building around a square pit that was interpreted as a treasury. The sanctuary had no large temple but the retaining walls defined a narrow and dimly-lit path to the consecrated area that gave the ancient visitor a feeling of being in a sacred place.

Many pinakes were found in the Mannella sanctuary: the most frequently-depicted subject is the abduction of Kore, the daughter of Demeter, who became Persephone and wife of Hades (god of the underworld).

The location was the subject of a centuries-old search finally resolved by archaeologist Paolo Orsi who, between 1908 and 1911, carried out a meticulous series of excavations.

The Pinakes

These small ex voto terracotta pictures found in the treasury of the Mannella sanctuary were decorated with polychrome relief scenes illustrating aspects of the myth and cult of Kore-Persephone. They were made in the mid-5th century BC and were rectangular or almost square in shape with a maximum size of 30 cm on each side and had holes for hanging.

They were sculpted in bas-relief depicting mythological scenes and dating mostly to the first half of the 5th century BC. Some refer to the practice of sacred prostitution of virgins, in use in Locrian society, or the initiation ceremony that young maidens underwent prior to marriage. It certified that the bearer had been initiated and was ready to play her part in society as a wife and mother.

Over 5300 fragments from over 170 different types of scene make them a unique collection in the Ancient Greek world. They were put on display, hanging from the holes, before being ritually smashed to avoid this gift to the goddess being removed and reused.

Pinakes were also produced in the colonies of Medma and Hipponion and some have been found at Francavilla di Sicilia in the hinterland of ancient Naxos (Sicily).

Temple of Marasà
The archaic wooden-framed temple from the 7th c. BC was remodelled several times until the end of the 6th c. BC when it was demolished and buried in a large pit inside the city walls.

A new temple was built by Syracusan architects in 470 BC on the initiative of the tyrant Hieron of Syracuse (ally and protector of the Locrians). The new temple was larger, in Ionic style, made of limestone and has the same location but is oriented differently. This temple was much taller than the Doric temples nearby (height to width ratio 1:1), and is one of the few Ionic temples of Magna Graecia. Its monumental size made it visible all over the city and out to sea. Its refined decoration also symbolised the power Locri had accrued.

A major statuary discovery here is the marble group of the Dioscuri on horseback from the rear pediment of the temple. It is an imposing sculpture depicting each Dioscuro descending from a rearing horse supported by a bearded merman, the human torso covered by a cloth and the rest of the body with the appearance of a fish.

The temple 45.5x19.8 m in plan. The cella was preceded by a pronaos (vestibule) with two columns between the doors, which were also repeated between the doors of the opistodome (the space behind the cell) not communicating with it. Service stairs were inserted into the thickness of the walls between the pronaos and the cella, to access the roof, as in some Agrigento temples. In the centre of the cell three large limestone slabs were set vertically in the ground covering a bothros (pit below floor level) which must have been of considerable importance for the cult for storing precious objects.

The temple had 17 Ionic columns on the long sides, and 6 columns on the front. The columns were about 12 m high, with a scrolled Ionic capital base.

The temple was destroyed in the 19th century and the ruins today show only a single column rostrum.

Ludovisi Throne

According to many scholars, the famous Ludovisi Throne comes from the Ionic temple of Marasà. Furthermore, a fragment of pínax from 470-60 BC (currently in the Museum of Magna Graecia in Reggio Calabria) found in the temple of Persephone in Mannella shows part of a female figure almost identical to one of the two women represented on the sides of the Ludovisi Throne. It is believed the throne was the parapet of the bothros as it fits the three surviving stone slabs of the cladding still visible there.

Temple of Casa Marafioti
The Casa Marafioti temple is named after the 18th century Casino partly built over it. It used to stand on a small hill at the heart of the city dominating the public area. It may have been part of a very extensive sanctuary which stretched 100 m downhill to where the cist containing the archives of Olympian Zeus was found. If so the temple would have been dedicated to Zeus, worshipped in Locri as the city's protector.

After centuries of being plundered for building materials, in 1910 Paolo Orsi uncovered what remained of its foundations. In the 1990's excavations revealed the temple's plan of about 20 m wide and probably twice that long. It had a peristasis (colonnade) with possibly a double row of columns on its short sides. The temple was built after the middle of the 6th century BC in a novel adaption of the Doric style. An example of this is the replacement of the more usual triple fluted triglyphs which alternate with the smooth metopes on the frieze between the architrave and the roof, with five fluted pentaglyphs. The decoration of the upper part of the building, if not more, was renovated in the last quarter of the 5th century BC which can now be seen in the Reggio museum. This was also when the terracotta statue group was positioned, possibly on the Western pediment. It represents a naked hero on horseback supported by a winged sphinx and dates to the end of the 5th century. Between the 3rd and 2nd century BC the roof burnt down. The temple was probably restored and remained in use until the early Imperial Age.

It is one of the best known examples, with an exceptional state of preservation, of how the Greeks tended to protect the timber roof frame of their temples by cladding it with terracotta elements. These were made serially with dies and then painted with rich colours. The cornice was clad with a series of horizontal plates, adorned with a complex meandering pattern. The ends of the gables were closed with moulded cornices (sime) which were decorated with alternating palms and lotus flowers. On the long sides small triangular openings were left to let rainwater to flow off the gable and away. The lion's heads are strictly decorative with no function. Paint was used to highlight the decoration in relief as well as to adorn the flat surfaces with colourful details.

Roman city

Research from 1996 has revealed that in the early Imperial era (mid-1st century AD) there was a complete urban and cultural transformation of the ancient city, while significant construction in the post-Hannibal to the late republican periods is missing; the monuments and road network were improved including the water management system notably in the Petrara area which was the political, administrative and religious centre. The urban plan was profoundly redesigned over Greek streets and buildings that had been used as dwellings and workshops.

The archaeological exploration of this area involved the large area opposite the great public building (A), previously identified by Orsi, which overlooked an important street (plateia-B). On the opposite side late Imperial Age buildings (3rd-4th c. AD) have been found, aligned on both sides of a small road (D) which crossed the area from the hills to the sea following one of the stenopoi of the Greek Age. On the northern side, several parts of a building complex constructed in the 2nd century AD (E) have been found; it was modified more than once and was eventually transformed into a baths building with heated rooms, two pools and a cistern for water (F). On the southern side, instead, various areas which perhaps were part of a large private house (G) have been investigated and the material found there included an hourglass-shaped millstone and fragments of a marble altar table. Slightly north of this building is a large rectangular area with an apse directed northwards and belonging to another public building (C). In 2003, a marble statue, (on display on the ground floor) 2.3 m tall was found toppled and broken into three parts when the area was deserted (4th-5th c. AD) with a fragment of the base and a foot belonging to another similar statue, indicating the presence in Locrian territory of sculptors' workshops of a quality similar to those in Rome.

Building (B), fronting building (A), with a sea-facing side of 36.7 m overlooking the main street parallel to the coast, extended towards the hills for 110 m, creating an enormous unroofed area delineated by the streets of the Greek city. This building, obviously intended for public use and perhaps for commercial purposes, was built in the 1st century AD over the large hill-sea street (plateia) and the adjacent urban blocks; it thus brought about a radical change in the purpose and function of the central sector of the city compared with the Greek age. The monumental entrance to the building framed in columns was in the centre of the façade and a stairway led up to the inner, uncovered area two metres higher than the surroundings. A series of rectangular rooms lined the inside of the building; in the centre, there was an imposing rectangular structure, probably a monumental fountain, connected to two long drainage pipes with outlets in the façade of the building.

Building A/B seems to be configured as a multifunctional complex, perhaps linked to the celebration of the dynastic cult and the elites of the city, the promoters of its architectural renewal. It also included commercial and perhaps also civic and administrative functions. It has similarities to the two contemporary and well-known examples of the Building of Eumachia in Pompeii and the Augusteum of Herculaneum.

Baths
The large Roman public thermal baths over which the Casino Macri farmhouse was built occupied an area of 1260 m2 in the centre of the city. It was built at the beginning of the 2nd century AD but was never completed and never went into operation It remained unused until the 5th century when it was partially occupied by a cemetery, probably linked to a small settlement which lasted until the 10th century.

The baths were aligned with the regular urban plan of the Greek era and overlooked a porticoed corridor (1) on the main street (plateia) which since the 6th century BC crossed the city from mountain to sea. From the portico there was access to service rooms (2-6), including a latrine (5); which can be visited inside the modern building to the left of the farmyard), some of which led to a large central room (currently under the courtyard of the farm), overlooked by pools for cold baths (8-9): this was the frigidarium of the spa (7). From here, through a large arch, still visible in the nineteenth-century façade of the main building, there was access to a sequence of three heated rooms (15-17, tepidaria and calidaria), the last of which (17) served by three tanks for hot baths (6-8pm). Outside this part of the Roman building there were some basement rooms (22-29), intended to house the ovens for heating the rooms, which were also never completed.

Necropolis
Outside the city there are several necropoleis in the Monaci, Russo, Faraone and Lucifero districts where over 1,700 tombs have been found.

The Necropolis of the Lucifero district, in use from the 8th century BC to the 3rd century BC, includes three types of tombs: pit tomb, Capuchin tomb and semi-barrel tomb. Valuable and valuable objects have been found there, imported from Greece or Magna Graecia (4th century BC) including vases, mirrors, bronze ornaments and precious metal jewellery. Women's toiletry objects were for personal cosmetics (pyxes and lekànai, from the Greek λεκάνη, tray). Bronze mirrors (produced by local artisans) and fibulae (bronze brooches for clothes, local products from the 6th and 5th centuries BC ) were found in the necropolis of Lucifer. Lekythos, or vases to contain perfumed toilet oils were used by athletes before sporting exercises and for funeral rituals. The mirrors, a typical Locrian production exported to Magna Graecia and Sicily, were made of bronze with handles in the shape of a male or female figure.

The Necropolis of the Parapezza district, south-west of Lucifero, includes over 200 tombs. It was used intensely in the archaic age (6th century BC) and in the Hellenistic age (3rd and 2nd century BC). By the 6th century BC large ceramic containers (amphorae for transporting wine and oil) were used, many of which had been imported from Corinth or Athens. There are also amphorae imported from Laconia; this type of pottery was produced in the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Laconian pottery, widespread throughout the Mediterranean, was manufactured using pink clay with yellowish covering on which figures were painted in black. Hydriai, three-handled vessels for drawing and transporting water, have been found. The largest vases were used to contain the bodies of small children. Other vases were used for the ashes of the deceased. The gardens of Adonis (4th century BC) were created in transport amphorae, appropriately broken and upside down. Fennel and lettuce were grown, watered with warm water to accelerate their growth.

The Necropolis of Contrada Faraone is located in the north-east of the urban area. During the excavations, a small limestone pediment with Doric friezes (naiskos pediment) was found dated between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.

title: Locri Epizefiri


text:
Harold Ridley (ophthalmologist)

Sir Nicholas Harold Lloyd Ridley (10 July 1906 – 25 May 2001) was an English ophthalmologist who invented the intraocular lens and pioneered intraocular lens surgery for cataract patients.

Early years
Nicholas Harold Lloyd Ridley was born in Kibworth Harcourt, Leicestershire, the elder son of Nicholas Charles Ridley and his wife, Margaret (née Parker). He had a younger brother. Known from childhood by his middle name (Harold), Ridley had a stammer which he was largely able to manage. As a child he met and sat on the lap of Florence Nightingale, a close friend of his mother.

He was educated at Charterhouse School before studying at Pembroke College, Cambridge from 1924 to 1927, and completed his medical training in 1930 at St Thomas' Hospital. Subsequently, he worked as a surgeon at both St Thomas' and Moorfields Eye Hospital in London, specialising in ophthalmology. In 1938, Ridley was appointed full surgeon and consultant at Moorfields Hospital and later appointed consultant surgeon in 1946.

Cataract operations and intraocular lenses
During World War II, Ridley saw Royal Air Force casualties with eye injuries, including Squadron Leader Gordon "Mouse" Cleaver of 601 Squadron. Ridley observed that when splinters of acrylic plastic from aircraft cockpit canopies became lodged in their eyes, this did not trigger inflammatory rejection as did glass splinters. This led him to propose the use of artificial lenses to treat cataract. He had a lens manufactured using the same material – brand name Perspex, made by ICI – and on 29 November 1949 at St Thomas' Hospital, Ridley achieved the first implant of an intraocular lens, although it was not until 8 February 1950 that he left an artificial lens permanently in place in an eye. The first lens was manufactured by Rayner. The first IOL implant in the United States was performed in 1952: a Rayner-Ridley lens implanted at the Wills Eye Hospital in Philadelphia. The intraocular lens was approved as "safe and effective" and approved for use in the USA by the Food and Drug Administration in 1981. The first FDA-approved lenses – Choyce Mark VIII and Choyce Mark IX Anterior Chamber – were manufactured by Rayner.

In 1987, Gordon "Mouse" Cleaver, whose injury in 1940 helped Ridley conceive the idea of using an acrylic intraocular lens, underwent cataract surgery and the implantation of such a lens to restore his sight.

Wartime service and ophthalmic research
Ridley was in civilian hospital services in South East England during the early years of World War II, when he saw injured pilots from the Battle of Britain. In the middle - to end-years of the war he was with the R.A.M.C (Royal Army Medical Corps) and was posted to West Africa and South East Asia.

Onchocerciasis (River Blindness)
While in Africa, Ridley led important research into onchocerciasis when he was stationed in the Gold Coast, now Ghana, for part of his war service. He acted as part-time sanitation officer at the capital city of Accra, and met Brigadier G. M. Findlay, AMS, who stimulated Ridley's interest to study River Blindness, an endemic disease in parts of the country. To find onchocerciasis patients, in February 1944, Ridley left the coastal city and travelled overland with Findlay and Captain John Holden to north west Ghana. He worked in Funsi in the Wa East District of the Upper West Region for two weeks, examining patients with a slit-lamp which ran off two 6-volt car batteries. Most (90%) had onchocerciasis; ten percent of them were blind. Conditions were primitive and Ridley recorded his observations of the retinal fundus by water-colour painting and photography. His painting of the fundus (sometimes termed the "Ridley fundus" of onchocerciasis) was completed in Accra upon his return from Funsi. "The attention he called to this disease constitutes one of Ridley's major contributions to ophthalmology. His monograph 'Ocular Onchocerciasis', published in 1945 in a supplement of the British Journal of Ophthalmology, was a landmark."

Snake venom ophthalmia
Writing as Major Harold Ridley, he published in 1944 a short paper in the British Journal of Ophthalmology on spitting snakes and an account on the composition and action of snake venom in general. From his own experiences in the Gold Coast, Ridley described snake venom ophthalmia in a 30-year-old labourer named Gogi Kumasi who was cutting grass when a Black-necked cobra raised its head from the grass and forcibly spat venom toward the man's right eye from a distance of four or five feet. Ridley treated the man and followed his case until the eye had fully recovered, after about a week. After discussion on the therapeutic uses of snake venom, he conjectured that in the future diluted venom or a constituent of venom might be used as a powerful anaesthetic in some cases of ophthalmic surgery.

Nutritional amblyopia
After completing 18 months in Ghana, in 1944 Ridley was transferred to India and then Burma, where he studied and treated malnourished former prisoners of war. His biographer David Apple reports Ridley's own words: "In Calcutta, we basically had nothing to do with no assignments – a situation which continued after transfer to Parragan, near Calcutta. Finally, I was transferred to Rangoon, Burma, where life began again. I treated over 200 released allied prisoners of war in Rangoon and Singapore who suffered from nutritional amblyopia while Japanese prisoners of war. Many of the prisoners had worked on the Burma Railway. Starved and ill treated, they had developed sudden central scotoma, relieved by good diet if available. Some developed optic atrophy, some of whom made a partial recovery within six weeks of release. However, the advanced cases, though given a vitamin-rich diet were irreversible. I subsequently wrote an article on the topic of nutritional amblyopia." His paper was published in 1945. "It is uncertain whether disturbance in a visual pathway originates in the retina or optic nerve. Failure of the cortical capillaris to nourish the outer retinal layers at the macula may be significant."

The therapy he used anticipated the use today of multivitamins in ARMD patients. Ridley used multivitamin therapy, returned them to a normal diet, and then noted improvement in the prisoners' condition. The Burma theatre of war permitted the first large population study of individuals with nutritional amblyopia: a total of over 500 within his region of whom about 200 he personally examined and treated.

The International Intra-Ocular Implant Club
The Club was founded in 1966 by Ridley and Peter Choyce, to promote research in the field of IOL implantation. At that time there was widespread opposition in the profession to the use of IOLs. The founders saw the club as a forum to allow free and unhindered exchange of ideas about IOLs and implantation surgical techniques. From the outset it was international in its membership, and set itself a parental and advisory role for the then-nascent national societies to develop in each country for intraocular implant surgeons. However, this global role was only acknowledged in a name change in July 1975, when the Intra-Ocular Implant Club became The International Intra-Ocular Implant Club.

The Ridley Eye Foundation
In 1967, Ridley set up the Ridley Foundation, known as the Ridley Eye Foundation, to raise funds for cataract surgery in developing countries and to treat avoidable blindness. A registered charity under English law, the organisation continues to be active in these fields today, notably in the Middle East. Ridley's son Nicholas serves as its chairman.

Later life
Ridley retired from NHS hospital service in 1971. In the 1990s, he underwent successful bilateral intraocular lens implantation at St Thomas's Hospital by Dr Michael Falcon. Thus, Ridley benefitted from his own invention and the operational procedure he had pioneered but what was most pleasing to him was that he had it done in the hospital where he performed the first operation.

Ridley lived in Stapleford near Salisbury, Wiltshire until his death on 25 May 2001, aged 94. His funeral service and burial were at St Mary's Church, Swinstead, Lincolnshire.

Recognition, honours and awards
In 1986, Ridley was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. His first academic honour was an honorary doctorate degree, Doctor of Humane Letters (DHL), conferred in 1989 by the Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston.

In 1992, Ridley received the Gullstrand Medal (conferred by the Swedish Society of Medicine) named after Swedish ophthalmic surgeon Allvar Gullstrand. In 1994, he received the Gonin Medal (conferred by the Club Jules Gonin, Lausanne Switzerland) named after the renowned Swiss retinal surgeon Jules Gonin.

In April 1999, at the annual meeting of the American Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery in Seattle, Washington, Ridley was honoured in a special anniversary session as one of the most outstanding and influential ophthalmologists of the 20th century. Later the same year, at the 1999 meeting of the European Society of Ophthalmology (Stockholm, July 1999) he was honoured; and again at the annual meeting of the European Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgery (Vienna, September 1999).

Announced on 31 December 1999, the New Year Honours 2000 list for the United Kingdom and New Zealand included Ridley as one of forty-five people accorded with the honour of Knight Bachelor, "for pioneering services to Cataract Surgery". Subsequently, at a ceremony in February 2000, aged 93, he was knighted by the Queen at Buckingham Palace. This Millennium Honour was the culmination of years of lobbying work by Ridley's biographer (David J Apple) and prominent surgeon friends such as Emanuel Rosen and Thomas Neuhann, together with leaders of the ophthalmic medical device industry such as Donald J Munro, chairman and managing director of the Rayner company of Brighton & Hove, UK. In 2001, a plaque was installed at St Thomas's Hospital, London to commemorate the first IOL implantation. Ridley died the same year, in Salisbury, Wiltshire.

In September 2010, the Royal Mail issued a series of commemorative postage stamps to mark "Medical Breakthroughs". Designed by Howard Brown, the 67p stamp depicted artificial lens implant surgery pioneered by Sir Harold Ridley 1949.

A Heritage blue plaque to commemorate his groundbreaking work was installed in Kibworth Harcourt, Leicestershire on 18 February 2012, thanks to the research carried out by Bob Haggerty, a local resident who has himself had an intraocular lens fitted, and supported by Kibworth Improvement Team (KiT), the local community partnership.

A plaque in memory of Ridley is installed in the gardens of his alma mater Pembroke College, Cambridge, which plaque reads: "RIDLEY’S WALK / This plaque is placed in memory of Sir Harold Ridley FRS 1906-2001 / pioneer of intraocular lens surgery, graduate & benefactor of this College / after whose ancestor Bishop Nicholas Ridley, Master 1540-1553, / martyred 1555, this path is traditionally named".

In 2013, a biographical profile of Ridley was included in a book called Saving Sight: An eye surgeon's look at life behind the mask and the heroes who changed the way we see, by Andrew Lam.

Film and TV
On 6 January 2016, during the BBC 1 television programme The One Show a short film was shown about the link between Gordon Cleaver and Harold Ridley. Using archive film and photographic material and an interview with Sir Harold's son, Nicholas, Michael Mosley reported on the "Eureka moment" that led to the invention of the intraocular lens. The film was made by ICON Films of Bristol.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Harold Ridley (ophthalmologist)


text:
Maude Lloyd

Maude Lloyd (16 August 1908 – 26 November 2004) was a South African ballet dancer and teacher who immigrated to England and became an important figure in early British ballet as a founding member of Ballet Rambert. She had a significant second career as a dance critic, writing with her husband under the nom de plume Alexander Bland.

Early life and training
Maude Lloyd was born in Cape Town where she studied ballet with Helen Webb. Webb, who had arrived from England in 1912, opened her own school of "fancy dancing" (i.e., classical ballet), and then introduced dance into the curriculum of the South African College of Music. Having been a pupil of Enrico Cecchetti in London, Webb employed the Cecchetti method of instructing her students in Cape Town. After some years of training with Webb and performing in recitals staged at the town hall, Lloyd went to London on a scholarship from Webb, armed with an introduction to Marie Rambert, an old friend of Webb's and a well-known teacher of ballet at her school in Notting Hill. Lloyd arrived in England sometime in 1924 or 1925, when she was 16 or 17, and promptly enrolled in Rambert's school. After a period of concentrated study there, she returned to South Africa in 1927 and taught at Webb's school for three years before returning to England.

Dancing career
On returning to England in 1930, Lloyd was among Rambert's students who became founding members of her Ballet Club, the performing group from which Ballet Rambert was to evolve. She danced with this group at several West End theaters and on tours outside London, as well as appearing in repertory works with the Camargo Society. From 1930 onward, she was a leading dancer in the regular Sunday performances of Rambert's Ballet Club at the Mercury Theatre in Notting Hill Gate. Other members of the club included emerging choreographers Frederick Ashton, Antony Tudor, and Andrée Howard, each of whom would respond to Lloyd's technical ability, as well as her intelligence, elegance, and sensitivity, by creating roles for her in their works. With occasional brief absences—to dance with other British companies and to visit South Africa once more, in 1932—Lloyd remained with Ballet Rambert until 1940. She followed Pearl Argyle and Alicia Markova, the company's first ballerinas, in many of their created roles but soon had new roles of her own.

When Lloyd met Antony Tudor in one of Rambert's classes in 1930, she was immediately drawn to him, and he to her. She, along with Hugh Laing, became one of his muses, inspiring him to create numerous works with roles focusing on her special qualities. "Not only was she very pretty, with beautifully curved feet, but she also danced with a rich, natural expressiveness that fed the psychological realism with which Tudor was experimenting." Of the numerous Tudor works in which she danced leading roles, none has been more enduring than Jardin aux Lilas (Lilac Garden), premiered in 1936. Lloyd's portrayal of Caroline, who gives up Her Lover (Laing) for The Man She Must Marry (Tudor), was "a beautifully modulated exposition of the simmering passions and dutiful restraint characteristic of Edwardian life." This was followed in 1937 by another Tudor masterpiece, Dark Elegies, set to Mahler's song cycle Kindertotenlieder (Songs on the Death of Children), in which she and Tudor danced a tender, sorrowful pas de deux to the second song. She also made successful appearances in the classical repertory, dancing Aurora in Rambert's version of Aurora's Wedding, the Prelude in Les Sylphides, and Odette in a one-act version of Swan Lake. Having danced decorous roles in Ashton's The Lady of Shallot and Howard's Cinderella, she appeared in a more boisterous role as the can-can dancer La Goulue in Bar aux Folies-Bergères by Ninette de Valois. One reviewer of the roles in Lloyd's repertory described her as having "a noble serenity and a deep expressiveness allied to sparkling gifts of comedy."

In 1938, Tudor had a spat with Rambert and left her company to form his own troupe, which he dubbed the London Ballet. Lloyd was one of the Rambert dancers who became founding members of this newly formed company. For it, she created two more memorable roles. As the Italian ballerina in Tudor's Gala Performance, she displayed both elegance and wit in competing for the limelight with her French and Russian rivals, and in Howard's La Fête Étrange, a haunting, dreamlike tale, she was mysteriously beautiful as the bride-to-be who captures the fancy of an adolescent boy. (The Boy was played by the young Frank Staff, a fellow South African and former student of Lloyd's in Cape Town.) After the outbreak of war with Germany in September 1939, and Tudor's departure for greener, and safer, pastures in America, Lloyd and Peggy van Praagh directed and danced in the company until the blitz caused nearly all the London theaters to close. When the London Ballet folded and was absorbed back into Ballet Rambert in 1940, Lloyd retired from the stage.

Roles created
Lloyd created important roles in the ballets of Antony Tudor and other choreographers working in London in the 1930s. Among them are the following.

In Tudor ballets

 * 1931. Cross-Garter'd, music by Girolamo Frescoobaldi. Role: Olivia, dancing a comic pas de deux with Tudor as Malvolio.
 * 1932. Mr. Roll's Quadrilles, set to old English music. Role: a pas de trois with Elizabeth Schooling and Betty Cuff.
 * 1934. The Planets, music by Gustav Holst. Role: Venus.
 * 1935. The Descent of Hebe, music by Ernest Bloch. Role: Night.
 * 1936. Jardin aux Lilas, music by Ernest Chausson. Role: Caroline.
 * 1937. Dark Elegies, music by Gustav Mahler. Role: bereaved mother, in a pas de deux with Tudor.
 * 1937. Pasquinade, the first television revue broadcast on the BBC. Role: solo dancer.
 * 1937. Fugue for Four Cameras, an experimental work for television, music by Johan Sebastian Bach. Role: solo dancer.
 * 1938. Soirée Musicale, music by Gioacchino Rossini, arranged by Benjamin Britten. Role: Tirolese, a pas de deux with Tudor.
 * 1938. Gala Performance, music by Sergei Prokofiev. Role: La Déesse de la Danse (from Milan).

In other works

 * 1927. The Fairy Queen, opera by Henry Purcell, choreography by Frederick Ashton and Marie Rambert. Roles: Echo Dance, Three Swans, Dance of the Haymakers, and Chaconne.
 * 1931, La Péri, choreography by Frederick Ashton, music by Paul Dukas. Role: Companion.
 * 1931. Façade, choreography by Frederick Ashton, music by William Walton. Roles: Scotch Rhapsody and Valse.
 * 1931. The Lady of Shallot, choreography by Frederick Ashton, music by Jean Sibelius. Role: The Reflection.
 * 1931. Le Boxing, choreography by Susan Salaman, music by Lord Berners. Role: Sport Girl.
 * 1935. Valentine's Eve, choreography by Frederick Ashton, music by Maurice Ravel. Role: Solange.
 * 1940. La Fête Étrange, choreography by Andrée Howard, music by Gabriel Fauré. Role: The Young Chatelaine.

Later life
In the summer of 1939, Lloyd married Nigel Gosling, an art and dance critic, and settled into retirement to wait out the war years, concentrating on doing welfare work. She began a second career when Richard Buckle persuaded her to start writing reviews of dance performances for his magazine Ballet, working in tandem with her husband. Finding the arrangement congenial, they called themselves Alexander Bland, a pseudonym derived from the names of two characters in the tales of Beatrix Potter: Pigling Bland, who is described as "hopelessly volatile" and his brother Alexander. In 1955, when Buckle left his post as dance critic for The Observer, a weekly newspaper published on Sunday, the Goslings took over, staying on until Nigel's death in 1982. During almost two decades of working together, they not only regularly wrote reviews for the newspaper, but they wrote, edited, or contributed to ten books on ballet and dance, four of which dealt with the life and career of Rudolf Nureyev.

The Goslings had first seen Nureyev dance with the Kirov Ballet in Paris, just before he defected to the West in June 1961. Soon after, when Margot Fonteyn persuaded the young Russian virtuoso to come to London to appear in a gala for the Royal Academy of Dance, she asked the Goslings to befriend him. Taking to this with a will, they came to regard him with particular admiration. In their glowing review of his first Covent Garden performance, they suggested the rejuvenating effect he might have on British ballet, describing him as "a balletic missile, a wild animal loose in the drawing room." They offered him free run of their Kensington home and helped him to adjust to life in a new country. In time, the friendship deepened, as there was genuine respect and liking on both sides. After the Goslings' son Nicholas married and moved away, Nureyev became the son of their late middle age. They became, in effect, his surrogate parents, offering him guidance, affection, and hospitality until the end of his and their lives.

Maude Lloyd had enjoyed an ideal marriage with Nigel Gosling, so his death was a devastating loss to her, as it was to Nureyev, who had admired Gosling's intelligence, culture, and quiet dignity. Lloyd survived her husband for another twenty years, sustained by the care and attention of Nureyev and others. From her salad days into old age, she was much loved and admired by all who knew her. Elegant and agile, even at 95, she lived out her days in simplicity and with a remarkable mental generosity, despite the failure of both sight and hearing. She died peacefully at her home in Kensington in the presence of family and friends.

title: Maude Lloyd


text:
Kim Daeseong

Kim Daeseong (700–774) was a chief minister of Silla during the reign of King Seongdeok in the Unified Silla period. He was the son of a previous chief minister, Kim Mullyang (김문량, 金文亮). He is credited with the establishment of the famed Bulguksa temple and Seokguram shrine in Gyeongju.

The Samguk Yusa relates a tale that Kim Daeseong was the reincarnation of the child of a pious but poor woman who offered up a field which she had worked long and hard to buy. He is said to have built Bulguksa in memory of his parents of the current life, and Seokguram in memory of his parents in the former life.

title: Kim Daeseong


text: Talk:Kim Daeseong

title: Talk:Kim Daeseong


text:
Perhaps Transparent

Perhaps Transparent is a Jersey City, New Jersey based independent record label founded by Gabriel Walsh and Stephen Connolly. The label releases psychedelic and psychedelic folk. Artists on this label tend to include song, narrative or conceptual structures that are deliberately complicated and/or obscure – Your Team Ring buries puzzles in its albums, Flaming Fire utilizes classic Greek theater elements, Pothole Skinny experiment in the sounds of psychedelic folk, IE: the woods-folk-avant-dark-strings, and Irene Moon's music is principally about her interests and research in entomology. PG Six, aka Pat Gubler from Tower Recordings explores song craft through the resurgence of 1960's British Follk revival and experimental bray harp drones. Through live CD-R releases, and the vinyl versions of his Amish Records releases, one can get a keen glimpse of Pat's Musical journey.

Artists on this label

 * American Watercolor Movement
 * Calvin, Don't Jump!
 * Flaming Fire
 * Irene Moon
 * PG Six
 * Outhern Acific
 * Pothole Skinny
 * Stephen Connolly
 * Your Team Ring
 * Fireworks Collage Project with Daniel Carter

title: Perhaps Transparent


text:
The Nimrod Hunt

The Nimrod Hunt is a science fiction novel by Charles Sheffield. The story takes place hundreds of years in the future, with humanity having extensively colonized surrounding space, including beyond the Solar System. Humans have encountered three extraterrestrial races, which although all bizarrely different in physiology and psychology coexist peacefully. In order to defend from unknown threats beyond known space, a security company creates highly advanced robotic soldiers to patrol the border. These go haywire and become the single greatest threat. A series of four-member teams, with a representative from each species, is dispatched to deal with the problem. The action of the story follows one such team.

The novel was revised as The Mind Pool with a different ending. In the preface to The Mind Pool, the author describes how he was unhappy with the original.

title: The Nimrod Hunt


text:
Voodoo Ray

"Voodoo Ray" is the debut single by British electronic musician Gerald Simpson, recording under the name A Guy Called Gerald. The single was released in the UK in 1988 on the 7" and 12" vinyl formats, on the Rham! label. A version of the track appeared on A Guy Called Gerald's 1988 album Hot Lemonade, and the original single was later released in the United States in 1989 by Warlock Records.

The single spent 18 weeks on the UK Singles Chart, eventually reaching number 12, and was awarded best-selling independent single of 1989 by Music Week and the British Phonographic Industry. The track became a popular acid house anthem associated with Manchester club The Haçienda.

Recording
"Voodoo Ray" began as a home demo recorded by Simpson while he was a member of 808 State. It was then re-recorded along with the surrounding EP over two days in June 1988 at Moonraker Studios in Manchester. The session featured production assistance from the duo of Aniff Akinola and Colin Thorpe (together credited as Chapter), as well as engineer Lee Monteverde. Simpson explained: "I was trying to keep it quiet from the dudes in 808 State, because I was still working with them but wanted to do my own thing. It was fun just slipping out of their basement and taking the drum machine. They'd be like, 'Where are you going?' I'd say, 'Oh, I'm just going home to do some programming,' then nip off to another studio."

The track contains samples of comedians Peter Cook and Dudley Moore (in character as Derek and Clive), from the "Bo Duddley" sketch as heard on their 1976 live album Derek and Clive (Live). Two samples from the sketch are heard: one of Cook saying "voodoo rage" and one of Moore shouting "later!". Simpson explained to Q in 2001: "I was trying to get a tribal sound and found this sample saying 'Voodoo rage'. That was originally the title but the old sampler I was using didn't have that much memory. I just about had enough for 'voodoo ra…', so that's what it became."

The vocal was sung by Nicola Collier, who had worked on other tracks with Simpson, with the vocal melody suggested by Thorpe and later processed by Simpson using an Akai S950 sampler.

Release
Rham! initially pressed up 500 copies of the record, which sold out in a day. "Voodoo Ray" received support from local DJs and became popular at Factory Records' Manchester nightclub The Haçienda.

A version of the track also appeared on Simpson's 1988 album Hot Lemonade, and a re-recorded version called "Voodoo Ray Americas" appeared on A Guy Called Gerald's 1990 album Automanikk, which was released by Columbia and CBS Records. In 1995, Simpson reworked "Voodoo Ray" as "Voodoo Rage" for his Black Secret Technology album.

Critical reception
Bill Coleman of Billboard magazine commented on the single in March 1989: "Underground smash in the U.K. last summer utilizes the most intriguing elements of acid house and places them in a thoroughly engrossing dance setting. Yearning female chant and irresistible instrumental hook has the potential to make a huge impression with club and alternative programmers. A killer—don't miss."

Impact and legacy
British electronic music magazine Mixmag ranked "Voodoo Ray" number 46 in its "100 Greatest Dance Singles of All Time" list in 1996, commenting: "Voodoo Ray is pretty much the first British acid house record, and sounds like it was recorded by banging on metal pipes. Which is nice."

In the same year, British drum and bass DJ and producer Fabio chose it as one of his favourites, adding, "Voodoo Ray is an early drum & bass track because of the way it was layered: the sounds, the working of it. It's laid back but at the same time so danceable. We were really into imports at the time and he was the first English guy we got interested in. He kick-started the whole British scene so it's a very important track. He's so underrated." Also another English DJ, Tall Paul picked the song as one of his Top 10 tracks in 1996, saying, "This was so different at the time. A massive groundbreaker — the girl, the chant and the way she sings."

In 2019, journalist Matt Anniss wrote that "Voodoo Ray" "may now be one of the most recognizable House records ever made, but the track has lost none of its charm or power." Anniss also opined that the four-track EP "has held up remarkably well," calling the additional tracks "similarly weighty, inspired and off kilter."

Rolling Stone placed "Voodoo Ray" at number 55 in their list of the "200 Greatest Dance Songs of All Time" in 2022.

Track listing

 * 7" version
 * 1) "Voodoo Ray (Radio Mix)" – 4:18
 * 2) "Arcade Fantasy" – 4:43 (engineered by Adam Lesser)

 * 12" and CD version
 * 1) "Voodoo Ray" – 4:28
 * 2) "Escape" – 5:16
 * 3) "Rhapsody in Acid" – 5:23
 * 4) "Blow Your House Down" – 5:03

In popular culture
The song is featured on the soundtrack of Michael Winterbottom's 2002 film 24 Hour Party People, which follows the history of Factory Records and the Madchester scene. The song is also featured on the fictional house radio station SF-UR in the 2004 video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas.

The song appears in Cheryl Dunye's 1991 film She Don't Fade.

A steelpan cover version was used in artist Jeremy Deller's work English Magic, which was displayed at the Venice Biennale in 2013.

Personnel

 * A Guy Called Gerald - writer, producer
 * Chapter (Aniff Akinola and Colin Thorpe) - co-producers
 * Lee Monteverde - engineer
 * JA - mastering
 * Nicola Collier - vocals

title: Voodoo Ray


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User talk:Alanhwiki

Hi there. Welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like it here and stick around. If you want, you can drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself.

Before you start doing a lot of editing, you'll want to take the Tutorial. It gives all the basic info you'll need as you start contributing.

You can sign your name on talk pages by using " " for your username and " ~ " for your username and a timestamp.

If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Help desk. You can also drop me a question on my talk page.

Happy editing, Wolf530 16:53, Nov 29, 2004 (UTC)

Peter's piano repertoire
In the Family Guy episode "Wasted Talent", didn't Peter play some fancy Mozart sonnata when he interrupted Meg's lesson with Lois? And didn't he play a jazz standard the next morning after Brian gave him a drink? Cromulent Kwyjibo 17:52, 4 October 2005 (UTC) P.S. You've been editing Wikipedia for almost a year now. Isn't it time you wrote your user page?

I don't have the episode on my TiVo anymore, but I believe the first was Dallas and the second was Nine to Five (Dolly Parton). Alanhwiki 02:10, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Triumph the Insult Dog
In the article on the Family Guy episode "Road to Europe" you wrote that during the musical number, Brian impersonates Triumph. What line of dialogue was that? ShutterBugTrekker 21:07, 28 October 2005 (UTC)

Stewie: I've a style flair, just look at my hip hair Brian: Yeah that's quite a nice doo there Stewie: Oh thanks Brian: For me to poop on! Alanhwiki 04:36, 31 October 2005 (UTC)

I-40 West of "Albuquerque"
I have personally been all along this stretch of highway. It IS west of Amarillo, specifically between Boise and Glenrio, TEXAS. Western New Mexico is mountainous and not plains where this sign is located, and yes I remember the sign. It was the first time I went out through there driving Route 66 and it was on a section of Interstate 40, and I did not go west of Albuquerque.Rt66lt 21:26, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

Alan, please see Image talk:Grade intersection on I-40.jpg, Talk:At-grade intersection and Talk:Interstate 40. -- Paddu 08:36, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

 * This doesn't seem to have been resolved as yet. Amarillo is mentioned in both At-grade intersection and Interstate 40 so I'm adding it to Image:Grade intersection on I-40.jpg to be consistent and to avoid confusion. -- Paddu 20:19, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I've been both locations, and specifically stopped to take pictures of the grade intersections. There are grade intesersections in both locations -- west of Amarillo and west of Albuquerque.  However, the photograph is specifically of on west of Albuquerque. Alanhwiki 05:09, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

 * From the comments of User:Rt66lt in Talk:At-grade intersection and User:Camerafiend in User talk:Paddu/Archive1 it looks like the sign no longer exists in New Mexico. Probably the sign was removed, or frontage roads were -- at long last -- extended to cover this region. Can you say when you took the photograph? -- Paddu 06:49, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

Disputed fair use rationale for Image:Channelisles logo.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:Channelisles logo.gif. However, there is a concern that the rationale you have provided for using this image under "fair use" may be invalid. Please read the instructions at Non-free content carefully, then go to the image description page and clarify why you think the image qualifies for fair use. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If it is determined that the image does not qualify under fair use, it will be deleted within a couple of days according to our criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot (talk) 20:22, 13 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Added templates to comply with logo usage guidelines. Alanhwiki (talk) 23:37, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:54, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Survey Invite
I'm working on a study of political motivations and how they effect editing. I'd like to ask you to take a survey. The survey should take 5 minutes. Your survey responses will be kept private. Our project is documented at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Research:Wikipedia_%2B_Politics.

Survey Link: http://uchicago.co1.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_80J3UDCpLnKyWTH?Q_DL=6ybvGHdBVVUDi1D_80J3UDCpLnKyWTH_MLRP_06AojJmRfxMQsaV&Q_CHL=gl

I am asking you to participate in this study because you are a frequent editor of pages on Wikipedia that are of political interest. We would like to learn about your experiences in dealing with editors of different political orientations.

Sincere thanks for your help! Porteclefs (talk) 20:54, 5 July 2017 (UTC)

title: User talk:Alanhwiki


text:
Talk:Wilhelm Imaging Research

This article was listed on votes for deletion; see Votes for deletion/Wilhelm Imaging Research. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk, automation script)]] 02:10, Dec 6, 2004 (UTC)

Wilhelm Imaging Research
Look, I'm not affiliated with them in any way, and don't appreciate you saying so on the page. Also, this is not a valid candidate for speedy deletion. If you don't think it's notable, then please place it on WP:VFD. Thanks. - Ta bu shi da yu 02:15, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Hello, my speedy deletion proposal was in no way meant personally against you, yet it really looked as if you were creating the article out of some connection to Wilhelm Imaging Research. To me they look like a really minor private company, not far from the one-man-name type. See the company history on their website - not referring to any company's success, just the founders' previous professional careers, no significant Wilhelm Imaging Research's clients or achievments mentioned!. Referencing to their website from wiki as well as adding an external link to one of the founder's speech will just gain them IMO undeserved Google rating. Wiki hardly has full info on industry leaders. Adding a company like Wilhelm's, whose claim of idustry leadership is VERY questionable, then creates a false opinion of their importance and ranking in their respective industry field. The words used seem like taken from a usual, one of trillions company advertising brochures. Why do you think this has to be contained in Wikipedia? I'll put the page among VFDs then.    Oneliner 16:55, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I hate to tell you this, but Wilhelm's tests are used by the industry. I used to work for a fairly major printer manufacturer, and they were used all the time. The site may not look very impressive, but the company actually has lots of influence on the industry. But go ahead and place them on VfD. Oh, by the way. Epson have used their tests, and Kodak were forced to change their testing criteria because of them. Significant enough for you? - Ta bu shi da yu 01:24, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * P.S. even if my entry was vanity (which it isn't!), it doesn't go to speedy deletes. It goes to VfD to sort out. Which has now been done, and I'm grateful you used proper procedure here. - Ta bu shi da yu 01:30, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Actually, Kodak has NOT changed their test methods and has no reason to do so since the methods were based on over 20 years worth of real-world studies of how prints are used and displayed world wide. These studies were published in major, peer-reviewed technical journals. No other resrarch organization, including WIR, has published such extensive body of research or shared it widely with the imaging community. In fact, Kodak was the first to propose that imasge stability must be tested against the four major degredation factors: heat, light, humidity, and pollutants, back when others were testing for only one or maybe two. Kodak also showed that the test factors must be in balance if results are to be meaningful in actual consumer use. I suggest you consult papers in the "Journal of Imaging Science and Technology (lead researchers: Anderson, Bugner, Oldfield, Hill, Artz). 12.75.116.28 01:07, 3 June 2007 (UTC)PhotoSci

Someone does need to write up something for Wilhelm Imaging Research because it is the only, albeit commercial, company that has a history of researching and documenting color fastness for modern and traditional inks and photographic processes. The company and principles are universally recognized as nearly the sole voices in this important field. A good start would be to state the history of the company, the areas of expertise and their role in establishing ink jet printing technology as a legitimate archival replacement for traditional photography - that would be very valuable. - LJ/gessoart —Preceding unsigned comment added by Gessoart (talk • contribs) 09:42, 25 May 2010 (UTC)

Copyright problem removed
Prior content in this article duplicated one or more previously published sources. The material was copied from: http://wilhelm-research.com/about_us.html. Copied or closely paraphrased material has been rewritten or removed and must not be restored, unless it is duly released under a compatible license. (For more information, please see "using copyrighted works from others" if you are not the copyright holder of this material, or "donating copyrighted materials" if you are.)

For legal reasons, we cannot accept copyrighted text or images borrowed from other web sites or published material; such additions will be deleted. Contributors may use copyrighted publications as a source of information, and, if allowed under fair use, may copy sentences and phrases, provided they are included in quotation marks and referenced properly. The material may also be rewritten, providing it does not infringe on the copyright of the original or plagiarize from that source. Therefore, such paraphrased portions must provide their source. Please see our guideline on non-free text for how to properly implement limited quotations of copyrighted text. Wikipedia takes copyright violations very seriously, and persistent violators will be blocked from editing. While we appreciate contributions, we must require all contributors to understand and comply with these policies. Thank you. Justlettersandnumbers (talk) 18:42, 16 May 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wilhelm Imaging Research


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Ariana Jollee

Ariana Jollee (born September 29, 1982) is an American pornographic actress and director of Italian and Russian descent.

Career
Jollee got into the adult film industry in March 2003 at around 20 years old after promoting herself on her homemade website. She was recruited by a production manager from Anabolic Video. Her first adult films were Nasty Girls 30 and Spring Chickens 4.

In 2004, she traveled to Prague to perform in 65 Guy Creampie (Devil's Film 2005) where she had sex with 65 men over six hours and, in the same year, signed a directing contract with Anarchy Films and Python Pictures. Her first movie under the contract was The Narcassist. Jollee also directed the Mayhem series Young Bung. She was only supposed to perform in the movie but replaced Lauren Phoenix as director when Phoenix left the production over creative differences.

Awards

 * 2005 AVN Award – Best Group Sex Scene, Video (Orgy World 7)
 * 2005 XRCO Award – Superslut of the Year
 * 2006 XRCO Award – Superslut of the Year

title: Ariana Jollee


text:
Sguil

Sguil (pronounced sgweel or squeal) is a collection of free software components for Network Security Monitoring (NSM) and event driven analysis of IDS alerts. The sguil client is written in Tcl/Tk and can be run on any operating system that supports these. Sguil integrates alert data from Snort, session data from SANCP, and full content data from a second instance of Snort running in packet logger mode.

Sguil is an implementation of a Network Security Monitoring system. NSM is defined as "collection, analysis, and escalation of indications and warnings to detect and respond to intrusions."

Sguil is released under the GPL 3.0.

title: Sguil


text:
Coppa Acerbo

The Coppa Acerbo was an automobile race held in Italy, named after Tito Acerbo, the brother of Giacomo Acerbo, a prominent fascist politician. Following Italy's defeat in World War II, and the consequent demise of fascism, the race was renamed the Circuito di Pescara, and in some years was also referred to as the Pescara Grand Prix (Gran Premio di Pescara) and 12 Hours of Pescara (12 Ore di Pescara). The race was run between 1924 and 1961 and over the years was held to a variety of vehicle class regulations and durations. In the Pescara Grand Prix formed a round of the Formula One World Championship, a race which still holds the record as having the longest circuit length ever used for a Championship event.

Pescara Circuit
The Coppa Acerbo races were held over a 24–26 km (15–16 mi) circuit, beginning and ending at Pescara, on the Adriatic coast. The course layout featured an inland route through the Abruzzo hills, that passed through several villages, followed by a long, straight descent back to the coast, where a tight right-hand corner led on to a four-mile (6 km) long straight running next to the sea. The pit and paddock complex was located at the end of this straight. In an effort to slow competitor speeds past these pits the Pescara circuit became one of the first to have an artificial chicane installed, just before the pit lane. The Pescara circuit layout holds the record as the longest circuit to ever to host a Formula One World Championship event, with the Nürburgring Nordschleife coming second at about 23 km.

Pre-war races

The first Coppa Acerbo was staged in 1924 and was won by Enzo Ferrari. It was Ferrari's fourth and final grand prix victory before he retired to create Ferrari and become head of the Formula One team Scuderia Ferrari. The race was run for the top class of international competition, the only real limiting factor on vehicle specifications being the cars' ability to transmit power through the inadequate tyres of the day. Although never itself a Grande Epreuve, or later a constituent of the European Championship, the Coppa Acerbo was considered one of the most prestigious races of its day. These early races were dominated by home-grown cars and drivers, and Alfa Romeo in particular was almost unbeatable. The Milanese manufacturer won seven of the first nine editions; only in 1926 were they beaten by the Bugatti T35, and again in 1930 by Italian star-driver Achille Varzi driving a Maserati.

Alfa's domination of the race came to an end with the introduction of the 750 kg Grand Prix regulations in 1934, a race that was also marked by tragedy when Guy Moll, one of the most promising young drivers of the day, was killed. Germany's state-funded Silver Arrows of Mercedes-Benz and Auto Union would come to eclipse all their rivals for the subsequent five years. Although the race was again won by two Italian drivers during this time, including a second victory for Varzi, it was only when the organisers decided to run the Coppa to the 1.5 litre voiturette formula in 1939 that any other manufacturer could stand a realistic chance of winning. Perhaps fittingly it was Alfa Romeo, with their new 158 Alfetta car, that took the honours in this last competition before the outbreak of World War II. In 1939 a "Coppa Acerbo Song" (with music by maestro Ignazio Civera and lyrics by Franzi) was published.

Post-war races
After WWII the race remained suspended for a year during post-war rebuilding. When it was finally run again in 1947 the name of the race was changed, because of its fascist connections, and it became known as the Circuito di Pescara. For the first three years the race was run for two-seater sports cars and was a fairly minor constituent in the European racing calendar. However, in common with many race organisers around the continent, with the introduction of the Formula One World Championship in 1950 the race organisers saw their chance to return the Pescara event to its former position of prominence. Although, once again, not a World Championship event the race did attract many top-name teams and drivers over the following two years. Despite it being an Italian event, and himself a former winner, Ferrari decided to withdraw his team from the 1950 event, but the Alfa Romeo, Maserati and Talbot-Lago works teams did attend, along with many privateer and amateur racers. The 1950 race was won by future World Champion Juan Manuel Fangio driving for Alfa Romeo. The following year Ferrari did attend, and the race was won by Fangio's Argentinian compatriot José Froilán González driving one of their 375 cars.

When the World Championship switched to the slower Formula Two regulations, the organisers decided to abandon formula racing in favour of further sportscar events. During this period endurance sportscar racing was almost as prestigious as the top open-wheel series, and for 1952 the organisers changed the race's name, once again, to the 12 Ore di Pescara (12 Hours of Pescara). The change of format did not hinder Ferrari's chances of victory, however, and their cars and drivers took wins in both 1952 and 1953. Despite the success of the endurance format, though, when the Formula One engine capacity limit was raised to 2.5 litres from 1954 the Circuito di Pescara was quickly switched back to single-seat rules. The 1954 event was won by one of the most iconic Formula One cars of all time, a Maserati 250F, driven by Luigi Musso. This was to be the last race for two years, as in 1955, as a result of the disaster at the 24 hours of Le Mans, the race was cancelled. Sportscars returned once more in 1956.

The 1957 Pescara Grand Prix, held on 18 August 1957, was the seventh, and penultimate round of the 1957 World Drivers' Championship. The race, which was the only Formula One World Championship race at the track, is best remembered for being held at the longest ever circuit to stage a Formula One World Championship Grand Prix. It was also the first of the two consecutive Italian races, and after the subsequent race at Monza was complete, it became the first time that two Formula One races had been held in the same country in the same year. In a field dominated by numerous Maserati 250F cars, reigning World Champion Fangio used his example to set a pole position time of 9 minutes 44.6 seconds, at an average speed of over 157 km/h (98 mph). In the race, however, it was second-placed starter Stirling Moss in his Vanwall who took the initiative and victory. He led all but one of the race's 18 laps and finished over three minutes clear of Fangio in second place.

By the early 1960s, safety issues had become a major concern and the Pescara racecourse was seen as too dangerous for major international events. After a two-year break the race was downgraded to Formula Two status for 1960, a race won by future World Champion Denny Hulme in his first year racing in Europe. For its 1961 swansong once again, for only the second time in its history, the Pescara race was raised to World Championship status, this time in the World Sportscar Championship. Appropriately, for a race subtitled the 4h Testa Rossa, the final Gran Premio di Pescara was won by a Ferrari Testa Rossa, driven by Lorenzo Bandini and Giorgio Scarlatti and entered by Scuderia Centro Sud; an Italian team, with an Italian car and two Italian drivers, won the final iteration of this famous Italian event. With ever-increasing speeds and the fragile build-quality of most cars of the time, the race was discontinued after the 1961 event.

Repeat winners (drivers)
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Repeat winners (constructors)
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Repeat winners (engine manufacturers)
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

By year
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

title: Coppa Acerbo