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Hong Kong flu

The Hong Kong flu, also known as the 1968 flu pandemic, was a flu pandemic that occurred in 1968 and 1969 and which killed between one and four million people globally. It is among the deadliest pandemics in history, and was caused by an H3N2 strain of the influenza A virus. The virus was descended from H2N2 (which caused the Asian flu pandemic in 1957–1958) through antigenic shift, a genetic process in which genes from multiple subtypes are reassorted to form a new virus.

Origin and outbreak in Hong Kong and China
The first recorded instance of the outbreak appeared on 13 July 1968 in British Hong Kong. It has been speculated that the outbreak began in mainland China before it spread to Hong Kong; On 11 July, before the outbreak in the colony was first noted, the Hong Kong newspaper Ming Pao reported an outbreak of respiratory illness in Guangdong Province, and the next day, The Times issued a similar report of an epidemic in southeastern China. Later reporting suggested that the flu had spread from the central provinces of Sichuan, Gansu, Shaanxi, and Shanxi, which had experienced epidemics in the spring. However, due to a lack of etiological information on the outbreak and a strained relationship between Chinese health authorities and those in other countries at the time, it cannot be ascertained whether the Hong Kong virus was to blame.

The outbreak in Hong Kong, where the population density was reached its maximum intensity in two weeks. The outbreak lasted around six weeks, affecting about 15% of the population (some 500,000 people infected), but the mortality rate was low and the clinical symptoms were mild.

There were two waves of the flu in mainland China, one between July–September in 1968 and the other between June–December in 1970. The reported data were very limited due to the Cultural Revolution, but retrospective analysis of flu activity between 1968 and 1992 shows that flu infection was the most serious in 1968, implying that most areas in China were affected at the time.

Outbreaks in other areas
Despite the lethality of the 1957–1958 pandemic in China, little improvement had been made regarding the handling of such epidemics.

By 13 August, it was clear to virologists that strains isolated from the outbreak in Hong Kong differed markedly from previous strains of influenza. However, they were not at the time considered to be an entirely new subtype of influenza A, only a variant of older strains. Nevertheless, the World Health Organization warned of potential worldwide spread of the virus on 16 August. An outbreak of influenza-like illness in Singapore during the second week of August was the first indication of spread outside of Hong Kong. Around the same time, an outbreak became apparent in the Philippines and Malaysia, and, before the end of the month, an epidemic was underway in the Republic of Vietnam.

The first known cases of the flu in the United Kingdom were identified in early August in an infant and her mother in London with no history of travel or known contact with anyone with a history of travel from the Far East. More isolated cases soon followed, but it was not until September that larger outbreaks began occurring in school settings.

In September 1968, the flu reached India, northern Australia, Thailand, and Europe. The same month, the virus entered the United States and was carried by troops returning from the Vietnam War, but it did not become widespread in the country until December 1968.

During the second week of September, nearly 2000 participants from 92 countries, including some in southeast Asia where the flu was epidemic, met in Tehran for the Eighth International Congresses on Tropical Medicine and Malaria. An outbreak of influenza soon erupted among the participants, afflicting at least a third of them. The convention was the apparent origin of a broader outbreak within the capital city, which thereafter spread rapidly throughout Iran.

The virus entered Japan repeatedly throughout August and September, but these introductions did not spark any larger outbreak. The first "true epidemic" began in early October, almost entirely confined to school settings.

In the USSR, the first cases of the flu began to appear in mid-December.

It reached Africa and South America by 1969.

The development of the pandemic at first resembled that of the 1957 pandemic, which had spread unencumbered throughout the spring and summer and had become truly worldwide by October, by which point nearly all countries were experiencing their first or even second wave. However, the two experiences eventually diverged within a couple of months after their initial outbreaks. In 1968, many countries (e.g., the UK, Japan) did not immediately see outbreaks despite repeated introductions of the virus throughout August and September. Additionally, after September, there was little evidence of continued spread in new areas, despite similar importations of the virus into those areas. Epidemics did eventually develop during the winter months, but these were often mild (especially when compared to the US experience). In some countries (such as the UK and Japan), it was not until the following winter of 1969–1970 that truly severe epidemics developed.

At the time of the outbreak, the Hong Kong flu was also known as the "Mao flu" or "Mao Tse-tung flu". The name "Hong Kong flu" was not used within the colony, where the press dubbed it the "killer flu" after the first several deaths. Before the end of July, the South China Morning Post predicted that "Fingers of scorn" would be directed at Hong Kong in the coming weeks and stated that the colony had "acted, unwillingly, in our old role as an entrepot for a sneeze". (An outbreak of influenza in Hong Kong had been the first one to occur outside of mainland China during the 1957–1958 pandemic and had been what alerted the rest of the world to the developing situation, when international press began to report on it.)

A city councillor later decried the widespread adoption of the name "Hong Kong flu", claiming that it was "giving Hong Kong a bad name". He asked why foreign press and health authorities did not refer to it by its "proper name—China flu". China certainly did not escape associations with the new virus, however, as the name "Mao flu" suggests. It was speculated even at the time that the virus had originated from "Red China". These differing names for the flu resulted in some confusion: In January 1969, a British member of parliament asked David Ennals, the Secretary of State for Social Services, "in what way the characteristics of Mao flu can be distinguished from those of Hong Kong flu". In addition to these names, the virus was also often referred to as "Asian flu" or "Asiatic flu", as it was not yet considered an entirely different subtype from the previously circulating influenza A.

Worldwide deaths from the virus peaked in December 1968 and January 1969, when public health warnings and virus descriptions had been widely issued in the scientific and medical journals. Isolated countries like Albania reported the first cases of the flu in December 1969, reaching a peak in infections in the first months of the year 1970. In Berlin, the excessive number of deaths led to corpses being stored in subway tunnels, and in West Germany, garbage collectors had to bury the dead because of a lack of undertakers. In total, East and West Germany registered 60,000 estimated deaths. In some areas of France, half of the workforce was bedridden, and manufacturing suffered large disruptions because of absenteeism. The UK postal and rail services were also severely disrupted.

United States
After a major epidemic of H2N2 during the 1967–1968 flu season that resulted in outbreaks in all but four states, the Communicable Disease Center (today the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) in June 1968 forecasted little or no activity in 1968–1969. The vaccines for the upcoming season would incorporate the then-circulating seasonal flu strains, and the CDC's recommendations for their use extended mainly to individuals in older age groups (over the age of 45) and the chronically ill.

Following the outbreak in Hong Kong and the recognition that it had been caused by a new variant of influenza, the CDC on 4 September revised its prediction for the 1968–1969 season. An extensive outbreak across the country was now more likely. It repeated more strongly its recommendation that existing vaccines go only to those at highest risk and recommended vaccinating or revaccinating this group once the monovalent vaccine specific to the new variant became available.

The first cases of the virus were reported in Atlanta on 2 September. The first was a Marine Corps major returning from Vietnam, who fell ill four days after arriving back in the US. Two days later, his wife, who had not left the country, fell ill as well. The first outbreak occurred in a Marine Corps school in San Diego that same week. Before the end of the week, influenza surveillance was heightened all across the country, and summaries of the data were thereafter reported regularly by the CDC each week in its Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Further outbreaks among military personnel with connections to southeast Asia were soon to follow during the middle of September.

Isolated cases, mostly in those recently returning from the Far East, seeded the virus across the country throughout September. The first outbreaks in the civilian population occurred in late September and in October, and activity increased markedly throughout November, affecting 21 states by Thanksgiving.

The epidemic became widespread in December, involving all 50 states before the end of the year. Outbreaks occurred in colleges and hospitals, in some places the disease attacking upwards of 40% of their populations. Reports of absenteeism among students and nurses grew. Schools in Los Angeles, for example, reported rates ranging from 10 to 25%, compared to a typical 5 or 6%. The Greater New York Hospital Association reported absenteeism of 15 to 20% among staff and urged its members to impose visitor restrictions to safeguard patients.

Institutions in many states dismissed their students early for the holidays. In New York and many other areas, holiday sales suffered mid-December, which affected retailers blamed on the flu epidemic (though inflation could have contributed to this as well). Economic activity was also hampered by high levels of industrial absenteeism.

On 18 December, it was reported that President Johnson had been hospitalized at Bethesda Naval Hospital with flu-like symptoms, but whether the new variant was the cause of his illness was not made clear. He returned to the White House on 22 December. Vice President Humphrey was also reported to be ailing from the flu on the day Johnson's condition was revealed. Flu-like illness kept other senior governmental officials from their posts around this time, such as National Security Advisor Walt Rostow, Deputy White House Press Secretary Tom Johnson, and chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Earle Wheeler. On 23 December, it was reported that President-elect Nixon had been ill with the flu at his daughter's wedding the day before. Nixon later claimed that "the wedding cured the flu."

Peak influenza activity for most states most likely occurred in the latter half of December or early January, but the exact week was impossible to determine due to the holiday season. Activity declined throughout January. Excess pneumonia-influenza mortality passed the epidemic threshold during the first week of December and increased rapidly over the next month, peaking in the first half of January. It took until late March for mortality to return to normal levels. There was no second wave during this season.

Following the epidemic of influenza A, outbreaks of influenza B began in late January and continued until late March. Mostly elementary-school children were affected. This influenza B activity fit within the pattern of epidemics every three to six years, but the 1968–1969 flu season became the first documented instance of two major influenza A epidemics to occur in successive seasons.

Given the widespread epidemic levels of influenza A activity in 1968–1969, the CDC in June 1969 predicted little more than "sporadic cases" of influenza A in the 1969–1970 season. Influenza activity was indeed less than the preceding season, but there was "considerably more" than expected. The flu affected 48 states the following season but was widespread in only six, compared to 44 out of the 50 states in which activity was reported in 1968–1969.

In October 1969, the CDC, alongside Emory University, collaborated with the WHO to host an international conference on the novel influenza in Atlanta. A wide range of topics was discussed, including the origin and path of the pandemic, the experiences of individual countries, and effective control measures, such as vaccination.

Vaccine
It became apparent once the extent of antigenic variation in the virus was recognized that a new vaccine would be needed to protect against it. However, production of the previously recommended vaccines in the US had concluded by July 1968, and supply of fertilized chicken eggs, in which flu vaccines are grown, was limited. The first cultures of the virus were provided to manufacturers in August by the Division of Biologics of the National Institutes of Health for preliminary study. A strain isolated in Japan was sent to the US and, after showing greater potential for vaccine production, was given to manufacturers on 9 September.

In 1968, American microbiologist Maurice Hilleman was head of the virus and vaccination research programs at the pharmaceutical firm Merck & Co., one of the licensed vaccine manufacturers in the US. Hilleman, as the director of the Department of Respiratory Diseases at the Army Medical School (now the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research), had foreseen the 1957 pandemic and kickstarted vaccine production then. He was similarly instrumental in the development of the 1968 pandemic vaccine and, with the use of the Japanese strain, helped initiate early production. Merck would go on to produce over 9 million of the nearly 21 million doses of vaccine produced. The other half was produced together by Eli Lilly & Co., Lederle Laboratories, Parke Davis & Co., the National Drug Company, and Wyeth Laboratories. All of these except Wyeth had been involved in the production of the 1957 vaccine.

On 15 November, 66 days after the production strain became available, the first batch of 110,000 doses of vaccine was released, most of which went to the Armed Forces. This represented a quicker turnaround than the release of the first doses of the 1957 vaccine, which took three months after its production strain became available. At this time, the flu was spreading fast around the country. There was much interest within the press and among public figures in the vaccine. On 18 November, the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association announced that 17.5 million doses would be available for civilian use but said that "substantial quantities" would only come after the New Year. By the end of the year, over 10 million doses had been released. At this point, influenza was widespread in the country.

Notably, the crew of Apollo 8 received the vaccine on 3 December prior to their mission later in the month. President Johnson received "two types" of vaccine prior to his bout of flu in December, but it is not clear if one of these was the pandemic vaccine. Johnson, 60 at the time, was in poor health and had been hospitalized several times during his presidency. He thus would have been prioritized for vaccine given the CDC recommendations, even outside of being the president.

Lots of vaccine continued to be released throughout January 1969, with nearly 21 million doses available by the end of the month. By this point, however, influenza activity and subsequent mortality had already peaked. Demand for the vaccine diminished and a considerable surplus remained. Given the time it took to build up antibodies, it is unlikely a significant number of people were effectively immunized to alter the course of the epidemic. Hilleman himself would later acknowledge that the vaccine was "too little and too late" for most of the country. However, it was estimated that a "considerably higher" proportion of the recommended priority group of older and chronically ill persons received the pandemic vaccine than in 1957. Nevertheless, even after the debacle that was the vaccination effort in 1957, US health officials by 1968 still had "no meaningful information regarding [influenza vaccine's] actual distribution", such as "to what extent it actually reaches persons at highest risk."

Following the epidemic in the US, leftover vaccine was made available for the southern hemisphere and parts of Europe where the main outbreak had not yet happened. The Japanese strain of the new variant was incorporated into the bivalent vaccines recommended for the 1969–1970 flu season in the US.

Outside the US, vaccination efforts were undertaken in many countries in anticipation of an epidemic. In contrast to US policy, Japan had, since 1963, carried out mass vaccination campaigns against influenza every year regardless of whether an epidemic was expected. This began with the immunization of all children in kindergartens and primary and secondary schools followed by the vaccination of those working in crowded conditions. Enough vaccine was produced each year to vaccinate about 24 million people (nearly a quarter of Japan's population at this time), and this became the goal in 1968, targeting the same priority groups as in a typical flu season.

The same Japanese strain used for vaccine production in the US was immediately sent out to the seven manufacturing firms in Japan. It was soon decided a bivalent vaccine consisting of two parts the new variant and one part influenza B would be produced, in contrast to the US's use of monovalent vaccine. The objective was also set that enough vaccine to immunize about 12 million people would be produced by the end of October, with the hope of at least vaccinating children to guard against an epidemic developing out of schools. After some delay, the mass vaccination campaign was nearly completed before the end of the year.

Yugoslavia received the Japanese strain in mid-October and immediately began experimental trials prior to large-scale production. During this time before the new vaccine was ready, 1.5 million doses of seasonal influenza A vaccine were distributed for use. Ten million doses of the pandemic vaccine had been produced by mid-January 1969, and nearly 1 million people were immunized before the end of February. About 100,000 doses were designated for the mass immunization of schoolchildren.

In Denmark, the influenza department at the governmental Statens Serum Institut produced about 200,000 doses of pandemic vaccine during the winter of 1968–1969, incorporating a strain isolated in Stockholm. There were no particular difficulties in production, but yield was poor.

Millions of doses of vaccine were available in South Africa before its epidemic began at the end of March 1969, which afforded the opportunity to perform "limited studies" of its effectiveness.

By January 1969, vaccine production in Australia was underway at the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories (CSL), then a department of the federal government. The trivalent pandemic vaccine, composed of two influenza A strains and a B strain, was anticipated for release in early March ahead of the winter flu season. The inoculation consisted of a two-dose series, each given four weeks apart.

CSL was aggressive in its promotion of the vaccine, at least to doctors. A spokesman for the laboratories described the new virus as "the worst flu we have had" and called an epidemic that year "almost certain". In light of the situation, the Australian Pensioners Federation in early January wrote to Minister for Health Jim Forbes "demanding" that the vaccine be given free of charge to pensioners. In contrast to CSL's bolder predictions, Forbes described an outbreak that winter as "possible" but did not think it would "necessarily be serious or extensive". While the Department of Health reviewed the question of pandemic vaccine allocation in Australia, the government exported 1 million doses of its vaccine to Britain, already at the peak of its epidemic.

In early February, the epidemiology committee of Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council met in Melbourne to discuss the influenza threat and the best use of vaccine the coming winter. A "serious epidemic" was considered the "strongest possibility", and it was recommended to Forbes that older people, children, and pregnant women receive free immunization against the flu. However, the council advised against a mass vaccination campaign, citing the findings of its study which showed the unreliable protection against infection of the present vaccines, and considered it unwise to vaccinate healthy people while the limited supply could be better used to mitigate severe outcomes in at-risk groups.

On the last day of February, the Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee met to consider the question of making the pandemic vaccine a pharmaceutical benefit for pensioners. Before the end of the week, Forbes announced that shots would be given for free to all pensioners and their dependents, representing about two-thirds of the three groups recommended for priority immunization. The policy would go into effect starting 1 April.

Vaccination against the flu was recommended beginning 1 March, but issues surrounding availability of vaccine soon became apparent throughout the month. In response to Representative Gordon Scholes of Victoria, who had heard complaints from chemists unable to acquire vaccine, Forbes clarified that bulk orders from larger establishments would be met first. He relayed the expectation of the director of CSL that the present situation would be met once quantities of single doses became available in early April.

In the middle of March, Forbes assured that all medical practitioners would be able to acquire the vaccine by the middle of April. He described the new type of flu as milder than that which Australia had typically seen each year.

Representative Charles Jones of Newcastle later in the month questioned Forbes why his home city's order had not been filled. Forbes revealed the export of 1 million doses to Britain earlier in the year but assured that the order "did not delay, or in any way hinder, [the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories'] capacity to fill Australian orders" and that there would be enough supply to meet expected demand. By this time, 1,755,000 doses had been released, and production continued its pace of 200,000 doses per week.

Despite these assurances from Forbes, the Director General of the Department of Health William Refshauge sent a letter on 9 April to all doctors in the country asking them not to vaccinate healthy people until at-risk groups in the community have been inoculated. Forbes reported meeting with the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories commission to discuss how to speed up distribution of vaccine. Two days later, the director of CSL, W. R. Lane, dismissed criticism of the supply situation from the New South Wales branch of the Australian Medical Association as "a lot of nonsense". Contradicting the laboratories' more forceful marketing earlier in the year, he downplayed the likelihood of a serious epidemic but shared the expectation of 4 million doses distributed by the end of May, eight times as much as the average annual total distribution of 500,000 vaccine doses.

On 22 April, Forbes testified in the House of Representatives regarding the vaccine situation. He reported 2.5 million doses had been produced by this time since February. When asked by Representative Theo Nicholls of South Australia to consider importing vaccine to alleviate the present shortage, Forbes noted that the country had already imported the 150,000 doses available. He lamented CSL's recent subjection to a "good deal of abuse" regarding the "temporary shortages" around the country, repeating the comparison between the present production effort and the country's average annual distribution of only 500,000 doses. That same day, N. F. Keith, president of the Victorian branch of the Pharmacy Guild, called on CSL to explain the situation surrounding vaccine supply to the public, which was putting pressure on chemists due to the lack of vaccines.

On 25 April, it was reported that the Department of Health had reimported the remaining vaccine from the order of 1 million that the government had exported to Britain in January. After being sent to Britain, packaged there, and then sent back to Australia, it was sold to doctors at a markup of nearly 50 percent. Doctors criticized the Department and CSL's poor planning with respect to vaccine supply and the decision to export vaccine to Britain when it had already reached the peak of its flu season. They also blamed the shortage on an overreaction by the public, a response which they considered largely due to public statements made by CSL and health officials. The Department later attributed the decision to reimport the vaccine to a desire to ensure a reliable supply for pensioners. It also denied any involvement in the commercial sales of vaccine, in response to reporting on price markups on the reimported vaccine, saying that all it did was authorize the reimportation and list the product as a pharmaceutical benefit. The government itself was paying the same for the reimported vaccine as it was for that being distributed by CSL.

By the end of April, 2.8 million doses of vaccine had been produced and distributed, with no signs of production slowing down. 250,000 doses were now being produced each week, and nearly half a million more were anticipated for 2 May.

Aftermath
The H3N2 virus displaced the previously circulating H2N2 virus, which first emerged in 1957, and returned during the following 1969–70 flu season, which resulted in a second, deadlier wave of deaths in Europe, Japan, and Australia.

Following the season of intense activity in many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, there was relatively low incidence of flu the subsequent two global flu seasons, from October 1970 to September 1971. Influenza B was predominant in the north, causing extensive outbreaks in the United States, but minimal in the south. The Hong Kong virus, on the other hand, was responsible for some large outbreaks in the Southern Hemisphere, some most likely occurring in populations that had still not been exposed to the virus.

It was during this period that the city of Coonoor, in India, experienced a "fairly extensive" outbreak, in July 1971. Samples of the virus responsible were collected but their significance was not immediately recognized. The virus did not immediately spread to other countries, or at least did not immediately cause outbreaks, but it was amid an epidemic in England in early 1972, fueled by more original strains, that a variant showing considerable antigenic drift was identified in one isolate tested out of over 700. It ultimately came to be designated A/England/42/72. It was soon recognized, by comparison with the strains isolated then, that this virus had been the one responsible for the epidemic in India.

The novel variant did not immediately spread after that outbreak, and circulating strains largely continued to resemble quite closely the original Hong Kong virus through April 1972. In May, however, at the onset of the flu season in the Southern Hemisphere, epidemics caused by the variant struck Malaysia, Singapore, and Australia, though South Africa and South America were unaffected. The die seemingly cast, the novel variant went on to cause widespread outbreaks in the Northern Hemisphere, by which point US press had dubbed the bug "London flu". It completely replaced the previous strains still resembling the original pandemic virus. In places such as the US and England and Wales, the 1972–1973 flu season was the deadliest since their respective deadliest waves of the pandemic between 1968 and 1970.

Influenza A/H3N2 remains in circulation today as a strain of seasonal flu.

Clinical data
Flu symptoms typically lasted four to five days, but some cases persisted for up to two weeks.

Virology
The Hong Kong flu was the first known outbreak of the H3N2 strain, but there is serologic evidence of H3N1 infections in the late 19th century. The virus was isolated in Queen Mary Hospital.

Soon after the initial outbreak in Hong Kong, the virus responsible was recognized to be antigenically distinct from the current influenza A strain in circulation (which at the time was called "A2") but was generally not considered an entirely new subtype. Analysis using the conventional techniques at the time revealed that it was indeed very different from older A2 viruses but also, at the same time, seemingly related to them, depending on one's reading of the data. Experiments involving newer methods of analysis soon identified another surface antigen, neuraminidase, in addition to hemagglutinin, which had already been recognized. It thus became clear that it was the hemagglutinin that had changed compared to older strains while the neuraminidase was identical. These findings, in part, prompted the World Health Organization in 1971 to revise its system of nomenclature for influenza viruses, taking into consideration both antigens. The novel virus was thereafter designated H3N2, indicating its partial similarity to H2N2 but also its antigenic distinction.

The H3N2 pandemic flu strain contained genes from a low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus. Specifically, it had acquired a new hemagglutinin gene and a new PB1 gene, while it preserved the neuraminidase and five other genes from the preexisting human H2N2 strain. The new hemagglutinin helped H3N2 evade preexisting immunity in humans. It is possible that the new PB1 facilitated viral replication and human-to-human transmission.

The new subtype arose in pigs coinfected with avian and human viruses and was soon transferred to humans. Swine were considered the original "intermediate host" for influenza because they supported reassortment of divergent subtypes. However, other hosts appear capable of similar coinfection (such as many poultry species), and direct transmission of avian viruses to humans is possible. H1N1, associated with the 1918 flu pandemic, may have been transmitted directly from birds to humans.

Accumulated antibodies to the neuraminidase or internal proteins may have resulted in many fewer casualties than most other pandemics. However, cross-immunity within and between subtypes of influenza is poorly understood.

The basic reproduction number of the flu in this period was estimated at 1.80.

Mortality
The estimates of the total death toll due to Hong Kong flu (from its beginning in July 1968 until the outbreak faded during the winter of 1969–70 ) vary:
 * The World Health Organization and Encyclopaedia Britannica estimated the number of deaths due to Hong Kong flu to be between 1 and 4 million globally.
 * The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated that, in total, the virus caused the deaths of 1 million people worldwide.

However, the death rate from the Hong Kong flu was lower than most other 20th-century pandemics. The World Health Organization estimated the case fatality rate of Hong Kong flu to be lower than 0.2%. The disease was allowed to spread through the population without restrictions on economic activity, and a vaccine created by American microbiologist Maurice Hilleman and his team became available four months after it had started. Fewer people died during this pandemic than in previous pandemics for several reasons:

 * 1) Some immunity against the N2 flu virus may have been retained in populations struck by the Asian Flu strains that had been circulating since 1957.
 * 2) The pandemic did not gain momentum until near the winter school holidays in the Northern Hemisphere, thus limiting the infection's spread.
 * 3) Improved medical care gave vital support to the very ill.
 * 4) The availability of antibiotics that were more effective against secondary bacterial infections.

By region
For this pandemic, there were two geographically distinct mortality patterns. In North America (the United States and Canada), the first pandemic season (1968–69) was more severe than the second (1969–70). In the "smoldering" pattern seen in Europe and Asia (United Kingdom, France, Japan, and Australia), the second pandemic season was two to five times more severe than the first. The United States health authorities estimated that about 34,000 to 100,000 people died in the US; most excess deaths were in those aged 65 and older.

title: Hong Kong flu


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User:Laura D

Hi, I'm originally from the UK but currently work in technology research for a publishing company in New York. You can read more at my site but it's mainly about work - my social life is protected because it is far too crazy to share with the general public and my boss :)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Laura D


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Illinois Route 394

Illinois Route 394 (IL 394), also known as the Calumet Expressway, is a 14.6 mi four-lane state highway that travels north from a junction with IL 1 south of Crete to an interchange in South Holland with Interstate 294/Interstate 94/Interstate 80 (I-294/I-94/I-80, Tri-State Tollway/Bishop Ford Freeway; this route is an extension of, but not part of the latter freeway). Although not an Interstate Highway, Illinois 394 is an Interstate-standard highway from its junction with Sauk Trail at Sauk Village to its northern terminus at the I-294/I-94/I-80 interchange in South Holland. IL 394 functions as a bypass of IL 1 to the west, of which it was formerly part, and provides access to southern suburbs of Chicago.

Route description
IL 394 begins as a four-lane arterial at a junction with IL 1 south of Crete, continuing as through traffic from IL 1 north. The highway curves to the east before assuming a north–south alignment, running parallel to IL 1 to the east, heading north as a surface street arterial, before becoming an Interstate-standard freeway at an intersection with Sauk Trail in Sauk Village. Shortly thereafter, the freeway meets U.S. Highway 30 (US 30, Lincoln Highway) in Ford Heights. Continuing northward, IL 394 ends at an interchange with I-294/I-94/I-80 (Tri-State Tollway/Bishop Ford Freeway) interchange in South Holland.

History
Before taking the IL 394 designation, the route was a former alignment of IL 1. In the 1950s, a freeway, then known as the Calumet Expressway, was constructed south of Chicago as an extension of Doty Avenue. There were traffic lights at the intersections of Doty with 111th, 115th, and 130th, but interchanges were built in the early 1960s. The expressway was originally designated as IL 1, Alternate US 30, and certain portions as US 6 and IL 83. By 1964, IL 1 was restored to its old alignment along Halsted Street, and US 6 and IL 83 were routed onto Torrence Avenue, while the IL 394 designation was applied to the expressway south of the portion designated as I-94. At this time, IL 1 was discontinued north of I-57. In 1962, the connection between the Calumet Expressway and Dan Ryan Expressway opened and is now signed as part of the Bishop Ford. In 1996, the Calumet Expressway was renamed in honor of Bishop Louis Henry Ford, the leader of the Church of God in Christ who had died the previous year.

In 2006 and 2007, IL 394 was reconstructed north of Glenwood–Dyer Road as part of the massive Kingery Expressway reconstruction effort. The intersection with I-80, I-94 and I-294 was improved. In the southbound direction, the ramps were rebuilt, with a gentler left-exit curve for I-94 to travel from the Bishop Ford to the Kingery Expressway. The cloverleaf-style ramps to southbound IL 394 were replaced with a flyover and the distributor leg of a collector–distributor ramp from eastbound I-80/I-294. In the northbound direction, a dangerous ramp to eastbound I-80/I-94 was replaced with a ramp to a set of collector–distributor lanes, intended for US 6 and IL 83 (Torrence Avenue). A cloverleaf ramp from eastbound I-80/I-294 was replaced with a flyover, and the merge area where IL 394 terminates was improved. (The I-94 ramp itself has been moved nearly a mile [1.6 km] east to before Torrence Avenue). These improvements were completed in June 2007.

title: Illinois Route 394


text:
Talk:Muse Software

Anonymous addition
This was added to the main article at the end by an anon user. Anyone want to take a shot at putting back in the article in a Wiki manner is welcome to:
 * From what I know, the company was sold on the auction block due to bankruptcy. All the game titles were sold to two auctioneers.  The furniture and computer equipment was sold to Bill Stealey and Sid Meier of Microprose.  I went home with the MUSE's books.  Silas Warner, to my knowledge, did not own the rights to Castle Wolfenstein, since they were sold with the rest of the company in bankruptcy.  There are several versions to this story and one has Carmack and Romero finding out that the copyrights had expired, which is not true since a copyright lasts for 75 years where a company owns the rights and 50 years after the death of the creator when an individual owns the rights.  Copyrights can be renewed by changing the design slightly and applying again.
 * From what I know, the company was sold on the auction block due to bankruptcy. All the game titles were sold to two auctioneers.  The furniture and computer equipment was sold to Bill Stealey and Sid Meier of Microprose.  I went home with the MUSE's books.  Silas Warner, to my knowledge, did not own the rights to Castle Wolfenstein, since they were sold with the rest of the company in bankruptcy.  There are several versions to this story and one has Carmack and Romero finding out that the copyrights had expired, which is not true since a copyright lasts for 75 years where a company owns the rights and 50 years after the death of the creator when an individual owns the rights.  Copyrights can be renewed by changing the design slightly and applying again.

— Frecklefoot | Talk 21:33, Nov 30, 2004 (UTC)

 * I have no personal knowledge of the above, but I also believe that Silas didn't own the Wolfenstein rights anymore; id tracked down the guy who did have the rights, who was selling Castle Wolfenstein disks "out of his basement", and bought the rights from him. Obviously a source would be useful here.  Tempshill 19:57, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

What MUSE stands for?
I'm pretty sure I saw in an old computer magazine that MUSE actually stands for 'Microcomputer Users' Software Exchange', can anyone confirm this? 203.167.158.143 02:26, 25 December 2006 (UTC)Duncan, 25/12

Three Mile Island
Stumbled upon an interesting source from a Google Books archive of InfoWorld magazine from 1981 which indicated that Muse were the publishers for the mildly successful Apple II game "Three Mile Island". I haven't found evidence of any publisher information anywhere else. If somebody is able to verify this source it might be a useful addition given the rarity of information on the game title on the internet. - Source

--Twistie.man (talk) 14:41, 3 September 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Muse Software


text:
User:Oliver s.

Hi, if you want to talk to me, better go there: Oliver in [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benutzer:Oliver_s. wp de.]

--Oliver s. 21:35, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Oliver s.


text:
Inman Park

Inman Park is an intown neighborhood on the east side of Atlanta, Georgia, and its first planned suburb. It was named for Samuel M. Inman.

History
Today's neighborhood of Inman Park includes areas that were originally designated
 * Inman Park proper (today the Inman Park Historic District)
 * Moreland Park (today the Inman Park-Moreland Historic District)
 * part of Copenhill Park (properties on Atlantis, the south side of Highland, and the north sides of Sinclair and a block of Austin)
 * former industrial areas on the western side, now mixed-use developments including Inman Park Village and North Highland Steel

The area was part of the battlefield in the Battle of Atlanta in 1864.

Atlanta's first streetcar suburb
Inman Park (proper) was planned in the late 1880s by Joel Hurt, a civil engineer and real-estate developer who intended to create a rural oasis connected to the city by the first of Atlanta's electric streetcar lines, along Edgewood Avenue. The East Atlanta Land Company acquired and developed more than 130 acres east of the city and Hurt named the new suburb for his friend and business associate, Samuel M. Inman. Joseph Forsyth Johnson was hired as landscape designer for Inman Park who included curvilinear street designs and liberal usage of open spaces in his planning.

The Atlanta Constitution in 1896 grandly described Inman Park:

"High up above the city, where the purest breezes and the brightest sunshine drove away the germs of disease, and where nature had lavished her best gifts, the gentlemen who conceived the thought of Inman Park found the locality above all others which they desired. It was to be a place of homes, of pretty homes, green lawns, and desirable inhabitants. And all save those who would make desirable residents have been excluded. ... It's the prettiest, highest, healthiest and most desirable locality I ever saw. Everybody is friendly and neighborly. ... And as far as accessibility it ranks second to no residence portion of the city. We have three car lines and frequent schedules."

Like new developments throughout the United States at the time, but in stark contrast to the attitudes prevalent in the neighborhood today, Inman Park was conceived of and promoted as a segregated community.

Moreland Park was by contrast developed as a more traditional, incremental building of sub-divisions as opposed to the grand plan for Inman Park proper.

Decline
The arrival of the automobile allowed upper class Atlantans to live in suburbs farther north from downtown workplaces, such as Morningside and what is now considered Buckhead. Inman Park became less fashionable and the exuberant Victorian architecture came to seem dated. The mansions came to be subdivided into apartments.

Similar to other intown neighborhoods such as Virginia Highland, Inman Park fell to blight during the white middle and upper class exodus to the northern suburbs in the 1950s and 1960s, and was:

an economically depressed neighborhood of mostly blue-collar white folks, elderly couples who could not afford to move out and families on disability and welfare. They lived in rented bungalows or big houses chopped up into tiny roach-infested apartments.

Atlanta's first intown neighborhood to gentrify
Driving through the neighborhood on his way to appraise stained glass windows in the doomed home of Judge Durwood T. Pye on Poplar Circle, Robert Griggs was smitten by the extraordinary architecture of the Beath-Dickey House, then a dilapidated multi-unit rental property. He and his partner, Robert Aiken, bought the house and restored it to a single-family dwelling. They were followed by others who restored homes; founded Inman Park Restoration, the neighborhood association; and created a neighborhood newsletter, a garden club to rehabilitate public spaces, and a pre-school. To publicize the progress they were making, they began a Tour of Homes with a small festival, which has grown into the hugely popular Inman Park Festival, held each spring.

Freeway revolt against I-485
During this same period, there was an intense fight against the I-485 freeway which was to be built through the neighborhood, although many properties in Inman Park, as well as the entire neighboring neighborhood of Copenhill, were torn down in preparation for freeway construction.

Inman Park today
After decades of restoration and renewal, Inman Park is now regarded as a highly desirable intown neighborhood with a mixture of rental and owner-occupied houses and condominiums. Built up as it was over decades, the neighborhood housing now ranges from tiny mill town shotguns to the Victorian mansions of the original development, intermixed with bungalows of all sizes built during the first three decades of the 20th century. Like its housing, the makeup of Inman Park has changed since its inception, with a population that is 25% non-white and of varying economic levels—although increasing housing prices are beginning to force more economic homogeneity. Since the beginning of its renewal, inclusivity and a strong sense of community have distinguished Inman Park. The neighborhood association has always welcomed renters and homeowners alike, with nominal annual dues, while the Inman Park Festival, which attracts tens of thousands of visitors every spring, brings residents together to produce the largest all-volunteer festival in Georgia. The Festival's centerpiece is the Tour of Homes, which showcases the wide variety of sizes and types of residences in the neighborhood.

Former industrial areas on the west side of the neighborhood have been redeveloped into mixed-use complexes. The former General Pipe and Foundry site is now North Highland Steel and the Mead paper plant site is now Inman Park Village. In the early 1990s the former Atlanta Stove Works was transformed by swapping out two letters of its name and became the Atlanta Stage Works, a film and media production center that eventually housed the early Tyler Perry film studios and the National AIDS Quilt. In 2015 it was converted into a mixed-use office and restaurant space, to be added to the space across Krog Street to form the Krog Street Market.

Geography
Inman Park is bordered by:
 * the BeltLine Eastside Trail on the west, across which lies the Old Fourth Ward
 * Freedom Parkway on the north, across which lies Poncey-Highland
 * Moreland Avenue on the east, across which lies Candler Park
 * DeKalb Avenue on the south, across which lie Cabbagetown and Reynoldstown

Little Five Points district is located where Inman Park and Candler Park meet at Moreland Avenue and Euclid/McClendon.

Architecture
Inman Park contains Atlanta's best collection of residential architecture from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Styles include Queen Anne, high-style Italianate and Romanesque mansion as well as smaller bungalows, shotguns, and foursquares. Inman Park was Atlanta's first example of a garden suburb, with great attention paid to street layout, parks and other public space, and would inspire other Atlanta garden suburbs such as the Frederick Law Olmsted-designed Druid Hills.

There are two historic districts within the Inman Park neighborhoods: the Inman Park historic district, and the Inman Park-Moreland Historic District, originally the separate suburb of Moreland Park.

Notable houses include:
 * Beath-Dickey House
 * Callan Castle (Candler mansion)
 * Kriegshaber House (Wrecking Ball Brewpub)

Other points of interest

 * The Krog Street Tunnel under the CSX Railroad connects Inman Park with Cabbagetown and is famous for street art.
 * Krog Street Market is a gourmet food hall
 * Edgewood Avenue in both Inman Park and Old Fourth Ward is a restaurant street that has been gaining acclaim especially since 2013.
 * Highland Avenue connects Inman Park to the Poncey Highland and Virginia Highland neighborhoods. The Highland Avenue corridor offers dozens of local restaurants and shops.

Parks
Parks in Inman Park include Springvale Park, a pet project of Joel Hurt and designed by the Olmsted Brothers. Part of Freedom Park lies in the neighborhood, which the BeltLine trail also borders. There are also smaller parks: Delta Park, Inman Park, the park in Inman Park Village, and the Bass Recreation Center.

Government
Inman Park is in NPU N. Neighbors participate in the Inman Park Neighborhood Association (IPNA).

Education
Inman Park residents are served by Atlanta Public Schools.

Zoned schools include:
 * Mary Lin Elementary School (located in nearby Candler Park)
 * Inman Middle School
 * Midtown High School

Transportation
MARTA runs bus service and rail service. The Inman Park / Reynoldstown MARTA station is located at the south end of the neighborhood.

title: Inman Park


text:
User:Wikibob/Wiki Farms

I've tested some Wiki farms, using Mozilla (latest Firefox or the full suite).

Registerability?

 * Cafewiki - register ok, no activation email received
 * crao.net French - register simple, no email needed
 * SeedWiki - register ok, confirmation email received
 * Xwiki.com - register ok, no activation email received
 * wiki.fr - register ok, no activation email received

Usability?
Compare with this review. -Wikibob | Talk 21:37, 2004 Nov 30 (UTC)
 * Cafewiki no editing possible if user not activated
 * crao.net yes, straightforward, almost as easy as Media Wiki!
 * SeedWiki yes, but poor interface
 * Xwiki.com no editing possible if user not activated
 * wiki.fr no editing possible if user not activated

title: User:Wikibob/Wiki Farms


text:
Richard Windsor

Richard Windsor (dates unknown) served the Lewis and Clark Expedition and Corps of Discovery as a hunter, scout, and woodsman.

Windsor was recruited at Kaskaskia in 1803, joining the party as a Private at Camp Dubois, January 1, 1804. Windsor was a great hunter and woodsmen and he was very beneficial to the expedition. He is mentioned in the Lewis and Clark journals for an accident that almost cost him his life. Crossing a bluff when he was with Lewis, he slipped and fell. Lewis ran to the edge and told him to dig his knife in and climb up. He did so, and escaped death. After the expedition, Windsor settled in Missouri but soon rejoined the army and served until 1819. He later lived along the Sangamon River in Illinois.

title: Richard Windsor


text:
Kasékò

Kasékò is a musical genre from French Guiana. It also designates the drums as well as the dance of this musical genre. This is a fusion of African, European and American styles.

Like gwo ka and bélé, Kasékò from French Guiana is also a rhythm and a dance and is played with 3 drums and a Ti-bwa.

Etymology
The Guianan Creole term Kasékò derives from the French expression casser le corps (break the body) which was used during slavery in French Guiana to indicate a swift dance.

Origin
Kasékò is an autogenic music based on the traditional dances of African slaves and mixed with European and Amerindian cultural contributions.

Instruments
The Kasékò is played with four instruments :
 * Tibwa or ti-bwa ;
 * Three "tanbou" (drum) :
 * Tanbou foulé or foulé kasékò,
 * Tanbou koupé or dékoupé,
 * Tanbou plonbé or foulé fon.

title: Kasékò


text:
Talk:Home improvement

early comments
Perhaps add a page for the sitcom? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.59.91.123 (talk • contribs)

The page is there except the I of Improvement is capitalized. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.246.227.50 (talk • contribs)

I think if you type home improvement, it should lead straight to the disambiguation page —Preceding unsigned comment added by 63.215.29.200 (talk) 23:23, 2 June 2008 (UTC)

Trivia Section
Added a trivia section and moved the stuff about TV shows into it from the introduction. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.134.61.255 (talk) 22:06, 22 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Lists of trivia should be avoided. Please see Trivia sections. Thanks, Pdcook (talk) 14:14, 10 November 2009 (UTC)

External Link
Hi my name is Chad Clark and I own www.home-projects-diy.com, which is an informational site on home projects. I would like to put a link on my page for wikipedia because I believe there is a lot of valuable information here for the do it yourselfer. I would like to habe a backlink as well. Please consider my request and thank you for your time.

Thank You, DIYProjects (talk) 14:54, 21 May 2009 (UTC)

 * You don't need permission to link to Wikipedia - go for it. However, it is not appropriate for this article to link to your site unless it would add to the article - see WP:ELNO. --Alynna (talk) 13:45, 7 June 2009 (UTC)

Reward offered
Editors of this article who may be interested in some cool cash, take heed! - 2601:42:C100:9D83:D139:E3C0:4FBC:7F82 (talk) 17:00, 25 October 2015 (UTC)

Nomination of Portal:Home improvement for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether Portal:Home improvement is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The page will be discussed at Wikipedia:Miscellany for deletion/Portal:Home improvement until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the page during the discussion, including to improve the page to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the deletion notice from the top of the page. North America1000 09:23, 27 April 2019 (UTC)

Proposed merge of Renovation into Home improvement
Both articles describe the same subject, and have largely similar content. — CrafterNova [ TALK ]  [ CONT ] 09:44, 6 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose, as these are distinct topics warranting separate coverage: renovation is about more than homes, and include maintenance as well as improvement. Klbrain (talk) 21:50, 12 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose, as renovation can be renovations to other buildings and ideas besides homes. This is prevalent in the article as it also discusses ideas of community renovation and commercial renovations. Hansen.lindsey15 (talk) 13:44, 14 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose per Oppose comments above. Libcub (talk) 04:10, 1 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Home improvement


text: User talk:69.151.104.76

title: User talk:69.151.104.76


text:
User talk:Phrodu

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! --Flockmeal 21:41, Nov 30, 2004 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
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 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style

title: User talk:Phrodu


text:
User talk:Parihav

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Where to ask a question, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! --Flockmeal 21:41, Nov 30, 2004 (UTC)
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Help pages
 * Tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Manual of Style
 * Hi. There is a Notice board for India-related topics. We're working on a Indian colloaboration of the week. I hope you join us. -- utcursch 12:27, Feb 13, 2005 (UTC)

McMaster University images
Hi, can you tell me the source of the McMaster university images Image:00 00006 1a.jpg. Did you take it yourself?  — Zeimusu | Talk 00:43, 16 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Image:Banffmountain.jpg
Hi. You uploaded Image:Banffmountain.jpg, which is actually Castle Mountain. Did you take this picture yourself? If so, I can mark it as GFDL so it can be freely used by others. Thanks. RedWolf 19:40, Feb 19, 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes I took this picture myself. Sure you can mark it as GFDL.  Parihav

 * Done, how about that MacMaster image?   — Zeimusu | Talk 23:18, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes I took both pictures on the mcmaster page as well, and they can be freely distributed. Parihav

Image Tagging for Image:Salukhan.jpg
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This is an automated notice by OrphanBot. For assistance on the image use policy, see User talk:Carnildo/images. 11:06, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

Indo vs. South Asian
I noticed that you chnaged the link on Demographics of Canada from Indo Canadian to South Asian. This is good, but to be consistant with the others, it should refer to South Asian Canadian (see Ukrainian Canadian, Irish Canadian). However you will see that this simply redicts to Indo Canadian. Perhaps you could create a disambig page for South Asian Canadian? Kevlar67 03:13, 25 April 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Gerardstreet.jpeg
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Indo-Canadian
There is a new template for Indo-Canadians --Nmj 00:44, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

Image tagging for Image:Arshad warsi.jpg
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Image:Salman salaam.jpg
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Arshad_warsi.jpg
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Saskatchewan WikiProject
Hello. A new WikiProject about Saskatchewan has been started as an attempt to better organize information in articles related to the province of Saskatchewan, Canada. If you would like to participate, you can Saskatchewan articles, add Saskatchewan content, or visit the project page, where you can join / edit the project and/or contribute to the discussion. WikiProject Saskatchewan

An Invite to join Saskatchewan WikiProject
SriMesh | talk  02:58, 31 July 2007 (UTC)

University of Saskatchewan Celebrate the Anniversary

 * Please would you visit Article Collaboration and Improvement Drive and vote for this University of Saskatchewan article!!!  There is an aim to achieve feature status with the University of Saskatchewan article on wikipedia. Tell any and all other Saskatchewan editors / students / alumni you know who wiki to vote also please!!!  Help requested. Thank you!!! SriMesh |  talk  02:58, 31 July 2007 (UTC)

Orphaned non-free media (Image:Aamir in fanaa2.jpg)
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do it
Sign my userpage plz Gao  gier  Talk! 21:45, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Parm gill

The article Parm gill has been proposed for deletion because under Wikipedia policy, all biographies of living persons created after March 18, 2010, must have at least one source that directly supports material in the article.

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Notification of automated file description generation
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ArbCom elections are now open!
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title: User talk:Parihav


text:
Asian flu (disambiguation)

The Asian flu or 1957–58 influenza pandemic was an influenza pandemic which originated in China.

Asian flu may also refer to:
 * Influenza A virus subtype H2N2, the virus that caused the pandemic
 * 1997 Asian financial crisis

title: Asian flu (disambiguation)


text:
User talk:Crystalllized

May 2014 disambig contest: let's do it again!
Greetings fellow disambiguator! Remember back in February when we made history by clearing the board for the first time ever, for the monthly disambiguation contest? Let's do it again in May! I personally will be aiming to lead the board next month, but for anyone who thinks they can put in a better effort, I will give a $10 Amazon gift card to any editor who scores more disambiguation points in May. Also, I will be setting up a one-day contest later in the month, and will try to set up more prizes and other ways to make this a fun and productive month. Cheers! bd2412 T 18:47, 28 April 2014 (UTC)

Interview for The Signpost

 * This message is being sent to you as a member of WikiProject Check Wikipedia

The WikiProject Report would like to focus on WikiProject Check Wikipedia for a Signpost article. This is an excellent opportunity to draw attention to your efforts and attract new members to the project. Would you be willing to participate in an interview? If so, here are the questions for the interview. Just add your response below each question and feel free to skip any questions that you don't feel comfortable answering. Multiple editors will have an opportunity to respond to the interview questions, so be sure to sign your answers. If you know anyone else who would like to participate in the interview, please share this with them. Thanks,  Rcsprinter123    (rap)  @ 14:52, 31 August 2014 (UTC)

Wikipedian for Tumblr?
is you. LonelyLaura (talk) 11:41, 25 September 2014 (UTC)
 * Huh? —AySz88\ ^ - ^ 17:21, 30 September 2014 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
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Possible removal of AWB access due to inactivity
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Happy Birthday!
 Happy Birthday! Have a very happy birthday on your special day!

Best wishes, CAPTAIN RAJU (T) 22:40, 1 June 2021 (UTC)

Removal from BDC
 Removal from member list You have been inactive for more than 6 months and have been removed from the Wikipedia Birthday Committee birthday list. If you become active again please feel free to re-add yourself.

Best wishes,  interstate five   00:01, 1 June 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Crystalllized


text:
HMS Iron Duke (1870)

HMS Iron Duke was the last of four Audacious-class ironclad central battery ironclads built for the Royal Navy in the late 1860s. Completed in 1871, the ship was briefly assigned to the Reserve Fleet as a guardship in Ireland, before she was sent out to the China Station as its flagship. Iron Duke returned four years later and resumed her duties as a guardship. She accidentally rammed and sank her sister ship, HMS Vanguard (1869), in a heavy fog in mid-1875 and returned to the Far East in 1878. The ship ran aground twice during this deployment and returned home in 1883. After a lengthy refit, Iron Duke was assigned to the Channel Fleet in 1885 and remained there until she again became a guardship in 1890. The ship was converted into a coal hulk a decade later and continued in that role until 1906 when she was sold for scrap and broken up.

Design and description
The Audacious class was designed as a second-class ironclad intended for overseas service. They were 280 ft long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 54 ft. Iron Duke had a draught of 21 ft forward and 22 ft aft. The Audacious-class ships displaced 6034 LT and had a tonnage of 3,774 tons burthen. They had a complement of 450 officers and ratings.

Iron Duke had a pair of two-cylinder, horizontal-return, connecting-rod steam engines, each driving a single 16 ft propeller using steam provided by six rectangular boilers. The engines were designed to give the ships a speed of 13 kn; Iron Duke reached a speed of 13.64 kn from 4268 ihp during her sea trials on 2 November 1870. She carried a maximum of 450 LT of coal.

The Audacious class was ship-rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 25054 sqft. Around 1871 they were re-rigged as barques with their sail area reduced to 23700 sqft To reduce drag, the funnel was telescopic and could be lowered. Under sail alone, they could reach 10 kn.

The main armament of the Audacious-class ships consisted of 10 RML 9 in rifled muzzle-loading guns. Six of these were positioned on the main deck, three on each broadside, and the other four guns were mounted on the corners of the upper deck battery. The battery protruded over the sides of the ships to give the guns a certain amount of end-on fire. The shell of the nine-inch gun weighed 254 lb while the gun itself weighed 12 LT. It had a muzzle velocity of 1420 ft/s and was rated with the ability to penetrate 11.3 in of wrought-iron armour at the muzzle.

The ships were equipped with four RML 6 in (152 mm) 71 cwt guns as chase guns, two in the bow and another pair in the stern. They fired a 64 lb, 6.3 in shell. They also had six RBL 20 pdr 3.75 in rifled breech-loading guns that were used as saluting guns. In 1878, the ships received four 14 in torpedo launchers on the main deck and the 6-inch guns were replaced by four breech-loading BL 5-inch guns during the mid-1880s.

The wrought iron waterline armour belt of the Audacious class covered the entire length of the ships. It was 8 in thick amidships, backed by 8 - 10 in of teak, and thinned to six inches towards the ends of the ships. It had a total height of 8 ft of which 5 ft was below water and 3 ft above at deep load. The main deck citadel's ends were protected by a 5 in forward bulkhead and a 4 in one aft. The sides and embrasures of the upper battery were six inches thick, but its ends were unprotected. The ships also had a one-man conning tower with walls 3 in thick.

Construction and career
Iron Duke, named after the nickname for Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, was the first ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy. The ship was laid down at Pembroke Dockyard on 23 August 1868, launched on 1 March 1870 and was completed on 1 January 1871, at a cost of £208,763. She was initially assigned as a First Reserve Guardship at Plymouth, but was assigned as the flagship of the China Station in September. En route to the Far East, she became the first ironclad to use the Suez Canal; virtually all of her coal had to be unloaded to reduce her draught and she was towed by three tugboats through the canal in three days. Relieved by her sister ship, HMS Audacious (1869), Iron Duke returned to the UK in 1875. To save money on the return ship, no tugboats were hired and the ship ran aground four times and frequently scraped the sides of the canal during her four-day transit. Upon her arrival, she was paid off in May.

Iron Duke recommissioned two months later and was assigned as the guardship at Hull. During the First Reserve Squadron's summer cruise on 1 September, she was en route with three other ironclads between Dublin and Queenstown (now Cobh). In a thick fog, the ship accidentally rammed her sister, Vanguard, off Kish Bank, in Dublin Bay. Iron Duke had her bowsprit wrecked, but was otherwise little damaged. Her ram, however, had torn a 9 by hole in Vanguard's side. The ram also damaged the watertight bulkhead between Vanguard's engine and boiler rooms which flooded both compartments and prevented her crew from using her steam-powered pumps. The ship sank in a little over an hour after all of the crew had abandoned ship. Following the collision, Iron Duke was overhauled at Plymouth Dockyard, with attention being given to the watertight doors on board. At 10:00 on 20 November 1877, Iron Duke departed from Plymouth for sea trials. She was 3 nmi out when it was found that the main sluice valve had been left open and she was sinking. Her crew closed the watertight doors and manned the pumps. An order was given to fire the distress signal, but it was found that there was no powder on board. The flag signal for "sinking" was made, but it was not noticed by HMS Black Prince (1861) for fifteen minutes. Black Prince repeated the signal to Mount Wise, which repeated the signal to Plymouth. In the meantime, a crewman had managed to close the valve. He was waist deep in water and had he been a few minutes later a diver would have been required. With the valve closed, the pumps were able to clear the water, and the ship was dry at 15:00. She put back to Plymouth, the trial being cancelled. It was subsequently revealed that four condenser valves, each 6 in diameter were involved. Difficulty in closing them was caused by excessive stiffness in the springs. This was alleviated by the fact that the valve handles had been lengthened during the refit, giving greater leverage. It was reported that efforts were made by those responsible for the refit to obstruct the Admiralty enquiry into the event.

Following the loss, Iron Duke replaced Vanguard as the guardship at Kingstown, County Dublin, where she received the latter's crew and remained until July 1877 when the ship began a lengthy refit that lasted until August 1878. She was inspected by Admiral Thomas Symonds, Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth, on 22 July. Iron Duke then departed Plymouth on 4 August, bound for the China Station; en route, she pulled the P&O steamship SS Bengal off a reef in the Red Sea on 7 September after two days' effort. Vice-Admiral Robert Coote hoisted his flag aboard Iron Duke on 9 November. on 9 May 1879, she ran aground at the mouth of the Yangtze. She was refloated with assistance 36 hours later. Minor damage was sustained, and she sailed to Hiogo, Japan to be [dry]docked. Iron Duke ran aground on a sandbar entering the Huangpu River in May 1880, after five days, she was pulled free by the American paddlewheel river gunboat USS Monocacy (1864) with little damage. Princes Arisugawa Taruhito and Arisugawa Takehito visited Iron Duke on 22 July while she was visiting Yokohama, Japan. Several weeks later, Arisugawa Takehito came aboard to serve as a midshipman. The ship struck a rock off the coast of Hokkaido en route to Aniva Bay, Sakhalin Island, on 30 July 1880. She floated off on 1 August after another ship had also grounded while trying to assist; her repairs required a month in drydock in Hong Kong. On 28 January 1881, Coote hauled down his flag and was relieved by Vice-Admiral George Willes, the new Commander-in-chief, of the China Station. On 10 October, the ship was drydocked in Nagasaki, Japan, and then sailed to Woosung, on 26 October. Iron Duke returned home in January 1883 and began a lengthy refit that included the replacement of her boilers.

On 16 April 1885, the ship became a member of Admiral Geoffrey Hornby's Particular Service Squadron until August, when she joined the Channel Squadron. After the ironclad HMS Sultan (1870) broke loose from her anchors in Lisbon on 24 December 1886 during a gale and accidentally rammed and sank the French steamship SS Ville de Victoria, Iron Duke's crew manned one boat in search for survivors, although it is uncertain how many they saved. The following year, Iron Duke participated in Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee Fleet review on 1 July 1887 at Spithead. She was reduced to reserve in 1890 and was converted to a coal hulk in 1900, serving at Kyles of Bute. The ship was transferred from Fleet Reserve to Dockyard Reserve at Portsmouth in April 1902, and eventually sold for scrap on 15 May 1906 to Galbraith of Glasgow.

title: HMS Iron Duke (1870)


text:
Ben Wa balls

Ben Wa balls, also known as orgasm balls, ,  Venus balls, or mien-ling,  are marble-sized balls, usually hollow and containing a small weight, that roll around and are used for sexual stimulation by insertion into the vagina. Available in a variety of forms, the balls may be solid, or contain clappers or chimes within. Other, larger versions made of plastic encasing lesser balls are called Duotone balls. They are used by inserting them into the vagina and using the pubococcygeus muscles to hold them in, stimulating movement and/or vibration. Ben Wa balls should not be confused with anal kegel exercisers and prostate stimulators: Ben Wa balls sometimes have a retrieval string or attachment of some sort, but they do not have an adequately flared base for safe anal play.

Ben Wa balls have a varied history; their origin and method of construction varies depending upon location. Most information concerning Ben Wa balls is vague and probably apocryphal. Originally they were made of a single ball placed in the vagina, used to enhance the act of sexual intercourse, but then evolved into multiple metal covered balls linked by either a chain or silk string for easy removal. Use of Ben Wa balls creates a subtle stimulation, not meant to bring the user to immediate orgasm but rather to tease. It is possible to leave Ben Wa balls in one's vagina all day, or use them while seated in a rocking chair, for an effect that some find pleasurable. Health experts caution against prolonged placement of foreign objects in the vagina due to the risk of infection.

Ben Wa balls may also be used to increase the strength of the pelvic floor muscles, much as Taoist sexual practices have been used for centuries and the Kegel exercises are used today. Similar to Kegel exercises, Ben Wa balls and other shaped vaginal weightlifting equipment are recommended by gynecologists and obstetricians to increase vaginal elasticity and bladder control.

title: Ben Wa balls


text: User talk:12.221.76.96

title: User talk:12.221.76.96