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Birkenhead, New Zealand

Birkenhead is a suburb of Auckland, in northern New Zealand. It is located on the North Shore of the Waitematā Harbour, 4 km northwest of the Auckland City Centre. The area has been settled by Tāmaki Māori since at least the 14th century, and is the location of Te Matarae ō Mana, a fortified pā for Te Kawerau ā Maki that overlooked an important seasonal shark fishery. European settlement in Birkenhead began in late the 1840s, and by the late 19th century the area became renowned for strawberry crops. In 1884, the Chelsea Sugar Refinery was constructed in Birkenhead, becoming a major source of income for Birkenhead. The increased population growth led to Birkenhead becoming one of the first boroughs of Auckland in 1888. Birkenhead transitioned from a semi-rural community to suburban Auckland after the opening of the Auckland Harbour Bridge in 1959, becoming a city in 1978. In 1989, Birkenhead City was amalgamated with North Shore City.

Etymology
The name Birkenhead first appears in relation to a land survey conducted by Charles Heaphy in the summer of 1862 and 1863. The origin is unknown, but it possibly stems from the geographical similarities the area has to Birkenhead in North West England, which is on the opposite shore of the River Mersey to Liverpool. Similar locations can be found in Adelaide and Sydney in Australia. A common story explaining the origins of the suburb's name involves land developer Samuel Cochrane choosing the name in memory of his hometown, but this story appears to be apocryphal, as Cochrane was a Londoner and did not have ties to Liverpool. The first mentions in press of Birkenhead were real estate advertisements placed by Samuel Cochrane in June 1863.

Geography

The Birkenhead area is primarily uplifted Waitemata Group sandstone, that was deposited on the sea floor during the Early Miocene, between 22 and 16 million years ago. Prior to human settlement, the inland North Shore was a mixed podocarp-broadleaf forest dominated by kauri. Pōhutukawa trees dominated the coastal margins of Birkenhead. Some kauri remnant forest remains in areas around Birkenhead, including Kauri Park, Le Roys Bush, Kauri Point Domain, Kauri Glen and Eskdale Reserve.

Highbury is a suburb located within Birkenhead, which refers to the older shopping centre at the junction of Birkenhead Avenue and Mokoia Road. The name Highbury was the name of Thomas Forgham's family residence, that was constructed in early colonial Birkenhead. The name of the house was chosen by English immigrant William Francis Hammond, Forgham's son-in-law, in memory of Highbury, Hammond's parents' townhouse in Highgate, London.

The highest point in the suburb is the hill in eastern Eskdale Reserve, which reaches a height of 98 m above sea-level in the neighbouring suburb of Hillcrest.

Māori history

Māori settlement of the Auckland Region began around the 13th or 14th centuries. The North Shore was settled by Tāmaki Māori, including people descended from the Tainui migratory canoe and ancestors of figures such as Taikehu and Peretū. Many of the early Tāmaki Māori people of the North Shore identified as Ngā Oho.

Boat Rock (Te Nihokiore, "The Rat's Tooth") in the Waitematā Harbour southwest of Birkenhead was a location of great significance to Tāmaki Māori. The rock was the location where Te Arawa chief Kahumatamomoe placed a mauri stone (a stone of religious significance), naming the Waitematā ("The Waters of the Stone") after the mauri stone.

The warrior Maki migrated from the Kāwhia Harbour to his ancestral home in the Auckland Region, likely sometime in the 17th century. Maki conquered and unified many the Tāmaki Māori tribes as Te Kawerau ā Maki, including those of the North Shore. After Maki's death, his sons settled different areas of his lands, creating new hapū. His younger son Maraeariki settled the North Shore and Hibiscus Coast, who based himself at the head of the Ōrewa River. Maraeariki's daughter Kahu succeeded him, and she is the namesake of the North Shore, Te Whenua Roa o Kahu ("The Greater Lands of Kahu"). Many of the iwi of the North Shore, including Ngāti Manuhiri, Ngāti Maraeariki, Ngāti Kahu, Ngāti Poataniwha, Ngāi Tai ki Tāmaki and Ngāti Whātua, can trace their lineage to Kahu.

The poor clay soils of the inland forest of the hindered development. Most Māori settlements of the Birkenhead area focused on fishing and harvesting food from the forests. The focal point of Te Kawerau ā Maki on the North Shore was Te Mātārae ō Mana ("The Brow of Mana"), a headland pā at Kauri Point in modern-day Chatswood, and Rongohau ("Wind Shelter"), the kāinga below the cliffs at Kendall Bay. Te Mātārae ō Mana was named after the ancestor Manaoterangi, who was the rangatira of the pā in the mid-18th century,  and was likely constructed in the 17th century. The pā was of strategic importance due to its commanding view of the Waitematā Harbour, and its proximity to a renowned tauranga mango, a shark fishery which brought seasonal visitors from across Tāmaki Makurau and the Hauraki Gulf in the summer, including important rangatira such as Kiwi Tāmaki and later Tarahawaiki.

Manaoterangi was a close relative of Tuperiri of the Te Taoū/Ngāti Whātua ragatira Tuperiri, and was married to Waikahuia, the sister of Waiohua paramount chief Kiwi Tāmaki. Because of this, the pā and Mana's people were spared during the conflicts between Te Taoū and Waiohua in the mid-18th century, and at the end of his life, Manaoterangi entrusted his people to Tuperiri and the iwi that grew to become Ngāti Whātua Ōrākei.

By the early 19th century, the eastern headlands the Upper Waitematā Harbour, including along Oruamo or Hellyers Creek were some of the most densely settled areas of the North Shore by Tāmaki Māori. Oruamo or Hellyers Creek was an important transportation node for the North Shore area.

In the latter 18th and early 19th centuries, members of Te Taoū/Ngāti Whātua Ōrākei resided seasonally at Te Mātārae a Mana. During the early 1820s, most Māori of the North Shore fled for the Waikato or Northland due to the threat of war parties during the Musket Wars. Te Mātārae ō Mana and Rongohau were raided and destroyed in a night raid around the year 1823.

When Tāmaki Māori returned in greater numbers to the Auckland Region, Te Mātārae ō Mana and Rongohau were occupied again, until the early 1840s. The shark fishery remained an important location for many decades onwards. In 1844, when Tāmaki Māori held the feast of Remuera, sharks were caught for the event at this fishery, and considerable numbers of Māori fishing boats fished the area as late as the 1860s.

Outside of Te Mātārae ō Mana and Rongohau, other known locations of significance to Tāmaki Māori around Birkenhead include Maunganui or Mangonui was the name of a pā located inland on the Kauri Point ridge, and Ngutuwera, an inland pā where people would stay seasonally, to snare kākā in the wooded vallies of Tāwhiwhikareao. The traditional names for the bays of the area include Wararoa (Chelsea), Onetaunga (Onetaunga and Soldiers Bay), Wa Iti o Toroa (Island Bay), Kaiwhanake (Charcoal Bay) and Opaketai (the bay north of Charcoal Bay).

Early European settlement

Birkenhead was a part of the Mahurangi Block, an area purchased by the Crown on 13 April 1841. Land speculators purchased much of the isolated forests of Birkenhead in 1843, and the first permanent settlers arrived in 1849.

Major Collings Ann de Jersey Grut emigrated to New Zealand in the 1850s from the Channel Islands, alongside her husband Major Collings de Jersey Grut and brother Charles D'Auvergne. The de Jersey Grut family established a farm and manor near Duck Creek in the 1850s, but struggled to establish a farm. The poor soil led to starvation, and the servants needing to share food with the de Jersey Grut family members, and cattle would often wander off into the bush. The de Jersey Grut family left in 1865, and had their house shipped to Orewa.

Henry James Hawkins, established a fruit orchard in the Birkenhead area in the 1850s. Despite the poor clay soil, Hawkins became a famed horticulturalist, winning prizes for crops such as apples, plums, peas, gooseberries, strawberries. Fruit became a major industry for Birkenhead from the 1860s, notably apples, pears, and two varieties of strawberry, Marguerite and Duke of Edinburgh, which flourished well in clay soils.

Birkenhead was subdivided and promoted as a township from 1863, alongside other settlements such as Allandale and Balmain (neither of which eventuated). Residents of the village survived through subsistence farming, and profited from bountiful seasonal strawberry crops.

In 1879, William Francis Hammond bought 30 acre at Birkenhead Point, establishing Raven Hill estate, followed by Charles E. Button who established a second grand house at Birkenhead Point in 1883. Hammond, the son of a London auctioneer, was a keen promoter of Birkenhead, surveying the area and promoting Birkenhead subdivisions and estates at auctions, and constructing a bridge across Little Shoal Bay, better connecting the community to Northcote.

Lake Road, connecting Northcote and Birkenhead, was significantly improved in the 1870s, helping development in Birkenhead. This was aided further by the Auckland Harbour Board constructed a wharf in 1882, which was followed by a post office in 1884. The new wharf allowed orchardists in Birkenhead to better transport produce to the Auckland market, further helped by larger orchardists building their own jetties on Oruamo or Hellyers Creek in the north. In 1886, the Birkenhead and Northcote Fruitgrowing Association was formed.

By the 1880s, itinerant gum diggers roamed Birkenhead, searching for kauri gum. Birkenhead residents loathed the gum diggers, who would often destroy roads, orchards and farms in order to locate kauri gum. In response, the Waitemata County Council lobbied the Crown to allow the country more direct control over the gum digging industry.

Chelsea Sugar Refinery and Birkenhead Borough

In 1881, the Australasian Colonial Sugar Refining Company chose Birkenhead for the site of a new sugar refining factory, after founder Edward Knox visited Auckland. The refinery was chosen due to Auckland's relative proximity to the sugarcane plantations of Fiji, and south-eastern Birkenhead was chosen as it was one of the few deep water anchorages of the Waitematā Harbour, and due to its proximity to the fresh water Duck Creek. The factory opened in 1884, and by 1888 had greatly increased production. The factory continues to be the largest single site industrial facility on the North Shore.

The establishment of Chelsea Sugar Refinery led to a population explosion in Birkenhead and the surrounding areas, and led to Birkenhead developing into a suburban township. In the mid-1880s, a factory village was constructed adjacent for workers at the factory. Mr Judd, the first customs officer, successfully convinced the Colonial Sugar Refining Company to call both the factory and adjacent company village Chelsea, after his hometown in England.

On 12 April 1888, with only 330 ratepayers living in the area, the Borough of Birkenhead was established as one of the earliest boroughs of Auckland. Birkenhead was one of the largest boroughs of New Zealand in area size, and tensions existed between the township at Highbury and more rural Birkdale. Highbury residents wanted more funding to be put aside for urban projects such as improved footpaths, frustrating rural Birkdale residents, who needed better rural roads, especially during the strawberry harvesting season.

In 1885, the Zion Hill Methodist Church was constructed, becoming a major focal point for social life in Birkenhead. The church visually dominated Birkenhead due to its position on the hill, and was a strong voice for the temperance movement, lobbying against hotels from being established in Birkenhead. The church and Chelsea Sugar Refinery were the two largest influences on life for Birkenhead residents at the turn of the 20th century.

Fruit canning and the Sugar Workers Union

By the 1890s, Birkenhead became so well-known for strawberry farms that daytrippers and picknickers would travel to Birkenhead for the growing season. Growers were increasingly frustrated with the high cost of transporting fruit, and many began establishing canning and jam production operations. One of these operations was Thompson's, which began as a home operation in Birkenhead in 1898. By the following year, the firm moved to a factory on Nelson Street in the Auckland City Centre, growing to become Thompson & Hills, one of the largest canning factories and jam producers in New Zealand in the early 20th century.

Growers struggled with poor apple and pear crops due to codling moths, so by 1900 turned to growing nectarines and plums. Commercial fruitgrowing increasingly disappeared from Birkenhead by the 1910s, after becoming unprofitable.

By the turn of the century, Birkenhead had developed into three centres: suburban Birkenhead, rural Birkdale and Chelsea, adjacent to the refinery. The factory provided steady work for the community, employing a third of the workforce of Birkenhead, and allowing farmers and orchardists stability in years with poorer crops. The ferry service brought new residents to the area who commuted to Auckland for work, although fewer than neighbouring Devonport; only three stores were located in Birkenhead in 1901. The Birkenhead ferry developed a café atmosphere for the commuters, which included string instrument players, and a smokers cabin, where man of Birkenhead discussed politics.

Workers at the factory complained of poor conditions, such as 58-hour work weeks, and unsafe conditions in the wash house, where employers would be dismissed if they stopped working due to heat exhaustion. In 1901, the Sugar Workers Union was formed, pushing for safer conditions and a reduction to a 48-hour work week. In 1905, the Chelsea workers village was condemned. Following this, Chelsea factory management established the HAWE (Housing Assistance for Wage Earners) Scheme in 1910, where workers were provided with low-interest loans to construct or buy houses close to the refinery.

In 1910, the Wragge Institute and Museum and Waiata Tropical Gardens were established in Awanui Street. Run by British meteorologist and spiritualist Clement Lindley Wragge and his Anglo-Indian de facto partner Louisa "Edris" Emmeline Horne, the gardens featured a wide range of exotic edible plants and palm trees, becoming a well-known tourist spot. The centre promoted the planting of palm trees around Auckland.

Cinema and World Wars

In 1911, the Ancient Order of Foresters built a hall on Hinemoa Street in Birkenhead. In the following year, theatre company manager Henry John Hayward, who lived at Birkenhead, began showing films at Foresters Hall in 1912. Birkenhead became the second suburb of Auckland to have a cinema, and by the 1920s the Foresters Hall had become a major attraction for people across Auckland to attend dances and film showings.

By 1913, Birkenhead had grown to have 12 stores (compared to 42 in Devonport), including the 1913 Hellaby's butchery, the first building with a tiled ceiling constructed in Australasia. An increased population led to plans for a new school to open in 1914 on a portion of Edward Skeate's Highbury estate, but plans for a school were delayed until 1919, due to the outbreak of World War I. 261 men and boys from Birkenhead served in the war. This greatly affected the community, which was further impacted by the 1918 flu pandemic.

Highbury developed more commercial and residential housing in the 1920s, and was the location of the Birkenhead Borough Chambers. From 1959, the stores of Highbury began declining due to the opening of the Auckland Harbour Bridge, despite an explosion of population growth in the surrounding suburbs. A small state housing area was constructed at Hammond Place, and in the mid-1970s the Highbury Bypass was constructed, linking Mokoia Road to Onewa Road, without the need to drive through Highbury.

In December 1926, electricity was first installed in Birkenhead, and in January 1934 water infrastructure was greatly improved. Having used water piped from Lake Pupuke until this time, the pipe pumped water from Western Springs to Birkenhead under the Waitematā Harbour, and was the longest pipe of its kind when installed.

Farms in Birkenhead offered increasingly poor harvests through the 1920s, due to the soil being overworked. Farmers turned away from strawberries, growing crops such as pumpkins and tomatoes instead. By the 1930s during the Great Depression, many farms had become unprofitable. During these times, the Birkenhead Borough operated an unemployment loan scheme for residents, and relief workers worked on infrastructure projects including drain digging, clearing scrubland and improving roads. The last commercial strawberry fields were removed in the 1940s.

In 1938 on the eve of World War II, the New Zealand Government established the Kauri Point Armament Depot at Birkenhead. 332 soldiers and one nurse from Birkenhead enlisted, of whom 29 died. Chelsea Sugar Refinery workers were protected from enlistment, and many residents serves as a part of the Home Guard. While never employed, the Home Guard dug anti-tank tranches on the Glenfield ridge, and practiced warfare at Eskdale Reserve. Many women of Birkenhead took up jobs traditionally held by men, including working at the offices and golden syrup room at Chelsea Sugar Refinery, and working at the Kauri Point Armament Depot. The arrival of American troops in Auckland helped Birkenhead flowers, due to the increased need for fresh food and flowers.

Suburban development

In the 1950s, Birkenhead was a semi-rural area of Auckland, with only the areas close to the Birkenhead Wharf having a suburban atmosphere. In 1959, the Auckland Harbour Bridge opened, which rapidly brought Birkenhead closer to Auckland. The North Shore wharves of the Waitematā Harbour stopped being major transport nodes, and instead, areas with views of the Waitematā Harbour rose in importance for suburban housing. From 1960, the Birkenhead Borough Council encouraged construction of low-cost suburban houses in the borough, and a small state housing area was constructed at Hammond Place (near Highbury Pass).

Birkenhead's population and commercial centre rapidly developed in the 1970s, helped in part by the development of Wairau Valley as an industrial park. From the 1970s, Samoan New Zealander and Urban Māori communities developed around Birkenhead, many of whom worked at Wairau Valley and the Sugar Refinery. After the population exceeded 20,000 people, Birkenhead Borough became the City of Birkenhead in 1978.

In the mid-1980s, the Borough Council planned to develop a new supermarket at Highbury, to counteract commercial decline. In 1989, Highbury became a part of North Shore City, and the new city council began planning the Strawberry Fields Shopping Centre from 1990, with Countdown as an anchor store. On 8 May 1995, the shopping centre formally opened, now named Highpoint Shopping Centre. In 1997 after expansions, the mall was renamed Birkenhead Shopping Centre, and later renamed to Highbury Shopping Centre in the mid-2000s. By the 2000s, Birkenhead Town Centre had developed a restaurant culture.

In November 2010, the suburb was included into the North Shore ward, one of the thirteen administrative divisions of the newly-formed Auckland Council. Under the council, Birkenhead is part of the Kaipātiki Local Board Area.

Demographics
Birkenhead covers 4.52 km2 and had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

Before the 2023 census, Birkenhead had a larger boundary, covering 4.63 km2. Using that boundary, Birkenhead had a population of 10,536 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 894 people (9.3%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 1,230 people (13.2%) since the 2006 census. There were 3,780 households, comprising 5,022 males and 5,514 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.91 males per female, with 1,836 people (17.4%) aged under 15 years, 2,037 (19.3%) aged 15 to 29, 5,010 (47.6%) aged 30 to 64, and 1,653 (15.7%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 75.7% European/Pākehā, 6.7% Māori, 2.9% Pacific peoples, 20.0% Asian, and 3.9% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 39.0, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 53.4% had no religion, 33.6% were Christian, 0.2% had Māori religious beliefs, 1.8% were Hindu, 1.2% were Muslim, 1.9% were Buddhist and 2.2% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 3,495 (40.2%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 753 (8.7%) people had no formal qualifications. 2,487 people (28.6%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 4,755 (54.7%) people were employed full-time, 1,281 (14.7%) were part-time, and 216 (2.5%) were unemployed.

Local government

The first local government in the area was the North Shore Highway District, which began operating in 1868 and administered roading and similar projects across the North Shore. From 1876, Birkenhead was also a part of the Takapuna Riding of Waitemata County; a large rural county north and west of the city of Auckland. In 1884 the Birkenhead Road District split from the North Shore Highway District.

On 12 April 1888, with only 330 ratepayers the Birkenhead Road District became the Borough of Birkenhead, one of the earliest boroughs of Auckland. The borough had a mayor and a local council, and was able to make more decisions on how to invest in the area. After 90 years due to major growth in the mid-20th century, Birkenhead became a city on 15 March 1978, with a population of 20,000 people. In 1989, Birkenhead was merged into the North Shore City. North Shore City was amalgamated into Auckland Council in November 2010.

Within the Auckland Council, Birkenhead is a part of the Kaipātiki local government area governed by the Kaipātiki Local Board. It is a part of the North Shore ward, which elects two councillors to the Auckland Council.

Mayors during Birkenhead Borough Council
Source:

Mayors during Birkenhead City Council
Source:

Economy

Highbury Shopping Centre is located in Birkenhead. It includes 600 carparks and 25 retailers, including a Countdown supermarket. The central Birkenhead shopping area is known as the Birkenhead Town Centre.

Amenities

 * Birkenhead Point is home to the Birkenhead Ferry Terminal, and features an all-tide boat ramp.
 * Le Roys Bush is a native bush reserve located in Birkenhead.

Sport
Birkenhead is home to Birkenhead United who compete in the Lotto Sport Italia NRFL Division 1B. During the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, Birkenhead United hosted the Italy women's national football team, and as a part of this their clubrooms were greatly upgraded.

Education
Birkenhead School and Verran Primary School are coeducational contributing primary (years 1–6) schools with rolls of and  respectively. Birkenhead School was founded in 1919 as an extension of Northcote School. Verran Primary School was founded in 1964. Rolls are as of

Notable people

 * Clement Lindley Wragge, the meteorologist who began the tradition of using people's names for cyclones lived his final years at 8 Awanui Street, Birkenhead and planted palms in his, and neighbours', gardens.
 * Rudall Hayward was an early NZ film-maker, producing Rewi's Last Stand (see Cinema of New Zealand)
 * Hone Tuwhare, the poet, was briefly a Birkenhead Borough Councillor
 * Hon Mike Rann CNZM, former Premier of South Australia, Australian High Commissioner to UK and Ambassador to Italy, lived in Birkenhead from 1964 to 1977.
 * Edward Le Roy was a businessman who ran a tent making business in Auckland. Le Roys Bush and Le Roy Tce are named after him.

title: Birkenhead, New Zealand


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Talk:Thomas Rolfe

Untitled
The addition I made about Bush not actually being descended from Pocahontas was just taken from another page on Wikipedia. i didn't verify it, but it sounded accurate. you removed it from the article anyway though, so alls good! SECProto 00:33, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Question
Was Thomas Rolfe's wife a Caucasian like his father or a Native American like his mother? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.234.190.241 (talk) 19:24, 20 March 2008 (UTC)

Two comments. 1-you did not call his mother "Mongloid" so why are you refering to his father with the terminology of the discredited tripartite racial plan? 2-His wife was English.John Pack Lambert (talk) 03:08, 13 March 2013 (UTC)

Not British
Rolfe died in 1680. Great Britian was not formed until 1707. Thus he cannot be British and should not be put in a British category. For now I have put him in the general Category:People of Native American descent. I would put him in Category:English people of Native American descent but am unsure if we can find enough people to adequately populate that categtory.John Pack Lambert (talk) 03:09, 13 March 2013 (UTC)

 * I think per common sense, people looking for British people of Native descent would want him in there, since he is one of the few prominent examples, so he should wait in there until there is a correct subcategory rather than rely on the technicality of 1707 in this case. Cheers, Til Eulenspiegel /talk/ 03:13, 13 March 2013 (UTC)

 * Forgive my ignorance, but at the time wouldn't British refer to a person from the British Isles? In which case, wouldn't the classification be appropriate? --Nquinn91 (talk) 20:52, 13 April 2016 (UTC)

Ka-Okee
I recently removed a mention of Ka-Okee, Pocahontas' purported daughter by the weroance Kocoum, from this article. It was at the time uncited. I subsequently found a citation, but I'm not sure whether Ka-Okee merits inclusion here, as the marriage to Kocoum (and presumably Ka-Okee's lineage) is disputed. (See Pocahontas.) However, it is indisputable, and perhaps noteworthy, that today's Patawomecks believe that Pocahontas was married to Kocoum and had a daughter by him. The question is whether the possible existence of this half-sister is relevant to Thomas Rolfe.

Anyway, if anyone decides that this is worthy of inclusion, here's the citation. I would suggest a wording like:
 * Members of today's Patawomeck tribe believe that prior to her marriage to John Rolfe, Pocahontas was wed to the Patowomeck weroance Kocoum, and had a daughter, Ka-Okee, by him. If this is accurate, Ka-Okee would have been Thomas Rolfe's half-sister.

I'll leave this here for others to discuss.—Josiah Rowe (talk • contribs) 05:37, 7 July 2014 (UTC)

Relevance of ethnicity to voyage survival
He was a year old during this voyage, and (being half Native American) was not necessarily immune to the diseases and hardships of the voyage.

How is the parenthetical (being half Native American) relevant here? 24.128.48.105 (talk) 22:17, 13 September 2014 (UTC)

Portrait
Since the caption admits the portrait is not of Thomas Rolfe, perhaps it is inappropriate to give it such a prominent place on the page. I would suggest adding a paragraph in the Legacy section addressing the Sedgeford Hall Portrait and its history as being believed to be depicting Rolfe and his mother. In my opinion, an image of his headstone or no image at all in his infobox would be preferable to an image of another person entirely. Thoughts, everyone? --Nquinn91 (talk) 21:03, 13 April 2016 (UTC)

 * Yes, please move it or remove it. It is no bueno to have it in the infobox. TuckerResearch (talk) 15:00, 3 October 2016 (UTC)

This paragraph has no source and seems editorialized/biased.
>"Paramount Chief Wahunsenacawh, better known as Chief Powhatan, the grandfather of Thomas, died in 1618, happy in the knowledge that he had a living grandson in England."

This section has no source and seems editorialized/biased. How can we make a definite claim here? Is there a firsthand account from Wahunsenacawh? If not, who is making the claim to know how he felt about having a grandson expatriated to Europe? 77.173.18.223 (talk) 05:36, 13 September 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Thomas Rolfe


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Ayres Thrush

The Ayres Thrush, formerly the Snow S-2, Aero Commander Ag Commander, and Rockwell Thrush Commander, is an American agricultural aircraft produced by Ayres Corporation and more recently by Thrush Aircraft. It is one of the most successful and long-lived agricultural application aircraft types in the world, with almost 2,000 sold since the first example flew years ago. Typical of agricultural aircraft, it is a single-seat monoplane of conventional taildragger configuration. Originally powered by a radial piston engine, most examples produced since the 1980s have been turboprop-powered.

Design and development

The Thrush, designed by Leland Snow, first flew in 1956 and before long was being produced in series as the S-2 by the company he founded, Snow Aeronautical. In 1965, the corporation and all of its assets were purchased by the Aero Commander division of Rockwell, which put it into production alongside the CallAir A-9 that it had also acquired, branding both unrelated (though similar) machines as "Ag Commanders". When Rockwell dropped the Aero Commander brand, the S-2 was renamed the "Thrush Commander".

In 1977, Rockwell sold off the production rights to the aircraft and the production facility at Albany, Georgia, which were purchased by Ayres Corporation, a firm which had been built on retro-fitting turboprop engines to Thrush Commanders. On June 30, 2003, Ayres' assets were purchased by Thrush Aircraft, the current producer of the aircraft.

The S-2 and its several variants have been purchased by agricultural spraying operators in many countries. Large numbers are operated in the United States and Australia, while other countries using the type include Costa Rica, France, Guyana, Iran, Israel, Jamaica, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.

Ayres developed a special anti-narcotics crop-spraying version of the Turbo-Thrush for the United States Department of State. This version, known as the Narcotics Eradication Delivery System (NEDS) featured an armored cockpit and engine to protect against hostile ground fire. Nine were sold to the Department of State between 1983 and 1985. Ayres also attempted to market a militarized version as the Ayres Vigilante, intended for the Close Air Support role, but this failed to attract customers. IOMAX USA of North Carolina, which had previously modified Air Tractor AT-802 agricultural aircraft as reconnaissance/attack aircraft, has developed the Archangel attack aircraft modeled on the S-2R-660. The United Arab Emirates has ordered 24 Archangels, with delivery from June 2015.

Two Thrush 510Gs were modified to perform a counter-insurgency role by the Austrian company Airborne Technologies at the direction of Erik Prince, the former head of Blackwater, but in the absence of an export license the aircraft have not been used operationally.

Snow Aeronautical
(per Simpson, 2005, p. 39)
 * S-1: initial prototype with open cockpit.
 * S-2: pre-production version of S-1 – 3 built.
 * S-2A: initial production version, powered by Continental engine – 73 built.
 * S-2B: S-2 powered by 450 hp Pratt & Whitney R-985 – 19 built.
 * S-2C: refined production version, wingspan increased 4 ft – 214 built.
 * S-2C-600: S-2C re-engined with Pratt & Whitney R-1340-AN1.
 * S-2D: 6,000 lb take-off weight – 105 built.

Aero Commander

 * S-2D Ag Commander:

Rockwell

 * Thrush Commander 600:
 * Thrush Commander 800: powered by Wright R-1300.

Marsh

 * S2R-T Turbo Thrush: Rockwell Thrush Commanders converted to turbine power by Marsh Aviation using Garrett AiResearch TPE331-1-101 engines.

Ayres

 * S-2R 1340: equivalent to Thrush Commander 600.
 * S-2R 1820:
 * Bull Thrush:
 * Pezetel Thrush: powered by PZL-3.
 * turboprop powered versions equipped with Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A.

Thrush Aircraft

 * Thrush Model 400:

 * Thrush Model 510G:General Electric H80 powered
 * Thrush Model 510GR:Honeywell TPE331 powered
 * Thrush Model 510P:Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-34 powered
 * Thrush Model 550:Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-65AG powered
 * Thrush Model 710:Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-65AG powered
 * Archangel: Thrush 550G modified as two-seat armed attack aircraft. 1600 shp PT6A-67F engine. Fitted with 6 hardpoints for 6000 lb of external stores.

title: Ayres Thrush


text:
Spoof (game)

Spoof is a strategy game, typically played as a gambling game, often in bars and pubs where the loser buys the other participants a round of drinks. The exact origin of the game is unknown, but one scholarly paper addressed it, and more general n-coin games, in 1959. It is an example of a zero-sum game. The version with three coins is sometimes known under the name Three Coin.

Gameplay
Spoof is played by any number of players in a series of rounds. In each round the objective is to guess the aggregate number of coins held in concealment by all the players, with each player being allowed to conceal up to three coins in their hand. (Some versions of the game may vary this number.) The coins may be of any denomination, and the values of the coins are irrelevant: in fact, any suitable objects could be used in place of coins, e.g. matches.

For the first round an initial player is selected in some fashion, such as spinning a burnt match to see who it points at.

At the beginning of every round each player conceals a quantity of coins, or no coins at all, in their closed fist, extended into the circle of play. The initial player calls what they think is the total number of coins in play. Play proceeds clockwise around the circle until each player has ventured a call regarding the total number of coins, and no player can call the same total as any other player. The call of "Spoof!" is sometimes used to mean "zero".

After all players have made their calls, they open their fists and display their coins for the group to count the total. It is illegal for a player to open their hand without making a call. The player who has correctly guessed the total number of coins withdraws from the game and the remainder of the group proceeds to the next round. If no player guesses the total correctly, the entire group continues play in the next round. The starting player for each subsequent round is the next remaining player, clockwise from the starter of the previous round.

Play continues until all players have been eliminated except for one, whereupon that last remaining player pays the stipulated stakes to each other player. In some versions of the game additional rules are used, such as "no gloating" (a leaving player is not allowed to celebrate), or left-handed play.

Mathematical analysis
This first guesser has the initial advantage in that all possible sums are available for his guess, but also lacks insight into what the others might be holding, as indicated by their subsequent guesses. Some variants also have the 'no bum shouts' or impossible call rule whereby a player cannot call more than the total number of coins possible taking into account what they have in their hand (e.g. if there are 5 players and they hold 1 coin, the maximum number to call would be 13).

The generalized (n-coin) two player version of this game was the subject of a paper in 1959. It was shown that for every n ≥ 1 this game is a "fair game", i.e. each player has a mixed strategy that guarantees their expected payout is at most zero to his or her opponent.

Tournament play
The World Spoofing Championship has taken place every year since 1983 in many different venues across the world.

Many countries hold national or regional spoofing championships with the UK being the oldest having first taken place in 1974. The Bangkok Gentlemen Spoofers founded in 1988 is the longest running spoofing school in South East Asia. They hold two annual tournaments, the Thai National Championships and the Asian Spoofing Championships.

The original national UK Spoof Championship celebrated its 41st anniversary in 2015 with the tournament held at Cambridge Rugby Club on 16 October. The "Weald of Kent Spoof Championships" has been held annually at "The Bull at Benenden" in Benenden, Kent since 2007, with 32 players taking part in 2010.

In popular culture
James Bond plays the game against Felix Leiter in the 2021 film No Time to Die. Actor Daniel Craig was taught the game by his father, a pub landlord.

The fourth episode of the eighth season of New Zealand detective drama series The Brokenwood Mysteries was set at a world championship match where the winner was then murdered.

Joan Crawford wins a round of the game against Jack Palance in the 1952 film Sudden Fear. In the film, the game is played with matches and is introduced as "The Match Game."

title: Spoof (game)


text:
G-class destroyer

G-class destroyer may refer to:

 * Beagle-class destroyer, a class of sixteen Royal Navy destroyers launched in 1909 and 1910
 * G and H-class destroyer, a class launched in 1935–1939
 * G class destroyer (1944), a proposed class of eight destroyers for the Royal Navy

title: G-class destroyer


text:
Ngaraard

Ngaraard is one of the 16 states of the Republic of Palau, and was originally named Kerradel.

History
Ngaraard's history can be divided into four eras corresponding to Spanish, German and Japanese domination up to World War II.

Spanish colonization
During the Spanish era between the 16th century and 1899 a priest named Father Luis lived in Elab teaching Christianity. However, the people from Ngaraard did not accept Christianity, so he went to Melekeok to Chief Reklai, but no one there accepted it either, so he left for Ngchesar. On his way to Ngchesar, he became lost and fell ill. Chief Reklai heard about Father Luis so he sent people to look for him. They found Father Luis very sick, and the Melekeokians cared for him until he died. He was buried crosswise, unlike everyone else at the Uudes burial ground.

German possession
During the German era, the Germans passed laws that Palauans must work to grow various plants, those refusing would be sent to Ngebuked for imprisonment. This is one reasons explaining the many coconuts in Palau. Germans also outlawed marriage and any religion except Catholicism. Some people of Ngaraard moved to Angaur to work in the phosphate mines. Later, doctors from Angaur traveled to Ngebuked because of an outbreak of leprosy, sending the sick to Melekeok for healing. The leprosy outbreak resulted in the deaths of many Palauans.

Japanese possession
During the Japanese era, there was a Japanese school in Ulimang, Ngaraard, offering primary education for first, second, and third grades. Students at the school came from Ngardmau, Ngerchelong, Kayangel and Ngaraard. Every morning students had assembly and they would bow to the Japanese as a sign of their respect and loyalty to the Japanese Emperor. Students found ignorant of their lessons would be punished by standing outside all day staring at the sun, or being forced to carry buckets of water up and down stairs for hours on end.

Ngaraard had two stores, the first selling sweets and clothing materials. The Nanboyeki store bought coconuts from all the islands. People lacking money could exchange coconuts for cloth. Many people from Ngaraard went to work at Angaur for phosphate mining; others went to Ngardmau to work on bauxite and some went to work for Nanboyeki. There were also Spanish priests in Koror who traveled to the islands propagating Christianity. When World War I started in Palau, people from Ngerchelong and Peleliu arrived in Ngaraard, where Taro Matsuda, Maderangebuked's younger brother, found families to host them.

World War II
When World War II began, most people fled to the jungles of Ngebuked. People wanting to go to the taro patch or go fishing needed permission from Japanese soldiers. When they finished working the taro patch or fishing they had to report to the Japanese soldiers, informing them they were finished. When American attacks began, people from Ngaraard were terrified because none had seen airplanes before. They called them "big bird with fire" (Meklou el kiued el ngarngii ngau el tuobed a ngerel). During that time, food ran short because the Japanese kept taking food from the Palauans. The people of Ngaraard left at night to find food because the American planes would not come, but they had to be careful because if Japanese soldiers saw them they would be killed.

The Japanese were ordered to collect Palauans and kill them. Japanese soldiers met with the Palau chiefs to discuss where to house the Peleliu people, because they planned to make Peleliu their military base. None of the chiefs wished to house the Peleliu people. Maderangebuked volunteered to take the Peleliu people, since Ngaraard had large taro patches and farms to produce food. This is why the Ngaraard people and Peleliu people have a special friendship.

There is Odesangel stone, this is an old name of Peleliu standing by Bai ra Ngaruau. The people of Peleliu who were in Ngebuked during the war carved the Odesangel Bad. They carved the stone as a memorial of the time they came out from hiding. "Odesangel Bad, 1945 28/9" is carved on the stone, showing that the people of Peleliu and those from Ngebuked and others that were hiding in the jungle emerged from their hiding place on September 28, 1945.

Geography
Ngaraard has a tropical climate. The temperature ranges from a high of 83°F to a low of 81°F. Rainfall takes place from May to January and the heaviest rain is in June and July. The climate is dry from February until April.

Ngaraard is situated near the northern end of Babeldaob island where the land thins to a narrow neck before expanding at the border with Ngerchelong. To the south, along the borders with Ngiwal and Ngardmau, there are dense stands of forest on the rolling hills. Along the east coast, there are long stretches of sandy coastal plains while on the west coast, there is a thick fringe of mangroves. The modern villages of Ngebuked, Ulimang, Ngesang and Chelab form a cluster about halfway from north to south, with Chol and Ngkeklau at the northern and southern ends, respectively. The major rivers are the Desengong and the Ouang both flowing into the bay northwest of the state. Other drainages are short and steep. The Rael Kedam divides the state but becomes a low saddle at Ngebuked.

There are five hamlets in Ngaraard, including Choll, Elab, Ngebuked, Ngkeklau and the state capital, Ulimang, located on the eastern shore of the state. Previously, the capital of Ngaraard was the village of Ngebuked, where the traditional leader of the state, Maderangebuked, lived and reigned. There is a saying in Ngaraard, A rengud a dokngei, meaning "everyone works together as one in spirit and in the heart."

A system of trails links the modern villages, with short pieces of a bladed road in Chol and from Ngebuked to Ulimang. As of 1993, plans are being made for a road system through Ngaraard which will be a part of the major trans-Babeldaob road.

Presently, most of the use of the land in Ngaraard is confined to gardens surrounding the modern villages. Interspersed with these kitchen gardens are stands of agroforest which include coconut, betelnut, breadfruit, almond trees, and banana plants. In and around many of the uninhabited villages are stands of coconut and betelnut palms, and occasionally patches of irregularly attended taro swamp gardens. Except for occasional forays to hunt pigeon or harvest special plants, there is little active use of most of the interior of Ngaraard.

Demography
The population of the state was 413 in the 2015 census and median age was 37.9 years. The official languages of the state are Palauan and English.

The population of Ngaraard has changed considerably over the years. In 1990, its population was 440 and in 1996, it decreased to 360. In 2000, it had increased to 638.

Villages
The inhabited villages of Ngaraard State include the following (from north to south): Choll, Elab, Ulimang, Ngebuked, and Ngkeklau.

There are many important places in the State of Ngaraard. There are the traditional village sites of Elab, Chetoilechang, Diong er Ngerchokl, Bai ra Ngaruau, Chelsel a Beluu er Ngebuked, Diong era Imeduurang, Ulimang. Ulimang is said to be the child of god Chuab. Other important places include: Head Start, the elementary school and Bethania High School, a hospital, Bai ra Rubak, the Ngaraard State Office at Koror, Bem Yore and the stores.

The lifestyle of Ngaraard has changed a lot due to the introduction of modern technology, including computers, telephones, electricity and televisions. Due to the construction of roads, the majority of people in the state now use cars for transportation rather than boats. However boats are still used for fishing.

Political system
The state of Ngaraard, with population of less than 450, has an elected chief executive, governor. The state also has a legislature elected every four years. The state population elects one of the member in the House of Delegates of Palau.

Cultural background and organization
There are more than two dozen traditional village sites within Ngaraard. These traditional villages represent important symbols giving identity to families, clans and regions. Within villages are numerous stone features with historical and traditional importance. Many of the stone platforms, odesongel, serve as clan cemeteries, and other stone features serve as shrines. The lagoon is an important resource area, and was probably intensively exploited prehistorically. There are profound differences between the east coast lagoon and the west coast lagoon, and Ngaraard's strategic position would have been ideal to take full advantage of these resources. Near the traditional villages are taro swamp gardens, and surrounding most village sites are garden plots and terraced hillsides.

It is said that the Ngebuked people were originally from Angaur, living on a mountain called Roisbuked. When Roisbuked became overpopulated and there was limited land for crops or food, the people from Angaur began looking for another island to live on. After leaving Roisbuked, they moved to Peleliu, called Ngerchol. When Ngerchol could not hold anymore people, they moved to Babeldaob, landing in a place between Melekeok and Ngaraard. After landing, they walked toward Ngiwal, but Ngiwal's inhabitants were unwelcoming so they moved to Ngaraard in Ngeteluang.

Ngebuked was divided into two sections, bita el ked ma bita el ked. The chief of one section was Kerai and in the other section was an old woman named Romei. When Romei could not hold all the responsibilities as chief, she asked Oiseuang, another older woman to rule. Two brothers from Ngeruangel sailed by and saw smoke rising at Ngebuked, so they stopped to get supplies. The older brother liked what he saw at Ngebuked and decided to stay; the younger brother traveled to other areas of Babeldaob. The younger brother ended up in Melekeok and became Chief of Melekeok and the older brother stayed in Ngebuked.

Oiseuang aged and could not perform her chiefly duties, so she looked for a person able to perform the work as the chief. She visited a man she felt was competent and asked if he would become a chief, and he asked he could be named Mad. Chief Mad united the two sections into one village of Ngebuked and so he became Mad ra Ngebuked. Kerai remained village head, meaning that when there was a contribution of food, he still received the portion for the first title, but the one who has the authority and power over Ngebukedd is Maderangebuked. Therefore, the order of chiefly title is that the first title is Maderangebuked, the second title is Kerai and the third is Techur. Techur had clan members from Ngeaur, Airai and Ngerchelong. Therefore, if a member from Angaur assumed the title then he would be called Techureaur, if a clan member from Ngerchelong assumed the title he would be called Techurchelong, and if he was from Airai he would be called Techurrulak.

Economy
Ngaraard has many natural resources, mainly forests and water. The landscape is mostly mountainous forest, sandy beaches on Desbedall and mangroves on the Keiukel side. There are many living things in Ngaraard's land, including fruit bats, pigeons, starlings, pigs, mangrove crabs, land crabs, cone shells (rechiil), shrimp in the creek, banded snakes (mengernger), aquatic snakes (kemaiirs), dogs, and cats. There are also many varieties of insects, including mosquitoes, wasps, bees, kerdard and many more.

One of the famous crops of Ngaraard is taro and its recipe, which uses taro leaves, coconut milk and land crab, is called demok. These are some other crops of Ngaraard: swamp cabbage (kangkum), tapioca (diokang), sweet potato (chemutii), giant swamp taro (brak), banana, calamondin (kingkang), breadfruits, ysaol, amra tree (titimel), Eugenia plant (chedebsachel), wax apple (rebotel), betelnut tree and pepper leaf (kebui). Ngaraard has a rich soil and plenty of crops but only a few vegetables.

Education
The Ministry of Education operates public schools.

Ngaraard Elementary School was established after World War II, circa 1947, using a school building opened during the Japanese South Seas Mandate rule. In addition to Ngaraard, it served Kayangel, Ngarchelong, and Ngiwal.

Palau High School in Koror is the country's only public high school, so children from this community go there.

Flag
Ngaraard recently changed its flag. It is made of a golden-yellow star on a field of deep sky blue. Behind the star, it has a red stripe from the bottom left corner to the upper right corner of the flag. The star stands for the unity of Ngaraard State, and the five fingers of the star stand for the five counties or hamlets of Ngaraard. The stripe of the flag shows that the state has both the east and west coast of northern Babeldaob and is striving for success. The blue background symbolizes the blue of the sky and ocean surrounding the Ngaraard State.

title: Ngaraard


text:
Talk:Enrico Fermi

Volta quote
In the Legacy section, third paragraph, there is quote by(?) Fermi about(?) Volta unable to understand where the study of electricity would lead. It is unclear if Volta is mentioned working in his own (more likely, I think) laboratory or Fermi's (less likely). The quote is also unreferenced; My question is: what does the quote actually say? Can a reference be dug up? OneShot010 (talk) 15:04, 25 February 2020 (UTC)

EDITED: My bad, the sentence is actually referenced. OneShot010 (talk) 15:17, 25 February 2020 (UTC)
 * What Laura says is:"Enrico is fond of stressing this point. It used to be one of his favourite topics in popular lectures. When he was very young and could not improvise his speeches, as he does now, he used to dictate them to me. Many started with such words as "When Volta was in the quiet of his little laboratory..." The gist of the story was that when the famous Italian physicist discovered the Voltaic cell he was living in his ivory tower. Neither he nor his contemporaries had foreseen the consequences of his work. Electricity, studied by a handful of researchers, was confined to laboratory experiments. Half a century was to pass before it became the dominant factor in the marvellous inventions that have revolutionised our mode of life."

 * Hawkeye7  (discuss)  18:43, 25 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Thank you. OneShot010 (talk) 06:42, 26 February 2020 (UTC)

Great teacher
Fermi's effectiveness and impact as a teacher is attested in a vast literature, and the account is obviously based on physicists who had him as a teacher. One document (out of the several) of this kind is, famously, the 'To Fermi with Love' material prepared after Fermi's death by people from the Argonne National Laboratory, the US Atomic Energy Commission, and the American Institute of Physics, which shows more than esteem: hence, dear User:AussieWikiDan, what's the point of removing the reference based on 'NPOV violation'? --79.60.3.92 (talk) 04:42, 10 August 2020 (UTC)

 * I noticed also the removal: forgetting for a moment the "beloved", how can be defined a teacher whose students include eight Nobel Prizes? The only problem here is to decide if the source is reliable. Alex2006 (talk) 08:48, 10 August 2020 (UTC)

Scuola Normale Superiore and "laurea"
The Scuola Normale Superiore never provided a "laurea". It is so today and I have no reason to think that was different at Fermi's time. The Scuola provides a "diploma" (not a PhD) that adds to the "laurea" that is granted by the University of Pisa instead. It is only asked to the student to keep a certain average of grades at the examinations to avoid to be expelled. It is also requested a minimum grade for each examination but I am not sure about this. I think that this should be properly fixed in this article. This is very well explained at their site. --Pra1998 (talk) 08:11, 1 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Enrico Fermi


text:
Talk:Pillow

Earliest 'recorded' use back to 7,000 BC?
The article cites a quite informal book in saying that the earliest 'recorded' use goes back to 7,000 BC, without clarifying what is meant by 'recorded' here (writing did not yet exist, even in Mesopotamia and Egypt). It also makes claims about the social status of pillows during this time, citing the same book, and while this might  be true, the actual claims and firm evidence of this appear this was referring to much later in Egyptian and Mesopotamian history. Can this be rectified, and a more formal source brought in? 67.243.223.135 (talk) 06:09, 9 February 2023 (UTC)

Pillow parts
You forgot the part of a pillow that is stuffed. It is called the shell. 2600:1702:7B1:4050:8081:25C5:91C7:2D9A (talk) 18:38, 3 March 2023 (UTC)

pillow core
unless im blind you guys forgot the pillow core the shell. can we add that? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pillowgirl77 (talk • contribs) 03:03, 12 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pillow


text:
Talk:Exception handling

Lexically Scoped Exceptions?!
"PL/I used dynamically scoped exceptions, however more recent languages use lexically scoped exceptions."

This is so bad it's not even wrong. By *definition* an exception is dynamically scoped. Lexical "exceptions" would offer no more that Common-Lisp's "block/return-from", or a "break" and "continue" that were allowed to escape from functions lexically inferior to the containing loop. in C or JavaScript etc.

To make matters worse, we then go off and talk about "Languages where exceptions are only used to handle abnormal, unpredictable, erroneous situations: C++,[8] C#, Common Lisp, Eiffel, and Modula-2.".

This is completely wrong. For example, `throw` and `catch` in common lisp are *not* used for abnormal situations. They are almost exclusively used to bail early through nested calls to return a result early, rather than error handling. The article even goes that far by explaining how Lisp 1.5's errset and err were re-designed as `throw` and `catch` to allow this behaviour *AS A CONTROL CONSTRUCT* in MacLisp. Common lisp does not use throw/catch for exception handling, since it has a totally separate condition system that doesn't force one to unwind the stack, and using throw/catch completely removes you from an entire, significant area of the language designed to deal with exceptions.

Overall this page is far to long, totally contradictory and generally inaccurate. It is in urgent need of review by a specialist.

Continuable Exceptions?
Would whoever wrote the section on continuable exceptions please provide a code example? It sounds like you are talking about a special language construct that I don't think exists in any language. People do sometimes talk about "continuable exceptions" but they are just talking about exceptions that they can ignore or resolve as opposed to those that lead to process termination.Firefight (talk) 14:25, 31 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Visual Basic 6 supports resuming from exceptions; in other languages (such as Java or .NET languages) exceptions as provided by the language are not resumable, but resumable exceptions are implemented with events or another forms of callback. E.g. the .NET System.Windows.Forms library uses them a lot - see e.g. this StackOverflow question. Rp (talk) 09:50, 7 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Common Lisp specifies 'restarts' which allow to resume after a condition (a generalization of exceptions) has been signaled (raised). The example seems like an excerpt from Peter Seibel's book "Practical Common Lisp", see http://www.gigamonkeys.com/book/beyond-exception-handling-conditions-and-restarts.html  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.0.45.6 (talk) 22:12, 24 January 2015 (UTC)

Objective-C?
I bet there are no language constructions for handling exceptions in bare Objective-C.

 * At least Curly bracket programming language now claims it has @try, @catch, @finally. --TuukkaH 09:39, 7 January 2006 (UTC)

 * OReilly's 'Objective-C. Pocket Reference' doesn't mention this construct. --Pdemb 13:55, 7 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Ok, they seem to be a new thing. The words starting with @ are "compiler directives" and the ones here are only supported by gcc >= 3.3 in programs compiled to be run in the "Objective C runtime" of Apple MacOS X >= 10.3. See and . Seems like Apple defines Objective C these days... OTOH, the second reference shows how exception handling has been written before, so it's just the syntax that is new. --TuukkaH 15:19, 7 January 2006 (UTC)

 * GCC's manpage does. Dysprosia 12:18, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Could be, though GCC adds for example trampolines to C, and trampolines don't belong to C standard. --Pdemb 18:25, 8 January 2006 (UTC).

 * This is completely incorrect, please stop talking. Exceptions (including finally blocks) can be entirely implemented (modulo syntactic support) in C and hence objective C using setjmp/longjmp, and trampolines are a user-space calling convention. Wikipedia is not a platform for you to just publish the true majesety of your uninformed reckons, that is what Facebook is for. this page covers a topic that is extremely well understood and has been thoroughly analysed over the last 50 years in the PLT research community- entire academic careers have been built on the topic. Yet this page is intellectually mutilated to the point of deception with numerous factual inaccuracies. I am not entirely sure even that the concept 'Exception' and 'Exception Handling' should have been merged, since now we just have an enormous monolith that tries to explain MMU exceptions and conflates them with structured exception handling and escape continuation, while dramatically not explaining any of them. If none of you can be bothered to consult the literature, you should not be involved in this page. This article does not even pass a first year quiz on the topic. It URGENTLY requires specialist review.

Clarification
That is, if function f contains a handler H for exception E, calls function g, which in turn calls function h, and an exception E occurs in h, then functions h and g will be terminated and H in f will handle E. Huh? Please can somebody try to make this sentence a bit clearer?

(Un)Checked Exceptions
Very nice guys! Perhaps we should include a bit about checked and unchecked exceptions (they exist in Java at least; they're probably in other high-level languages, if not all languages). --pie4all88 00:42, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Apart from CLU (Liskov & al) I'm not sure. Could take inspiration from http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_de_gestion_d%27exceptions. I wrote it so I'm quite confident it's not all bullshit :) Aurelien
 * I regret I don't really understand French. But thanks a lot for a pointer to CLU, very few people and articles seem to consider it! Looking at it's not exactly what Java has, but technically close to it. --TuukkaH 22:05, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

An edit on February 19, 2006 by TuukkaH had changed a parenthetical definition of unchecked exceptions from " s and s" to " s and non-   s". I don't believe this revision is correct (it doesn't agree with the JLS), but wanted to open a dialog here to confirm consensus on reverting. This revision would, for example, imply that a class Foo that directly extends Throwable is unchecked, which isn't the case. --Mike Fikes 14:33, 25 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks for noticing my thinko, I've now reverted it. --TuukkaH 23:55, 25 February 2006 (UTC)

I had had enough of declaring that methods throw this that or the other thing to the point that I started deriving all my custom exceptions from java.lang.error, for which declaring throws isn't required.

 * I agree - we need some info about unchecked exceptions. My reading of the Java specs  is that unchecked exceptions come from a different class hierarchy, and the compiler does not complain about not declaring them.  CDaMama 02:41, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

 * My understanding of checked exceptions is they are very much the exception (excuse the pun) than the rule. The Java language added them thinking it would help, but it turned out in practice to be a terrible idea that was heavily abused by practitioners (e.g. catching everything and discarding it, declaring everything as throws Throwable, etc). It appears an experiment that was added to the OAK language (as it was named before Java), but is generally regarded by language designers to now have been a poor decision. In particular C#, Java's closest relative in terms of era/platform approach, never adopted checked exceptions. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.138.131.253 (talk) 19:57, 15 February 2020 (UTC)

Porting the fr.wiki version
The French version of this article seems to be much better than the EN one. Any volunteers for porting? :) CDaMama 02:41, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

Exceptions and signals
It is not clear how exceptions make signals obsolete -- signals are mostly used for IPC, i.e., kill(pid_t pid, int sig) is used to send signals to different process. Probably exceptions are `better' than longjmp, but even this is not obvious.
 * Exceptions do not make signals obsolete, they are quite different. Signals are a means of inter process communication while exceptions are confined to one process or thread (only Erlang and Oz have something wrt exceptions propagation between processes and it does not work like signals). Exceptions are thus synchronous, signals are asynchronous (ie the processes ought to be prepared to receive signals at any moment, thus building truly atomic program parts somewhat is very complicated if not impossible ; there is no such problem with exceptions).Aurelien 19:43, 30 October 2005 (UTC)

the difference with systems that do not use exceptions to signal improper program executions is that with proper exception handling, the erroneous condition may be pointed precisely, whereas otherwise it is often detected later, making debugging difficult.

this line is very long and hard to read/understand --Alex Curvers 08:20, 31 December 2005 (UTC)

Pros and cons
"IMHO, the previous is not true at all in Java." Who is the "I", and why is that person's opinion so important that it should be listed with the editorial voice instead of as an opinion from a reference?

 * Common knowledge ;-) When I edited the section, I tried to make it more neutral and third-person. Hope you like it better! --TuukkaH 22:05, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

Rules of thumb: Exceptions in Java
I have found the following rules to be helpful in guiding me in the use of exceptions:

Business logic level exceptions are checked, low level exceptions and programmer errors are not. When using the low level java api, which throw checked exceptions all over the place, within a method exposed to the business logic, catch the exception and wrap it in a runtime (not checked) exception (eg 'FileNotFoundException' is wrapped in 'WrappedRuntimeException'), unless you assume the cause can be handled/caused by client code in which case wrap it up in a checked exception (eg 'FileNotFoundException' wrapped in a 'InvalidUserInputException' ).

This way one does not end up using the top level 'throws Exception' everywhere making the whole exception handling idea meaningless (may as well make it unchecked).

Some folks suggest to use un-checked exceptions everywhere (even business logic error), but then there is no way to easily document these (javadcos aren't created for them) and does not make use of the automatic checking provided by the compiler

Bertvanbrakel 23:20, 26 October 2006 (UTC)

 * See above on why checked exceptions are a fairly rare feature in programming languages. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.138.131.253 (talk) 19:59, 15 February 2020 (UTC)

Reorganization of articles
I just merged exception (computing) here. User:Derek farn proposed that the merge result should be named Exception (computing) though. I think that Exception handling is fine as we have a redirect here, and Exception handling doesn't need parentheses, and an unhandled exception would be a crash anyway.

More along the lines of Wikipedia is not a dictionary, could we separate the different concepts to different pages even though the same name is sometimes used of them? That is, make one article about each of
 * the programming language construct,
 * the operating system signals,
 * the hardware interrupts,
 * the GUI events,
 * the generalized condition systems.

They all have a different history and applications, even though some of the theory is common. If the theory warrants an article of its own, why not. --TuukkaH 10:15, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

History of?
Where did they come from? Was PL/I the first language to have full-blown exception handling, or just the first major one?--Prosfilaes 21:54, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

History should mention some earlier works. In particular, Goodenough(1975) http://www.cs.colorado.edu/~bec/courses/csci5535-s09/reading/goodenough-exceptions.pdf was an influential (if flawed) paper that affected several later designs. drh (talk) 22:13, 7 July 2013 (UTC)

Vandalism?
Are these two blankings  on 2006-06-17 (almost 2 weeks ago) by  vandalism or not? --Piet Delport 00:03, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

Merge with trap (computing)
I've proposed that we merge trap (computing) into this article. Traps are basically the same as exceptions, so having a seperate page seems redundant. If people agree, we should just have trap (computing) redirect to this page. Some extra information on this page about processor level exceptions would probably be good...maybe I'll get around to that. David.kaplan 03:38, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

But what about a trap to enter kernel mode: I don't think that classifies as an exception.--BMF81 06:16, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I don't think this is the same thing at all, really. For one, you can return from a trap, but not from an exception. Also, they're really at different levels ... an exception is a construct in a programming language, whereas a trap is a hardware/kernel event. It would be like redirecting "conditional branch instruction" to "loop" or something. --FOo 07:49, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Agreed. They have very little in common.  --Piet Delport 15:07, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

That's completely not true. An exception can also be processor generated...page fault, divide by 0 exception, just to name a few. You return from page faults all the time (on demand paging). Perhaps part of the problem is this article incorrectly focuses completely on software exceptions and ignores hardware exceptions which have some similarities and differences. David.kaplan 01:35, 12 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Then why don't you deal with hardware exception handling in trap (computing). An exception in a high-level language isn't very similar to a processor exception.--Prosfilaes 12:19, 12 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Agree. Processor-level and programming-level exceptions, while having some similarities, are wildly different in practice and have very divergent behaviors.  Separate the articles, but a cross-reference could be useful.

I think merging trap and exception is BAD idea. Trap is not just usual exception, it is very special exception and it is very important during study about operating systems. Placing trap inside exceptions will mislead readers. I think trap article should go in context of operating systems. For example, I didn't find reference to "trap" from "kernel mode" article, and I think it should be one. For exceptions article it will be enough to just add reference to trap.

 * I don't support the merge either. Perhaps a name change to Exception (software)? —Doug Bell talk 19:52, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

Checked exceptions section
I tagged this with pov-section since it deals almost exclusively with Java. (Sorry if this is not the appropriate tag.) Many other languages probably have concepts similar to checked/unchecked-ness, so add them there if appropriate. 68.111.72.167 16:18, 15 October 2006 (UTC)

 * POV implies that the information that's presented isn't true, whereas this is more of a case of there being insufficient information. I don't think the reason why the section only deals with Java is that it's biased toward Java. I changed the template to "expand section". Magnus Bakken 17:42, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Hi, I wrote more and added references to make it clearer why the section is not POV or insufficient: it just happens that checked exceptions were invented by the designers of Java, and for some reason designers of other languages see more cons than pros in supporting them. It's also hard to find information on which features should be considered "similar", but you can't say mentioning OCaml, CLU and now also Modula-3 is nothing! --TuukkaH 02:53, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

The statement that checked exceptions were "devised" by the Java developers is not true. The concept existed prior to Java and was in several earlier languages that used exceptions. (Unfortunately, my memory fails me as to the name of the real "guilty" party here.) (Just remembered the name -- Goodenough -- kinda memorable.) drh (talk) 21:59, 7 July 2013 (UTC)

clause
What is the finally clause good for when it behaves as if it was not used alltogether, regardless of whether a exception has occured or not? --Abdull 09:32, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

 * The purpose is to ensure that whether your code is aborted through an abnormal condition, or normally, it will ALWAYS execute the finally handler. For example, we may have some code that turns on a pump (or opens a database connection), but if suddenly something goes wrong, we must ALWAYS ensure, that no matter what, we turn off the pump (or close the database connection). a try ... finally block which does NOT handle an exception, says "I don't know WHAT to do with any particular exception, but if we screw up DEFINITELY do this" — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.138.131.253 (talk) 17:36, 15 February 2020 (UTC)

Inner Exceptions
I came here hoping to have these explained to me. If someone in the know could add a mention of these and what they are for, then I'm sure it will be beneficial - Thanks! 196.212.4.66 13:55, 7 June 2007 (UTC)

handler/function
In general, current state will be saved in a predefined location and execution will switch to a predefined handler.

I think it would be a little more clearer if this sentence added ", specifically a function or subroutine."

What do you guys think. I didn't want to alter it since it was so close to the top.--Michael miceli (talk) 00:52, 13 March 2008 (UTC)

 * I don't think I agree with that statement. In any language I know, exception handlers are not a separate function, just another scope or similar construct. (Skimming at the exception handling syntax article doesn't demonstrate any clear contradiction to this.) Sometimes error reporting is done by calling a callback, but that's not an exception.
 * EvanED (talk) 01:56, 13 March 2008 (UTC)

Assertion "C++ does not need finally"
I find the assertion "Notably, C++ does not need and does not provide this construct [finally]" to be partly wrong. It is true that C++ does not provide a "finally" construct, but I for one would welcome it.

While it is true that the "Resource Acquisition Is Initialization technique" is common in C++, it is not ideal in all scenarios, and it is (on its own) not enough to justify the lack of the "finally" construct, which I think it's really a weakness in the C++ language.

As an example, I think Borland compilers offer a proprietory __finally clause for C++. 82.207.169.34 (talk) 11:02, 26 August 2008 (UTC)

Confusion between program language exceptions and hardware signals
Description seems to make programming language exceptions same thing as hardware interrupts/signals/faults/traps. IMHO these are very different - one is relatively high-level purely software thing that depends on language and can be implemented in various ways (see Common Lisp), and another is very low-level hardware-dependent. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.28.217.36 (talk) 17:42, 16 May 2009 (UTC)
 * I only know hardware exceptions as interrupts. Perhaps it is an idea to dedicate the interrupt article to hardware interrupts, and this article to programming language constructs for dealing with exceptions, with see-also links at the top of both articles. Rp (talk) 09:17, 18 June 2012 (UTC)

Continuations
This article should cover the comp-sci aspects of exceptions, and specifically that they can be (easily) implemented on top of continuations. (they're basically just a simple special-case of continuations). linas (talk) 17:15, 23 August 2009 (UTC)

Error Handling is Not Exception Handling
As pointed out in this article, error handling is not exception handling, and deserves to have a separate article, containing the information in this article pertaining to "Error Checking."

The distinction is clear: Exceptions cause abnormal program flow whereas error handling is within normal program control, for example case else or WHEN OTHER constructs.

Error handling should not redirect to Exception handling.

Softtest123 (talk) 17:25, 16 November 2010 (UTC)

 * Exception handling can be used as an alternative to a 'goto' in C++. By throwing and catching integer values. Some programmers (not me) use this as a structured workaround to a 'goto' in situations where a 'goto' is not permitted. As such the throw/catch mechanism can be part of the normal program control. QuentinUK (talk) 00:49, 2 July 2011 (UTC)

 * "An empirical study of goto in C code" (2015 paper) https://peerj.com/preprints/826v1.pdf and https://peerj.com/preprints/826v1/ quote "We conclude that developers limit themselves to using goto appropriately in most cases, thus suggesting that goto does not appear to be harmful in practice." •  Sbmeirow  •  Talk  • 21:56, 16 February 2015 (UTC)

ARM7
This EE Times article "How to use ARM's data-abort exception" may be of use here (possible issues of WP:NOTHOWTO and WP:UNDUE aside). I'm not a programmer, so can't really tell. -- Trevj (talk) 13:38, 7 March 2012 (UTC)

Exception specification redirect
Arriving at this page from the Exception_specification redirect there is floating "This is a tool icon" text with "[x]" text above it on the right hand side of the screen. This does not appear when navigating to this page directly. I would remove it, however I can not work out how to do so. 120.148.211.87 (talk) 18:20, 18 May 2012 (UTC)

Split into separate articles for HW & SW exception handling?
This article is fairly lengthy, and covers a wide range of exception-related topics. Could it be an idea to split it into one "Hardware exception handling" and "Software exception handling" article to narrow-down the scope a bit?Fredrik Orderud (talk) 15:04, 2 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I don't think that is a good idea. The hardware/IEEE 754 floating point stuff is only a small part of the whole article and it is an important aspect of exception handling in general- e.g. a programmer may use both C++/Java style exceptions and floating point flags/default presubstitution in the same code and needs to know about both (in particular many programmers have a poor understanding of floating point exception handling). I think the later more esoteric sections on implementation of exceptions etc could be broken off into a subarticle if necessary. 121.45.213.224 (talk) 05:46, 29 January 2013 (UTC)

Throwable vs Exception
Nigelj has reverted the mention of throws Throwable under Java checked exceptions to throws Exception with the explanation "Throwable may be more general, but they do not need to have anything to do with 'Exception handling' - the topic of this article, and paragraph". However, this does not make much sense.

It is very clear that Throwable is considered to be a checked exception. For example the documentation of Throwable says "For the purposes of compile-time checking of exceptions, Throwable and any subclass of Throwable that is not also a subclass of either RuntimeException or Error are regarded as checked exceptions.". In order to catch all checked exceptions, it is necessary to use Throwable, not Exception. Not only is this highly relevant to the topic of the page, but the current version is misleading and incorrect. Hiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii (talk) 01:59, 16 April 2014 (UTC)
 * If the edit had stood, it would have contradicted the cited source at the end of the paragraph. The Java™ Tutorials > Essential Classes > Exceptions says that even  is "A (too) general exception handler". It goes on: "In most situations, however, you want exception handlers to be as specific as possible. [...] Exception handlers that are too general can make code more error-prone by catching and handling exceptions that weren't anticipated by the programmer and for which the handler was not intended."   is parent to all  s, and to all  s. The JavaDoc to Class Error says "An   is a subclass of   that indicates serious problems that a reasonable application should not try to catch. [...] That is,   and its subclasses are regarded as unchecked exceptions for the purposes of compile-time checking of exceptions." It is much better to write article text based carefully on what the reliable sources say, rather than on personal opinion. See WP:V. --Nigelj (talk) 11:19, 16 April 2014 (UTC)
 * That source does not contradict anything I said. The current wording of the article is incorrect, and that's a fact, not an opinion. Perhaps as a compromise, we could remove the word "minimal", and change "is sufficient" to "is usually sufficient". That would remove the factual errors without mentioning Throwable, which you seem to oppose. Hiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii (talk) 22:18, 18 April 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * The archive link was not functioning in my browser. I corrected it to a functioning link that was grabbed 4 months earlier. I set the "checked" parameter to true above. --Jhertel (talk) 12:53, 29 August 2015 (UTC)

Hardware vs Programming language exception
There are many differences between an hardware exception, software error handling and especially a programming exception constructs. IMO, this text should be reshaped to make clear those differences. Conceptually, programming exception are just a control flow syntax, which could be replaced by others; While hardware exceptions or software error handling are strategies to manage exceptional situations.

Paragraph 2: No, programming exceptions do not save the state neither trigger subroutines, that is only hardware exceptions. Programming exception mostly pop the stack until a catch is found or the software is terminated. The example of "continuable" is a consequence of that: The divide-by-zero is a hardware exception, while out of memory is software error handling. Out of memory exception should be managed internally, and will only terminate the execution if the software did not.

In general, this text is making a mix between error-handling, hardware exceptions and programming exceptions. It need IMO a major rewriting to be correct.

Escain (talk) 12:23, 7 November 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Checked exception discussion...
The quote in the checked exception section is an excerpt that went through Eckels and Kiniry before it made it to the page here.

It would be better to link to the original full post, which can be found in the archive here:

http://web.archive.org/web/20060106013458/http://discuss.develop.com:80/archives/wa.exe?A2=ind0011A&L=DOTNET&P=R32820

Thanks

Eric Gunnerson — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:4898:80E8:7:0:0:0:7AE (talk) 17:27, 22 August 2017 (UTC)

Split article to "Exception" and "Exception handling" ?
I'm just wondering if it would make more sense to make a page for "Exception" by itself in addition to this page? to me it seems like "Exception handling" is a verb and there isn't an article directly discussing the object called "Exception". I just finished making some edits to link the "trap (computing) page to this and back since the two terms are synonymous. When i went to edit the article for Trap itself i was going to link the text "Exception" to the article for Exception and then i realized that I just made these links and "Exception" by itself doesn't exist. I don't know i'm not a Encyclopedia/Wikipedia expert. Thoughts? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Anthonybakermpls (talk • contribs) 16:58, 4 December 2018 (UTC)

"Exception(computing)" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect Exception(computing). The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2020 June 5 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Tea2min (talk) 09:37, 5 June 2020 (UTC)

In software ==: is Golang in the first group? ==

Methinks Go should be included in the first group, along with languages where exceptions are designed to be used as flow control structures. I'm not sure though. I browsed through a blog article about it, but am still hesitant to edit the section. Would someone more versed in Go do so? Jerzy 06:42, 15 July 2020 (UTC)

Effective Java: Use Exceptions only for exceptional conditions
This is Item #68 in the award winning and popular book by Joshua Bloch

I don't know why the article asserted otherwise......

Speaking as a Java programmer, I would have to agree with the book that it's generally considered extremely bad practice to use exceptions for control flow. Techcable (talk) 18:08, 18 April 2021 (UTC)

I went ahead and updated the main page by moving Java to languages that only use exceptions in exceptional situations.

Effective Java is considered a very reliable source in Java circles. Joshua Bloch designed the Java collections framework, which includes some of the most used classes and interfaces in the entire language (`List`, `ArrayList`, `Map`, `HashMap`) Techcable (talk) 18:35, 18 April 2021 (UTC)

Saving a spacecraft?
I know William Kahan invented IEEE 754 but his claim that IEEE 754 exception handling would save a spacecraft seems a bit WP:FRINGE. Full quote here (slide 22):
 * Had overflow merely obeyed the IEEE 754 default policy, the recalibration software would have raised a flag and delivered an invalid result both to be ignored by the motor guidance programs, and the  Ariane 5  would have pursued its intended trajectory

This seems a bit trite, for one because the types involved were not all floating-point. Does anyone else think this claim seems too strong to include in an encyclopedia? --Mathnerd314159 (talk) 22:22, 19 December 2021 (UTC)

Why the split?
@Fgnievinski I do not understand the logic behind your split. You have made two articles, this one on exception handling in computers and computer programming... and the other on exception handling in computer programing. This means there is no distinction in topic. I guess you meant to say that the second article was specifically on programming language mechanisms? But there is such a variation that it is more reasonable to discuss language mechanisms along with IEEE-754 and the other mechanisms. Furthermore per WP:SIZERULE length alone did not justify a split, the article was only 33kb before which is around the target article size. Even the flow of the article does not make sense anymore, for example the history section discusses programming language mechanisms and now those mechanisms are missing. Mathnerd314159 (talk) 15:04, 22 July 2023 (UTC)

 * The relevant policies are:
 * WP:N: "On Wikipedia, notability is a test used by editors to decide whether a given topic warrants its own article."
 * WP:GNG: "A topic is presumed to be suitable for a stand-alone article or list when it has received significant coverage in reliable sources that are independent of the subject."
 * WP:PAGEDECIDE: "Does other information provide needed context? (...) Do related topics provide needed context? (...) What sourcing is available now? (...)"
 * WP:SPINOFF: "There are two situations where spinoff articles frequently become necessary: Articles where the expanding volume of an individual section creates an undue weight problem ..."
 * The narrower concept Exception handling (programming) passes all requirements above for notability. Furthermore, the broader concept Exception handling provides little context for understanding the programming concept. For example, "IEEE-754" is not even mentioned in the programming article, "hardware exceptions" is a very distinct concept, so is the UI concept. The broader article used to be disproportional, being 90% about the narrow concept. All other major sections already had their own main pages. fgnievinski (talk) 19:05, 22 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Exception handling


text:
International Council Correspondence

The International Council Correspondence was a council communist magazine published in Chicago from 1934 to 1943. In 1938, it changed its name to Living Marxism and again to New Essays in 1942.

Paul Mattick was the chief editor and main contributor, Karl Korsch, Anton Pannekoek, Max Nomad, Daniel Guérin, Otto Rühle, Dwight Macdonald and Victor Serge also published in the ICC.

The magazine's original purpose was to correspond with fellow council communists, primarily in Europe. It changed its name as the European council communists began to go underground in the late 1930s.

The magazine was published by the United Workers Party, later known as the Council Communists, which had split from the Proletarian Party of America in 1934. A complete reprint of the magazine was published in the 1970s by Greenwood Reprints with an introduction by Paul Mattick.

title: International Council Correspondence


text: Category:World War I destroyers

title: Category:World War I destroyers