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Talk:Action (firearms)

Actions that made history
Here is an idea for a topic, The actions that made firearms history.

There are a lot of very talented people out there that know a LOT about firearms history and the actions that made them. I think we should strive to spreed that wisdom as far and wide as we can while the people are still with us. If not, that wisdom will be lost forever.

I am trying to make that happen. I want to learn all I can about the best of the old actions and pass that along to my kids and there kids and so on.

To that end, I am in the Gun smithing school at TSJC here in Colorado. I am doing a term paper on falling block actions in my gun smithing class. I need to assess the needs and select two different steels for the building of a modern falling block action.

What heat treatment? include specific techniques for tempered hardness 25c, 35c and 45c.

Techniques for hardening and tempering.

list two different types of steel.

Sumerise the qualities you need in the action and how you are going to get them. What will be the criteria for selection.

These are common questions asked by every gun maker for every gun that is made. I hope it will not be hard to find this info.

After I am out of school, it is my desire to reproduce the old actions and keep them a vital part of firearm in the world. There are a lot of the old masters still around. we need to compile there wealth of wisdom and keep it a part of firearms for ever.

As Henry did in that 19th century, we can look at ALL actions out there and put the best parts of them into one and there by keep looking for that perfect action. Keep it simple, make it smooth, and make it LAST forever. There is not one action that can now be improved on. What do you think, is this worth looking into?

Ron Julian fidel@webcoast2coast.net

This is a worthy idea and it is commendable that you took the initiative in this matter. I make suggestions with unvarnished honesty but I lack the technical expertise to contribute much of interest to this article. Maybe I will work up some courage later. For now however,I will, make some editorial suggestions.

First, the title of the article itself might need to be changed since the emphasis is on types of firearm actions of special historical importance rather than all firearm actions generally. But, on that point, are you speaking of actions that "made history" through their widespread or otherwise signficant usage or are you also concerned with obscure designs which are essential to firearms development?

Second, some useful diagrams or pictures would be in order. You could make at least some of these pictures yourself by taking a trip to the gun range. If you explain why you would like an image of someone else's gun and make sure their identity and the serial number of the gun do not appear in the picture then you should get plenty of cooperation. For the older actions, you might need to find some war reenactors would probably be very glad to have their name in the picture caption as the gun's owner and would be very glad to provide you all sorts of information (just be sure to check it against other sources). You could always find good pictures on-line and write the copyright holder so that you have permission to use them. Again, in many cases that is all you will need to do.

Third, I would round out the descriptions of the different actions a bit more especially in terms of describing their historical significance. You do not want this article to remain a laundry list of entries since this is an encyclopedia not a dictionary.

Just make sure that you get your information honestly and that if you borrow someone's words you quote them and cite them and that if you borrow someone's idea that you cite them. If you do that, not only will your article have a higher degree of credibility commensurate with the attention it has already recieved(since already it shows up pretty high on a Google search) but what is more, your readers will know where to get more detailed information should they be curious about some aspect of your topic.

Again, however, you deserve full credit for taking on such a broad topic. It is easy to lose sight of the fact that without someone getting a topic started there would be little for anyone to criticize (and thereby improve).

rollar delayed blowback
the CZ52 was not a rollor delayed blowback gun. It was a recoil operated gun. also, the mg42 was recoil operated, the barrel moves, The HK guns barrels remain stationary

Break actions
To the guy who keeps removing that break actions are single shot, how do you figure otherwise? Break actions don't have magazines, they are non-repeating firearms. --Philip Laurence 16:47, 28 October 2007 (UTC)

 * It's quite obvious that multi-barreled, break-action firearms are multi-shot as well. I apologize if it seems confusing to you. --Asams10 17:35, 28 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Do you mean multi-barreled break actions aren't considered single shot because they can fire once for each barrel? What about single barrel break actions?--Philip Laurence 21:49, 28 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Some break-actions are single-barrel, single-shot. Others are multiple-barrle, multiple-shot. So to define break-action as single-shot would be incorrect. Arthur 22:38, 28 October 2007 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Arthurrh (talk • contribs)

Revolver?
Isn't a revolver an action? Since one of the definitions of action is "the mechanism that manipulates cartridges", I would think that the revolver's cylinder would count as an action ("revolving action," maybe?).

I'm not certain—is revolver considered an action? It's not exactly manual—the advancement of the bullets isn't directly caused by the shooter, but rather is a part of the mechanism—and yet it's not automatic either. Or actually, it's almost more automatic than automatics proper, since pulling the trigger and "chambering" the next round are more directly linked, the mechanism being simpler.

Then again there's that whole distinction between single- and double-"action" revolvers, that might indicate "action" can also be defined as "the means by which the hammer or firing apparatus is put in position to shoot". In which case...hell.

Anyway, though, oughtn't this article to mention revolvers at least once? Nagakura shin8 (talk) 07:59, 25 March 2009 (UTC)

How are Blowback and Recoil different?
--24.6.228.145 (talk) 01:11, 16 February 2011 (UTC)

Blowback uses the gas pressure inside the cartridge to operate the mechanism (meaning the bolt must be unlocked), recoil action uses the recoiling of the entire firearm to operate the mechanism. What happens is this: The weapon fires; the weapon recoils; the bolt is unlocked from the barrel; the bolt continues to travel back under inertia; the bolt recocks the firing mechanism; the rearward travel of the bolt stops; the bolt moves forward, stripping a new cartridge from the feeding system and chambering it; the bolt contacts the barrel and pushes it forward into firing position; the bolt is locked to the barrel; the weapon is ready to fire again.

The key thing to watch for in a recoil action weapon is movement of the barrel during firing. This is most easily recognised in the M2 Browning fifty calibre machine gun. CMarshall (talk) 00:42, 22 July 2012 (UTC)

Externally powered action
This article only mentions actions powered by hand, or powered by the firing of the cartridge. I think the article should also mention externally-powered weapons such as revolver cannons, chain guns, and Gatling guns. CMarshall (talk) 00:42, 22 July 2012 (UTC)

Need some further clarification and/or a new glossary item
I feel pretty stupid about this, because I've got plenty of experience shooting all sorts of sizes of firearms from .22 plinkers up to a 3.5 inch Parrot rifle and from a wide range of eras, the earliest being a vintage 1861 Springfield (unless a long Colt peacemaker predates a '61 Springfield), and most of the actions you can think of that have been developed from 1861 on. That being said, can someone please tell me what a receiver is, or better yet, define it in the glossary. It's referred to once on this page, and two entries in the Glossary of firearm terms also reference it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.129.34.161 (talk) 03:58, 22 August 2012 (UTC)

Boxlock action
How would we consider boxlock action or sidelock? It looks like a variety of break action. Komitsuki (talk) 17:57, 25 January 2013 (UTC)

Move reasoning
All other firearms terms follow the format Term (firearms). See Muzzle (firearms), Safety (firearms), Trigger (firearms), Choke (firearms), Fluting (firearms), and Extractor (firearms). Faceless Enemy (talk) 14:33, 11 January 2015 (UTC)

 * Support. Thank you for doing these moves. I had noticed the same thing and had thought that I should move them sometime. I have seen some WP users fail to grasp why the plural is sometimes the right form in parenthetical context descriptors in pagenames. For anyone who may have needed an explanation, hope this helps. It's because the title "X (Ys)" means "X (in the context of Ys)" when Y is a count noun. Which is different from the singular "X (Y)", which can mean either (1) "X as a synonym of Y" when Y is a count noun or (2) "X in the context of Y" where Y tends to be a mass noun (although it could be a count noun logically restricted to a count of one for whatever reason, e.g., proper name). The "feel" of this difference is intuitively obvious to many people without having to analyze it in words, but some have difficulty feeling it. "A trigger, in the context of firearms, is a thing that ..."—not "A trigger, in the context of firearm, is a thing that ..." — ¾-10 17:12, 11 January 2015 (UTC)
 * Support. It's a sensible move which makes the title more consistent with other articles. Rezin (talk) 16:27, 12 January 2015 (UTC)

Merge all firearm mechanism articles into Action (firearms)
A number of other articles (bolt action, pump action, Rotating bolt, repeating rifle and yet more(!) have been tagged for merging into this article, yet no tag or discussion has been noted here. Andy Dingley (talk) 12:16, 3 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Oppose all Seriously? So wrong. Andy Dingley (talk) 12:16, 3 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Semi-automatic pistol? Shotgun ?!?!   Are you serious, or is this just trolling? Andy Dingley (talk) 12:20, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

 * What is your question?Digitallymade (talk) 12:21, 3 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Do you seriously think that either or both of Semi-automatic pistol and/or Shotgun should be merged into Action (firearms) ? Andy Dingley (talk) 12:25, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

 * strong oppose and suggest we close this early via WP:SNOW. This proposal is so ridiculous, I'm almost leaning to argue WP:DENY ResultingConstant (talk) 15:25, 3 March 2017 (UTC)
 * I was going to screenshot the page with all the merge tags in place, but I can't fit them all on my screen at once. Andy Dingley (talk) 16:14, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

Suggesting the merging of redundant articles that are part of this topic
The following pages are requested to be merged into this page. In some cases there are double duplications: Locked-breech Automatic firearm Break action Lever action Bolt action Bolt (firearms) Semi-automatic firearm Semi-automatic pistol Semi-automatic shotgun semi-automatic rifle Pump action Single-shot Boxlock action Repeating rifle Recoil operation Falling-block action Blowback (firearms) Rotating bolt Gas-operated reloading Burst mode (weapon) Rolling block Hammerless Peabody action Roller locked Direct impingement Blow forward

Digitallymade (talk) 12:42, 3 March 2017 (UTC)
 * You are suggesting making a 200-page article describing every layout and method of operation for every firearm in existence? Good luck getting support for that one! There might be support for merging a few into a few others, however that has been tried before without consensus. Blow-Forward is not an action, it is a method of operation.  Why not do something less controversial by merging the articles for every person into the article Person.  There.  Done.  I'm not going to argue for each individually and I suspect I am being more kind than others will be.  --Winged Brick (talk) 13:36, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

 * First of all, if it takes 200 pages, then that's fine. Second, it won't because most of the information on the pages to be merged is inaccurate, and incomplete. Almost everyone one of those pages is tagged for being poorly written.  Third Blow Forward most certainly IS an action just as much as Blowback is. The allowing of fractional pages on the SAME subject is irresponsible.  The pages should be merged because of redundancy, inconsistent naming, difficulty in finding the subject matter, inaccuracy (variability) and COMMON SENSE. Digitallymade (talk) 13:54, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

 * There should NEVER be a situation where, due to simply using a different part of a subject's name, you get different pages with different information, sources etc. In some cases there are DOUBLE not just single redundancies.Digitallymade (talk) 13:56, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Strong oppose per WP:SPLIT in particular WP:SIZESPLIT. If there are mistakes or discrepancies : WP:FIXIT. ResultingConstant (talk) 15:23, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

 * The way to correct the duplicates is two fold, merge or deletion. I, for one, am not going to edit two version of the same topics because someone things they should be kept in two different places with two different sets of incomplete content.  That's foolish, or perhaps worse.  Digitallymade (talk) 16:51, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Then don't. Nobody is forcing you. But WP:SUMMARY duplication is a core principle of wikipedia. There is an exceptionally wide and solid consensus that this type of arrangement is correct. Yes the differences should be cleaned up, but that is part of the work of making an encyclopedia. ResultingConstant (talk) 16:59, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

 * That doesn't surprise me. I have seldom found a wiki page that wasn't full of errors.  So you've confirmed for me that part of the purpose of Wikipedia is to destroy knowledge through inaccuracy, opinion, and monetarily motivated bias.  I KNEW that already, but thanks for stating it directly.  Wikipedia is less credible (on the pages I view) than Dailymail.co.uk.

 * You don't seem to understand. The pages are typically 50% and more duplication as well as being inaccurate.  You CANNOT monitor two separate divergent pages simultaneously.  You end up with individual cliques trying to maintain a biased point of view, instead of being accurate. Some of the inaccuracy is the usual failures in logic, grammatical errors, etc. but a lot of it is due to a repetition of MYTH. Wikipedia is a circular perpetrator of myth.  Having multiple inaccurate pages for the exact same topic is one reason why NO ONE allows their children to cite Wikipedia pages as a valid reference.  I am VERY familiar with home schooling.  Seems to me you should strive for excellence but your statements make me think you prefer mediocrity.Digitallymade (talk) 17:25, 3 March 2017 (UTC)
 * If you find errors, correct them. Just make sure you can back it up with a reliable source. You promised great things with the hydrostatic shock article, but then you gave up. Maybe find some niche piece like that and improve it. If you need help, just give me a shout. That's what we are here for: To work collaboratively on building this encyclopedia. If you slow down and listen to your fellow editors, you will probably find out that you have more in common with them than not, particularly with the end goal of getting errors corrected and writing well-sourced articles with engaging prose.--Mike - Μολὼν λαβέ 17:49, 3 March 2017 (UTC)
 * I found an error, so I corrected it and renamed a page to fix an obvious misspelling. You've just opposed deleting the redirect that left behind, Talk:IMR Lendary Powders. I'm finding it increasingly hard to make allowances for your attitude here, there and especially here. This is supposed to be a cooperative project. Andy Dingley (talk) 20:40, 3 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Digitallymade, Andy & I agree on this one. Given our history together, you might reconsider your ability to reach a consensus on this.  Please make corrections as you find them, but you are not going to get my support for merging any of these articles.  WP:SNOW seems to apply here.  Perhaps you can start by taking a few of the worst articles and attempting to improve those.  Just the fact that you don't understand basic concepts like the difference between an 'action' and an 'operating system' is telling, though. Baby Steps.  WP:GUN is an active community and probably won't stand for wholesale changes by somebody who lacks an understanding of basic concepts. --Winged Brick (talk) 21:24, 3 March 2017 (UTC)

harmonise with breechblock
Over a period of time, I have substantially rewritten the breechblock article. I have tried to confine that article to the breechblock design and how it is locked in position - as opposed to the action, which more fully refers to the mechanism by which the operator actuates the opening and closing of the breech but also, this generally refers to repeating firearms. While there will necessarily be a degree of redundancy (overlap) between these two articles, I would observe that the existing degree of redundancy is excessive and unnecessary. I would propose harmonising the two articles. This would mainly mean pruning down this article. I was wondering if there are any comments about what I propose? Regards, Cinderella157 (talk) 11:39, 14 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Action (firearms)


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Drilling rig

A drilling rig is an integrated system that drills wells, such as oil or water wells, or holes for piling and other construction purposes, into the earth's subsurface. Drilling rigs can be massive structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas extraction wells, or they can be small enough to be moved manually by one person and such are called augers. Drilling rigs can sample subsurface mineral deposits, test rock, soil and groundwater physical properties, and also can be used to install sub-surface fabrications, such as underground utilities, instrumentation, tunnels or wells. Drilling rigs can be mobile equipment mounted on trucks, tracks or trailers, or more permanent land or marine-based structures (such as oil platforms, commonly called 'offshore oil rigs' even if they don't contain a drilling rig). The term "rig" therefore generally refers to the complex equipment that is used to penetrate the surface of the Earth's crust.

Small to medium-sized drilling rigs are mobile, such as those used in mineral exploration drilling, blast-hole, water wells and environmental investigations. Larger rigs are capable of drilling through thousands of metres of the Earth's crust, using large "mud pumps" to circulate drilling fluid (slurry) through the drill bit and up the casing annulus, for cooling and removing the "cuttings" while a well is drilled. Hoists in the rig, a derrick, can lift hundreds of tons of pipe. Other equipment can force acid or sand into reservoirs to facilitate extraction of the oil or natural gas; and in remote locations there can be permanent living accommodation and catering for crews (which may be more than a hundred). Marine rigs may operate thousands of miles distant from the supply base with infrequent crew rotation or cycle.

History

Until internal combustion engines were developed in the late 19th century, the main method for drilling rock was muscle power of man or animal. The technique of oil drilling through percussion or rotary drilling has its origins dating back to the ancient Chinese Han dynasty in 100 BC, where percussion drilling was used to extract natural gas in the Sichuan province. Early oil and gas drilling methods were seemingly primitive as it required several technical skills. The skills involved the availability of heavy iron bits and long bamboo poles, the manufacturing of long and sturdy cables woven from bamboo fiber, and levers. Heavy iron bits were attached to long bamboo cables suspended from bamboo derricks and then were repeatedly raised and dropped into a manually dug hole by having two to six men jumping on a lever. Han dynasty oil wells made by percussion drilling was effective but only reached 10 meters deep and 100 meters by the 10th century. By the 16th century, the Chinese were exploring and drilling oil wells more than 2000 feet deep. Chinese well drilling technology was introduced to Europe in 1828. A modernized variant of the ancient Chinese drilling technique was used by American businessman Edwin Drake to drill Pennsylvania's first oil well in 1859 using small steam engines to power the drilling process rather than by human muscle. Cable tool drilling was developed in ancient China and was used for drilling brine wells. The salt domes also held natural gas, which some wells produced and which was used for evaporation of the brine. Drake learned of cable tool drilling from Chinese laborers in the U.S. The first primary product was kerosene for lamps and heaters. Similar developments around Baku fed the European market.

In the 1970s, outside of the oil and gas industry, roller bits using mud circulation were replaced by the first pneumatic reciprocating piston Reverse Circulation (RC) drills, and became essentially obsolete for most shallow drilling, and are now only used in certain situations where rocks preclude other methods. RC drilling proved much faster and more efficient, and continues to improve with better metallurgy, deriving harder, more durable bits, and compressors delivering higher air pressures at higher volumes, enabling deeper and faster penetration. Diamond drilling has remained essentially unchanged since its inception.

Petroleum drilling industry
[[File:Oil Rig Count.webp|thumb|290px|right|

]] Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are used not only to identify geologic reservoirs, but also used to create holes that allow the extraction of oil or natural gas from those reservoirs. Primarily in onshore oil and gas fields once a well has been drilled, the drilling rig will be moved off of the well and a service rig (a smaller rig) that is purpose-built for completions will be moved on to the well to get the well on line. This frees up the drilling rig to drill another hole and streamlines the operation as well as allowing for specialization of certain services, i.e. completions vs. drilling.

Mining drilling industry
Mining drilling rigs are used for two main purposes, exploration drilling which aims to identify the location and quality of a mineral, and production drilling, used in the production-cycle for mining. Drilling rigs used for rock blasting for surface mines vary in size dependent on the size of the hole desired, and is typically classified into smaller pre-split and larger production holes. Underground mining (hard rock) uses a variety of drill rigs dependent on the desired purpose, such as production, bolting, cabling, and tunnelling.

Mobile drilling rigs
In early oil exploration, drilling rigs were semi-permanent in nature and the derricks were often built on site and left in place after the completion of the well. In more recent times drilling rigs are expensive custom-built machines that can be moved from well to well. Some light duty drilling rigs are like a mobile crane and are more usually used to drill water wells. Larger land rigs must be broken apart into sections and loads to move to a new place, a process which can often take weeks.

Small mobile drilling rigs are also used to drill or bore piles. Rigs can range from 100 ST continuous flight auger (CFA) rigs to small air powered rigs used to drill holes in quarries, etc. These rigs use the same technology and equipment as the oil drilling rigs, just on a smaller scale.

The drilling mechanisms outlined below differ mechanically in terms of the machinery used, but also in terms of the method by which drill cuttings are removed from the cutting face of the drill and returned to surface.

Automated drill rig
An automated drill rig (ADR) is an automated full-sized walking land-based drill rig that drills long lateral sections in horizontal wells for the oil and gas industry. ADRs are agile rigs that can move from pad to pad to new well sites faster than other full-sized drilling rigs. Each rig costs about $25 million. ADR is used extensively in the Athabasca oil sands. According to the "Oil Patch Daily News", "Each rig will generate 50,000 man-hours of work during the construction phase and upon completion, each operating rig will directly and indirectly employ more than 100 workers." Compared to conventional drilling rigs", Ensign, an international oilfield services contractor based in Calgary, Alberta, that makes ADRs claims that they are "safer to operate, have "enhanced controls intelligence," "reduced environmental footprint, quick mobility and advanced communications between field and office." In June 2005 the first specifically designed slant automated drilling rig (ADR), Ensign Rig No. 118, for steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) applications was mobilized by Deer Creek Energy Limited, a Calgary-based oilsands company.

Auger drills
An auger drill is a spiral-shaped tool. Its main function is the drilling of holes in the ground and other materials - or surfaces such as ice, wood, etc. The design of an auger depends on the kind of material it's meant to drill into, hence there are different types of auger drills. Auger drills come in varying sizes and can drill holes up to a depth of 95 ft below the ground. They are known to be quite versatile, saving time and energy during construction work or even personal projects.The auger is a helical screw made of steel casing with curved flights that rotates as it's pushed into the ground by a drill head. As the auger rotates, it brings excavated material to the surface, which helps keep the borehole open and prevents it from collapsing. Augers can be mounted on trucks or other machines and come in different lengths and diameters. Auger drilling is used in many fields, including construction, environmental studies, and geotechnical investigations. It can also be used for a variety of other purposes, such as: Installing auger piles for foundation engineering Drilling holes for industrial applications like telephone poles, solar posts, and deck posts Small home projects like gardening, building fences, and planting crops Ice fishing There are different auger drilling methods, including hand auger drilling and hollow stem auger drilling. Hand auger drilling is a cost-effective method that's often used in areas with shallow soil, but it can be time-consuming and labor-intensive. Hollow stem auger drilling uses a large, hollow auger that removes soil as it drills. Auger drilling is often quieter and less vibration-prone than other drilling methods, like drive drilling, so it can also be used in urban areas. When using an auger, it's important to take safety precautions, such as wearing protective equipment like gloves, eye and ear protectors, and closed-toe boots. You should also make sure the auger and attachments are secure, engage the drill's high torque gear, and start drilling slowly.

Drill buckets
A drill bucket, or auger bucket, is a drilling head that accumulates spoil inside and can be lifted from the hole periodically to be emptied.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Drilling rig


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Crosscut saw

A crosscut saw (thwart saw) is any saw designed for cutting wood perpendicular to (across) the wood grain. Crosscut saws may be small or large, with small teeth close together for fine work like woodworking or large for coarse work like log bucking, and can be a hand tool or power tool.

The cutting edge of each tooth is angled in an alternating pattern. This design allows each tooth to act like a knife edge and slice through the wood in contrast to a rip saw, which tears along the grain, acting like a miniature chisel. Some crosscut saws use special teeth, called rakers, designed to clean out the cut strips of wood from the kerf. Crosscut saws generally have smaller teeth than rip saws.

Some saws, such as Japanese saws and those used by the ancient Egyptians, are designed to cut only on the pull stroke. Western saws, on the other hand, are designed to cut on the push stroke. Cross cut saws designed for log bucking and tree felling are designed to cut on the pull stroke.

Common features
Many crosscut saws have a wooden handle with the return edge at right angles to the un-toothed edge of the saw blade, allowing the saw to serve as a square for marking material to be cut at a right angle.

Larger saws used for forestry and logging work include both one-man and two-man saws, and both bucking and felling saws. A bucking saw generally has a straighter back and less of a pronounced curve on its cutting surface. Since bucking saws are more often used on trees that are already downed, the greater stiffness and weight aids swift cutting, and allows two-man saws to also be used by one person, pushing as well as pulling.

A felling saw is generally less stiff than a bucking saw and the backside, as well as the cutting side, is usually curved inward. Felling saws are more often used to cut down standing trees, so the thinner, lighter design is easier to use without gravity holding the blade against the cut. The concave back of the saw makes it easier to place wedges, preventing the kerf from closing on the saw.

Crosscut saws also include smaller hand saws used in carpentry.

How crosscut saws cut
All saws have cutting teeth, some may also have rakers and gullets.

As the saw is pulled toward the operator, the cutters score the wood to the left and right of the width of the blade, cutting a channel downward into the wood. Many sawtooth patterns have four cutters; each cutter that cuts to the left of the blade is paired with another that cuts to the right of the blade.

Adjacent to the cutters there is generally a raker. The void on either side of the raker is known as the gullet. A raker is what does the actual removal of the wood that is being cut. The raker follows the cutters, paring the bottom of the kerf like a chisel or plane. As the raker pares the bottom of the kerf, a strip of wood is lifted upward, and curled forward into the gullet.

As the saw is drawn out of the kerf, the wood that has accumulated in the gullets is allowed to fall out onto the ground. A way to determine whether a saw is working well is to examine the noodle shaped strings of wood that are scraped out of the kerf; the presence of fairly long strings indicate that the side cutters are doing their job and that the raker is slicing out the wood cleanly.

The cutting mechanics of the crosscut saw tooth has been described as a ‘knife like’ cutting action. The sharp bevelled cutting edges sever the wood fibers perpendicular to the grain, reducing the amount of bending within the work-piece.

Crosscut saws versus chainsaws
Felling or bucking is an inherently dangerous job. On top of that, both chainsaw and crosscut saws are dangerous in their own rights.

A kit for crosscut saw work weighs much less than a kit for chainsaw work. A chainsaw kit includes fuel, oil, a few tools, and more personal protective equipment.

The primary maintenance carried out on crosscut saws is sharpening, which requires a shop and a highly skilled filer. The primary maintenance on chainsaws is engine tuning, chain tensioning, and chain filing or replacement, which can be done at the site of felling and bucking.

Crosscut saws are unable to bore cut, a technique that a chainsaw operator often uses. Crosscut saws require more space to operate. They also allow the sawyer to stand several feet farther away from the log, which is safer particularly when finishing cuts. Crosscut saw use does not require hearing protection, which makes communication between team members possible, and also allows the sawyer to listen to the noises made by the log as stresses change.

In the United States, crosscut saw usage is permitted on all federal lands, whereas chainsaw usage is not permitted in designated wilderness areas.

History
Crosscut saws have been in use around the world since historic times, with the design of the saws (the cutting surfaces, the bow and shape of the saw, and the handles) changing over time to accommodate differences in the types of trees being cut, changes in metallurgy technology, and the application of experience. Records exist of crosscut saws in use during the Roman Empire although not widely. They came into wide usage in Europe in the middle of the 15th century. Early saws had a plain tooth pattern until the M tooth pattern was developed in 15th century south Germany. Prior to about 1880 crosscut saws were primarily used for bucking, with axes used to fell trees. Starting in Pennsylvania about 1880, loggers began using the saws for felling trees as well. Despite the modern chainsaw, they are still in wide use around the world, not only in competition matches against chainsaws but also in regular, real-life usage since they afford certain advantages over gasoline-powered saws.

Vintage saws versus modern saws
There are two types of crosscut saw classification, vintage and modern. Vintage saws are saws that can be anywhere from 30 to as much as 250 years old and are much sought after by professionals, and as such are typically very much more expensive than modern crosscut saws. Modern saws are typically stamped out of sheet metal and are manufactured from contemporary alloys; they behave very differently from vintage saws, which have historically been made by craftsmen who understood the nuances of the saws they produced.

In September 2005, the United States Forest Service conducted field trials of vintage saws against modern saws, details of which can be found in the external link reference provided below. One significant finding in the background research findings is that vintage saws are becoming increasingly difficult to locate owing to the demand for such saws by professionals.

Overall, modern saws have some advantages over vintage saws such as stiffness which is useful for felling but might cause difficulties when bucking downed trunks which have bind. Vintage saws which bend easily and can, in fact, be folded end-to-end for carrying on one's back, afford easier transport than most modern saws, and afford less-binding cuts that aren't straight.

Crosscut saw training

Many areas of the National Forests of the United States are designated as Wilderness Areas and as such the use of mechanized and motorized equipment is prohibited except by special circumstance. Because of this, the United States Forest Service (USFS) organizes the crosscut saw training of USFS employees and forest working volunteers in an effort to maintain skills and proficiency among those who need to use such saws.

Training within the Angeles National Forest concentrates greatly upon the safety of the USFS employees and forest volunteers, the safety of animals in the area, and the safety of the surrounding environment.

Training also includes an examination of the differences and benefits of vintage saws and modern saws created with modern materials. Vintage saws are those saws which were manufactured over fifty years ago, being made of high carbon steel instead of the exotic alloys which are typical of contemporary saws.

Crosscut saws are used with a variety of other small hand tools. Wedges are usually used to keep the sections of the log being cut in place as the saw is worked through the rest of the log. Wedges are placed to keep the sections apart but tie wedges may also be applied across the cut to hold sections together until the sawyer is ready for the sections to roll or drop out of the way.

Also covered in typical training sessions is the safe use of the common axe. To keep the saw sharp and to avoid cutting through rocks and dirt, the bark of the tree around the area to be cut is often removed with an axe.

Crosscut saw training is mostly safety training with the mechanics of working safely with top bind, bottom bind, and radial (twisting) bind comprising much of the training required to work with such saws. The establishment of escape routes for both felling and bucking may require that both operators at either end of a double-handled saw be constantly aware of the environment around them, and constantly aware of other people within the immediate region which might enter into the sphere of crosscut influence.

Traditionally over the past 250 years the use of crosscut saws in the many forests of the United States lacked the use of safety clothing and equipment. However, safety training in contemporary usage in the United States dictates the mandatory use of gloves, eye protectors, chainsaw boots with hard tops and high-top ankle protectors, Kevlar chaps, and long sleeved shirts.

Crosscut saws are used within Designated Wildernesses where chainsaws are banned due to the prohibited use of motorized or mechanized tools and equipment, requiring that crosscut training also include the proper use of non-petroleum based lubricants as well as training in techniques which leave a minimal impact both ecologically as well as visually after trails are cleared of downed trees.

Safe and effective crosscut and chainsaw use on federally administered public lands within the United States has been codified since July 19, 2016 in the publication of the Final Directive for National Saw Program issued by the United States Forest Service, USDA which specifies the training, testing, and certification process for employees as well as for unpaid volunteers who operate chainsaws within public lands.

The new directive specifies Forest Service Manual (FSM) 2358 (PDF) which covers classification of sawyers, their Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and numerous other aspects of required safety training and behavior when operating chainsaws or crosscut saws on federally administered public lands.

title: Crosscut saw


text:
Liberal Party (Norway)

The Liberal Party (Venstre, lit. 'Left', V; Gurutbellodat) is a centrist political party in Norway. It was founded in 1884 and it is the oldest political party in Norway. It is positioned in the centre on the political spectrum, and it is a liberal party which has over the time enacted reforms such as parliamentarism, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and state schooling.

For most of the late 19th and early 20th century, it was Norway's largest and dominant political party, but in the postwar era it lost most of its support and became a relatively small party. The party has nevertheless participated in several centrist and centre-right government coalitions in the postwar era. It currently holds eight seats in the Parliament, and was previously a part of Norway's government together with the Conservative Party and the Christian Democratic Party. Guri Melby has served as the party leader since 2020.

Founded in 1884, then with the main support from farmers and progressive members of the bourgeoisie, it was the first political party that came into existence in Norway, and was the dominant government party for several decades. From the beginning it had a close relationship with the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights, which was founded in the same year by most of the Liberal Party's leading politicians, and the party played a central role in advocating for women's suffrage. Since the 1880s the party has seen many internal schisms. A politically moderate and religious wing broke away in 1888 to form the Moderate Liberal Party; and the conservative-liberal faction, including the former Prime Minister of Norway Christian Michelsen, broke away in 1909 to form the Free-minded Liberal Party (both parties eventually merged into the Conservative Party). The most notable recent schism was in 1972, when the Liberal Party decided to oppose Norwegian membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), and the faction supporting membership broke away and formed the Liberal People's Party. The party has since endorsed Norwegian membership in the EU and is currently a strong proponent.

History
The party Venstre was formed in 1884 in connection with the dispute about whether or not to introduce parliamentarism in Norway. Venstre (which means "Left" in Norwegian) was the party advocating parliamentarism, whereas the conservatives, who opposed parliamentarism, formed the party Høyre (which means "Right"). When the fight for parliamentarism was won, Venstre's leader Johan Sverdrup became the first Norwegian prime minister to be appointed on the basis of having the support of a majority in the Storting (Norwegian parliament). Later, Venstre advocated universal suffrage for men, which was achieved in 1898, the break-up of the Swedish-Norwegian Union, which happened in 1905, and universal women's suffrage, which was introduced in 1913. In the first decades after 1884, Venstre formed several governments, interspersed with periods of Høyre-governments. Six different Prime Ministers of Norway have come from Venstre, all of them before 1935. With the growth of the Labour Party, Venstre gradually lost ground. The election of 1915 was the last in which Venstre was the largest party and won an outright majority in the Storting. Venstre was further weakened with the formation of Bondepartiet (the present-day Centre Party) in 1920, and Christian People's Party in 1933, both of which were formed partly by former Venstre members. Since World War II, Venstre has been part of five coalition governments, the most recent one being Solberg's Cabinet from 2018.

A dispute over Norwegian membership in the European Communities (now the European Union) led to the party splitting at Røros in 1972, with the people favoring EC membership departing and forming the Liberal People's Party. These included the party leader, Helge Seip, and 9 of the 13 members of parliament. Since then, Venstre has been a fairly small party. The parliamentary group was reduced to two after the 1973 election.

In 1974, Venstre elected the first female leader of a political party in Norway, Eva Kolstad.

Election results continued to be poor for Venstre. Before the 1985 election the party announced for the first, and so far only, time that it would support a Labour Party government. At the following election Venstre lost its two remaining seats, and was without representation in the Storting for the first time. The party merged in 1988 with the Liberal People's Party, but at the election of 1989 this reunited Venstre again failed to win parliamentary seats. In 1993 the party again failed to achieve the 4% threshold that would have made it eligible for the levelling seats in parliament, but Lars Sponheim was elected directly from Hordaland county. (Before the election, Sponheim had made the wager that he would walk across the mountains from his home in Ulvik to the parliament in the capital city Oslo if elected—a wager he delivered on, to much good-humoured interest from the press.)

In 1997, Venstre passed the 4% threshold, increasing its seats in parliament to six. As a consequence Venstre also saw its first participation in cabinet since 1973. The party held four seats in the minority first government of Kjell Magne Bondevik. Lars Sponheim became minister of industry and commerce, Odd Einar Dørum; minister of communications, later minister of justice, Guro Fjellanger; minister of environmental protection, and Eldbjørg Løwer; minister of administration, later minister of defense. Mrs. Løwer was the first female minister of defense in Norway. This cabinet resigned in 2000, refusing to accept the Storting's decision to build gas power plants. In 2001, Venstre narrowly failed to reach the 4% threshold, but had two representatives elected, Sponheim and Odd Einar Dørum. However, due to Venstre becoming part of the second coalition government of Kjell Magne Bondevik, with Sponheim and Dørum entering the cabinet, the two were represented in parliament by deputies. The party also got a third member of the cabinet, with the appointment of Torild Skogsholm as Minister of Transport and Communications.

The 2005 election gave Venstre 5.9% of the vote, its best result since the 1969 election. Venstre won six seats directly, and an additional four seats through the 4%+ compensatory system. Due to the majority of the Red-green coalition, Venstre became an opposition party.

In the 2009 election, Venstre ended up below the 4% threshold for levelling seats, leaving the party with only two seats in parliament, Trine Skei Grande and Borghild Tenden, whereas they had ten seats before the election. The same evening, 14 September 2009, Lars Sponheim announced that he would step down as party leader, as a consequence of the poor result. After the election, the party experienced growth in members. At the party conference in April 2010, Trine Skei Grande was unanimously elected as the new leader of the party.

Venstre climbed over the threshold with 5.2% in the 2013 elections and entered into coalition talks with the Conservative, Christian Democratic, and Progress parties. Venstre and the Christian Democrats decided not to enter the new Solberg Cabinet, thus leaving it without a parliamentary majority, but made a confidence and supply agreement with it.

Winning eight seats in the 2017 elections, Venstre entered into new talks with the Conservative and Progress Party coalition, and joined the coalition in January 2018 with three cabinet posts; Ola Elvestuen became Minister of Climate and Environment, Iselin Nybø Minister of Research and Higher Education, while party leader Trine Skei Grande became Minister of Culture.

Ideology
The party is regarded as liberal, social-liberal,   classical liberal and centrist. The party advocates civil liberties under the pre-condition of an active state. Since the 1970s, the party has maintained a green liberal position, which was an important part of the party profile when it came back to parliament in the 1990s. The Liberal Party was rated the second best party after the Green Party by the environmentalist organisation Framtiden i våre hender. The party is also a strong supporter of multiculturalism, increased labour immigration to Norway, and relaxed integration measures.

Through its history, it has taken part in both centre-right and pure centrist coalition governments. From 2001 to 2005, it was in a centre-right coalition government with the Conservative Party and Christian Democratic Party; since the 2005 general election, the party has been in opposition. More recently the party has been a proponent of a blue–green alliance in Norwegian politics, with Venstre constituting the green part.

In the last few election campaigns, Venstre's main focus has been on environmental issues, education, small-business and social issues. Venstre advocates higher taxes on activities that damage the environment. Some other positions advocated by Venstre are increased labour immigration, abolition of the Church of Norway as the state church, abolishing the wealth and inheritance taxes, and more power to local authorities (kommuner).

At the national convention in 2005, Venstre decided with a margin of only five votes to still oppose Norway joining the European Union, albeit weakly, while still advocating that Norway remain part of the European Economic Area. In 2020, however, a majority at the national convention voted for Venstre to support EU membership for Norway. Thus, the official stance of Venstre is now in support of Norwegian membership of the European Union. Regardless, the party retains the position that the question of potential Norwegian EU membership should only be decided by a national referendum, similar to referendums held in 1972 and 1994. Venstre additionally supports the replacement of the monarchy with a republican form of government.

In 2007, Venstre became the first Norwegian party to advocate legalizing sharing of copyrighted digital material.

Etymology
While the name of the party means Left in Norwegian, the party refers to itself as a centrist party. Since the Centre Party was a component of the governing centre-left Red-green coalition, and Venstre was part of the "non-socialist" opposition, a situation has been produced where the centre party is more on the left than Left itself. When the name Left was chosen in 1884, the word did not refer to socialism in the way "Left wing" does today. It meant liberal or radicalism in comparison to the conservatives on the right, and referred to the position of the seats in Parliament. The use of the word for "left" in the names of the Danish political parties Venstre and Radikale Venstre is also meant to refer to liberalism and radicalism rather than socialism.

Party leaders

 * 1884 Johan Sverdrup
 * 1884–1889 Ole Anton Qvam
 * 1889–1893 Johannes Steen
 * 1893–1894 Viggo Ullmann
 * 1894–1896 Ole Anton Qvam
 * 1898–1900 Viggo Ullmann
 * 1900–1903 Lars Holst
 * 1903–1909 Carl Berner
 * 1909–1927 Gunnar Knudsen
 * 1927–1940 Johan Ludwig Mowinckel
 * 1945–1952 Jacob S. Worm-Müller
 * 1952–1964 Bent Røiseland
 * 1964–1970 Gunnar Garbo
 * 1970–1972 Helge Seip
 * 1972–1974 Helge Rognlien
 * 1974–1976 Eva Kolstad
 * 1976–1982 Hans Hammond Rossbach
 * 1982–1986 Odd Einar Dørum
 * 1986–1990 Arne Fjørtoft
 * 1990–1992 Håvard Alstadheim
 * 1992–1996 Odd Einar Dørum
 * 1996–2010 Lars Sponheim
 * 2010–2020 Trine Skei Grande
 * 2020– Guri Melby

Prime ministers from Venstre

 * 1884–1889 Johan Sverdrup
 * 1891–1893 Johannes Steen
 * 1898–1902 Johannes Steen
 * 1902–1903 Otto Blehr
 * 1907–1908 Jørgen Løvland
 * 1908–1910 Gunnar Knudsen
 * 1913–1920 Gunnar Knudsen
 * 1921–1923 Otto Blehr
 * 1924–1926 Johan Ludwig Mowinckel
 * 1928–1931 Johan Ludwig Mowinckel
 * 1933–1935 Johan Ludwig Mowinckel

Party Congresses

 * ?. Konstituerande landsmøte 28–29 January 1884 Kristiania, Arbeidersamfundet
 * 2. landsmøte 1886 17 September Hamar
 * 3. landsmøte 1887 14 July Trondheim, Arbeidersamfundet
 * 4. landsmøte 1888 27 January Kristiania, Arbeidersamfundet
 * 5. landsmøte 1889 26 August Bergen, Bergens Haandværks- og Industriforening
 * 6. landsmøte 1891 30 January Kristiania, Arbeidersamfundet
 * 7. landsmøte 1893 30 January Kristiania, Arbeidersamfundet
 * 8. landsmøte 1894 4 April Kristiania, Arbeidersamfundet
 * 9. landsmøte 1896 22 June Kristiania, Arbeidersamfundet
 * 10. landsmøte 1897 26 February Kristiania, Møllergata
 * 11. landsmøte 1899 16 October Kristiania
 * 13. landsmøte 1903 27 February Kristiania
 * 16. landsmøte 1906 7 May Turnforeningens lokale
 * 17. landsmøte 1908 27 January Kristiania, Møllergata

title: Liberal Party (Norway)


text:
Talk:List of polyatomic ions

Format: NB

 * H2O

written using 'sub' tag. Charles Matthews 16:53, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of polyatomic ions


text: Category:Dukes of Braganza

title: Category:Dukes of Braganza


text:
Mariana mallard

The Mariana mallard or Oustalet's duck (Anas oustaleti) is an extinct species of duck of the genus Anas that was endemic to the Mariana Islands. Its taxonomic status is debated, and it has variously been treated as a full species, a subspecies of the mallard or of the Pacific black duck, or sometimes as a subspecies of the Indian spot-billed duck.

Taxonomy
The taxonomic status of the Mariana mallard is disputed, since it resembles an intermediate of the mallard and the Pacific black duck, two closely related allopatric species which frequently hybridise. Its males had two intergrading color morphs, called the "platyrhynchos" and the "superciliosa" types after the species they resembled more. It was first scientifically described by Tommaso Salvadori as a full species in the genus Anas, named after its collector, the French zoologist Emile Oustalet. Salvadori suggested it was related to the Pacific black duck. It was previously known to the Chamorro people, who called it ngånga' (palao) in Chamorro, and to the Carolinian people, who called it ghereel'bwel in Carolinian.

After Salvadori, most taxonomists, such as Dean Amadon and Ernst Mayr, considered it a subspecies of the mallard. Yoshimaro Yamashina examined those specimens in Japanese museums in 1948, and decided that the Mariana mallard was an example of hybrid speciation, and was descended from the mallard and the Pacific black duck's Palau subspecies (Anas superciliosa pelewensis). However, no molecular genetic evidence is available to support this hypothesis. Some scientists, such as Jean Delacour, have considered the Mariana mallard a simple hybrid, so it was absent from Delacour's four-volume monograph on the ducks and from the IUCN Red List. If Yamashina's hypothesis is correct, the Mariana mallard would have presumably evolved into near species status in only about ten thousand years.

Neither Mariana mallards nor their progenitor species are known from fossils on the Marianas, casting into doubt the assumption that a resident black duck population had been long established on the islands. However, most rock shelters and caves on the Marianas were obliterated in the 1944 Battle of Guam. A species of flightless duck is known from a prehistoric bone found on Rota in 1994; it was apparently not closely related to the Mariana mallard.

Description
Mariana mallards were 51 – long and weighed approximately 1 kg, making them marginally smaller than mallards. Two intergrading color morphs were found in males, called the "platyrhynchos" and the "superciliosa" type after the species they resembled more.

Only the former had a distinct nuptial (breeding) plumage: the head was green as in mallard drakes, but less glossy, with some buff feathers on the sides, a dark brown eyestripe and a faint whitish ring at the base of the neck. The upper breast was dark ruddish chestnut brown with blackish-brown spots. The wing patch (speculum) and the tail was also like in mallard drakes' nuptial plumage, including curled-up central tail feathers, but the tips of the speculum feathers were buff. The underside was a mix between the vermiculated grey feathers of the mallard and the brown ones of the Pacific black duck. The remainder of the bird looked like a male Pacific black duck with lighter underwings. The bill was black at the base and olive at the tip, the feet reddish orange with darker webs and the iris brown. The eclipse plumage looked similar to a dark eclipse mallard drake.

Males of the "superciliosa" type resembled a Pacific black duck with a less distinctly marked head, the supercilium and cheeks being buffy and the cheek (malar) stripe hardly visible. The upper breast, flank and scapular feathers had broader buff edges, and the underwings were lighter. The speculum was usually as in the "platyrhynchos" type, i.e. mallard-like, but at least two specimens have the green speculum of the Pacific black duck. The bill was like that of A. superciliosa, and the iris and legs similar to the "platyrhynchos" type.

Females looked essentially like a dark mallard female with the orange of the feet and near the bill tip usually a bit more pure.

Distribution
It occurred, in recent times at least, on the islands of Guam, Saipan and Tinian. Two unidentified ducks were seen on Rota in 1945, but as no movement of A. oustaleti between Saipan and Tinian, which are just 8 km apart, was recorded, these were probably vagrant migrating ducks, although Marshall (1949) suspected from circumstantial evidence that such movement did indeed take place. However, the distance between Guam and Rota is nearly 80 km, making intentional migration between these islands unlikely.

Ecology and behaviour
The Mariana mallard inhabited wetlands, mostly inland but occasionally also in coastal areas. On Guam, it was most abundant in the Talofofo River valley, on Tinian on Lake Hagoi and Lake Makpo (before it was drained and known as Makpo Swamp), and on Saipan on the Garpan Lagoon and on and around Lake Susupe. The birds were rather reclusive, preferring sheltered habitat with plenty of wetland and water plants – fern thickets (Acrostichum aureum) and reed beds (Scirpus, Cyperus and Phragmites), where they also nested. Usually, pairs or small flocks were encountered, but in the key habitats larger groups of dozens and rarely up to 50–60 individuals could be found. Apart from possible inter-island movement, the birds were not migratory.

Feeding and reproduction are not well documented, but cannot expected to differ significantly from its immediate relatives. The Mariana mallard fed on aquatic invertebrates, small vertebrates and plants, and although they were not observed up-ending like mallards, they probably did so.

Breeding was recorded from at least January to July, with a peak in June–July at the end of the dry season. One male specimen taken in October was also in breeding condition; thus, the birds may have bred nearly year-round at least on occasion. The courtship behavior, which in the strongly sexually dimorphic mallard is focused more on presentation of visual cues than in the monomorphic Pacific black duck (although it is generally similar in both species), was never recorded. Clutches consisted of 7–12 pale grey-green oval eggs, measuring 6.16 x 3.89 cm on average. Incubation lasted around 28 days, males took no part in it and neither in caring for the ducklings. The precocial and nidifugous young fledged when about eight weeks old and became sexually mature the following year.

Extinction
The birds declined due to draining of wetlands for agriculture and construction. Hunting pressure was probably heavy, despite a ban on gun ownership under Japanese control (1914–1945), as the birds were unwary to traps, and at any rate the gun ban was lifted after World War II. By the 1940s, flocks of more than a dozen birds were seldom seen. On Guam, the last sightings were in 1949 and 1967—the latter being a single, possibly vagrant, bird—and on Tinian in 1974. As Lake Susupe offered the most plentiful and least accessible habitat, although it too suffered from pollution by sugar mill wastes, the Saipan population lingered on for a few more years. The Mariana mallard was listed as federally endangered on June 2, 1977. In 1979, two males and a female were found on Saipan and caught; one male was later released, the last wild bird ever to be encountered. The pair was brought to Pohakuloa Training Area, Hawaii, and later to SeaWorld San Diego, where it was attempted to have them reproduce in captivity. However, this was unsuccessful and the species became extinct with the death of the last individual in 1981. Surveys were conducted in the following years, but the species was certainly gone by then. It was removed from the USFWS Endangered Species List on February 23, 2004, due to extinction.

Collection of specimens for museums and private collections must have had a temporary impact during the Japanese control over the islands. Although fewer than 100 specimens are on record, most were taken in the 1930s and 1940s for Japanese collectors; given the rather sedentary habits and small population size of the species, this may have jeopardized local populations to the point of extinction. Outside Japan, 7 specimens (including the type) are in the National Museum of Natural History, Paris, one in the Natural History Museum at Tring, two in the National Museum of Natural History, Washington D.C. and six in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City. There are reports of additional specimens in Cambridge, Massachusetts and Lisbon.

title: Mariana mallard


text:
Fado Curvo

Fado Curvo is the second studio album by Portuguese fado singer Mariza, released on 6 May 2003.

Reception
Fado Curvo became Mariza's first album to feature on Billboard's World Albums chart, where it peaked at number 6 in June 2003. The album is a certified quadruple platinum record in Portugal: by December 2004, it had sold 80,000 copies in the country, which awarded the album the double platinum.

Reactions to the album were positive, with critics underlining its experimental nature and the blending of traditional songs with contemporary arrangements and compositions. The great range of emotions expressed in Fado Curvo was noted by critics, that considered it to be a breakaway from one of the old traditions of fado, that is to focus on sadness.

Mike Joyce of The Washington Post said that even listeners not well acquainted with fado would not be indifferent to Mariza's voice, that he qualified as being "a dark, rich, commanding contralto".

Musicians

 * Mariza - voice
 * Mário Pacheco - guitar
 * António Neto - guitar
 * Manio Freitas - bass
 * Tiago Machado - piano (tracks 5 & 12)
 * Carlos Maria Trindade - piano (track 10)
 * Fernando Araújo - bass and guitar (track 9)
 * Quiné - percussion (tracks 3 & 6)
 * Miguel Gonçalves - trumpet and fliscorn (track 10)
 * Davide Zaccaria - cello (track 5)

title: Fado Curvo


text:
Red shoveler

The red shoveler (Spatula platalea) is a species of dabbling duck native to southern South America.

Description
The species has a spatula-shaped bill, a green speculum, and light blue upper wing converts. Male shovelers vary in color from red to paler shades of red (and pink), while the females tend to have large, dark bills. Adults reach a size of about 45 –, weigh about 523 - 608 g, and have a wingspan of about 66 –.

Distribution and habitat
The red shoveler breeds in the southern half of South America. It ranges from Tierra del Fuego northwards to Chile and most parts of Argentina, as well as to the Falkland Islands; there are small, isolated breeding populations in the southern regions of Peru, Bolivia, and Paraguay. They can also be found in the extreme southern regions of Brazil and Uruguay, in isolated coastal populations and also further inland. It inhabits shallow lakes and pools with dense reed beds, intertidal mangrove swamps and marshes. They can also be found in brackish waters, such as coastal lagoons, deltas and estuaries.

Ecology

Red shovelers have a diet that includes herbs, grasses, pond weeds, widgeon grass, algae, and eelgrass. They also feed on small invertebrates. The bill is equipped with a lamellate filtering mechanism that allows the extraction of small items of food from the water. Pairs form in the wintering grounds, after often noisy courtship. Once a clutch of 7–8 eggs is laid, incubation lasts about 25–26 days, followed by 40–45 days of fledging. Red shovelers are partially migratory, with the southernmost birds migrating north during the winter season.

Conservation
The red shoveler is a relatively common and widespread species, and is not currently considered at risk. However, it may suffer to an extent from the degradation of its wetland habitats. The species is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List due to its extremely large range and apparently overall stable population. Unfortunately, the wetland habitats used for nesting by this species are under threat by problems such as eutrophication due to agriculture runoff, which causes a loss in aquatic plants, making it difficult for the ducks to find food reliably much less build nests out of said aquatic/herbaceous plants along with grazing cattle trampling down nests and vegetation needed to hide the nests to begin with. This means that despite their species being considered under the category of Least Concern, actual steps need to be taken towards the conservation of this species by both regular farmers and the wetland areas dedicated to conservation where they are supposedly protected from things like tourism, fishing, and hunting, as their true numbers in the wild are unknown because this species is so spread out.

title: Red shoveler


text:
User:Bobbyandck

Hello,

I am a swiss guy that is in his 1st year stuying Economics & International Relations in the University of St Andrews, Scotland

About Me
I love sports, Sailing in particular, Golf, Running and Mounaineering is also cool

I love to do non-mainstream things (camping in the snow, biking down a mountain through footpaths, sailing for 8 months, swimming in the north sea when it is snowing ...)

Political Views:
Moderate

Interests:
Sports, Adventure, Travel, ... and Stamps collecting

Music
Hoobastank, Korn, Rammstein, Lagwagon, Pennywise, Goliath

Books
The Godfather, Omertà, The DaVinci Code

Movies
Gangs of New York, The Godfather, Asterix et Obelix

Quotes
I don't want my home to be walled in and my windows stuffed. I want the culture of all lands to blow about my house freely, but I refuse to be blown off my feet. (Gandhi)

Yes, I am a criminal. My crime is that of curiosity. My crime is that of judging people by what they say and think, not what they look like. My crime is that of outsmarting you, something that you will never forgive me for. (The Mentor)

If the truth hurts, then let us live in pain rather than in a dream.

Mens sana in corpore sano

Ships are the nearest thing to dreams that hands have ever made (Robert N. Rose)

Land was created to provide a place for boats to visit (Brooks Atkinson)

Websites
I have a blog at : www.bobbyandck.com My main website is the following: Home Page I have mainly pictures there, the older website with pictures is Webshots

Here are a few of my favourite websites:
 * Global Issues - (NC)
 * Indy Media - News - This one is very alternative, so be careful with what they say
 * OpenDemocracy - Discussions about different issues
 * Theyr.net - Precise and explicit weather forecast

Contributions
My current contributions are mainly the Kennedy clan and the wikibooks:Open Culture

Aknowledgements
Iain Nicol, an amazing academic son of mine :P

title: User:Bobbyandck


text:
Kansas City Brass

Kansas City Brass was an American soccer team based in Overland Park, Kansas, United States, a suburb of Kansas City, Missouri. Founded in 1997, the team played in the USL Premier Development League (PDL), the fourth tier of the American Soccer Pyramid, in the Heartland Division of the Central Conference.

The team played its home games on the Stadium Field at the Overland Park Soccer Complex, where they played beginning in 2011. The team's colors were blue and white.

History
Kansas City Brass was owned by Kansas City United Soccer, Inc., a Kansas Not-for-Profit Corporation, formed in 1997 by Dr. Emilio John and Alan Blinzler, to serve two missions: to prepare graduating high school seniors for college soccer by introducing them to the level of speed and physical play found at the highest levels of college soccer; and to prepare players for the level of competition found at the First and Second Division levels of professional soccer. Since its beginning John served as President of the Brass and Blinzler acted as Chief Operating Officer.

The Brass assisted over thirty players in their quest to move from the amateur ranks to professional teams. In 2007 the Brass was inducted into the United Soccer Leagues Hall of Fame.

Head coaches

 * 🇺🇸 Robi Goff (1998–1999)
 * 🇺🇸 Jim Schwab (2000–2001)
 * 🇺🇸 Jefferson Roblee (2002–2010)
 * 🇺🇸Burke Slusher (2002–2013) – associate head coach
 * 🇺🇸 Lincoln Roblee (2011–2013)

Stadia

 * Greene Stadium; Liberty, Missouri (2003–2010)
 * Stadium at Liberty High School; Liberty, Missouri 2 games (2003)
 * Blue Valley District Activity Center; Overland Park, Kansas 2 games (2003)
 * Stadium at Excelsior Springs High School; Excelsior Springs, Missouri 3 games (2005–2006)
 * Overland Park Soccer Complex; Overland Park, Kansas (2011–2013)

Average attendance
Attendance stats are calculated by averaging each team's self-reported home attendances from the historical match archive at https://web.archive.org/web/20100105175057/http://www.uslsoccer.com/history/index_E.html.

 * 2005: 114
 * 2006: 141
 * 2007: 202
 * 2008: 122
 * 2009: 128
 * 2010: 131

title: Kansas City Brass


text:
System of units of measurement

A system of units of measurement, also known as a system of units or system of measurement, is a collection of units of measurement and rules relating them to each other. Systems of measurement have historically been important, regulated and defined for the purposes of science and commerce. Instances in use include the International System of Units or SI (the modern form of the metric system), the British imperial system, and the United States customary system.

History
In antiquity, systems of measurement were defined locally: the different units might be defined independently according to the length of a king's thumb or the size of his foot, the length of stride, the length of arm, or maybe the weight of water in a keg of specific size, perhaps itself defined in hands and knuckles. The unifying characteristic is that there was some definition based on some standard. Eventually cubits and strides gave way to "customary units" to meet the needs of merchants and scientists.

The preference for a more universal and consistent system only gradually spread with the growth of international trade and science. Changing a measurement system has costs in the near term, which often results in resistance to such a change. The substantial benefit of conversion to a more rational and internationally consistent system of measurement has been recognized and promoted by scientists, engineers, businesses and politicians, and has resulted in most of the world adopting a commonly agreed metric system.

The French Revolution gave rise to the metric system, and this has spread around the world, replacing most customary units of measure. In most systems, length (distance), mass, and time are base quantities.

Later science developments showed that an electromagnetic quantity such as electric charge or electric current could be added to extend the set of base quantities. Gaussian units have only length, mass, and time as base quantities, with no separate electromagnetic dimension. Other quantities, such as power and speed, are derived from the base quantities: for example, speed is distance per unit time. Historically a wide range of units was used for the same type of quantity. In different contexts length was measured in inches, feet, yards, fathoms, rods, chains, furlongs, miles, nautical miles, stadia, leagues, with conversion factors that were not based on power of ten.

In the metric system and other recent systems, underlying relationships between quantities, as expressed by formulae of physics such as Newton's laws of motion, is used to select a small number of base quantities for which a unit is defined for each, from which all other units may be derived. Secondary units (multiples and submultiples) are derived from these base and derived units by multiplying by powers of ten. For example, where the unit of length is the metre; a distance of 1 metre is 1,000 millimetres, or 0.001 kilometres.

Current practice
Metrication is complete or nearly complete in most countries.

However, US customary units remain heavily used in the United States and to some degree in Liberia. Traditional Burmese units of measurement are used in Burma, with partial transition to the metric system. U.S. units are used in limited contexts in Canada due to the large volume of trade with the U.S. There is also considerable use of imperial weights and measures, despite de jure Canadian conversion to metric.

A number of other jurisdictions have laws mandating or permitting other systems of measurement in some or all contexts, such as the United Kingdom – whose road signage legislation, for instance, only allows distance signs displaying imperial units (miles or yards) – or Hong Kong.

In the United States metric units are virtually always used in science, frequently in the military, and partially in industry. U.S. customary units are primarily used in U.S. households. At retail stores, the litre (spelled 'liter' in the U.S.) is a commonly used unit for volume, especially on bottles of beverages, and milligrams, rather than grains, are used for medications.

Some other non-SI units are still in international use, such as nautical miles and knots in aviation and shipping, and feet for aircraft altitude.

Metric system

Metric systems of units have evolved since the adoption of the first well-defined system in France in 1795. During this evolution the use of these systems has spread throughout the world, first to non-English-speaking countries, and then to English speaking countries.

Multiples and submultiples of metric units are related by powers of ten and their names are formed with prefixes. This relationship is compatible with the decimal system of numbers and it contributes greatly to the convenience of metric units.

In the early metric system there were two base units, the metre for length and the gram for mass. The other units of length and mass, and all units of area, volume, and derived units such as density were derived from these two base units.

Mesures usuelles (French for customary measurements) were a system of measurement introduced as a compromise between the metric system and traditional measurements. It was used in France from 1812 to 1839.

A number of variations on the metric system have been in use. These include gravitational systems, the centimetre–gram–second systems (cgs) useful in science, the metre–tonne–second system (mts) once used in the USSR and the metre–kilogram–second system (mks). In some engineering fields, like computer-aided design, millimetre–gram–second (mmgs) is also used.

The current international standard for the metric system is the International System of Units (Système international d'unités or SI). It is a system in which all units can be expressed in terms of seven units. The units that serve as the SI base units are the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela.

Imperial and US customary units
Both imperial units and US customary units derive from earlier English units. Imperial units were mostly used in the former British Empire and the British Commonwealth, but in all these countries they have been largely supplanted by the metric system. They are still used for some applications in the United Kingdom but have been mostly replaced by the metric system in commercial, scientific, and industrial applications. US customary units, however, are still the main system of measurement in the United States. While some steps towards metrication have been made (mainly in the late 1960s and early 1970s), the customary units have a strong hold due to the vast industrial infrastructure and commercial development.

While imperial and US customary systems are closely related, there are a number of differences between them. Units of length and area (the inch, foot, yard, mile, etc.) have been identical since the adoption of the International Yard and Pound Agreement; however, the US and, formerly, India retained older definitions for surveying purposes. This gave rise to the US survey foot for instance. The avoirdupois units of mass and weight differ for units larger than a pound (lb). The imperial system uses a stone of 14 lb, a long hundredweight of 112 lb and a long ton of 2240 lb. The stone is not used in the US and the hundredweights and tons are short: 100 lb and 2000 lb respectively.

Where these systems most notably differ is in their units of volume. A US fluid ounce (fl oz), about 29.6 millilitres (ml), is slightly larger than the imperial fluid ounce (about 28.4 ml). However, as there are 16 US fl oz to a US pint and 20 imp fl oz per imperial pint, the imperial pint is about 20% larger. The same is true of quarts, gallons, etc.; six US gallons are a little less than five imperial gallons.

The avoirdupois system served as the general system of mass and weight. In addition to this there are the troy and the apothecaries' systems. Troy weight was customarily used for precious metals, black powder and gemstones. The troy ounce is the only unit of the system in current use; it is used for precious metals. Although the troy ounce is larger than its avoirdupois equivalent, the pound is smaller. The obsolete troy pound was divided into 12 ounces, rather than the 16 ounces per pound of the avoirdupois system. The apothecaries' system was traditionally used in pharmacology, but has now been replaced by the metric system; it shared the same pound and ounce as the troy system but with different further subdivisions.

Natural units
Natural units are units of measurement defined in terms of universal physical constants in such a manner that selected physical constants take on the numerical value of one when expressed in terms of those units. Natural units are so named because their definition relies on only properties of nature and not on any human construct. Varying systems of natural units are possible, depending on the choice of constants used.

Some examples are as follows:
 * Geometrized unit systems are useful in relativistic physics. In these systems, speed of light and the gravitational constant are among the constants chosen.
 * Planck units is system of geometrized units in which the reduced Planck constant is included in the list of defining constants. It is based on only properties of free space rather than of any object or particle.
 * Stoney units is a system of geometrized units in which the Coulomb constant and the elementary charge are included.
 * Atomic units are a system of units used in atomic physics, particularly for describing the properties of electrons. The atomic units have been chosen to use several constants relating to the electron: the electron mass, the elementary charge, the Coulomb constant and the reduced Planck constant. The unit of energy in this system is the total energy of the electron in the Bohr atom and called the Hartree energy. The unit of length is the Bohr radius.

Non-standard units
Non-standard measurement units also found in books, newspapers etc., include:

Area

 * The American football field, which has a playing area 100 yd long by 160 ft wide. This is often used by the American public media for the sizes of large buildings or parks. It is used both as a unit of length (100 yd, the length of the playing field excluding goal areas) and as a unit of area (57600 sqft), about 1.32 acre.
 * British media also frequently uses the football pitch for equivalent purposes, although soccer pitches are not of a fixed size, but instead can vary within defined limits (100 - 130 yd long, and 50 - 100 yd wide, giving an area of 5000 to 13000 sqyd). However the UEFA Champions League field must be exactly 105 by giving an area of 7140 m2 or 8539 sqyd. For example, "HSS vessels are aluminium catamarans about the size of a football pitch."
 * Larger areas are also expressed as a multiple of the areas of certain American states, or subdivisions of the UK etc.

Energy

 * A ton of TNT equivalent, and its multiples the kiloton, the megaton, and the gigaton. Often used in stating the power of very energetic events such as explosions and volcanic events and earthquakes and asteroid impacts. A gram of TNT as a unit of energy has been defined as 1000 thermochemical calories (1000 cal).
 * The atom bomb dropped on Hiroshima. Its energy yield is often used in the public media and popular books as a unit of energy. (Its yield was roughly 13 kilotons, or 60 TJ.)
 * One stick of dynamite.

Units of currency
A unit of measurement that applies to money is called a unit of account in economics and unit of measure in accounting. This is normally a currency issued by a country or a fraction thereof; for instance, the US dollar and US cent ($1/undefined$ of a dollar), or the euro and euro cent.

ISO 4217 is the international standard describing three letter codes (also known as the currency code) to define the names of currencies established by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Historical systems of measurement
Throughout history, many official systems of measurement have been used. While no longer in official use, some of these customary systems are occasionally used in day-to-day life, for instance in cooking.

Africa

 * Algerian
 * Egyptian
 * Ethiopian
 * Eritrean
 * Guinean
 * Libyan
 * Malagasy
 * Mauritian
 * Moroccan
 * Seychellois
 * Somalian
 * Tunisian
 * South African
 * Tanzanian

Asia

 * Arabic
 * Afgan
 * Cambodian
 * Chinese
 * Hong Kong
 * Hebrew (Biblical and Talmudic)
 * Hindu
 * Indonesian
 * Japanese
 * Korean
 * Omani
 * Pakistani
 * Philippine
 * Mesopotamian
 * Persian
 * Singaporean
 * Sri Lankan
 * Syrian
 * Taiwanese
 * Tamil
 * Thai
 * Vietnamese
 * Nepalese

Still in use:
 * Myanmar

Europe

 * Ancient Greek
 * Belgian
 * Byzantine
 * Czech
 * Cypriot
 * Danish
 * Dutch
 * English
 * Estonian
 * Finnish
 * French (now)
 * French (to 1795)
 * German
 * Greek
 * Hungary
 * Icelandic
 * Irish
 * Italian
 * Latvian
 * Luxembourgian
 * Maltese
 * Norwegian
 * Polish
 * Portuguese
 * Roman
 * Romanian
 * Russian
 * Scottish
 * Serbian
 * Slovak
 * Spanish
 * Swedish
 * Switzerland
 * Turkish
 * Tatar
 * Welsh

North America

 * Costa Rican
 * Cuban
 * Haitian
 * Honduran
 * Mexico
 * Nicaraguan
 * Puerto Rican

South America

 * Argentine
 * Bolivian
 * Brazilian
 * Chilean
 * Colombian
 * Paraguayan
 * Peruvian
 * Uruguayan
 * Venezuelan

Ancient

 * Arabic
 * Biblical and Talmudic
 * Egyptian
 * Greek
 * Hindu
 * Indian
 * Mesopotamian
 * Persian
 * Roman

title: System of units of measurement


text:
Ripsaw

A ripsaw (or rip saw) is a wood saw that is specially designed for making a rip cut, a cut made parallel to the direction of the wood grain.

Design
The cutting edge of each tooth has a flat front edge and it is angled backward by about 8°, in contrast to a crosscut saw, which has teeth angled backward by about 15°.

With the "rip" tooth pattern, the edges are sharpened at right angles to the cutting plane, forming chisel-like cutting surfaces, whereas crosscut teeth are sharpened at an angle, so that each tooth has a knife-like cutting point in contact with the wood. This design keeps the saw from following grain lines, which could curve the path of the saw: by acting like a chisel, the saw can more easily cut across deviating grain lines, which is necessary if a straight cut is to be achieved. This feature enables the orthogonal cutting edge to efficiently transport wood-chips from the kerf, allowing subsequent teeth to perform a more effective cut.

It is possible to see this material removal mechanism in action by analyzing frame by frame footage of the cutting process. Ripsaws typically have 4–10 teeth per inch, making them relatively coarse.

Use
All sawmills use ripsaws of various types including the circular saw and band saw. Historically sawmills used one or more reciprocating saws more specifically known as an "up-and-down" or "upright saw" which are of two basic types, the frame saw or a muley (mulay) saw which is similar to the hand powered pit saw. Some sawmills also use crosscut saws to cut boards and planks to length.

Cutting styles
On the vast majority of saws throughout the world, the teeth are designed to cut when the saw is being pushed through the wood (on the push stroke or down stroke). However, some saws (such as Japanese saws and the saws used by Ancient Egyptians) are designed to cut on the pull stroke.

title: Ripsaw