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Birmingham Symphony Orchestra

The Birmingham Symphony Orchestra was a professional symphony orchestra based in Birmingham, England between 1906 and 1918.

The orchestra was founded as a self-governing organisation run on cooperative lines by musicians from George Halford's Orchestra, which had been performing annual series of concerts in Birmingham since 1897. George Halford remained the new orchestra's Music Director, though he would only conduct half of their concerts. The new body included fifty of the musicians from the previous organisation.

The inaugural concert took place in Birmingham Town Hall on 4 April 1906 and was conducted by Henry Wood, with further concerts in the 1906-1907 season being conducted by Halford, Hans Richter and Landon Ronald, and the Musical Times describing as a "splendid concert" a performance conducted by Halford in March 1907. For the 1907-1908 and 1908-1909 seasons concerts by the BSO were promoted under the auspices of the "Birmingham Concerts Society" and took place on Tuesday evenings, conducted by Halford, Frederick Cowen, Charles Stanford, Allen Gill and Henri Verbrugghen. From July 1910 it was the "Birmingham Philharmonic Society" that promoted eight concerts a year featuring the BSO players and conductors including Halford, Wood, Ronald, George Henschel, Vasily Safonov, Thomas Beecham and Fritz Cassirer.

The orchestra also gave popular Saturday night concerts at the Town Hall that continued until 1918, and performed widely alongside many different choral societies with conductors including Edward Elgar, Henry Coward and George Robertson Sinclair.

Although there was no institutional connection between the Birmingham Symphony Orchestra and the later City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, fifteen of the players who founded the earlier organisation in 1906 would also play with the later orchestra when it was established in 1920.

title: Birmingham Symphony Orchestra


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Weißwurstäquator

"Weißwurstäquator" (lit. 'white sausage equator') is a humorous term describing the supposed cultural boundary separating Southern Germany from the northern parts, especially Bavaria from Central Germany.

It is named for the Weisswurst sausage of Bavaria, and has no precise definition. A popular one is the linguistic boundary known as the Speyer line separating Upper German from Central German dialects, roughly following the Main River; another is a line running further south, more or less along the Danube, or between the Main and the Danube, roughly along the 49th parallel north circle of latitude.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Weißwurstäquator


text:
User talk:Joethescholar95

Thanks for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our encyclopedia. Thanks. Wolfman 19:33, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Joethescholar95


text:
Europium(III) chloride

 Europium(III) chloride is an inorganic compound with the formula EuCl3. The anhydrous compound is a yellow solid. Being hygroscopic it rapidly absorbs water to form a white crystalline hexahydrate, EuCl3·6H2O, which is colourless. The compound is used in research.

Preparation
Treating Eu2O3 with aqueous HCl produces hydrated europium chloride (EuCl3·6H2O). This salt cannot be rendered anhydrous by heating. Instead one obtains an oxychloride. Anhydrous EuCl3 is often prepared by the "ammonium chloride route," starting from either Eu2O3 or hydrated europium chloride (EuCl3·6H2O) by heating carefully to 230 °C. These methods produce (NH4)2[EuCl5]:

 * 10 NH4Cl +  Eu2O3  →  2 (NH4)2[EuCl5]  +  6 NH3 + 3 H2O

 * EuCl3·6H2O + 2 NH4Cl → (NH4)2[EuCl5] + 6 H2O

The pentachloride decomposes thermally according to the following equation:
 * (NH4)2[EuCl5]  →   2 NH4Cl  +  EuCl3

The thermolysis reaction proceeds via the intermediary of (NH4)[Eu2Cl7].

Reactions
Europium(III) chloride is a precursor to other europium compounds. It can be converted to the corresponding metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amide via salt metathesis with lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide. The reaction is performed in THF and requires a period at reflux.

 * EuCl3 + 3 LiN(SiMe3)2  →  Eu(N(SiMe3)2)3 + 3 LiCl

Eu(N(SiMe3)2)3 is a starting material for the more complicated coordination complexes.

Reduction with hydrogen gas with heating gives EuCl2. The latter has been used to prepare organometallic compounds of europium(II), such as bis(pentamethylcyclopentadienyl)europium(II) complexes. Europium(III) chloride can be used as a starting point for the preparation of other europium salts.

Structure
In the solid state, it crystallises in the UCl3 motif. The Eu centres are nine-coordinate.
 * Cerium bromide (space filling) 2.png

title: Europium(III) chloride


text:
1959 in rail transport

January events

 * January 4 - Passenger service resumes on the Strasburg Rail Road in Pennsylvania for tourists.
 * January 5 - Foulridge railway station closes on the Midland Railway (originally the Leeds and Bradford Extension Railway) in Lancashire, England.

February events

 * February 28 - The Eastern Region of British Railways closes most of the former Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway.

March events

 * March 28 - The Niagara, St. Catharines and Toronto Railway, the last interurban railroad in Canada, operates its last revenue service.

April events

 * April 3 - Construction begins on Japanese National Railways’ Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Osaka and Tokyo.
 * April 4 - Maine Central Railroad ends passenger service to Samoset destination hotel in Rockland, Maine.
 * April 25 - Opening of the Saint Lawrence Seaway encourages improved ice-breaking on the Saint Lawrence River and initiates declining winter freight volume on Canadian railways east of Montreal.
 * SAFEGE test monorail built in France.

May events

 * May - The Ottawa, Arnprior and Parry Sound Railway runs its last train, ending 62 years of service.
 * May 28 - A passenger train in Indonesia derails and falls into a ravine, killing 85 people and injuring 47 in the Tasikmalaya area of West Java; sabotage is suspected.

June events

 * June 9 - The Chicago, Aurora and Elgin Railroad, interurban railway serving Chicago's western suburbs, ceases freight operations, thus bringing an end to all of the railroad's operations.
 * June 15 - The Disneyland Monorail System built by Alweg opens, making it the first daily operating monorail system in the western hemisphere.
 * June 21 - Soo Line 2719 hauls the last of Soo Line Railroad's steam locomotive-powered trains in revenue service on a round-trip excursion between Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Ladysmith, Wisconsin.

July events

 * July 1 - Colorado Railroad Museum opens in Golden.
 * July 14 - Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) 0-6-0 number 5244, class B-6sb, becomes the last steam locomotive to operate on the PRR.
 * July 18 - The last steam locomotive runs on the Nickel Plate Road as a pair of 0-8-0 switchers are called out to cover a traffic surge.
 * July 27 - Southern Pacific Company opens new embankment replacing Lucin Cutoff trestle across Great Salt Lake, Utah.

August events

 * August 25 - Baltimore and Ohio Railroad opens Arthur Kill Vertical Lift Bridge over Staten Island Sound in the United States.
 * August 30 - Streetcar service in Montreal, Quebec, Canada is discontinued.

October events

 * October 6 - The Carmelit, Haifa's underground funicular railway, opens.
 * October 12 - First R28 (New York City Subway car) enters service, from the last batch of passenger cars that the American Car and Foundry Company is to build.
 * October 28 - The Canadian National Railway line between St. Felicien and Chibougamau, Quebec, opens.

November events

 * November 2 - The Pacific Electric Watts Line, then under operation by the Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority, is discontinued. The service is replaced with buses.

December events

 * December 1 - The Virginian Railway is merged into the Norfolk and Western Railroad.
 * December 29 - First section of Lisbon Metro (Metropolitano de Lisboa) opens in Lisbon, Portugal, first metro (subway) system in the country.

Unknown date events

 * General Electric announces that it will begin manufacturing diesel locomotives on its own.
 * Israel Railways officially withdraws all steam locomotives; the last, Baldwin-built Palestine Railways H class 4-6-0 no. 901, surviving in traffic into the following year.

May births

 * May 1 - Ning Bin, Chinese signalling control systems engineer (died 2019).

August deaths

 * August 26 - William Valentine Wood, President of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway 1941-8 (born 1883).

title: 1959 in rail transport


text:
Talk:Intraocular lens

Corneal Incision, etc
-- User:Steve McGrew I deleted the word "corneal", as the incision isn't made in the cornea, but in the white of the eye above the cornea. I also broke the paragraph before the Crystalens into two paragraphs, as the addition of the crystalens data made reading it clumsy.

I didn't change the statement that it requires a larger incision than traditional implants, but considered it as I've been researching this (I had the multifocal lens implanted in my left eye) and Wikipedia is the only place I've seen this. I'll ask my eye surgeon when I see her in September for the checkup. If she says the incisions are the same time I'll do a further edit. If any of you are eye surgeons have experience implanting these things, please clear the matter up. A citation would be helpful.
 * The number of incisions change depending on what the doctor foresees is needed. Sometimes, the number of incisions are greater than actually needed - the surgeon makes the incisions "just in case", because it is more difficult to make incisions in the eye after a while, when the eye is softer because fluids has leaked out. Also, the locations - for example in the cornea or the sclera (the white of the eye) - and their locations depends on the lens type; is the lens inplanted in front of the iris, or behind it? Is the lens aphakic or phakic? Is the lens foldable or not? Please note that I'm not an eye surgeon, just very interested... --User:Di92jn

Statistics

 * Lede: "Surgeons annually implant more than 6 million lenses."
 * Body: "...estimated by the World Health Organization to have increased to 20 million annually worldwide by 2010"

Which is correct? Andy Mabbett ( Pigsonthewing ); Talk to Andy; Andy's edits 17:58, 7 August 2019 (UTC)

 * Andy Mabbett, the claims are not mutually exclusive, and could both be correct, but are both somewhat out of date. I will see if I can find something more current. Cheers, · · · Peter Southwood (talk): 07:02, 21 May 2023 (UTC)
 * @Pbsouthwood How are they not mutually exclusive (other than that 20 million is indeed "more than 6 million")? Andy Mabbett ( Pigsonthewing ); Talk to Andy; Andy's edits 11:00, 21 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Just so;) Not very useful though. I have no access to the book which is even more out of date than the market report, which is more than 10 years old and pre-covid, so projections are even less reliable than they would normally be. Covid knocked a lot of medical projects back a fair bit, including large scale cataract projects like Vision2020. I have not found anything better yet. Cheers · · · Peter Southwood (talk): 12:55, 21 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Found a 2021 ref and made some changes. · · · Peter Southwood (talk): 13:25, 21 May 2023 (UTC)

Safety of IOL implantation vs LASIK
"[...] but a systematic review of studies has determined that the procedure is safer than conventional laser eye treatment."

The above statement in the introduction is very misleading for the following reasons:

 * The only paper referenced for this claim barely qualifies as "a systematic review of studies" as it covers only 3 studies for a grand total of 228 eyes and dates back from 2014.
 * More importantly, it omits to say that this study compared laser treatment to phakic IOL implantation (PIOL surgery). Phakic IOLs demonstrate better postoperative visual outcomes compared with pseudophakic implants. We should compare LASIK to pseudophakic implants which are used (by definition) for refractive lens exchange (RLE) because RLE is the procedure commonly offered as an alternative to LASIK.

 * "Safety" in the 2014 review refers to the loss of 1 or 2 lines of BSCVA after the operation, not the occurrence of retinal detachment or other serious vision-threatening complications

 * In conclusion, because "[s]erious complications are more common after RLE than after laser eye surgery or PIOL surgery [and] about 1 in 500 people have significant loss of vision after RLE", I propose to remove that claim from the introduction and give more details about the risks in the relevant sections further down in the body of the article. (Ref: Laser eye surgery and lens surgery) IOL-Facts (talk) 16:27, 16 September 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: LLIB 1115 - Intro to Information Research
— Assignment last updated by CanOBeans12 (talk) 17:17, 4 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Intraocular lens


text: Template:Oslo

title: Template:Oslo


text:
1964 in rail transport

April events

 * April 6 - Freight transportation on Alaska Railroad between Fairbanks and Anchorage resumes after repairs from an earthquake that occurred on March 27.
 * April 20 - The Skokie Swift high-speed rapid transit route of the Chicago Transit Authority 'L' system begins service between the Howard Street Terminal in Rogers Park and Dempster Street in Skokie.
 * April 29 - The Keiō Dōbutsuen Line in Japan opens.

June events

 * June 6 - Southern Railway 4501 is taken down to Chattanooga, Tennessee for restoration by the Tennessee Valley Railroad Museum.
 * June 15 - The 2000-series rapid transit cars (2001–2180), built by Pullman-Standard of Chicago, Illinois, are placed in service on the Chicago "L" system. These cars represent the first generation of the Chicago Transit Authority High Performance Family.
 * June 19 - United States President Lyndon B. Johnson presides over the groundbreaking ceremonies for Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART).
 * June 30 - End of regularly scheduled steam locomotive service on the narrow gauge White Pass and Yukon Route.

July events

 * July - The Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 becomes law in the United States.

September events

 * September 30 - The Railway Preservation Society of Ireland is formed.

October events

 * October 1
 * The Tōkaidō Shinkansen high-speed route commences operation in Japan; it is the first of many Shinkansen routes to be constructed.
 * Toei Subway Line 1 (present-day Asakusa Line) opens between Shimbashi and Daimon in Tokyo, Japan. This is the fifth extension of the line since it opened in 1960.
 * October 9 - End of District line service to Hounslow on the London Underground.

November events

 * November 5 - Swaziland Railway opened.
 * November 15 - Shin-Sayama Station on what becomes the Seibu Railway's Seibu Shinjuku Line in Sayama, Saitama, Japan, is opened.

December events

 * December 19 - The Elektrische Bahn Stansstad–Engelberg in Switzerland reopens with a connection to the national rail network at Hergiswil and conversion to 15 kV AC railway electrification as the Luzern–Stans–Engelberg railway line.
 * December 23 - In Tokyo, Japan, the Tozai Line begins service between Takadanobaba and Kudanshita.

Unknown date events

 * The Wabash, Nickel Plate Road, Pittsburgh and West Virginia and Akron, Canton and Youngstown railroads are all merged into the Norfolk & Western.
 * Swiss Federal Railways introduces its Re 4/4II series electric locomotives, built by SLM.
 * Double-deck cars introduced on suburban railways in Sydney, Australia.
 * Benjamin Biaggini succeeds Donald Russell as president of the Southern Pacific Company, parent company of the Southern Pacific Railroad.
 * Donald Russell assumes the position of chairman of the Board of Directors of the Southern Pacific Company, a position that was nonexistent since Hale Holden's departure in 1939.
 * ALCO is purchased by the Worthington Corporation.
 * The above-ground portion of Pennsylvania Railroad's Pennsylvania Station in New York City is demolished to make room for Madison Square Gardens, but the tracks remain in use today.
 * Robert A. "Bob" Emerson succeeds Norris Roy Crump as president of Canadian Pacific Railway.

title: 1964 in rail transport


text:
Market garden

A market garden is the relatively small-scale production of fruits, vegetables and flowers as cash crops, frequently sold directly to consumers and restaurants. The diversity of crops grown on a small area of land, typically from under 1 acre to some hectares (a few acres), or sometimes in greenhouses, distinguishes it from other types of farming. A market garden is sometimes called a truck farm in the USA.

A market garden is a business that provides a wide range and steady supply of fresh produce through the local growing season. Unlike large, industrial farms, which practice monoculture and mechanization, many different crops and varieties are grown and more manual labour and gardening techniques are used. The small output requires selling through such local fresh produce outlets as on-farm stands, farmers' markets, community-supported agriculture subscriptions, restaurants and independent produce stores. Market gardening and orchard farming are closely related to horticulture, which concerns the growing of fruits and vegetables.

History

Traditionally, "market garden" was used to contrast farms devoted to raising vegetables and berries, a specialized type of farming, with the larger branches of grain, dairy, and orchard fruit farming; agricultural historians continue to thus use the term. Such operations were not necessarily small-scale. Indeed, many were very large, commercial farms that were called "gardens" not because of size, but because English-speaking farmers traditionally referred to their vegetable plots as "gardens": in English whether in common parlance or in anthropological or historical scholarship, husbandry done by the hoe is customarily called "gardening" and husbandry done by the plough as "farming" regardless of the scale of either. A "market garden" was simply a vegetable plot, the produce of which the farmer used to sell as opposed to use to feed his or her family. Market gardens are necessarily close to the markets, i.e. cities, that they serve.

Truck farms produce vegetables for market. The word 'truck' in Truck farms does not refer to the transportation truck, which is derived from Greek for "wheel", but rather from the old north French word troquer, which means "barter" or "exchange". The use for vegetables raised for market can be traced back to 1784 and truck farms to 1866.

Business
Selling to the wholesale market usually earns 10–20% of the retail price, but direct-to-consumer selling earns 100%. Although highly variable, a conventional farm may return 0.03 to 0.30 $/m2 but an efficient market garden can earn in the 2 to 5 $/m2 range, or even higher. However, the size of a market garden has a practical upper bound, while with conventional farming, a farmer can farm vast areas because access to a direct market is not a requirement.

Larger market gardens often sell to such local food outlets as supermarkets, food cooperatives, community-supported agriculture programs, farmers' markets, fresh food wholesalers, and any other higher-volume channels that benefit from buying a range of vegetables from a single supplier, their freshness allowing for a premium over the revenue from the supermarkets and frequently other local suppliers. A larger market garden can by mixed crop production maintain a sales alternative to the wholesale commodity-style channels often used by farms that specialize in high volumes of a limited number of crops.

Relying on cities for markets, however, can have drawbacks. For example, in England, south Sussex was famous for growing tomatoes for the London market that were delivered by train. The arrival of railways in the 19th century at first stimulated growth of market gardens in certain areas by providing quick access to the city, but it eventually allowed commuting residents to move there and turn many market garden areas into suburbs. Urban sprawl still eats up farmland in urban regions. Buying the rights to develop farmland from the farmers solved this problem in Suffolk County, New York.

Social role
In some more affluent countries, including Australia and the United States, market gardening is rated as a high social utility occupation. It is typically taken up by recent immigrant groups for one or two generations, until they can accumulate capital, language and trade skills. The succession of dominant market garden groups in Australia, for example, was – from the early 19th century Anglo-Celtic, people from German-speaking countries, Chinese (after the peak of the gold rushes in mid-late 19th century), then southern European migrants from Italy, Malta and Yugoslavia (before it disintegrated), then southeast Asian migrant and refugee communities following the Vietnam War, such as the Vietnamese and Cambodians.

Involvement in a market garden lets immigrant groups who otherwise have few marketable skills apart from their labour, become actively involved in the market economy. Benefits are that it does not rely on education or language, it adapts well to providing work for extended family groups, and in large market growing regions even wider community support networks. Sharing of knowledge and experience within communities reduces risks, and supports a network of other trades such as carriers, market agents, and heavy machinery contractors, and contract farm labour. Market-gardening land is typically relatively cheap and allows immigrants to purchase land, often with an accompanying residence, far more readily than in urban settings. However, like all agriculture it risks crop failure, market collapse and competition from industrialized broad-acre farming and 'fresh-frozen' imported produce. Other risks are from hazards such as pesticide use, especially where the market gardeners are not trained in their use or able to read product information. Another consequence is marginalization of the succeeding generation where they are relied upon as the fittest and strongest to succeed in continuing the farm rather than pursue other ambitions and opportunities.

Alternative lifestyle
Market gardening has in recent decades become an alternative business and lifestyle choice for individuals who wish to "return to the land", because the business model and niche allow a smaller start-up investment than conventional commercial farming, and generally offers a viable market (in microeconomics, basic or staple foods are considered as necessities and have highly inelastic demand curves, meaning that consumers will buy them in relatively constant quantities even if prices or incomes vary), especially with the recent popularity of organic and local food. It is in some instances considered hobby farming, although market gardening is a recognized type of farming with a distinct business model that can be significantly profitable and sustainable. There is a spectrum with overlap from with the efforts of amateur gardeners who sometimes sell from home or at markets, as an extension of their pastime, to fully commercial market gardening as the main or sole income stream. The latter requires the most discipline and business sense. Successful practitioners who have written books about it include Eliot Coleman and Jean-Martin Fortier.

In contemporary North America
An example of a market garden operation in North America might involve one farmer working full-time on 2 acre. Most work is done with hand and light power tools, and perhaps a small tractor. Some 20 different crops are planted throughout the season. Hardier plants, like peas, spinach, radish, carrots and lettuce are seeded first, in earlier spring, followed by main season crops, like tomatoes, potatoes, corn, beans, cucumber, onions, and summer squash. A further planting timed for harvest in the cooler fall conditions might include more spinach and carrots, winter squash, cabbage, and rutabaga. Harvesting is done at least weekly, by hand, sometimes with part-time help, and produce is sorted, washed and sold fresh at the local farmers' market, and from an on-farm stand. A pick-up truck is used for short-distance transport of crops and other farm materials. The workflow is a steady cycle of planting and harvesting right through the growing season, and usually comes to an end in the cold winter months.

A somewhat larger market garden operation, ranging from 10 to 100 acre, may be referred to as intensive mixed vegetable production, although the essential business and farming tasks are the same. Such operations are often run by a full-time farmer or farm family, and a few full-time employees. The tractor is relied upon for many tasks, and manual labor requirements, particularly for setting transplants and harvesting, are often significant, with crews of 10, 20 or more people employed seasonally. This has led in the U.S. to groups of "transient" or "migrant" workers who follow the harvest seasons to different farms across the country. In cooler climates, greenhouses are generally used to produce transplants, and sometimes greenhouse production is extended through winter or with hydroponics. Harvest and post-harvest handling are more sophisticated at the larger scale, with some mechanized harvest and processing equipment, walk-in coolers, and refrigerated delivery vehicles.

title: Market garden


text: User talk:65.79.16.73

title: User talk:65.79.16.73


text:
Hasan Şaş

Hasan Gökhan Şaş (born 1 August 1976) is a Turkish football coach and former player, who played as a winger.

He is known for his time at Galatasaray and for his performance with the Turkey national team at the FIFA World Cup 2002, where he was voted into the All-Star Team. During both assignments, he played as a winger. He was suspended from football for six months in 1998 after doping testing returned a positive result for the banned substance Phenylpropanolamine.

Club career
Born in Karataş, Adana, Şaş began his club career with Ankaragücü in 1995.

Galatasaray
In 1998, Şaş signed with Galatasaray for $4.4 million, but almost immediately upon arrival, he was suspended from football for six months after doping testing returned a positive result for the banned substance Phenylpropanolamine.

Şaş regained his spot with Galatasaray in the 1999–2000 season, in which Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup title in 2000 over Arsenal, and went on to win the 2000 UEFA Super Cup.

In the Champions League competition in 2000–01, Şaş made 12 appearances for Galatasaray. He scored against Spain's Real Madrid and Italy's A.C. Milan as well as against the Brazil national team in 2002 FIFA World Cup.

At the end of the 2008–09 Super Lig season it was announced that Galatasaray would not be renewing his contract and after declining many contracts to play in Qatar and Saudi Arabia, Şaş announced his retirement from professional football.

International career

Hasan made 40 appearances for the Turkey national team from 1998 to 2006.

Coaching career
Şaş resigned from duty of assistant manager of Galatasaray on 11 May 2020.

Personal life
Şaş married Sibel Yalçın on 29 June 2003. They divorced in February 2014. The couple had two children and a cat.

International

 * Scores and results list Turkey's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Şaş goal.

Honours

 * Turkey
 * FIFA World Cup third place: 2002

 * Galatasaray
 * Turkish League: 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2001–02, 2005–06, 2007–08
 * Turkish Cup: 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2004–05
 * Turkish Super Cup: 2008
 * UEFA Cup: 2000
 * UEFA Super Cup: 2000

 * Individual
 * FIFA World Cup All Star Team: 2002

title: Hasan Şaş


text:
Trebinje

Trebinje (Требиње, ) is a city and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the southernmost city in Bosnia and Herzegovina and is situated on the banks of the Trebišnjica river in the region of East Herzegovina. As of 2013, it has a population of 31,433 inhabitants. The city's old town quarter dates to the 18th-century Ottoman period, and includes the Arslanagić Bridge, also known as Perovića Bridge.

Physical geography
The city lies in the Trebišnjica river valley, at the foot of Leotar, in southeastern Herzegovina, some 30 km by road from Dubrovnik, Croatia, on the Adriatic coast. There are several mills along the river, as well as several bridges, including three in the city of Trebinje itself, as well as a historic Ottoman Arslanagić Bridge nearby. The river is heavily exploited for hydro-electric energy. After it passes through the Popovo Polje area southwest of the city, the river – which always floods in the winter – naturally runs underground to the Adriatic, near Dubrovnik. Trebinje is known as "the city of the sun and plane-trees", and it is said to be one of the most beautiful cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The city is the economic and cultural center of the region of East Herzegovina.

Political geography
The Trebinje municipality is located in the most southern part of Republika Srpska and the municipalities of Bileća, Ljubinje and Ravno in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Trebinje municipality has an area of 904 km2 and makes up 3.68% of the total territory of the Republic of Srpska.

Climate
Trebinje experiences a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with heavy precipitation, typical of the southern Adriatic coastal areas.

Middle Ages
Tribulium was the original name for this settlement and the etymology of it may be analyzed as tri-bulium, or the place of the 'three hills', from the numeral 'three' (*trei-) and an appellative derived from the IE root *b(h)eu- 'to swell, puff.

De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII (913–959) mentioned Travunija (Τερβουνια). Serbian Prince Vlastimir (r. 830–51) married his daughter to Krajina, the son of Beloje, and that family became hereditary rulers of Travunija. By 1040 Stefan Vojislav's state stretched in the coastal region from Ston in the north, down to his capital, Skadar, set up along the southern banks of the Skadar Lake, with other courts set up in Trebinje, Kotor and Bar.

The town commanded the road from Ragusa to Constantinople, which was traversed in 1096 by Raymond IV of Toulouse and his crusaders. Trebinje diocese has its episcopal seat in Polje near Trebinje. At the end of the 12th century Stefan Nemanja conquered provinces that include Trebinje. Under the name of Tribunia or Travunja it belonged to the Serbian Empire until 1355. Trebinje became a part of the expanded medieval Bosnian state under Tvrtko I in 1373. There is a medieval tower in Gornje Police whose construction is often attributed to Vuk Branković. The old Tvrdoš Monastery dates back to the 15th century.

In 1482, together with the rest of Herzegovina (see: Herzog Stjepan Vukčić Kosača), the town was captured by the Ottoman Empire. The Old Town-Kastel was built by the Ottomans on the location of the medieval fortress of Ban Vir, on the western bank of the Trebišnjica River. The city walls, the Old Town square, and two mosques were built in the beginning of the 18th century by the Resulbegović family. The 16th-century Arslanagić bridge was originally built at the village of Arslanagić, 5 km north of the town, by Mehmed-Paša Sokolović, and was run by Arslanagić family for centuries. The Arslanagić Bridge is one of the most attractive Ottoman-era bridges in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It has two large and two small semicircular arches.

Among noble families in the Trebinje region mentioned in Ragusan documents were Ljubibratić, Starčić, Popović, Krasomirić, Preljubović, Poznanović, Dragančić, Kobiljačić, Paštrović, Zemljić and Stanjević.

Ottoman era
The burning of Saint Sava's remains after the Banat Uprising provoked the Serbs in other regions to revolt against the Ottomans. Grdan, the vojvoda of Nikšić, organized revolt with Serbian Patriarch Jovan Kantul. From 1596, the center of anti-Ottoman activity in Herzegovina was the Tvrdoš Monastery in Trebinje, where Metropolitan Visarion was seated. In 1596, the uprising broke out in Bjelopavlići, then spread to Drobnjaci, Nikšić, Piva and Gacko (see Serb Uprising of 1596–97). The rebels were defeated at the field of Gacko. It ultimately failed due to lack of foreign support.

The hajduks in Herzegovina had in March 1655 carried out one of their greatest operations, raiding Trebinje, taking many slaves and carrying with them out much loot.

On 26 November 1716, Austrian general Nastić with 400 soldiers and c. 500 hajduks attacked Trebinje, but did not take it over. A combined Austro-Venetian-Hajduk force of 7,000 stood before the Trebinje walls, defended by 1,000 Ottomans. The Ottomans were busy near Belgrade and with hajduk attacks towards Mostar, and were thus unable to reinforce Trebinje. The conquest of Trebinje and Popovo field were given up to fight in Montenegro. The Venetians took over Hutovo and Popovo, where they immediately recruited militarily from the population.

Ottoman rule lasted from 1466 until 1878. The Trebinje region suffered especially in the 16th century, mostly from the hand of uskoks of Senj and various hajduk bands. The calmer period during the Ottoman rule was the 18th century. The Serb elders from Trebinje, together with the people of Nikšić, planned a great uprising in the summer of 1805, under the influence of the First Serbian Uprising. Their project was suppressed by the Ottoman pasha and probably with the help from the local Slavic Muslims.

The Christians of Trebinje, together with the Montenegrins, fought against Napoleon's troops and in several conflicts they managed to defeat the French troops, such as the knife fight which took place on 2–3 October 1806 leaving several thousands of French soldiers dead, after which the French withdrew for a while.

Notable participants in the Herzegovina Uprising (1852–62) from Trebinje include Mićo Ljubibratić.

During the Herzegovina Uprising (1875–77), the Bileća and Trebinje region was led by serdar Todor Mujičić, Gligor Milićević, Vasilj Svorcan and Sava Jakšić.

Austria-Hungary
With the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, many reforms took place. New administrative division was introduced and a large number of Austro-Hungarian troops were located in Trebinje, which was seen as a city of strategic value and position. No factories or bigger investments were made in Trebinje during the AU rule.

After the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Croat-Muslim volunteer corps (German: Schutzcorp) terrorized Serb civilians of Bogojevići and other villages in Trebinje, which resulted in 83 children killed and 85 adults hanged. Those and related actions resulted in migrations of the local population to Serbia.

During the period of Austro-Hungarian administration (1878–1918), several fortifications were built on the surrounding hills, and there was a garrison based in the town. The imperial administrators also modernized the town, expanding it westwards, building the present main street, as well as several squares, parks, schools, tobacco plantations, etc.

SFR Yugoslavia (1945–92)
Trebinje grew rapidly in the era of Josip Broz Tito's Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia between 1945 and 1980. It especially developed its hydroelectric potential with dams, artificial lakes, tunnels, and hydroelectric plants. This industrial development brought a large increase in the urban population of Trebinje.

Bosnian War (1992–95)
Trebinje was the largest town in Serb-held eastern Herzegovina during the Bosnian War. It was controlled by Bosnian Serb forces from the fall of 1991, and was used as a major command and artillery base by Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) troops besieging the Croatian town of Dubrovnik. In 1992 Trebinje was declared the capital of the self-proclaimed Serbian Autonomous Region of Herzegovina (Српска аутономна област Херцеговина). Bosniak residents were subsequently conscripted to fight with the JNA and if refused they were executed, and thus they fled the region. Ten of the town's mosques were razed to the ground during the war.

Settlements
Trebinje is one of two municipalities created from the former Yugoslav municipality of Trebinje of the 1991 census, the other being Ravno in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of 2018, it has a total of 178 settlements that comprise it (including city proper area of Trebinje):

 * Aranđelovo
 * Arbanaška
 * Arslanagića Most
 * Baonine
 * Begović Kula
 * Bihovo
 * Bijelač
 * Bijograd
 * Bioci
 * Bodiroge
 * Bogojević Selo
 * Borlovići
 * Brani Do
 * Brova
 * Budoši
 * Bugovina
 * Cerovac
 * Čvarići
 * Desin Selo
 * Diklići
 * Djedići, Do
 * Dobromani
 * Dodanovići
 * Dolovi
 * Domaševo
 * Donja Kočela
 * Donje Čičevo
 * Donje Grančarevo
 * Donje Vrbno
 * Donji Orahovac
 * Dračevo
 * Dražin Do
 * Drijenjani
 * Dubljani
 * Dubočani
 * Duži
 * Glavinići
 * Gojšina
 * Gola Glavica
 * Gomiljani
 * Gornja Kočela
 * Gornje Čičevo
 * Gornje Grančarevo
 * Gornje Vrbno
 * Gornji Orovac
 * Grab
 * Grbeši
 * Grbići
 * Grkavci
 * Grmljani
 * Hum
 * Janjač
 * Jasen
 * Jasenica Lug
 * Jazina
 * Jušići
 * Klikovići
 * Klobuk
 * Konjsko
 * Korlati
 * Kotezi
 * Kovačina
 * Kraj
 * Krajkovići
 * Kremeni Do
 * Krnjevići
 * Kučići
 * Kunja Glavica
 * Kutina
 * Lapja
 * Lastva
 * Lokvice
 * Lomači
 * Lug
 * Lušnica
 * Ljekova
 * Ljubovo
 * Marić Međine
 * Mesari
 * Mionići
 * Morče
 * Mosko
 * Mrkonjići
 * Mrnjići
 * Necvijeće
 * Nevada
 * Nikontovići
 * Ograde
 * Orašje Popovo
 * Orašje Površ
 * Orašje Zubci
 * Parojska Njiva
 * Petrovići
 * Pijavice
 * Podosoje
 * Podstrašivica
 * Podštirovnik
 * Podvori
 * Poljice Čičevo
 * Poljice Popovo
 * Prhinje Pridvorci
 * Prosjek
 * Rapti Bobani
 * Rapti Zupci
 * Rasovac
 * Sedlari
 * Skočigrm
 * Staro Slano
 * Strujići
 * Šarani
 * Šćenica Ljubomir
 * Taleža
 * Todorići
 * Trebijovi
 * Tuli
 * Tulje
 * Turani
 * Turica
 * Turmenti
 * Tvrdoš
 * Ubla
 * Ugarci
 * Ukšići
 * Uskoplje
 * Uvjeća
 * Veličani
 * Velja Gora
 * Vladušići
 * Vlaka
 * Vlasače
 * Vlaška
 * Volujac
 * Vrpolje Ljubomir
 * Vrpolje Zagora
 * Vučija
 * Zagora
 * Zavala
 * Zgonjevo
 * Žakovo
 * Ždrijelovići
 * Željevo
 * Župa

Demographics
According to the 2013 census results, the city of Trebinje has 31,433 inhabitants.

Culture

The Serbian Orthodox church in Trebinje, Saborna Crkva, was built between 1888 and 1908. The Hercegovačka Gračanica monastery, a loose copy of the Gračanica monastery in Kosovo, was completed in 2000. The churches are located above the city, on the historic Crkvina Hill. The 15th-century Tvrdoš monastery is located two kilometres south-west of Trebinje, including a church which dates back to late antiquity. The Duži Monastery is located 10 kilometres west of Trebinje. There is also the Roman Catholic Cathedral of the Birth of Mary in the town centre, as well as monuments dedicated to acclaimed poets Njegoš and Jovan Dučić (who was from the town). The Osman-Paša Resulbegović mosque, located in the Old Town, was originally built in 1726 and fully renovated in 2005. The Old Town walls are well preserved. The Arslanagić Bridge (1574) is located 1 km north of the town center.

The Music & More SummerFest has recently become an annual tradition in Trebinje, spanning approximately two weeks in August. This vibrant event not only showcases concerts but also offers academies led by world-renowned classical musicians. The festival is held at a variety of venues, including the Amphitheater Crkvina, KCT culture center Trebinje, local music school, Villa Lastva, and the Museum of Herzegovina.

Sports
The local football club, FK Leotar Trebinje, plays in the Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Economy
The headquarters of Elektroprivreda Republike Srpske, which is the largest employer in Republika Srpska (as of 2016), is located in Trebinje. As of 2016, most of its economy is based on services.

The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):

Airport project
The plan for the Trebinje airport was resurrected in 2020 in the context of the RS-Serbia relations. The new airport will be built in the village of Mionići, some ten kilometres from Trebinje. It will feature a 3.5-kilometre runway, taxiways totalling 4.5 kilometres and a 7.000 square metre terminal building. The airport shall be in the full ownership of the Republic of Serbia, which will invest over EUR 50 million in its construction. Mladen Stanković, from the Niš Airport, was appointed head of the new airport management company. Works will be carried out by a consortium of Herzegovinian construction companies. In September 2020, the RS passed a law on the special procedure of expropriation for the construction of the airport in Trebinje. First flights are expected by 2022, thought works at the airport will continue for up to 4 years.

Notable people

 * Mićo Ljubibratić, voivode
 * Jovan Dučić, poet and diplomat
 * Luka Ćelović, businessman and philanthropist
 * Jovan Deretić, historian
 * Nebojša Glogovac, actor
 * Nataša Ninković, actress
 * Srđan Aleksić, amateur actor
 * Beba Selimović, sevdalinka singer
 * Dzeny, singer and philanthropist
 * Asmir Begović, football goalkeeper
 * Boris Savović, basketball player
 * Branislav Krunić, footballer
 * Ivana Ninković, Olympic swimmer
 * Uroš Đerić, footballer
 * Semjon Milošević, footballer
 * Igor Joksimović, footballer
 * Nikolina Milić, WNBA player
 * Siniša Mulina, footballer
 * Vladimir Gudelj, footballer
 * Arnela Odžaković, karateka
 * Vladimir Radmanović, NBA player, World champion
 * Sabahudin Bilalović, basketball player
 * Bogić Vučković, rebel leader
 * Mijat Gaćinović, football player, World U-20 and European U-19 champion
 * Marko Mihojević, footballer
 * Tijana Bošković, volleyball player, World and European champion, silver medalist at the 2016 Summer Olympics
 * Momčilo Mrkaić, footballer
 * Ratomir Dugonjić, politician

title: Trebinje


text:
Adhesive capsulitis of the shoulder

Adhesive capsulitis, also known as frozen shoulder, is a condition associated with shoulder pain and stiffness. It is a common shoulder ailment that is marked by pain and a loss of range of motion, particularly in external rotation. There is a loss of the ability to move the shoulder, both voluntarily and by others, in multiple directions. The shoulder itself, however, does not generally hurt significantly when touched. Muscle loss around the shoulder may also occur. Onset is gradual over weeks to months. Complications can include fracture of the humerus or biceps tendon rupture.

The cause in most cases is unknown. The condition can also occur after injury or surgery to the shoulder. Risk factors include diabetes and thyroid disease. The underlying mechanism involves inflammation and scarring. The diagnosis is generally based on a person's symptoms and a physical exam. The diagnosis may be supported by an MRI. Adhesive capsulitis has been linked to diabetes and hypothyroidism, according to research. Adhesive capsulitis was five times more common in diabetic patients than in the control group, according to a meta-analysis published in 2016.

The condition often resolves itself over time without intervention but this may take several years. While a number of treatments, such as NSAIDs, physical therapy, steroids, and injecting the shoulder at high pressure, may be tried, it is unclear what is best. Surgery may be suggested for those who do not get better after a few months. The prevalence of adhesive capsulitis is estimated at 2% to 5% of the general population. It is more common in people 40–60 years of age and in women.

Signs and symptoms
Symptoms include shoulder pain and limited range of motion although these symptoms are common in many shoulder conditions. An important symptom of adhesive capsulitis is the severity of stiffness that often makes it nearly impossible to carry out simple arm movements. Pain due to frozen shoulder is usually dull or aching and may be worse at night and with any motion.

The symptoms of primary frozen shoulder have been described as having three or four stages. Sometimes a prodromal stage is described that can be present up to three months prior to the shoulder freezing. During this stage people describe sharp pain at end ranges of motion, achy pain at rest, and sleep disturbances.
 * Stage one: The "freezing" or painful stage, which may last from six weeks to nine months, and in which the patient has a slow onset of pain. As the pain worsens, the shoulder loses motion.
 * Stage two: The "frozen" or adhesive stage is marked by a slow improvement in pain but the stiffness remains. This stage generally lasts from four to twelve months.
 * Stage three: The "thawing" or recovery, when shoulder motion slowly returns toward normal. This generally lasts from 5 to 26 months.

Physical exam findings include restricted range of motion in all planes of movement in both active and passive range of motion. This contrasts with conditions such as shoulder impingement syndrome or rotator cuff tendinitis in which the active range of motion is restricted but passive range of motion is normal. Some exam maneuvers of the shoulder may be impossible due to pain.

Causes
The causes of adhesive capsulitis are incompletely understood; however, there are several factors associated with higher risk. Risk factors for secondary adhesive capsulitis include injury or surgery leading to prolonged immobility. Risk factors for primary, or idiopathic adhesive capsulitis include many systemic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, stroke, lung disease, connective tissue diseases, thyroid disease, heart disease, autoimmune disease, and Dupuytren's contracture. Both type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes are risk factors for the condition.

Primary
Primary adhesive capsulitis, also known as idiopathic adhesive capsulitis, occurs with no known trigger. It is more likely to develop in the non-dominant arm.

Secondary
Adhesive capsulitis is called secondary when it develops after an injury or surgery to the shoulder.

Pathophysiology
The underlying pathophysiology is incompletely understood, but is generally accepted to have both inflammatory and fibrotic components. The hardening of the shoulder joint capsule is central to the disease process. This is the result of scar tissue (adhesions) around the joint capsule. There also may be a reduction in synovial fluid, which normally helps the shoulder joint, a ball and socket joint, move by lubricating the gap between the humerus and the socket in the shoulder blade. In the painful stage (stage I), there is evidence of inflammatory cytokines in the joint fluid.

The main limiting factor in external rotation is due to the thickening of the coracohumeral ligament, which forms the roof of the rotator cuff and is a primary symptom of adhesive capsulitis. In addition, the coracohumeral ligament attributes to the limitation of internal rotation considering its connection to the supraspinatus and subscapular tendons. As the phases of adhesive capsulitis progress, the glenohumeral capsule begins to thicken and as a result the contraction of the capsule itself becomes the main reason as to why range of motion will be restricted in all planes of motion.

Diagnosis
Adhesive capsulitis can be diagnosed by history and physical exam. It is often a diagnosis of exclusion, as other causes of shoulder pain and stiffness must first be ruled out. On physical exam, adhesive capsulitis can be diagnosed if limits of the active range of motion are the same or similar to the limits to the passive range of motion. The movement that is most severely inhibited is external rotation of the shoulder.

Imaging studies are not required for diagnosis, but may be used to rule out other causes of pain. Radiographs will often be normal, but imaging features of adhesive capsulitis can be seen on ultrasound or non-contrast MRI. Ultrasound and MRI can help in diagnosis by assessing the coracohumeral ligament, with a width of greater than 3 mm being 60% sensitive and 95% specific for the diagnosis. Shoulders with adhesive capsulitis also characteristically fibrose and thicken at the axillary pouch and "rotator interval", best seen as a dark signal on T1 sequences with edema and inflammation on T2 sequences. A finding on ultrasound associated with adhesive capsulitis is hypoechoic material surrounding the long head of the biceps tendon at the rotator interval, reflecting fibrosis. In the painful stage, such hypoechoic material may demonstrate increased vascularity with Doppler ultrasound.

Grey-scale ultrasound can play a key role in timely diagnosis of adhesive capsulitis due to its high sensitivity and specificity. It is also widely available, convenient, and cost efficient. Thickening in the coracohumeral ligament, inferior capsule/ axillary recess capsule, and rotator interval abnormality, as well as restriction in range of motion in the shoulder can be detected using ultrasound. The range of motion is prohibited due to scapulohumeral rhythm changes occurring in the shoulder joint. The altered scapular kinematics can restrict anterior and posterior tilting, downward rotation and depression as well as external rotation. All of these restrictions lead the scapula to be excessively upwardly rotated. The restriction of the scapular posterior tilt is due to tightness in the lower serratus anterior, anterior capsule and the pectoralis minor. Downward rotation and depression are restricted due to the tightness of the rhomboids, upper trapezius and the superior capsule. Respective sensitivity values were 64.4, 82.1, 82.6, and 94.3, and respective specificity levels were 88.9, 95.7, 93.9, and 90.9.

Treatment
There is consensus that non-surgical management is the initial treatment of choice for frozen shoulder. There is no strong evidence to favor any particular approach; in fact, some reviews suggest that multi-modal approaches combining several treatments are better. Research in the UK showed that there were three typical approaches to treatment (physiotherapy, manipulation of the shoulder under general anaesthesia, and surgery (arthroscopic capsular release)). Alll three treatments were deemed effective but they had different benefits and drawbacks, suggesting clinicians and patients should decide together on the most appropriate treatment.

The effects of most treatments are primarily short-term, focusing on alleviating symptoms such as shoulder pain and reduced joint movement. Common treatments include exercise, physical therapy, oral analgesics such as paracetamol and NSAIDs, and intra-articular corticosteroid injections. Non-surgical treatment may continue for months, with more complex treatments such as ESWT, movement under analgesia, and hydrodilatation. It is unclear if these treatments lead to a quicker resolution of the disorder, or only manage chronic symptoms. The condition generally resolves itself with or without treatment. If conservative measures have no effect and the condition is long-lasting, or if evidence suggests surgical intervention, there are also several surgical procedures that may alleviate the disorder.

Medication
Medications such as NSAIDs can be used for pain control. Oral steroids may provide short-term benefits in range of movement and pain but have side effects such as hyperglycemia. Corticosteroids may also be used by local injection. In the short and medium term, intra-articular corticosteroid injections appear most effective in pain alleviation and increase in range of motion, although the injection does carry complications. Unfortunately, the effects of medication are not long-lasting. Oral corticosteroids in particular should not be used consistently to treat adhesive capsulitis, because of the dangers associated with long-term use and the lack of long-term benefit.

Exercise and physical therapy
Shoulder stretching and strengthening exercises improve shoulder function and decrease pain. When using intra-articular corticosteroid injections, the effects of exercise on short-term relief were not significant, although individual studies found some benefits. Concerning techniques, posterior glenohumeral mobilization had a large effect; mirror therapy, rotator cuff strengthening, spray & stretch, and end range mobilization had moderate results; continuous passive motion, scapular recognition, scapulothoracic exercises, yijin jing, and lower trapezius strengthening had small effects; and electromagnetic therapy, Kaltenborn mobilization, and instrument assisted soft tissue mobilization (IASTM) had insignificant effects compared to control kinesthetic exercises. It has been found that performing exercises under supervision is more effective than unsupervised exercise at home.

Extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) has been strongly recommended as a way of reducing pain levels and improving range of motion and functioning in people with Stage 2 and 3 adhesive capsulitis of the shoulder. Laser therapy was also found to have these similar effects for people dealing with Stage 2 adhesive capsulitis. Moderate evidence points to improvements in pain management, range of motion and functional status for interventions such as PNF techniques (stretching), continuous passive motion, dynamic scapular stability exercises, and conventional physiotherapy. Low evidence exists for manual muscle release.

Hydrodilatation or distension arthrography is controversial. However, some studies show that arthrographic distension may play a positive role in reducing pain and improve range of movement and function.

Manipulation of the shoulder under general anesthesia to break up the adhesions is sometimes used.

Surgery
If conservative measures are unsuccessful, surgery can be trialed. Surgery to cut the adhesions (capsular release) may be indicated in prolonged and severe cases; the procedure is usually performed by arthroscopy. Surgical evaluation of other problems with the shoulder, e.g., subacromial bursitis or rotator cuff tear, may be needed. Resistant adhesive capsulitis may respond to open release surgery. This technique allows the surgeon to find and correct the underlying cause of restricted shoulder movement such as contracture of coracohumeral ligament and rotator interval.

Prognosis
Most cases of adhesive capsulitis are self limiting, but may take 1 to 3 years to fully resolve. Pain and stiffness may not completely resolve in 20 to 50 per cent of affected people.

Epidemiology
Adhesive capsulitis newly affects approximately 0.75% to 5.0% percent of people a year. Rates are higher in people with diabetes (10–46%). Following breast surgery, some known complications include loss of shoulder range of motion (ROM) and reduced functional mobility in the involved arm. Occurrence is rare in children and people under 40, with the highest prevalence between 40 and 70 years of age. The condition is more common in women than in men (70% of patients are women aged 40–60). People with diabetes, stroke, lung disease, rheumatoid arthritis, or heart disease are at a higher risk for frozen shoulder. Symptoms in people with diabetes may be more protracted than in the non-diabetic population.

title: Adhesive capsulitis of the shoulder


text:
File:La ardilla roja poster.jpg

Summary
Poster for the film 'La ardilla roja'

title: File:La ardilla roja poster.jpg


text:
Flatbush Avenue

Flatbush Avenue is a major avenue in the New York City Borough of Brooklyn. It runs from the Manhattan Bridge south-southeastward to Jamaica Bay, where it joins the Marine Parkway–Gil Hodges Memorial Bridge, which connects Brooklyn to the Rockaway Peninsula in Queens. The north end was extended from Fulton Street to the Manhattan Bridge as "Flatbush Avenue Extension".

Flatbush Avenue, including the extension, is 9.9 mi long. The avenue is a four-lane street throughout the majority of its run. North of Atlantic Avenue and south of Utica Avenue, it is a six-lane-wide median-divided street.

Effect on street grid
The diagonal path of Flatbush Avenue creates a unique street pattern in every neighborhood it touches. It is the central artery of the borough, carrying traffic to and from Manhattan past landmarks such as MetroTech Center, City Point, the Fulton Mall, Junior's, Long Island University Brooklyn, the Brooklyn Academy of Music, the Long Island Rail Road's Atlantic Terminal, the Barclays Center, Grand Army Plaza, the Brooklyn Public Library, the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Prospect Park, Erasmus Hall High School, Kings Theatre, Brooklyn College, and Floyd Bennett Field.

Flatbush Avenue is the border of Prospect Heights/Park Slope and many other neighborhoods. Other main Brooklyn thoroughfares start at Flatbush Avenue, including Ocean Avenue and Empire Boulevard (both at Willink Plaza), Linden Boulevard, Eastern Parkway, and Utica Avenue.

History
Prior to European settlement, several Native American trails crossed Brooklyn. These were later widened into "ferry roads" by 17th-century Dutch settlers, since they were used to provide transport to the waterfront. One was the Flatbush Road, running roughly north–south to the east of the path of present-day Flatbush Avenue. The road ran roughly along what is now the eastern edge of Prospect Park and taking advantage of a low point in the Heights of Guan that form the spine of Long Island. A monument beside the former Flatbush Road, now inside the park, commemorates an attempt to block the road at Battle Pass during the Battle of Long Island. For much of the 19th century, it had a plank road run by a turnpike company. Historic homes line the neighborhoods around the avenue, which in the late 1920s was straightened to its current form. Streets such as Amersfort Place that are remnants of old parts of the avenue remain in the city grid as an echo of the past.

Transportation
The majority of Flatbush Avenue is served by the route of MTA Regional Bus Operations, though the  route also serves Flatbush Avenue south of Nostrand Avenue. Several bus routes also use the avenue for shorter stretches. A dedicated bus lane corridor on Flatbush Avenue was proposed in 2022; at the time, the B41 route traveled at an average speed of 6.5 mph. Work on the bus lanes began in 2024.

The New York City Subway's IRT Nostrand Avenue Line has a southern terminus at the Flatbush Avenue–Brooklyn College station, while the BMT Brighton Line  and IRT Eastern Parkway Line  run under the avenue between Prospect Park and DeKalb Avenue, and Grand Army Plaza and Nevins Street, respectively.

title: Flatbush Avenue


text:
1947 in rail transport

January events

 * January 1 – The Companhia dos Caminhos de Ferro Portugueses is reconstituted and takes over concessions of most private railway companies in Portugal.
 * January 19 – The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad inaugurates the Cincinnatian passenger train between Baltimore, Maryland, and Cincinnati, Ohio.

February events

 * February 1 – William Neal succeeds D'Alton Corry Coleman as president of Canadian Pacific Railway.
 * February 18 – Pennsylvania Railroad's Red Arrow passenger train derails at Gallatin, Pennsylvania; 24 people are killed in the accident.
 * February 25 – Hachikō Line derailment: The worst-ever train accident in Japan kills 184 people.
 * February 28 – The Illinois Central Railroad withdraws the Illinois Central 121 streamlined trainset from the Green Diamond Chicago-St. Louis service.

March events

 * March 4 – Ms. Friedel Klussman launches a drive to preserve the San Francisco cable car system.

April events

 * April 7 – Ellis D. Atwood completes the original Edaville Railroad on his cranberry plantation at South Carver, Massachusetts, United States. This narrow gauge line, using equipment from Maine, is generally regarded as the world’s first tourist railroad.
 * April 27 – After a complete overhaul, the Illinois Central 121 trainset re-enters active service, this time between Jackson, Mississippi, and New Orleans, Louisiana, as the Miss-Lou passenger train.

May events

 * May – Baldwin Locomotive Works completes the last two steam locomotives built for the narrow gauge White Pass and Yukon Route.
 * May 5 – Sixteen people die in the Camp Mountain train disaster when a crowded picnic train derails on a sharp left-hand curve between Ferny Grove and Camp Mountain stations on the now-closed Dayboro line, approximately 20 km(12.4 miles) northwest of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
 * May 18 – Seaboard Air Line Railroad inaugurates the Silver Comet passenger train between New York City and Birmingham, Alabama.
 * May 26 – General Motors Electro-Motive Division and Pullman-Standard's streamlined Train of Tomorrow enters demonstration passenger service in North America.
 * May 31 – The Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad acquires the Chicago and Alton Railroad.

June events

 * June 6 – The Pere Marquette Railroad is merged into the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway.
 * June 16 – The last passenger service is operated on the Nickey line.
 * June 29 – The Milwaukee Road inaugurates the Olympian Hiawatha passenger train between Chicago, Illinois and Tacoma, Washington. Simultaneously, the railroad revives the Columbian, operating on the same route.

July events

 * July 1 – The Maine Central Railroad begins operation of EMD E7 locomotives with stainless steel passenger cars.

August events

 * August 6 – The Transport Act 1947 is passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom providing for the nationalisation of all major British railways in 1948.
 * August 14–15 – The Partition of India leads to transfer of large parts of the North Western, Bengal Assam and Jodhpur Railways to a new Pakistan Railways organisation, and large-scale population transfer between the two countries by rail. The Jammu–Sialkot Line is abandoned as a through route.

September events

 * September 1 – Dugald, Manitoba, Canada: A Canadian National Railway passenger train fails to take the siding and collides with the No. 4 Transcontinental that is standing on the main line.  Thirty-one people are killed.
 * September 17 – The American Freedom Train, carrying the original versions of the United States Constitution, Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights, begins a two-year tour of the United States starting in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. See also American Freedom Train - 1947-1949 station stops

October events

 * October 1 – The Chicago Transit Authority (CTA) begins operating the local transit (buses and 'L'-Subway rapid transit) systems in Chicago after acquiring the properties of the former Chicago Surface Lines and the Chicago Rapid Transit Company.
 * October 18 – Alaska Railroad inaugurates the Aurora passenger train service between Fairbanks and Anchorage.

December events

 * December 3 – French communist strikers derail the Paris-Tourcoing express train because of false rumours that it is transporting soldiers – 21 dead.

Unknown date events

 * The first diesel locomotives enter mainline operation on the Southern Pacific Railroad.
 * The Southern Pacific Railroad is reincorporated in Delaware.
 * The City of Los Angeles train frequency is upgraded to daily.
 * The Super Chief train frequency is upgraded to daily.
 * Lima Locomotive Works is merged with General Machinery Corporation of Hamilton, OH. The new company is named Lima-Hamilton.
 * The components of the former M-10002 streamliner trainset are scrapped.
 * The last United States Fish and Wildlife Service fish car is taken out of service.
 * The Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad inaugurates its Old Dominion passenger train between Washington, DC, and Richmond, Virginia.

title: 1947 in rail transport