text:
Soil (American band)

Soil (often stylized as SOiL) is an American rock band that was formed in Chicago, Illinois in 1997. After some independent releases, the band was the first rock group signed to J Records and achieved mainstream success with their major label debut, Scars, in 2001. The J Records second album, Redefine, was released in 2004 and the band embarked upon a worldwide tour to follow. In late 2004, frontman Ryan McCombs left the group. He would go on to become the new vocalist of Drowning Pool the following year.

The band recruited ex-Diesel Machine vocalist A.J. Cavalier as its new singer and released two more studio albums (True Self and Picture Perfect) through independent labels in 2006 and 2009 respectively. Soil continued to tour worldwide and achieved strong independent success. The band had brief line-up changes until fall 2011.

Soil reunited with Ryan McCombs on a tour commemorating the tenth anniversary of their landmark album, Scars. The line-up is currently completed with fellow original members Tim King (bass) and Adam Zadel (guitar), who are the only two members to have stayed with the band from its inception until present. The band released their sixth studio album, Whole, in 2013. They released a greatest hits album titled Scream: The Essentials in 2017.

Beginnings and early releases (1997–2000)
Soil was originally formed in 1997 by three of four members of death metal act Oppressor, joined by guitarist of another death metal act Broken Hope – as a side project to their other bands. Ryan McCombs was later recruited for vocal duties.

The original line-up of the band was Ryan McCombs (vocals), Shaun Glass (Broken Hope), Tom Schofield, Tim King, and Adam Zadel (all three ex-Oppressor). The band got its name from the Entombed song "Rotten Soil" by opting to simply drop the "Rotten" part and stick with "Soil".

Soil released two independent EPs, Soil (on Olympic Records) and El Chupacabra ( on M.I.A.). In 1999, Soil released their debut album Throttle Junkies, however, M.I.A closed down two months after its release. It was around this time that all the members of Soil left their other bands to focus on Soil as their main project.

Rise to popularity and McCombs' departure (2001–2005)
With the song "Halo" gaining major radio attention, labels began a bidding war for a deal with Soil. The band would ultimately be signed to J Records by music industry legend Clive Davis, responsible for signing such acts as Pink Floyd and Bruce Springsteen, who stated that "you're gonna be my only rock band for now. You're going to be a priority, and I want to break this band." Soil finally experienced mainstream success with the major label debut, Scars, released September 11, 2001. This achievement was aided by the popular singles "Halo" and "Unreal" which gained the band exposure on MTV. The success resulted in the band winning Metal Edge magazine's 2001 Readers' Choice Award for "Next Big Thing".

Soil worked on their third album all throughout 2003. In 2004, the band released their second major label album, Redefine. The group toured for a year in support of the album and returned home to begin writing follow up material and finish various live dates. Shortly after, vocalist Ryan McCombs announced his departure from the group to be with his family, forcing the band to cancel scheduled shows. New York–based vocalist A.J. Cavalier, previously of World In Pain and Diesel Machine, was introduced on November 15, 2004, as McCombs' replacement. On July 20, 2005, McCombs was confirmed to be the new singer for Drowning Pool.

Cavalier era (2005–2010)
On September 21, 2005, Soil signed with New York–based independent label DRT Entertainment. Their album True Self was released on May 2, 2006. The album leaked onto P2P and BitTorrent sites on March 4, almost two months before its official release. Soil embarked upon a very heavy worldwide touring schedule to promote the release. In November 2007, Shaun Glass parted ways with the band, citing personal and musical differences.

On October 20, 2009, the album Picture Perfect was released via Bieler Bros Records worldwide, except in Europe, where it was released by AFM Records. Picture Perfect was produced by Johnny K (Disturbed, Staind), Ulrich Wild (Deftones, Incubus) and Soil, with Dave Fortman (Mudvayne, Evanescence) handling mixing duties. It was promoted with the lead single "Like It Is". In January 2010, "The Lesser Man" was announced as a second single.

On July 23, 2010, vocalist A.J. Cavalier, and drummer Tom Schofield announced their departure from the band. Vocalist Jordan Lee and drummer Mike Tignino were announced as fill-ins for scheduled live dates.

McCombs' return (2011–present)
The band reunited with original vocalist Ryan McCombs for a 12-date co-headlining UK tour with Puddle of Mudd in October 2011 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of Scars.

Soil added several US tour dates throughout 2012. The trek was the band's first in the US since original frontman Ryan McCombs rejoined the group.

Soil's first ever DVD, Re-LIVE-ing the Scars, was released May 8, 2012. The DVD/CD combo was recorded live in London during the band's 2011 UK tour and features the first live show with vocalist Ryan McCombs in seven years.

Soil's sixth studio album, Whole, was released on August 16, 2013 (worldwide) and August 20, 2013 (North America). The album was funded through Kickstarter. The band released a music video and single for "Shine On" on June 25, 2013.

The band released the compilation album Scream: The Essentials on September 15, 2017, via Pavement/AFM Records. It features the band's hits along with alternate versions and unreleased material, and includes a cover of "Gimme Some Lovin'" by The Spencer Davis Group.

As of 2021, Soil has been working on new material for the follow-up to Whole. In July 2022, the band announced they would be releasing their new album, Play It Forward, on August 26. The album consists of cover songs that inspired the band members throughout the years. On June 28, 2023, the band announced their new album "Restoration", which would release July 21. The album features re-recordings some of their biggest songs.

Band members

 * Current
 * Ryan McCombs – lead vocals (1997–2004, 2011–present)
 * Adam Zadel – lead guitar, backing vocals (1997–present)
 * Tim King – bass, backing vocals (1997–present)
 * T.J. Taylor – drums (2017–present)

 * Former
 * Shaun Glass – rhythm guitar (1997–2007)
 * Tom Schofield – drums (1997–2010)
 * A.J. Cavalier – lead vocals (2004–2010)
 * Jordan Lee – lead vocals (2010–2011)
 * Mike Tignino – drums (2010–2011)
 * Jon Wysocki – drums (2011–2012; died 2024)
 * Mitch Gable – drums (2012–2017)

Discography

 * Studio albums
 * Throttle Junkies (1999)
 * Scars (2001)
 * Redefine (2004)
 * True Self (2006)
 * Picture Perfect (2009)
 * Whole (2013)

Awards and nominations
Metal Edge Readers' Choice Awards

 * 2001 || SOiL || Next Big Thing || Won
 * 2001 || SOiL || Next Big Thing || Won

title: Soil (American band)


text:
1881 in rail transport

January events

 * January 17 – Regular train service over the Prince of Wales Bridge on the Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa and Occidental Railway begins.

February events

 * February 3 – The Seney Syndicate meets at Seney's New York bank and organized the New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railway Company (which would later become the Nickel Plate Road).
 * February 16 – Canadian Pacific Railway incorporated.
 * February 17 – The first train operates between Norwood, Ohio, and Lebanon, Ohio, on the Cincinnati Northern Railway.

March events

 * March 1 – The Mexican Southern Railroad is incorporated with Ulysses S. Grant, former President of the United States, as its president.
 * March 8 – The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad, building southwestward from Kansas, reaches Deming, New Mexico.

April events

 * April 13 – The New York, Chicago & St. Louis Railway Company (later known as the Nickel Plate Road) purchases the Buffalo, Cleveland & Chicago Railway
 * April 14 – The Oregon Short Line Railroad is established to build a rail connection between Granger, Wyoming, and Huntington, Oregon.

May events

 * May 16 – The Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway, the world's first electric tramway, is opened in Berlin by Siemens & Halske.
 * May 19 – Tracks of the Southern Pacific Railroad reach El Paso, Texas.
 * May 28 – A. B. Rogers on his birthday discovers the pass through the Rocky Mountains that will bear his name, Rogers Pass.

June events

 * June 9 – The Canada Central Railway is merged into the Canadian Pacific Railway.
 * June 11 – The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad connects to El Paso, Texas.
 * June 14 – Ephraim Shay takes out the first patent on his Shay locomotive design.

July events

 * July 2 – Assassination of James A. Garfield: James A. Garfield, President of the United States, is shot by lawyer Charles J. Guiteau at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C., dying on September 19 of a resultant infection.
 * July 4 – Darjeeling Himalayan Railway opened throughout to Darjeeling, India.
 * July 6 – Kate Shelley prevents a train with 200 passengers from going over the Honey Creek Bridge after it was washed out during a flash flood near Des Moines, Iowa.
 * July 26 – Construction crews on the Denver, South Park and Pacific Railroad's Alpine Tunnel, in Colorado, break through to connect both ends of the tunnel.

August events

 * August 15 – The International Exposition of Electricity opens in Paris, featuring the first tramway designed by Werner von Siemens. The installation was temporary, and removed after the Exposition closed on November 15.
 * August 22 – The East Tennessee and Western North Carolina Railroad (ET&WNC) commences operation over a 14.1-mile (2.25-kilometer) run through the Appalachian Mountains.
 * August 26 – The first train operates over the Red River Bridge into Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

October events

 * October 17 – First section of Royal Saxon State Railways narrow gauge railway ( gauge) opens, between Wilkau and Kirchberg in the German Empire.
 * October 20 – First section of Barbados Railway opens on gauge between Bridgetown and Carrington.

Unknown date events

 * E.W. Clark & Co., a private banking firm in Philadelphia, purchases the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad (a predecessor of the Norfolk & Western) at a foreclosure auction.
 * The Richmond and Danville Railroad leases the Atlanta and Charlotte Air Line Railway.
 * Henry Villard becomes president of the Northern Pacific Railroad.
 * The French Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique purchases a controlling interest in the Panama Railway Company.
 * John Souther retires from the steam locomotive manufacturing company that he founded, Globe Locomotive Works.
 * The first standard gauge railroad in China is opened from Tangshan to Xugezhuang (10 km) for coal traffic.

March births

 * March 22 – Arturo Caprotti, Italian inventor of Caprotti valve gear for steam locomotives (d. 1938).

July births

 * July 8 – Mantis James Van Sweringen, American financier who, with his brother Oris, controlled the Nickel Plate Road and other eastern railroads (d. 1935).

October births

 * October 30 – Charles E. Johnston, president of Kansas City Southern Railway 1928–1938 (d. 1951).

December births

 * December 5 – Martin W. Clement, president of the Pennsylvania Railroad 1935–1948 (d. 1966).

May deaths

 * May 21 – Thomas Alexander Scott, president of Union Pacific Railroad 1871–1872 (b. 1823).

October deaths

 * October 30 – Matthias von Schönerer, Austrian railway engineer (b. 1807).

Unknown date deaths

 * William S. Hudson, superintendent of American steam locomotive manufacturing firm Rogers, Ketchum and Grosvenor (b. 1810).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1881 in rail transport


text:
Talk:Advent wreath

Untitled
The season of advent prepares us for the coming of Christ, by lighting the candles we recognize that Christ is the light of the world. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.66.241.155 (talk) 20:35, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

I rewrote this page for form, clarity, and to remove redundancies. I also removed the sentence “Increasingly, due to changes in the Roman Catholic Church's lectionary in the United States, all four candles may be violet.” as I could not find any support for the statement. Either pink or purple vestments were allowed for Gaudete Sunday before the Second Vatican Council, when the lectionary changes began. If anyone has a reference for that statement, please restore it. MacPhilbin (talk) 00:28, 17 December 2007 (UTC)

history
Here are two links (sorry in German) http://www.rauhes-haus.de/stiftung/geschichte/ and http://www.engelchen.de/advent/kranz.htm By the way if the history requires footnotes, than the symbolic part requires footnotes, too - Citius Altius Fortius (talk) 05:52, 30 November 2007 (UTC)

Needs footnotes! --Cajuntx (talk) 05:21, 30 November 2007 (UTC)

I have added the history of the advent wreath Citius Altius Fortius (talk) 20:43, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

The first violet candle is known as the “Prophets” candle and symbolizes the hope that Old Testament Jews had that a Messiah would one day come. The	second violet candle is the “Bethlehem” candle and represents the peace that the new God/Man savior would bring, ending the long spiritual rift between God and mankind. The rose candle is the “angel’s” candle (or in some traditions, the “Mary” candle) it symbolizes the joy of Heaven that a Savior was finally to be born. The last violet candle is the “Shepherds’” candle and represents the love or adoration of those ready to accept the gift of the Christ child. The large white candle in the center, often lit on Christmas or Christmas Eve is the “Christ Candle” and represents Jesus as the “Light of the world,” or the Epiphany, God on Earth.

The wreath is meant to represent God's eternity. It is a circle, which has no beginning and no end. Pine is used because it is "evergreen," also representing eternal life. However, the wreath is also forshadowing of Christ's passion. Pine needles and/or holly leaves represent the crown of thorns and holly berries and/or pointsettia flowers represent the blood He shed on the cross.

candle colors
actually I think that advent candle colors range from blue-violet, not just for anglicans, but catholics, and protestants too. I believe it just depends on what you buy, or what's available.

 * Yes and no. Blue is officially an alternate liturgical colour for Anglicans during Advent, deriving from the Sarum Rite. Officially, Roman Catholics use violet as a liturgical colour during Advent (except for the Third Sunday). This is less an issue for most Protestants. But in one's home, one can do whatever one wishes.Rockhopper10r 05:56, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

The article states: "Typically, three of the candles are violet-coloured, and one is rose-coloured. Increasingly, due to changes in the Church's lectionary in the United States, all four candles may be violet." What is the basis for this assertion? I thought the third candle was always pink/rose.

 * Accoring to page 260 of the United Methodist Book of Worship, "Some traditions use the color rose on the Third Sunday of Advent and for this reason usee three purple candles and one rose candle. United Methodists, however, encourage purple for the whole season of Advent and therefore use four purple candles."

Community of Christ, headquartered in the US, it will very from congregation to congregation, however from the offical worship resources published each year "There is no universal tradition for the color and names of the four candles in the wreath. Three purple or blue candles can be used to symbolize the expectant hope of Advent and a rose candle to represent rejoicing that Christ is coming soon. A white candle is often used for the Christ candle in the center." On this note though, Community of Christ does differ from the 3rd Sunday always being the "rose" candle, as the themes for advent very from year to year. For example Advent 2005 Year B the order was: Hope, Peace, Joy, Love. This year, Advent 2006 Year C, the order is Peace, Hope, Love, Joy, and for Advent 2007 Year A, it will be Peace, Hope, Joy, Love. Thus Last year and next it will be the ninth sunday but this year it will be the forth Sunday for Community of Christ congregations and families that choose to use a different colour for Joy. Is the changing of themes unique to Community of Christ?

 * Not unique to the Community of Christ. These themes are of fairly recent vintage. In the UCC Book of Worship the order is "hope, peace, love, joy." But the order of the last two has been reversed in many wreath-lighting services I've seen online. The reason for this, I assume, is the growing use of the third, rose candle adapted from the Roman Catholic liturgical color for the Third Sunday of Advent, called "Gaudete Sunday" after the Introit which begins with "Gaudete" ("Rejoice"). Since the theme is joy in anticipation of Christ's birth, it's appropriate that the word "joy" be used when lighting the rose-colored candle on the Third Sunday. --langohio (talk) 19:45, 4 December 2008 (UTC)

 * I know this discussion is eight years old, but I, living in Protestant Northern Germany, have never seen an Adventskranz with differently coloured candles, either in churches or private homes. The candles used in churches are either red or white, or made of natural bee wax. Colours of private Adventskränze are often chosen to agree with the style of the home, but still bee wax and red seem to be the most popular. I suspect the above mentioned custom of different colours is a fake - no sources are mentioned. 2003:DF:3BC5:9A00:69E1:2A09:668C:5D9B (talk) 01:26, 24 December 2016 (UTC)
 * You're both right and wrong. I too celebrate in the Northern German way: red candles only. However there are many sources for other colours. Walter Görlitz (talk) 02:09, 24 December 2016 (UTC)

Speculative interpretations
I have removed the following addition:
 * "The moderne tradition is possibly inspired by the Jewish ritual of Hanukiah lighting during early winter also as well as Germanic paganist winter rituals involving fire."

There's nothing inherently inappropriate about this, but it's entirely unsourced and reads as though it is simply speculation, or at best personal research. If it can be sourced, it should go back in.

As the tag currently on the page notes, quite a lot of what's in this article needs sourcing, but most of it is at least recognizable as widely held, whereas this isn't. seglea (talk) 22:36, 11 December 2009 (UTC)

Seglea will light the candle. Seglea lit the candle. The candle was lighted by Seglea. The candle is lighted.24.13.194.152 (talk) 22:58, 9 December 2010 (UTC)

Greetings
Greetings, the reason that I replaced the image is because the original one did not have all five candles. The article talks about the Christ Candle but did not show that image. I moved the image with the red candles to a lower section. I've changed it back and would be glad to clarify any doubts you might have. PFAStudent (talk) 23:15, 5 December 2011 (UTC)
 * The reason I removed the image is because it's not very good. It's got a bad camera angle and the wreath itself is underexposed. --Walter Görlitz (talk) 23:19, 5 December 2011 (UTC)
 * The fact that the fifth candle is a liturgical addition and not part of traditional wreaths is a separate issue. --Walter Görlitz (talk) 23:21, 5 December 2011 (UTC)

Well, this article does discuss the Christ Candle so it would be nice if we could show a picture of a wreath containing the candle. How about this image? Will that work? PFAStudent (talk) 23:23, 5 December 2011 (UTC)
 * It certainly does discuss it and if a good picture can be found, we should replace one of the existing images. The one you suggest ha better lighting but the composition isn't better. The candle at the back left is somewhat obscured and the flag may be offensive to some. Focus is also a bit soft in that image. Do you see how the existing images are all from above the wreaths they represent? It shows the shape and symmetry. If you were to stand on the pew to the left of the wreath and shoot down, that would be a better angle. --Walter Görlitz (talk) 23:27, 5 December 2011 (UTC)

Would you mind using this one then? PFAStudent (talk) 23:29, 5 December 2011 (UTC)

 * Better for the wreath. Suffers again from composition in that the candles are cropped and one candle is obscured by the centre candle. The tree in the background is a very nice addition! It's also a bit small. --Walter Görlitz (talk) 23:38, 5 December 2011 (UTC)

Yes, the tree does make a nice addition. So you're not going to let me add any of these pictures to the article? Could you add it in for now and if I find a better one later post it here? PFAStudent (talk) 23:41, 5 December 2011 (UTC)

 * I would remove them, but other editors may find them better. Shall we wait to see what they think? They may say I'm making too much of it. --Walter Görlitz (talk) 23:45, 5 December 2011 (UTC)

Okay, sounds good. PFAStudent (talk) 23:46, 5 December 2011 (UTC)

Number of candles
What is the source for the 19 red candles mentioned in the text? The illustration shows 4 sets of 6 weekdays for a total of 24. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 146.90.175.250 (talk) 20:44, 21 October 2012 (UTC)
 * The statement is from the original Johann Hinrich Wichern wreath. It should be referenced. --Walter Görlitz (talk) 22:27, 21 October 2012 (UTC)

20 small candles?
The text says four large and twenty small candles but the picture apparently shows six small candles for each week, which is not twenty by any means. Pavlix (talk) 17:58, 15 December 2014 (UTC)

meanings of Advent
This is misleading: "In Medieval times Advent was a fast during which people's thoughts were directed to the expected second coming of Christ; but in modern times it has been seen as the lead up to Christmas, and in that context Advent Wreath serves as a reminder of the approach of the feast." In fact, it has long been both, since before the Middle Ages, and remains both today. ChrisMcConnell (talk) 05:51, 15 December 2015 (UTC)
 * It is not "a fast" today anymore for Western-rite Catholics. They may laudably fast as fitting to the season, but that and being "a fast" as one officially celebrated by the Church is a different thing.--2001:A61:20E3:7501:A474:AAFF:3A6:BF8F (talk) 00:15, 29 June 2017 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 06:46, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

Christian vs Protestant
Although the Advent wreath is now used by many denominations in the Christian faith, it was originally developed by the Protestant Lutherans and forms part of the protestant tradition first. It is not incorrect to say that it is a Christian tradition but more insight is given by specifically referring to its protestant origins. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Deanerasmus2006 (talk • contribs) 10:32, 22 May 2019 (UTC)
 * It is a Christian tradition, not just a protestant one. It is not correct to claim it for only protestants. I reverted your change to the lede especially since it incorrectly marked Protestant in bold (see WP:LEADSENTENCE and MOS:BOLD) and changed the WP:LANGVAR. The second sentence makes it clear it started in a protestant denomination. I see you made the same change in December 2017. Walter Görlitz (talk) 14:20, 22 May 2019 (UTC)
 * Thank you for correcting my incorrectly marked Protestant naming in bold, please see my first comments around the Advent wreath being a Lutheran innovation as seen in referenced source 3 in the article Insisting on giving it a blanket Christian attribution is misleading as it is not something that Christians hold in common.--Deanerasmus2006 (talk) 19:58, 22 May 2019 (UTC)
 * The fact that it was started in the Lutheran church is stated in the second sentence.
 * It does not change the fact that there are few denominational barriers to the use of the wreath today. It can be found in most Western Churches and their followers. It is in no way misleading. Walter Görlitz (talk) 20:02, 22 May 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Advent wreath


text:
Easley McCain Recording

Easley McCain Recording is an American recording studio, based in Memphis, Tennessee, notable for recording musicians such as Tav Falco's Panther Burns, Oblivians, Grifters, Pavement, Sonic Youth, Come, White Stripes, Townes Van Zandt, Pezz, Jeff Buckley, Jon Spencer Blues Explosion, Guided by Voices, Lydia Lunch, Box Tops, Rufus Thomas, Wilco, Cat Power, Modest Mouse, The Amps, The Cooters, The Walkmen, and The Cuts.

History
Easley McCain Recording began as Doug Easley's rudimentary, four-track studio in the woods near the Wolf River bottoms in Memphis in the late 1970s recording blues musicians like Mose Vinson, as well as local rock bands. In the early 1980s Easley operated "Easley Recording" out of a hand-built garage studio behind his home near University of Memphis. During this period, bands such as Tav Falco's Panther Burns came in to record; Alex Chilton produced an album for a Detroit group called The Gories the last year the studio was located in Easley's garage.

By 1990, Easley, with new partner Davis McCain, had found a larger midtown Memphis facility for the studio and moved into it by the next year. McCain had been the sound man at a 1980s local alternative music nightspot called The Antenna Club. The new Easley studio site was originally built in 1967 as "the Onyx" for Don Crews, who had been a business partner at American Sound Studios with producer Chips Moman. Crews parted from Moman at that time to start his own studio at the Onyx location.

Easley McCain Recording's business began to pick up more clients from outside Memphis in the early 1990s, after a local group called the Grifters grew in popularity and advertised the studio's phone number in their liner notes. Indie rock bands from around the country including Pavement, Sonic Youth, Come began recording there. By 2001 the White Stripes had become a client, which led in turn to a Jack White-produced album by Loretta Lynn to be mixed there.

Others recording at this indie-oriented studio have included Townes Van Zandt, Pezz, Jeff Buckley, Jon Spencer Blues Explosion, Guided by Voices, Lydia Lunch, dahrius, Box Tops, Rufus Thomas, Wilco, Cat Power, Modest Mouse, Kim Deal with her band The Amps, The Bamboozlers (precursors to Ingram Hill), Custard, Grifters (band), and many more.

On March 2, 2005, the studio's lobby and control room sustained serious damage in a fire.

In 2009, after four years of inactivity, Easley McCain Recording reopened at a brand new location in Memphis. Most of their vintage analog recording equipment survived the fire, and Doug Easley is back engineering, mixing, producing and mastering full-time. His recent clients were The Shakedown, Ben Nichols (Lucero), Harlan T Bobo, Bosco Delrey, Viva L'American Death Ray, the Magic Kids as well as a number of film score/soundtrack projects.

Albums recorded at Easley McCain Recording
(incomplete)
 * Lydia Lunch & Rowland S. Howard - Shotgun Wedding (1991)
 * The Young Fresh Fellows - It's Low Beat Time (1992)
 * Grifters - So Happy Together (1992)
 * The Hilltops - Big Black River (1992)
 * Jon Spencer Blues Explosion - Extra Width (1993)
 * Grifters - One Sock Missing (1993)
 * The Gories - I Know You Fine, But How You Doin' (1994)
 * Southern Culture on the Skids - Ditch Diggin' (1994)
 * Come - Don't Ask, Don't Tell (1994)
 * Grifters - Crappin' You Negative (1994)
 * Silver Jews - Starlite Walker (1994)
 * Guided By Voices - Under the Bushes Under the Stars (1995)
 * Pavement - Wowee Zowee (1995)
 * The Amps - Pacer (1995)
 * Sonic Youth - Washing Machine (1995)
 * Wilco - A.M. (1995)
 * Two Dollar Guitar - Burned And Buried (1996)
 * Those Bastard Souls - 20th Century Chemical (1996)
 * Cat Power - What Would the Community Think (1996)
 * Grifters - Ain't My Lookout (1996)
 * Jon Spencer Blues Explosion - Now I Got Worry (1996)
 * Custard - We Have The Technology (1997)
 * Butterflies - Butterflies (1997)
 * Grifters - Full Blown Possession (1997)
 * The Promise Ring - Nothing Feels Good (1997)
 * The Spinanes - Arches and Aisles (1998)
 * Jeff Buckley - Sketches for My Sweetheart the Drunk (1998)
 * The Box Tops - Tear Off! (1998)
 * Those Bastard Souls - Debt And Departure (1999)
 * Two Dollar Guitar - Weak Beats and Lame-Ass Rhymes (2000)
 * The White Stripes - White Blood Cells (2001)
 * Rocket From The Crypt - Group Sounds (2001)
 * Modest Mouse - Good News For People Who Love Bad News (2004)
 * The Perfect Vessels - Name Our Own Stars (2011)
 * Halfacre Gunroom - "Wrecked" (2004)

title: Easley McCain Recording


text:
Net-Centric Enterprise Services

Net-Centric Enterprise Services (NCES) is a Department of Defense program, managed by the Defense Information Systems Agency, to develop information technology infrastructure services for future systems used by the United States military.

Technically, the program is based on the concept of 'enterprise integration' from the sub discipline enterprise engineering of systems engineering, which enables the transmission of right information at the right place and at the right time and thereby enable communication between people, machines and computers and their efficient co-operation and co-ordination.

There are nine core enterprise services defined in the Network Centric Operations and Warfare - Reference Model (NCOW-RM):
 * 1) storage
 * 2) mediation
 * 3) user assist
 * 4) IA (Information Assurance)
 * 5) ESM (Enterprise Service Management)
 * 6) messaging
 * 7) discovery & delivery
 * 8) application
 * 9) collaboration

NCES maps these nine services to four product areas:
 * 1) Enterprise service-oriented architecture (SOA) foundation
 * 2) Content discovery and delivery
 * 3) Enterprise collaboration
 * 4) Defense on-line portal

title: Net-Centric Enterprise Services


text:
Talk:Neptunism

Flood geology
The last thing that I want to do is to start the flood geology thing all over again in a new place. However, some of them apparently see themselves as heirs to the old theory, since they agree that everything that we now see was essentially the result of water, precipitation of chemicals out of water into rocks in the case of Neptunism, all shaped into its current form by the action of water in "flood geology". Rlquall 17:11, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * As a creationist, I have never heard of flood geology being likened to Neptunism, nor of flood geology arguing for precipitation of chemicals out of water into rocks. However, what you may be confusing things with, is the idea that the earth was created as a ball of water (certainly the Bible talks about it being totally covered with water when first created), and then some of this being converted to rock ('and God caused the dry land to appear', to paraphrase).  But even with that, I haven't heard a creationist argue for any particular method such as what you describe for Neptunism.  Philip J. Rayment 11:43, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Additions to article
This addition by User:72.38.231.234 lacks sources and needed drastic formatting, so I've taken the article back to an earlier version with modifications. Vsmith had reverted it as at copyvio from http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/darwin/sect2.htm but as that "is in the public domain and may be used without charge and without permission,  released May 2000" there should be no problem given proper attribution, and rewording where appropriate. ... dave souza, talk 09:20, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

Theory?
Did this ever reach the level of "scientific theory" or should it be correctly referred to as an early hypothesis? GDallimore (Talk) 09:05, 1 February 2014 (UTC)
 * It's linked at the top to Superseded scientific theories which seems about right, though it dates to a period when science was still some way from its modern formulation. See Neptunist-Plutonist/Vulcanist Controversy for the developing context of the time. . . dave souza, talk 09:38, 2 February 2014 (UTC)

Goethe's Faust
"The debate was not just between scientists. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, one of the most respected authors of the day, took sides with the neptunists. The fourth act of his famous work Faust contains a dialogue between a neptunist and a plutonist, the latter being Mephistopheles, the antagonist of the play who is a devil. Doing so he implicitly expressed his favour for the neptunist theory, though he also did so explicitly and sometimes even harshly elsewhere." - This is incorrect. The debate occurs in Faust: Part Two, Act 2, Scene 6, and is between the ancient Greek philosophers Thales (Neptunism) and Anaxagoras (Plutonism). - Eroica (talk) 09:43, 11 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Neptunism


text:
Jack Reid

Jack Reid (born 1925) was a Canadian watercolour artist.

Born in Toronto, Reid was self-taught, beginning as a graphic artist until becoming a full-time painter in 1970. He taught workshops and demonstrations and toured worldwide began in 1971, teaching over 11,000 students by the 1990s.

Reid enjoyed a successful career over six decades, with some paintings entering Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II's personal collection at Windsor Castle. In 1992, he was awarded the Commemorative Medal by the Canadian government for his contribution to Canadian art and was honoured Arts Person of the Year in his hometown of Brampton. He exhibited in London, England with the Royal Institute of Painters in Watercolours. He was a lifetime member of The Arts and Letters Club of Toronto, Visual Arts Brampton, and the Canadian Society of Painters in Water Colour.

He authored two books, Watercolour Basics: Let's Get Started and Painting Snow and Water. He produced an instructional CD-ROM and did a mini-series of painting demos, broadcast on Rogers Cable. In 2001, Jack was featured in the popular American magazine Watercolor Magic.

After 33 years of marriage, Reid's wife Maggie died in late 2002. Jack Reid died on August 24, 2009, in Orillia, Ontario, at the age of 84. Jack also was mourned by his companion Pat whom he shared 6 years of joy with.

In 2014, a star on Brampton's Walk of Fame was dedicated to Reid, and was received by nephew Robert McAffee, on his uncle's behalf.

Workshops
Jack taught thousands of people through workshops in:

 * New Brunswick: Steeves Mountain (2006)
 * Ontario: Brampton (19??-current), Erieau (2006), Haliburton (2006), Mississauga (2000), Sarnia (2001)
 * Saskatchewan: Saskatoon (2005, 2006)
 * Alberta: Calgary (2006), Cochrane (2005)
 * British Columbia: Agassis (2005), Comox (2005), Kamloops (2005), Qualicum (2006), Victoria & Tofino (2005), Whistler (2007)
 * Scotland
 * Ireland: Adare (2005), Dingle Peninsula (2005), Dublin (2005), Killarney (2005)

title: Jack Reid


text:
WELS (disambiguation)

WELS is an acronym for Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod.

WELS may also refer to:

 * WELS-FM, a radio station (102.9 FM) licensed to Kinston, North Carolina, United States
 * WWMC, a radio station (1010 AM) licensed to Kinston, North Carolina, which held the call sign WELS until 2015
 * "West of the Easterly Line of the State", a term of survey township in the US state of Maine
 * WELS rating

title: WELS (disambiguation)


text: Category:1156 deaths

title: Category:1156 deaths


text:
Talk:Jack Reid

Untitled
Yes, this is taken from http://www.visualartsbrampton.com/agreid.htm, pretty much directly, but I wrote the original article in the first place. -- user:zanimum
 * I'm not sure that that means you own the copyright. According to the page, a company owns the copyright.  Please advise... Roodog2k 17:20, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I wrote it, for a site that I run, for a non-profit organization that my dad is President of and has been since 1986. --  user:zanimum

External links modified
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A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
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 * Jack Reid, 1990.jpg

title: Talk:Jack Reid


text:
Talk:Battle of Heraclea

Untitled
Hi. I found here another possible order of battle for Heraclea:

Pyrrhus
 * 3000 Advanced Guards with Milo (Hypaspists or Chaeonians)
 * 20,000 Phalangites, Hoplites, and Peltasts (Includes 5000 Macedonian mercenaries supplied by Ptolemy)
 * 3000 horse (Including a contingent of Thessalian Horsemen)
 * 2000 archers
 * 500 Rhodian slingers
 * 20 war elephants with towers holding troops

Tarantine army
 * 6000 Levy Hoplites
 * 1000 Cavalry

Romans
 * 20,000 legionars (4 legions)
 * 1,200 cavalry

Roman allies
 * 16,800 legionars (4 legions)
 * 2,400 Light infantry Bruttians, Campanian allies
 * 3,600 Allied Legion Cavalry
 * 1,200 Southern Italian Light Cavalry

What about it?--Panairjdde 17:17, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

The numbers given in the order of battle do not add up to the strength of the Roman army (45,200)on the top right of the article. 2003:6B:62E:DA37:E414:A15C:92:364C (talk) 10:01, 7 November 2015 (UTC)Neil Fox2003:6B:62E:DA37:E414:A15C:92:364C (talk) 10:01, 7 November 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Battle of Heraclea


text:
Battle of Ichi-no-Tani

The Battle of Ichi-no-Tani (一ノ谷の戦い) was fought between the offensive Minamoto clan and the defensive Taira clan at Suma, to the west of present-day Kobe, Japan, on 20 March 1184. It sat on a very narrow strip of shore, between mountains on the north, and the sea to the south. This made it quite defensible, but also made it difficult to maneuver troops inside the fortress. The Taira suffered a crucial defeat to the forces of Minamoto no Yoshitsune and Minamoto no Noriyori.

Battle

Minamoto no Yoshitsune split his forces in two. Minamoto no Noriyori's forces attacked the Taira clan at Ikuta Shrine, in the woods a short distance to the east. A second detachment, no more than a hundred horsemen under Yoshitsune, attacked the Taira at Ichi-no-Tani from the mountain ridge to the north. At the chosen hour, the Minamoto forces attacked causing confusion among the Taira who neither deployed nor retreated. Only about 3,000 Taira escaped to Yashima, while Tadanori was killed and Shigehira captured. Also killed from the Taira clan were Lord Michimori, Tsunemasa, Atsumori, Moromori, Tomoakira, Tsunetoshi, and Moritoshi.

Ichi-no-Tani is one of the most famous battles of the Genpei War, in large part due to the individual combats that occurred here. Benkei, probably the most famous of all warrior monks, fought alongside Minamoto no Yoshitsune here, and many of the Taira's most important and powerful warriors were present as well.

Ichi-no-Tani is the last recorded instance in which crossbows were used in a Japanese siege.

Legacy
The death of Taira no Atsumori at the hand of Kumagai no Naozane during the battle is a particularly famous passage in the Heike Monogatari. It has been dramatized in noh and kabuki, and in popular fiction, Oda Nobunaga is often portrayed as performing the noh at his own death (ningen goju nen geten no uchi wo kurabureba, yumemaboroshi no gotoku nari). The death of Atsumori is arguably among the most celebrated acts of single combat in all of Japanese history.

title: Battle of Ichi-no-Tani


text:
File:Marynorth.jpg

Ann (Loomis) North, wife of John W. North

title: File:Marynorth.jpg


text:
Visvesvaraya Technological University

Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU), is a collegiate public state university in Belagavi, Karnataka established by the Government of Karnataka. It is one of the largest Technological Universities in India with 26 years of Tradition of excellence in Engineering & Technical Education, Research and Innovations. It came into existence in the year 1998 to cater the needs of Indian industries for trained technical manpower with practical experience and sound theoretical knowledge. The university is named after Sir M. Visvesvaraya, an Indian civil engineer, statesman and the 19th Diwan of Mysore.

History
Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU) was established by the Government of Karnataka on 1 April 1998 with its headquarters at Belagavi, as per the provisions of the Visvesvaraya Technological University Act, 1994, an Act to establish and incorporate a university in the State of Karnataka for the development of engineering, technology and allied sciences. For effective administration, four regional offices at the four revenue divisional headquarters, namely, Belagavi, Bangalore, Mysore and Gulbarga were established. VTU was established by the Government in order to promote planned and sustainable development of technical education consistent with state and national policies and bringing various colleges affiliated earlier to different universities, with different syllabi, different procedures and different traditions under one umbrella.

Campus
According to the stipulations outlined in the VTU Act of 1994, the university is situated in Belagavi, Karnataka, with its main administrative center known as "Jnana Sangama," meaning "The Confluence Of Knowledge".

The campus infrastructure includes well-equipped laboratories, research facilities, and classrooms designed to support academic pursuits. The university provides accommodation through student hostels and offers recreational spaces and sports facilities for a balanced student experience. Emphasizing a commitment to engineering education, VTU's campus serves as a practical environment for learning and research, fostering a diverse community of students focused on academic and technological advancements.

Additionally, the university has three regional centres in Bangalore, Kalaburagi and Mysore. Visvesvaraya Institute of Advanced Technology, also known as VIAT, is a research institute being constructed near Bangalore, Karnataka.

The university also has 13 Quality Improvement Programme (QIP) centers in various affiliated colleges and 16 extension centers for offering postgraduate programs. It has around 2,305 departments recognised as research centres which are spread across its affiliated institutions in Karnataka. The Jnana Sangama, Belagavi campus and the regional and extension centres of VTU at Bangalore, Davangere, Gulbarga and Mysore offer M.Tech, MBA, MCA and PhD programs.

Academic programmes
VTU offers undergraduate engineering programs that award a Bachelor of Engineering (BE) or Bachelor of Technology (BTech) degree. The university offers postgraduate programs that lead to Master of Technology (MTech), Master of Architecture (MArch) Master of Science (MSc) by research, Master of Business Administration (MBA), Master of Computer Applications (MCA) and doctorate (PhD). The MSc and PhD are research degrees while the rest are taught degrees.

Undergraduate courses
The university has 12 undergraduate boards which offer Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) programs and one undergraduate board which offers Bachelor of Architecture (BArch) course:

‡ The Architecture board offers the BArch course.

Postgraduate courses
The university has 11 postgraduate boards which offer Master of Technology (M.Tech.) programs:

Admissions
The university offers admissions at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Admissions for B.Tech. programmes, candidates must qualify KCET examination, COMEDK or JEE Main. The candidates seeking B.Arch. admissions must qualify for the NATA or any aptitude test in Architecture conducted by the Competent Authority of the Central / State Government or JEE Paper-II examination. The Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi admissions to M.Tech. and M.Arch programmes are through GATE/PGCET. The college accepts KMAT/PGCET scores for M.B.A. and M.C.A. admissions.

Scheme and syllabus
Visvesvaraya Technological University accomplished its primary task of setting a common syllabus across the state in 1998. The university regularly revises the syllabus keeping in view technology upgrades around the world. The syllabus has been updated in 2002, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018 and 2021. VTU adopted a Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) for students admitted to the university from the academic year 2015–2016. The CBCS provides a choice for students to select from the prescribed courses (i.e. core, elective, foundation and mandatory non-credit courses). As part of the new CBCS scheme, VTU also moved to a Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) grading system from the previous system of awarding percentage and class to students. VTU has also made an internship of eight weeks mandatory for undergraduate and postgraduate engineering students in affiliated colleges.

Grading
For students matriculating since the academic year 2015–2016, VTU adopts an absolute grading system wherein the marks are converted to grades, and every semester results are declared with a semester grade point average (SGPA) and a Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA). To obtain a degree, in addition to clearing all the subjects, a student must also obtain a minimum CGPA of five (5.0). Prior to the introduction of the Choice Based Credit System, students were awarded a percentage and a class, as defined:
 * First class with distinction (FCD): Not less than 70% of the aggregate marks in first attempt
 * First class (FC): Less than 70% but not less than 60% of the aggregate marks in first attempt
 * Second class (SC): Less than 60% of the aggregate marks in first attempt

Collaborations
The university has signed MoUs with multinational corporations like IBM, Intel Asia Electronics Inc., Ingersoll-Rand (India) Ltd., Bangalore, Nokia, Bosch Rexroth and Microsoft to improve the industry interactions for students and teachers.

VTU is also a member of Association of Indian Universities and Association of Commonwealth Universities.

Rankings
Internationally, Visvesvaraya Technological University was ranked #=143 in Asian University Rankings - Southern Asia 2024 and 501-550 in Asia by the QS World University Rankings.

The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) ranked it 52nd in the engineering ranking of 2023.

Visvesvaraya Technological University ranked #53 in engineering category by IIRF in 2023.

Governance
VTU is administered by its Executive Council and Academic Senate whose members are selected from the academic community and government officials. The present chancellor is Sri Thawar Chand Gehlot, Governor of Karnataka state and the vice-chancellor is Dr. S. Vidyashankar.

Affiliated colleges
As of 2021, there are 219 colleges affiliated to the university (107 under Bangalore region, 34 under Belagavi region, 18 under Gulbarga region and 60 under Mysore region). The colleges are categorised as 'government', 'private-aided' and 'private-unaided' based on the type of funding. A few colleges may be classified as 'minority linguistic' and 'minority religious' based on the minority status of languages and religions. Further, these colleges are placed under 'autonomous' and 'non-autonomous' category of institutions granted by UGC. There are 25 autonomous colleges affiliated to VTU.

See List of colleges affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University

Examinations
Exams are conducted twice a year for all affiliated non-autonomous colleges. Odd semester exam is conducted during December and January. Results usually published in February. Even semester exams are conducted during May/June; and the VTU results are published in June/July.

Centres of excellence
The university has signed MoUs with international organisations (such as CANEUS International) and multinational corporations (like IBM, Intel Asia Electronics Inc., Ingersoll-Rand (India) Ltd., Bangalore, Nokia, Bosch Rexroth and Microsoft) and has set up centres of excellence.

Visvesvaraya Institute of Advanced Technology
Visvesvaraya Institute of Advanced Technology (VIAT) is a research institute being constructed in Bangalore, Karnataka. The institute is on 200 acre of land near Nandi Hills and is expected to cost 600 crores. In the initial years, VIAT will focus on research in embedded technology, software quality, agricultural engineering and bioengineering. Each department will function as a 'discovery-innovation centre.' The institute will offer graduate and PhD programs in the sciences.

VTU Fest
The university annually organises an inter-collegiate cultural-fest "Yuvostava" which sees participants from all across India.

From 2024, VTU has also decided to organise, a tech fest "YUKTI 2K24". The event aims to showcase the innovation and inspiration of students & tech enthusiasts in various fields, such as technical, management, music, dance, entertainment, and artistic. The event also featured a paper presentation competition, where participants could submit their original research papers on topics related to technology and society.

Notable Alumni
Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU) has produced many notable alumni who have made significant contributions to their respective fields. Some of the most prominent alumni include:

1. Sudha Murthy: Chairperson of the Infosys Foundation and author of several books.

2. Rajeev Chandrasekhar: Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha and founder of BPL Mobile Communications.

3. Narayana Murthy: Indian billionaire businessman and co-founders of Infosys.

4. Anil Kumble: Former captain of the Indian cricket team and a renowned cricket commentator.

5. Balen Shah: Nepalese rapper, music composer, poet, structural engineer and politician.

title: Visvesvaraya Technological University


text:
IPCC Third Assessment Report

The IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR), Climate Change 2001, is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC. Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR were often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming. The Third Assessment Report (TAR) was completed in 2001 and consists of four reports, three of them from its Working Groups: Working Group I: The Scientific Basis; Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; Working Group III: Mitigation; Synthesis Report. A number of the TAR's conclusions are given quantitative estimates of how probable it is that they are correct, e.g., greater than 66% probability of being correct. These are "Bayesian" probabilities, which are based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence.

"Robust findings" of the Synthesis Report include:
 * "Observations show Earth's surface is warming. Globally, 1990s very likely warmest decade in instrumental record". Atmospheric concentrations of anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) greenhouse gases have increased substantially.
 * Since the mid-20th century, most of the observed warming is "likely" (greater than 66% probability, based on expert judgement) due to human activities.
 * Projections based on the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios suggest warming over the 21st century at a more rapid rate than that experienced for at least the last 10,000 years.
 * "Projected climate change will have beneficial and adverse effects on both environmental and socioeconomic systems, but the larger the changes and the rate of change in climate, the more the adverse effects predominate."
 * "Ecosystems and species are vulnerable to climate change and other stresses (as illustrated by observed impacts of recent regional temperature changes) and some will be irreversibly damaged or lost."
 * "Greenhouse gas emission reduction (mitigation) actions would lessen the pressures on natural and human systems from climate change."
 * "Adaptation [to the effects of climate change] has the potential to reduce adverse effects of climate change and can often produce immediate ancillary benefits, but will not prevent all damages." An example of adaptation to climate change is building levees in response to sea level rise.

Working groups
The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the UN's World Meteorological Organization (WMO) "... to assess scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation." The IPCC is organized as three working groups (WG) and a task force :

 * WGI: Scientific aspects of climate (see ).
 * WGII: Vulnerability, consequences, and options (see ).
 * WGIII: Limitation and mitigation options (see ).
 * Task Force: National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme

WG I covers the same areas as the Second Assessment Report (SAR) of 1995, but WG II & III cover slightly different areas in the TAR.

Working Group I
The key conclusions of Working Group I were:

 * 1) An increasing body of observations gives a collective picture of a warming world and other changes in the climate system (The global average surface temperature has increased over the 20th century by about 0.6 °C; Temperatures have risen during the past four decades in the lowest 8 kilometres of the atmosphere; Snow cover and ice extent have decreased)
 * 2) Emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols due to human activities continue to alter the atmosphere in ways that are expected to affect the climate (Anthropogenic aerosols (i.e., human emitted aerosols) are short-lived and mostly produce negative radiative forcing; Natural factors have made small contributions to radiative forcing over the past century)
 * 3) Confidence in the ability of models to project future climate has increased (Complex physically based climate models are required to provide detailed estimates of feedbacks and of regional features. Such models cannot yet simulate all aspects of climate (e.g., they still cannot account fully for the observed trend in the surface-troposphere temperature difference since 1979) and there are particular uncertainties associated with clouds and their interaction with radiation and aerosols. Nevertheless, confidence in the ability of these models to provide useful projections of future climate has improved due to their demonstrated performance on a range of space and time-scales .)
 * 4) There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities
 * 5) Human influences will continue to change atmospheric composition throughout the 21st century
 * 6) Global average temperature and sea level are projected to rise under all IPCC SRES scenarios.

The TAR estimate for the climate sensitivity is 1.5 to 4.5 °C; and the average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees over the period 1990 to 2100, and the sea level is projected to rise by 0.1 to 0.9 metres over the same period. The wide range in projections is based upon several different scenarios that assume different levels of future CO2 emissions (see the section below on Projections in the TAR).

Synthesis Report
The TAR Synthesis Report includes a summary of the TAR's main findings and uncertainties. "Robust findings" of the TAR include: "Key uncertainties" in the TAR include:
 * Observed warming of the Earth's surface, attribution of observed warming to human activities, projected increases in future global mean temperature, rising sea levels, and increased frequency of heat waves.
 * Future warming will have both beneficial and adverse effects, but for higher levels of warming, adverse effects will predominate.
 * Developing countries and poor persons are most vulnerable to climate change.
 * Estimated climate forcings of natural climatic factors and anthropogenic aerosols (e.g., sulfate, which is produced when sulfur-rich coal is burnt), future changes in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and the role of climate feedbacks, which may amplify or reduce the magnitude of future climate change;
 * Assigning probabilities to projections of changes in sea level and temperature, as well as uncertainties related to regional projections of climate change.

List of greenhouse gases
The following tables are adapted from Chapter 6 of the Working Group 1 report.

Projections
Projections are used in the TAR as a guide to the possible future effects of climate change, e.g., changes in global mean temperature and sea level. In the TAR, the word "projection" is favoured over "prediction". This is because many future changes related to climate are highly uncertain. For example, climate change projections are affected by highly uncertain changes in future GHG emissions.

The TAR projects impacts according to possible future changes in global mean temperature. Other projections are based on scenarios that the IPCC has developed. In 2000, the IPCC published 40 different scenarios (the "SRES" scenarios) which contain estimates of future changes in anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols. The SRES scenarios project a wide range of possible changes in future social and economic development, and projected climate change impacts vary according to the scenario considered. The IPCC has not assigned probabilities to the 40 SRES scenarios. Some authors have argued that some SRES scenarios are more likely to occur than others.

Scientific opinion
The IPCC is backed by the scientific community. For example, a joint statement of support was issued in May 2001 by the science academies of Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, the Caribbean, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Malaysia, New Zealand, Sweden and the UK. It states: "We recognise the IPCC as the world's most reliable source of information on climate change and its causes, and we endorse its method of achieving consensus."

In 2001, the executive branch of the US federal government asked the US National Research Council (US NRC, 2001) to produce an assessment of climate change science. Part of the assessment by US NRC (2001) looks at the report produced by Working Group I (WG I) in the TAR. Working Group I's contribution to the TAR assesses the physical scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change. US NRC (2001) generally agrees with findings of the WG I report, for example, US NRC (2001) state that "[the] IPCC's conclusion that most of the observed warming of the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations accurately reflects the current thinking of the scientific community on this issue."

US NRC (2001) emphasise the need for governments to have a good understanding of uncertainties in climate change science. The example cited by US NRC (2001) is the uncertainty over future changes in GHG emissions, which may be less or more than that projected by the TAR. US NRC (2001) also state: "The most valuable contribution U.S. scientists can make is to continually question basic assumptions and conclusions, promote clear and careful appraisal and presentation of the uncertainties about climate change as well as those areas in which science is leading to robust conclusions, and work toward a significant improvement in the ability to project the future."

Endorsements
In 2001, 16 national science academies issued a joint statement on climate change.

The joint statement was made by the Australian Academy of Science, the Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for Science and the Arts, the Brazilian Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society of Canada, the Caribbean Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the French Academy of Sciences, the German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina, the Indian National Science Academy, the Indonesian Academy of Sciences, the Royal Irish Academy, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (Italy), the Academy of Sciences Malaysia, the Academy Council of the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the Royal Society (UK). The statement, also published as an editorial in the journal Science, stated "we support the [TAR's] conclusion that it is at least 90% certain that temperatures will continue to rise, with average global surface temperature projected to increase by between 1.4 and 5.8 °C above 1990 levels by 2100".

The TAR has also been endorsed by the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences, Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society, and European Geosciences Union (refer to "Endorsements of the IPCC").

In 2001, the US National Research Council (US NRC) produced a report that assessed Working Group I's (WGI) contribution to the TAR. US NRC (2001) "generally agrees" with the WGI assessment, and describes the full WGI report as an "admirable summary of research activities in climate science".

IPCC author Richard Lindzen has made a number of criticisms of the TAR. Among his criticisms, Lindzen has stated that the WGI Summary for Policymakers (SPM) does not faithfully summarize the full WGI report. For example, Lindzen states that the SPM understates the uncertainty associated with climate models. John Houghton, who was a co-chair of TAR WGI, has responded to Lindzen's criticisms of the SPM. Houghton has stressed that the SPM is agreed upon by delegates from many of the world's governments, and that any changes to the SPM must be supported by scientific evidence.

IPCC author Kevin Trenberth has also commented on the WGI SPM. Trenberth has stated that during the drafting of the WGI SPM, some government delegations attempted to "blunt, and perhaps obfuscate, the messages in the report". However, Trenberth concludes that the SPM is a "reasonably balanced summary".

US NRC (2001) concluded that the WGI SPM and Technical Summary are "consistent" with the full WGI report. US NRC (2001) stated: "... the full [WGI] report is adequately summarized in the Technical Summary. The full WGI report and its Technical Summary are not specifically directed at policy. The Summary for Policymakers reflects less emphasis on communicating the basis for uncertainty and a stronger emphasis on areas of major concern associated with human-induced climate change. This change in emphasis appears to be the result of a summary process in which scientists work with policy makers on the document. Written responses from U.S. coordinating and lead scientific authors to the committee indicate, however, that (a) no changes were made without the consent of the convening lead authors (this group represents a fraction of the lead and contributing authors) and (b) most changes that did occur lacked significant impact."

IPCC process
There are a small number of climate scientists who disagree with aspects of the IPCC's work. Perhaps the best known is Richard Lindzen, professor of meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

A report by the UK Parliament's House of Lords Economic Affairs Select Committee (EAC, 2005) contains criticisms of the IPCC's work, including the "SRES" greenhouse gas emissions scenarios, which are used in the TAR. The Economic Affairs Select Committee is made up of members of the House of Lords, which scrutinizes and votes on government legislation. One of the criticisms made by the EAC (2005) is an apparent inconsistency between the Working Group II Summary for Policymakers and a statement made in the full WGII report: "The IPCC Summary for policy makers says that economic studies underestimate damage, whereas the chapter says the direction of the bias is not known."

The UK Government issued a response to the report by EAC (2005). The UK Government acknowledged the discrepancy between the WGII SPM and full WGII report which was referred to by the EAC (2005), but remained generally supportive of the IPCC's procedures. The UK Government rebutted a number of other criticisms of the TAR which were made by the EAC (2005).

Discussion of the "hockey stick" graph

The third assessment report (TAR) prominently featured a graph labeled "Millennial Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction" based on a 1999 paper by Michael E. Mann, Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes (MBH99), which has been referred to as the "hockey stick graph". This graph extended the similar graph in Figure 3.20 from the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995, and differed from a schematic in the first assessment report that lacked temperature units, but appeared to depict larger global temperature variations over the past 1000 years, and higher temperatures during the Medieval Warm Period than the mid 20th century. The schematic was not an actual plot of data, and was based on a diagram of temperatures in central England, with temperatures increased on the basis of documentary evidence of medieval vineyards in England. Even with this increase, the maximum it showed for the Medieval Warm Period did not reach temperatures recorded in central England in 2007. The MBH99 finding was supported by cited reconstructions by, , and , using differing data and methods. The Jones et al. and Briffa reconstructions were overlaid with the MBH99 reconstruction in Figure 2.21 of the IPCC report.

These studies were widely presented as demonstrating that the current warming period is exceptional in comparison to temperatures between 1000 and 1900, and the MBH99 based graph featured in publicity. Even at the draft stage, this finding was disputed by contrarians: in May 2000 Fred Singer's Science and Environmental Policy Project held a press event on Capitol Hill, Washington, D.C., featuring comments on the graph Wibjörn Karlén and Singer argued against the graph at a United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation hearing on 18 July 2000. Denialist John Lawrence Daly featured a modified version of the IPCC 1990 schematic, which he mis-identified as appearing in the IPCC 1995 report, and asserted that "Overturning its own previous view in the 1995 report, the IPCC presented the 'Hockey Stick' as the new orthodoxy with hardly an apology or explanation for the abrupt U-turn since its 1995 report". Criticism of the MBH99 reconstruction in a review paper, which was quickly discredited in the Soon and Baliunas controversy, was picked up by the Bush administration, and a Senate speech by US Republican senator James Inhofe alleged that "manmade global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people". The data and methodology used to produce the "hockey stick graph" was criticized in papers by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick, and in turn the criticisms in these papers were examined by other studies and comprehensively refuted by, which showed errors in the methods used by McIntyre and McKitrick.

On 23 June 2005, Rep. Joe Barton, chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce, wrote joint letters with Ed Whitfield, chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations, demanding full records on climate research, as well as personal information about their finances and careers, from Mann, Bradley and Hughes. Sherwood Boehlert, chairman of the House Science Committee, said this was a "misguided and illegitimate investigation" apparently aimed at intimidating scientists, and at his request the U.S. National Academy of Sciences arranged for its National Research Council to set up a special investigation. The National Research Council's report agreed that there were some statistical failings, but these had little effect on the graph, which was generally correct. In a 2006 letter to Nature, Mann, Bradley, and Hughes pointed out that their original article had said that "more widespread high-resolution data are needed before more confident conclusions can be reached" and that the uncertainties were "the point of the article".

Sea level rise predictions
An example of scientific research which suggests that previous estimates by the IPCC, far from overstating dangers and risks, have actually understated them is a study on projected rises in sea levels. When the researchers' analysis was "applied to the possible scenarios outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the researchers found that in 2100 sea levels would be 0.5–1.4 m [50–140 cm] above 1990 levels. These values are much greater than the 9–88 cm as projected by the IPCC itself in its Third Assessment Report, published in 2001". This may have been due, in part, to the expanding human understanding of climate. Greg Holland from the National Center for Atmospheric Research, who reviewed a multi-meter sea level rise study by Jim Hansen, noted "There is no doubt that the sea level rise, within the IPCC, is a very conservative number, so the truth lies somewhere between IPCC and Jim."

title: IPCC Third Assessment Report


text:
Nirvana fallacy

The nirvana fallacy is the informal fallacy of comparing actual things with unrealistic, idealized alternatives. It can also refer to the tendency to assume there is a perfect solution to a particular problem. A closely related concept is the "teen spirit fallacy".

By creating a false dichotomy that presents one option which is obviously advantageous—while at the same time being completely implausible—a person using the nirvana fallacy can attack any opposing idea because it is imperfect. Under this fallacy, the choice is not between real world solutions; it is, rather, a choice between one realistic achievable possibility and another unrealistic solution that could in some way be "better".

History
In La Bégueule (1772), Voltaire wrote Le mieux est l'ennemi du bien, which is often translated as "The perfect is the enemy of the good" (literally: "The better is the enemy of the good").

The nirvana fallacy was given its name by economist Harold Demsetz in 1969, who said: "The view that now pervades much public policy economics implicitly presents the relevant choice as between an ideal norm and an existing "imperfect" institutional arrangement. This nirvana approach differs considerably from a comparative institution approach in which the relevant choice is between alternative real institutional arrangements."

Perfect solution fallacy
The perfect solution fallacy is a related informal fallacy that occurs when an argument assumes that a perfect solution exists or that a solution should be rejected because some part of the problem would still exist after it were implemented. This is an example of black and white thinking, in which a person fails to see the complex interplay between multiple component elements of a situation or problem, and, as a result, reduces complex problems to a pair of binary extremes.

It is common for arguments which commit this fallacy to omit any specifics about exactly how, or how badly, a proposed solution is claimed to fall short of acceptability, expressing the rejection only in vague terms. Alternatively, it may be combined with the fallacy of misleading vividness, when a specific example of a solution's failure is described in emotionally powerful detail but base rates are ignored (see availability heuristic).

The fallacy is a type of false dilemma.

Examples

 * Posit (fallacious)
 * These anti-drunk driving ad campaigns are not going to work. People are still going to drink and drive no matter what.
 * Rebuttal
 * Complete eradication of drunk driving is not the expected outcome. The goal is reduction.

 * Posit (fallacious)
 * Seat belts are a bad idea. People are still going to die in car crashes.
 * Rebuttal
 * While seat belts cannot make driving 100% safe, they do reduce one's likelihood of dying in a car crash.

 * Posit (fallacious)
 * Medical testing on animals is useless. The drug thalidomide passed animal tests but resulted in horrific birth defects when used by pregnant women.
 * Rebuttal
 * This popular argument ignores all the thousands of drugs that failed animal testing, any number of which could have harmed humans. In the case of thalidomide, no testing was performed on pregnant animals; had this not been the case, the effect on pregnant women could have been foreseen.

title: Nirvana fallacy


text:
Djibouti national football team

The Djibouti national football team, nicknamed the "Riverains de la Mer Rouge" (lit. 'Shoremen of the Red Sea'), is the national football team of Djibouti. It is controlled by the Djiboutian Football Federation and is a member of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) and the Union of Arab Football Associations (UAFA). The Djibouti national football team's first win in a full FIFA-sanctioned international match was a 1–0 win vs. Somalia in the first round of the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification.

French Somaliland (1947–1960)
Djibouti played its first international match under the name French Somaliland, at home against neighbouring Ethiopia on 5 December 1947 and lost 5–0. This was also Ethiopia's debut. The two played again in Djibouti on 1 June 1948 and Ethiopia won 2–1. On 1 May 1949, the fixture was played for the Emperor Cup in Ethiopia, and the host won 6–0. In 1954, Djibouti played Ethiopia three times: a 10–2 away loss on 1 May, a 2–0 home loss on 1 June and a 2–1 home loss the day after. Djibouti did not play a match again until 1960, when it entered a tournament for French-speaking countries held in Madagascar. The team lost 9–2 in the first round to Cameroon on 13 April. This was the squad's last game as French Somaliland.

Djibouti (1977–present)
After gaining independence in 1977, the team played under the name Djibouti for the first time against Ethiopia in an away match on 27 March 1983 and lost 8–1. The two played again two days later with Ethiopia again victorious, by 4–2. After a third friendly against Ethiopia, a 2–0 home defeat on 23 March 1984, Djibouti entered a tournament in Ethiopia against the host and Zimbabwe. They lost 2–0 to Ethiopia on 3 June and then 3–1 to Zimbabwe on 7 June.

Djibouti's first appearance at the CECAFA Cup, a local competition for nations in East and Central Africa, was in Kenya in 1994. These were its first matches since defeating South Yemen in 1988. The Djibouti squad lost 4–1 to the hosts on 28 November, 2–1 to Somalia on 1 December, and 3–0 to Tanzania on 3 December. Djibouti did not advance to the next round.

After the 1994 CECAFA Cup, Djibouti did not play a match until the qualification campaign for the 1998 African Cup of Nations in Burkina Faso. They were drawn in a two-legged qualifier against Kenya, and lost the first leg 3–0 away on 31 July 1998. The second leg at home was lost 9–1 on 15 August and Kenya went through 12–1 on aggregate.

In 1998, Djibouti became a member of the Union of Arab Football Associations (UAFA). The football squad has since participated in the Arab Games, a regional multi-sport event held between nations from the Arab World.

Djibouti entered its first ever World Cup qualification in an attempt to reach the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan. In Pool D of the first round of African qualification, it was drawn against the DR Congo in a two-legged qualifying preliminary. Djibouti hosted the first leg at Stade du Ville in Djibouti on 7 April 2000, drawing the match 1–1 before a crowd of 2,700 fans. The squad lost the second leg 9–1 away at the Stade des Martyrs in Kinshasa and the DR Congo advanced 10–2 on aggregate.

Djibouti has never played in the African Cup of Nations, with the team regularly withdrawing or not entering for financial reasons.

Prior to their four preliminary qualifiers in late 2019, Djibouti had 2 wins, 3 draws and 55 defeats from 60 competitive matches. However, a number of new players were called up and results finally improved. First, in the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification, Djibouti beat Eswatini 2–1 at home and drew 0–0 in Manzini to advance to the second round for the first time since the 2010 qualifying when they beat Somalia 1-0 (2–1 on aggregate). This was a massive improvement from the previous edition when Djibouti had also played Eswatini and lost 8–1 on aggregate. One month later, Djibouti played two 1–1 draws against Gambia in the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations qualification preliminary round, only losing the tie on penalties.

Results and fixtures
The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.

Current squad
The following players were selected for the 2026 FIFA World Cup qualification matches against Sierra Leone and Ethiopia on 5 and 10 June 2024.

Caps and goals are correct as of 26 March 2024, after the match against Liberia.

Recent call-ups
The following footballers were part of a national selection in the past 12 months, but are not part of the current squad.

Player records

 * Players in bold are still active with Djibouti.

Olympic Games

 * Football at the Summer Olympics has been an under-23 tournament since the 1992 edition.

African Games

 * Prior to the Cairo 1991 campaign, the Football at the All-Africa Games was open to full senior national teams.

FIFA Arab Cup
The 2009 edition was cancelled during qualification.

title: Djibouti national football team


text: Category:1170 deaths

title: Category:1170 deaths


text:
Alma Cogan

Alma Angela Cohen Cogan (19 May 1932 – 26 October 1966) was an English singer of traditional pop in the 1950s and early 1960s. Dubbed the "Girl with the Giggle in Her Voice", she was the highest paid British female entertainer of her era.

Childhood and early musical career
Cogan was born on 19 May 1932 in Whitechapel, London. She was of Russian-Romanian Jewish descent. Her father's family, the Kogins, arrived in Britain from Russia, while her mother's family were refugees from Romania. Cogan's parents, Mark and Fay Cogan, had another daughter, the actress Sandra Caron, who went on to play "Mumsey" in The Crystal Maze, and one son, Ivor Cogan. Mark's work as a haberdasher entailed frequent moves. One of Cogan's early homes was over his shop in Worthing, Sussex.

Although Jewish, she attended St Joseph's Convent School in Reading. Her father was a singer, but it was Cogan's mother who had showbusiness aspirations for both her daughters (she had named Cogan after silent screen star Alma Taylor). Cogan first performed in public at a charity show at the Palace Theatre in Reading, and at the age of eleven, competed in the "Sussex Queen of Song" contest held at a Brighton hotel, winning a prize of £5.

Aged 14, she was recommended by Vera Lynn for a variety show at the Grand Theatre in Brighton and in July 1947 she appeared there for a week with Max Miller. In November 1947, she appeared in the show "Dick Turpin's Ride to York" at the Grand, Brighton. At 16, she was told by bandleader, Ted Heath, "You've got a good voice, but you're far too young for this business. Come back in five years' time." Heath would later say: "Letting her go was one of the biggest mistakes of my life." She also found work singing at tea dances, while also studying dress design at Worthing Art College, and was soon appearing as a chorus girl in the musical High Button Shoes at the London Hippodrome in November 1948 and in a revue called Sauce Tartare at the Cambridge Theatre in London in May 1949. She became resident singer at the Cumberland Hotel in London in 1949, where she was spotted by EMI producer Walter Ridley, who became her coach and signed her to HMV.

"Girl with the giggle"
Cogan's first release was "To Be Worthy of You" / "Would You", recorded on her 20th birthday. This led to her appearing regularly on comedian Dick Bentley's BBC's radio show Gently Bentley, and then becoming the vocalist for the BBC Radio comedy programme Take It From Here, replacing Joy Nichols, from 1953 to the end of its run in 1960.

In 1953, whilst in the middle of recording "If I Had a Golden Umbrella", she broke into a giggle; she then played up the effect on later recordings. Soon enough, she was dubbed the "Girl with the giggle in her voice". ("Giggle" has sometimes been quoted as "chuckle".)

Many of her recordings were covers of U.S. hits, especially those recorded by Rosemary Clooney, Teresa Brewer, Georgia Gibbs, Joni James and Dinah Shore. Her voice was often compared with Doris Day's. One of these covers, "Bell Bottom Blues", became her first hit, reaching no. 4 on 3 April 1954. Cogan would appear in the UK Singles Chart eighteen times in the 1950s, with "Dreamboat" reaching no. 1. Other hits from this period include "I Can't Tell a Waltz from a Tango", "Why Do Fools Fall in Love", "Sugartime" and "The Story of My Life". Cogan's first album, I Love to Sing, was released in 1958.

Cogan was one of the first UK recording artists to appear frequently on television, where her powerful voice could be showcased along with her bubbly personality and dramatic costumes. Her hooped skirts with sequins and figure-hugging tops were reputedly designed by herself and never worn twice. Cliff Richard recalls: "My first impression of her was definitely frocks – I kept thinking, how many can this woman have? Almost every song had a different costume. The skirts seemed to be so wide – I don't know where they hung them up!" Cogan topped the annual NME reader's poll as "Outstanding British Female Singer" four times between 1956 and 1960.

Too square for the 1960s
The UK musical revolution of the 1960s, symbolised by the rise of the Beatles, suddenly made Cogan unfashionable; in the 1991 BBC documentary Alma Cogan: The Girl with the Giggle in Her Voice, Lionel Blair said she was perceived as "square". Her highest 1960s chart ranking in the UK was no. 26 with "We Got Love", and most of her successes at this time were outside the UK, notably in Sweden and Japan. She was especially disappointed that her 1963 cover of the Exciters' US hit "Tell Him" did not return her to the UK charts, according to singer Eddie Grassham. "Tell Him" was a hit in Sweden: it spent seven weeks in the best selling record chart "Kvällstoppen" and peaked at #10. In 1964, Cogan recorded "Tennessee Waltz" in a rock-and-roll ballad style; this version was no. 1 in Sweden for five weeks in the best selling chart "Kvällstoppen" and number 1 for no less than 8 weeks in the Swedish Voting Chart "Tio i Topp". "Tennessee Waltz" also reached the top 20 in Denmark, while a German language rendering reached no. 10 in Germany. She had another number one hit in Sweden in 1965, "The Birds and the Bees". When she toured around Sweden in the mid 1960s with popular local pop bands, whose members were some ten years younger than her, she got the playful nickname "popmormor" (pop-grandmother). Cogan also wrote some of her own songs. She co-wrote her 1963 record "Just Once More" (under the pseudonym of "Al Western") with her long-time pianist Stan Foster. "Just Once More" peaked at no. 10 in the Swedish Voting Chart "Tio i Topp" in October 1963. Her 1964 single "It's You" was also a Cogan-Foster collaboration, although this time she was credited under her own name. Its b-side, "I Knew Right Away" was also recorded by Little Pattie in 1967.

Paul McCartney played tambourine on "It's You". Cogan recalled in 1964 that The Beatles had been recording in the adjoining studio when she was working on the song:

"The boys started making suggestions on how to improve the recording. We took their advice about double-recording my voice to sound as though I was singing a duet with myself, and then Paul came up with the idea of putting in a tambourine. All the musicians had gone home, so he went upstairs, found one, and played it while we dubbed the sound onto the tape."

There have also been suggestions that Ringo Starr performed on "It's You", but Cogan did not mention this in the 1964 quote above - she did, however, suggest that all the basic tracks were completed when The Beatles heard the song.

She continued to be a popular figure on the UK showbusiness scene, being offered the part of Nancy in Oliver!, appearing on the teenage hit-show Ready Steady Go!, and headlining at the Talk of the Town.

Cogan tried to update her image by recording some Beatles numbers and a spin-off from The Man from U.N.C.L.E. ("Love Ya Illya"). But by 1965 record producers were becoming dissatisfied with Cogan's work, and it was also clear that her health was failing. Her friend and colleague Anne Shelton attributed this decline to some "highly experimental" injections she took to lose weight, claiming that Cogan was never well again after that.

Personal life
Cogan lived with her widowed mother in Kensington High Street (at 44 Stafford Court) in a lavishly decorated ground-floor flat where she frequently entertained other celebrities. Regular visitors included Princess Margaret, Noël Coward, Cary Grant, Audrey Hepburn, Michael Caine, Frankie Vaughan, Bruce Forsyth and Roger Moore.

John Lennon once recalled that, when he was a teenager, he used to mimic her savagely during his time at the Liverpool College of Art. Lennon's wife Cynthia also recalled, "John and I had thought of Alma [as] out of date and unhip." But after Lennon met Cogan on the TV pop show Ready Steady Go! in 1964, they became close friends.

Cogan was close to the other Beatles as well, especially Paul McCartney, who played the melody of "Yesterday" on her piano. It was there that he added the words "scrambled eggs" to the nameless melody. The 1987 compilation album A Celebration includes a testimonial from McCartney:

"When the Beatles first came to London, Alma was lovely to us... welcoming us with open arms. All my memories of that time are very special to me. Her high spirits made being with her great fun. I will always remember Alma and her sweet music with great fondness."

Illness and death
Cogan embarked on a series of club dates in the North of England in early 1966, but collapsed after two performances and had to be treated for stomach cancer. She made her final TV appearance in August, in a guest spot on International Cabaret. The following month she collapsed while touring Sweden to promote Hello Baby, recorded exclusively for the Swedish market. She died of ovarian cancer at London's Middlesex Hospital on 26 October, at the age of 34.

In deference to family custom, her death was observed with traditional Jewish rites, with burial at the Jewish Cemetery in Bushey, Hertfordshire.

Legacy
The novel Alma Cogan by Gordon Burn presents an imaginary middle-aged Cogan still alive in the 1980s and looking back on her life and fame. Based on true events and real people, aside from the device of denying her early death, it won the Whitbread Book Award in 1991. The BBC Radio 4 series Stage Mother, Sequinned Daughter (2002) by Annie Caulfield was partly adapted from this novel. Cogan's sister Sandra felt that it misrepresented both Cogan and her mother, and tried unsuccessfully to get it banned. Eventually the Broadcasting Standards Commission ruled that the BBC apologise to Sandra for failing to respect the feelings of surviving family members.

The romantic comedy In Love with Alma Cogan is a film starring Roger Lloyd-Pack. He is an aging manager of an old-fashioned Pier Theatre. It leads to a flashback to his encounter with Alma Cogan, who performed at the theatre in his youth.

A blue plaque commemorating Cogan was installed at the entrance of 44 Stafford Court, her longtime residence, on 4 November 2001. A second Blue Plaque was unveiled at Cogan's old home 29, Lansdowne Road, Worthing in September 2017 by the entertainer Lionel Blair, who had been a close friend of Cogan's. The plaque was organised by Cogan's fans together with the Worthing Society.

Biography

 * Alma Cogan: The Girl with the Laugh in Her Voice by Sandra Caron (Alma's sister) – ISBN 0-7475-0984-0

title: Alma Cogan


text:
Château Pédesclaux

Château Pédesclaux is a winery in the Pauillac appellation of the Bordeaux region of France. The wine produced here was classified as one of eighteen Cinquièmes Crus (Fifth Growths) in the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855.

History
The Château was founded in 1810 by wine broker Pierre Urbain Pédesclaux, who passed it to his son Pierre-Edmond in 1849. After death of the latter his widow continued to run the Château until 1891, when the estate was sold to the Count de Gastebois. In 1930, Lucien Jugla became tenant, and eventually purchased the Château in 1950. In 1960, Lucien Jugla added Château Belle-Rose, a 13.7-hectare estate which he had been farming since 1943, to Pédesclaux. Belle-Rose’s bourgeois building became the home of the classified growth and appeared on the new labels. In 2009, the estate was purchased by Jacky Lorenzetti, who also owns Chateau Lilian Ladouys in Saint-Estèphe and 50% of Château d'Issan in Margaux. Lorenzetti enlarged the vineyards with the purchase of 12 hectares of Medoc vines that are situated next to parcels owned by Chateau Lafite Rothschild and Chateau Mouton Rothschild.

Vineyards and wines
The vineyard covers an area of 46 hectares and produces about 8,000 cases of wine every year. The Château has 44 hectares in Pauillac, but also two hectares in the Haut-Médoc area. Wines from Pédesclaux are composed of roughly 47% Cabernet Sauvignon, 48% Merlot, 3% Petit Verdot and 2% Cabernet franc. The estate produces three wines: the first wine, Château Pédesclaux, the second wine, Fleur de Pédesclaux and finally a third wine, Le Haut-Médoc de Pédesclaux, sold under the Haut-Médoc appellation.

title: Château Pédesclaux


text:
VAM

VAM may refer to:

Science and technology

 * Vinyl acetate monomer, a chemical component used in plastics manufacture
 * VAM (bicycling), a measure of rate of climb in bicycle racing
 * Vehículos Automotores Mexicanos, a Mexican automaker
 * VAM, a trademark of Vallourec Oil and Gas, France
 * Virtual Antenna Mapping, a method used in wireless telecom products
 * Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorhiza, a kind of fungus/plant symbiosis
 * Bedford VAM, British chassis for buses and coaches produced between 1965 and 1985

Other uses

 * Value-added modeling, an American method of teacher evaluation
 * Victoria and Albert Museum in London
 * Violence against men
 * Vitt Ariskt Motstånd or White Aryan Resistance (Sweden), a Swedish neo-nazi group
 * Villa International Airport Maamigili (IATA code: VAM)
 * VAM (Morgan and Peace dollar die varieties) coin die varieties
 * Vanimo language (ISO 639 code: vam)

title: VAM


text:
Convertibility

Convertibility is the quality that allows money or other financial instruments to be converted into other liquid stores of value. Convertibility is an important factor in international trade, where instruments valued in different currencies must be exchanged.

Currency trading
Freely convertible currencies have immediate value on the different international markets, and few restrictions on the manner and amount that can be traded for another currency. Free convertibility is a major feature of a hard currency.

Some countries pass laws restricting the legal exchange rates of their currencies or requiring permits to exchange more than a certain amount. Some currencies, such as the North Korean won, the Transnistrian ruble, and the Cuban national peso, are officially nonconvertible and can only be exchanged on the black market. If an official exchange rate is set, its value on the black market is often lower.

Convertibility controls may be introduced as part of an overall monetary policy. For example, restrictions on the Argentine peso were introduced during an economic crisis in the 1990s and scrapped in 2002 during a subsequent crisis.

Commodity money
Convertibility first became an issue of significance during the time banknotes began to replace commodity money in the money supply. Under the gold and silver standards, notes were redeemable for coin at face value, though often failing banks and governments would overextend their reserves.

Historically, the banknote has followed a common or very similar pattern in the western nations. Originally decentralized and issued from various independent banks, it was gradually brought under state control and became a monopoly privilege of the central banks. In the process, the principle that the banknote was merely a substitute for the real commodity money (gold and silver) was gradually abandoned.

Under the gold exchange standard, for example the Bretton Woods Institutions, banks of issue were obliged to redeem their currencies in gold bullion, or in United States dollars, which in turn were redeemable in gold bullion at an official rate of $35 per troy ounce. Due to limited growth in the supply of gold reserves, during a time of great inflation of the dollar supply, the United States eventually abandoned the gold exchange standard and thus bullion convertibility in 1974.

Under the contemporary international currency regimes, currencies are issued on the fiat of the issuer (a government or central bank), and carry no guarantee of convertibility to a tangible asset.

title: Convertibility