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Military history of the North-West Frontier

The North-West Frontier (present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) was a region of the British Indian Empire. It remains the western frontier of present-day Pakistan, extending from the Pamir Knot in the north to the Koh-i-Malik Siah in the west, and separating the modern Pakistani frontier regions of North-West Frontier Province (renamed as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Balochistan from neighbouring Afghanistan in the west. The borderline between is officially known as the Durand Line and divides Pashtun inhabitants of these provinces from Pashtuns in eastern Afghanistan.

The two main gateways on the North West Frontier are the Khyber and Bolan Passes. Since ancient times, the Indian subcontinent has been repeatedly invaded through these northwestern routes. With the expansion of the Russian Empire into Central Asia in the twentieth century, stability of the Frontier and control of Afghanistan became cornerstones of defensive strategy for British India.

Much of the Frontier was occupied by Ranjit Singh in the early 19th century, and then taken over by the East India Company when it annexed the Punjab in 1849.

Between 1849 and 1947 the military history of the frontier was a succession of punitive expeditions against offending Pashtun (or Pathan) tribes, punctuated by three wars against Afghanistan. Many British officers who went on to distinguished command in the First and Second World Wars learnt their soldiering on the North-West Frontier, which they called the Grim.

Afghanistan
In 1747 when Ahmad Khān Abdālī seized control of Kandahar, Kabul, and Peshawar, and, as Ahmad Shah Durrani, was proclaimed Shah of the Afghans. He went on to conquer Herat and Khorassan, and established an empire from the Oxus to the Indus. On his death in 1773, the Afghan domain included Baluchistan, Sindh, the Punjab, and Kashmir. Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Timur Shah Durrani, whose rule of twenty years saw the Afghan tide begin to ebb. Timur left many sons but no heir, and the resultant internecine struggles for the throne lasted more than thirty years. During this period the Punjab was effectively ceded to its erstwhile governor Ranjit Singh, Iran recovered Khorassan, and Sindh broke away. In 1813 Sikh forces from the Punjab crossed the Indus and seized the old Mughal fort at Attock. In 1819 Kashmir was lost, and west of the Indus Derajat also. Four years later the winter capital at Peshawar came under attack.

In 1826 Dost Mohammad Khan emerged as undisputed ruler in Kabul, and was there proclaimed Emir. He defeated a further attempt to oust him by his exiled rival Shuja Shah Durrani in 1833; however the Sikhs seized all of Peshawar the following year. In 1837 Dost Mohammad launched a counter-attack through the Khyber, but the Afghan force was halted at Jamrud Fort. Dost Mohammad had sought assistance from the East India Company against the resurgent Punjab, but was rebuffed. So Dost Mohammad turned to Imperial Russia for help.

Sikh Empire
Maharaja Ranjit Singh was a Sikh ruler of the sovereign country of Punjab and the Sikh Empire. His Samadhi is located in Lahore, Pakistan.

He then spent the following years fighting the Afghans, driving them out of western Punjab, taking opportunity of the Afghans being embroiled in civil war. The deposed Afghan king Shah Shuja rallied a significant number of tribes and received British backing in the form of the Sikh army against the Barakzai king Dost Muhammad. The civil war in Afghanistan coupled with a British backed assault meant that the Sikhs could virtually walk into Peshawar. They managed to capture some Pashtun territory including Peshawar which was under direct British supervision and control.

British East India Company
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the East India Company controlled southern India, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (modern Odisha). Dominance was gained at the expense of its French equivalent, the Compagnie des Indes. Britain and France were at war, and the Franco-Persian alliance of 1807, followed the same year by the Franco-Russian Treaty of Tilsit, alerted the HEIC to the external threat posed from the north-west.

By 1819 only Sindh and the Sikh Empire remained outside the company's control. Napoleon was vanquished, but the Empire of the Tsars had begun to expand south and east. Russian influence grew likewise, and by the early 1830s Qajar Irān was within the Tsar's sphere. Attempts by Irān to recover Herat in 1834, and again in 1837, raised the spectre of Russian armies on the road to Kandahar, whence direct access to India through the Khojak and Bolan passes.

Meanwhile, the conflict between Afghanistan and the Punjab focused on the Khyber route. Dost Mohammad appealed to the HEIC for aid in recovering Peshawar, but the company could not help him without alienating its treaty ally Ranjit Singh. When Dost Mohammad redirected his appeal to Russia, the Governor-General Lord Auckland resolved to depose Dost Mohammad, and replace him with Shuja Shah Durrani. Restored to his throne in Kabul, the exiled former ruler would accept the Sikh gains west of the Indus, and the Company controlling his foreign policy. The agreement was formalised with the Treaty of Simla signed in June 1838 between Shah Shuja, the HEIC, and Ranjit Singh.

1526–1757 (Mughal Afghan Wars)

 * Battle of Malandari Pass

1800–1837 (Afghan-Sikh Wars)

 * Battle of Nowshera (1823)
 * Battle of Akora Khattak
 * Battle of Jamrud (1837)

1838–48 (First Afghan War to Second Sikh War)

 * First Anglo-Afghan War (1838–1842)
 * Sindh Campaign (1843)
 * First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46)
 * Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49)

1849–58 (Second Sikh War to Sepoy Revolt)
In the period following the annexation of the Punjab in 1849 until the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, several expeditions were undertaken against almost every tribe along the whole of the North-West Frontier, most notably under Sir Charles Napier and Sir Colin Campbell, under orders from the governor-general, Lord Dalhousie. Disgusted at being instructed to burn Pathan villages, first Napier and then Campbell resigned and returned to England. Campbell had already decided that the best method of dealing with the tribesmen on the frontier was through bribery.

When the Sepoy Rebellion broke out Amir Dost Mohammad Khan came under internal pressure to seize the advantage and attack India. However he stood by his treaty obligations. This allowed Indian troops on the frontier to deploy to Delhi and deal with the revolt centered there.
 * Operations against the Swati and Uthmankhel in Baizai (1849)
 * Operations in the Kohat Pass (1850)
 * Mohmand Expeditions (1851–2)
 * Ranizai Expedition (1852)
 * First Black Mountain Expedition (1852)
 * Expedition against the Sayyids of Khagan(1852)
 * Shirani Expedition (1853)
 * Afridi Expedition (1853)
 * Expedition against the Hindustani Fanatics (1854)
 * Aka Khel Expedition (1855)
 * Operations against the Orakzais (1855)
 * Miranzai Valley Expeditions (1855–6)
 * Bozdar Expedition (1857)
 * Expedition against the Hindustani Fanatics (1857–8).
 * Sepoy Rebellion (1857–8) (Indian Mutiny)

1859–1878 (Sepoy Revolt to Second Afghan War)

 * Kabul Khel Expedition (1859)
 * Mahsud Expedition (1860)
 * Ambela Campaign war (1863)
 * Operations against the Jadoon (1864)
 * Operations at Shabkadar (1863–4)
 * Second Black Mountain Expedition (1868)
 * Bazotee Expedition (1868)
 * Operations in the Tochi Valley (1872)
 * Jowaki Expedition (1877–8)
 * Operations against the Utman Khel (1878)

1878–1898 (Second Afghan War to Frontier Rebellion)
In 1877, Amir Sher Ali received a Russian mission in Kabul, but refused to accept one from the British. The following year Sher Ali signed a treaty with Russia. The British sent a mission anyway, but the mission and its armed escort were denied passage through the Khyber Pass. The British threatened to invade, and when no apology was forthcoming, did so. Sher Ali died while fleeing to Russian territory, and his son Yakub succeeded him. On May 26, 1879, Amir Yakub signed the Treaty of Gandamak, whereby Afghanistan surrendered its foreign policy to the British Empire, which in turn promised protection from aggression. Afghanistan ceded some territory and accepted a British Resident in Kabul until 1894.

In September 1879, some six weeks after establishing his residency, Sir Louis Cavagnari and his escort were murdered. Hostilities promptly resumed. Yakub's army was defeated in September 1880, and his throne was offered to, and accepted by, Abdur Rahman, who agreed to surrender all claims on the Khyber, the Kurram, Sibi, and Pishin.
 * Second Afghan War (1878–1880)
 * Zakka Khel Expeditions (1878–9)
 * Operations against the Mohmands (1878–80)
 * Operations against the Zaimukht (1878–9)
 * Operations against the Marris (1880)
 * Mahsud-Waziri Expedition (1881)
 * Expedition to the Takht-i-Suliman (1883)
 * Third Black Mountain Expedition (1888)
 * Operations in the Zhob Valley (1890–1)
 * Fourth Black Mountain Expedition (1891)
 * Miranzai Expeditions (1891)
 * Hunza-Nagar Expedition (1891)
 * Mahsud Expedition (1894–5)
 * Chitral expedition (1895)
 * Tochi Valley Expedition (1897)
 * Siege of Malakand (1897)
 * Operations of the Buner Field Force (1897–1898)
 * Tirah Campaign (1897)
 * First Mohmand campaign (1897–1898)

1898–1914 (Frontier Revolt to Great War)

 * Mahsud Waziri blockade (1900–1902)
 * Kabul Khel Expedition (1902)
 * Bazar Valley campaign (1908)
 * Mohmand Expedition of 1908

1914–1918 (First World War)
In support of the British war effort, the Indian Army deployed expeditionary forces to the Western Front, East Africa, Gallipoli, Mesopotamia, Sinai and Palestine. India was thus vulnerable to hostile attention from Afghanistan. A Turco-German mission arrived in Kabul in October 1915 with obvious strategic purpose. However, Amir Habibulla abided by his treaty obligations and maintained Afghanistan's neutrality, in the face of internal opposition from factions keen to side with the Ottoman Sultan. Hostilities on the frontier remained local.
 * Operations in the Tochi (1914–15)
 * Operations against the Mohmands, Bunerwals and Swatis (1915)
 * Kalat Operations (1915–16)
 * Mohmand Blockade (1916–17)
 * Operations against the Mahsuds (1917)
 * Operations against the Marri and Khetran tribes (1918)

1919–39 (between the wars)
Having upheld Afghan neutrality while India was engaged in the Great War, Habibulla sought full independence for Afghanistan in February 1919. Such a reward might have consolidated his rule, but later that month he was murdered.

His successor Amanullah pursued a similar policy by different means. With India's Army de-mobilising, and its Government preoccupied with violent unrest in western India, Amanullah sent his troops across the Frontier in early May. At the end of the month he sought an armistice, which was granted on 3 June. By the Treaty of Rawalpindi signed in August, Afghanistan gained control of its foreign affairs, and in turn, recognised the Durand Line as its border with India.

The short-lived war had long-term consequences in Waziristan, where tribesmen rallied to Amanullah's cause. The western militia posts were abandoned. Many of the militia deserted, taking their modern weapons and joining their fellow tribesmen in attacking the remaining posts. As a result, the Indian Army's Waziristan Force was fully engaged in re-establishing the posts and restoring the lines of communication from November until May 1920. The western base at Wana was finally reoccupied in December 1920.

The long-term plan for control of the district entailed building metalled roads along the lines of communication to a new central base to be established at Razmak. In 1921 work began on the southern road up the Tank Zam from Jandola, under the protection of the Waziristan Force. The following year work on the northern road from the Tochi began at Idak, shielded by the Razmak Force advancing to its objective. The two roads met in 1924, linking North and South Waziristan, and enabling the Indian Army to reorganise both areas as one military district. The Waziristan and Razmak Field Forces then devolved into brigades based permanently at Manzai, Razmak, Gardai, and Bannu.

The following year the few tribal sections in South Waziristan remaining openly hostile were subdued by aircraft alone. For this operation the No. 2 (Indian) Wing of the RAF under Wing Commander Richard Pink was based at Tank and Miranshah. Aircraft comprising the Wana Patrol maintained regular weekly contact with the posts at Wana and Tanai until 1929, when the road from Sarwekai was completed, and the Manzai brigade relocated to Wana.
 * Punjab Rebellion, including the Amritsar Massacre (1919)
 * Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919)
 * Operations in Waziristan (1919–20)
 * Operations in Waziristan (1921–24)
 * Pink's War (1925)
 * Operation against the Mohmands (1927)
 * Afridi Redshirt Rebellion (1930–31)
 * Mohmand and Bajaur Operations (1933)
 * Loe Agra Campaign (1935)
 * Second Mohmand Campaign (1935)
 * Operations in Waziristan (1936–39)

1940–1947 (Second World War to independence)
From 1940 to 1947, Waziristan and indeed most of the Frontier remained relatively calm and the British were able to divert most of their military effort to more important theatres. There were, however, brief periods of trouble on the frontier, which required the British to continue to maintain a military presence in the region, although for the main they were able to employ mainly garrison or rear-area troops during this time, thus allowing them to free up front-line units for active service elsewhere. Trained regular troops were desperately needed for the war against Germany and Japan.

Razmak, Wana and Bannu were garrisoned with half-trained units which suffered serious reverses, losing men, rifles, and light machine-guns.

In 1944, a British committee under Lieutenant-General Sir Francis Tuker was set up to review future policy for the region. As part of its findings, it recommended a return to the Curzon Plan, which advocated the withdrawal of all regular forces from tribal territory into outposts, or cantonments, along the administrative border from where they could keep an eye on things. The unadministered districts would then once again become the responsibility of the local militias.

Withdrawal
In 1947, following the independence, the North-West Frontier region became a part of the newly formed nation of Dominion of Pakistan. Based upon the recommendations of the Tucker committee in 1944 (see above), the newly formed Pakistani government decided to move away from the previous British policy of 'forward defence' in the North-West Frontier region and ordered the withdrawal of forces from Waziristan, as it was felt that the presence of a regular military force in the region was provoking tensions with the local tribesmen. This withdrawal began on December 6, 1947 and was successfully completed by the end of the month under the codename Operation Curzon.

Pashtunistan conflict

 * Waziristan rebellion of 1948-1954
 * 1949 Mughalgai raid
 * Afridi Sarishtas rebellion
 * Pakistan-Afghanistan skirmishes
 * Bajaur Campaign
 * 1961 Batmalai raid

Soviet Afghan war

 * Pakistan Soviet air confrontations during the Soviet Afghan war
 * Badaber uprising
 * Second Battle of Zhawar

2004–Present

 * Battle of Wanna
 * Operation al-Mizan
 * Battle of Mirali
 * Waziristan Accord
 * Operation Sunrise
 * First Battle of Swat
 * Operation Zalzala
 * Battle of Bajaur
 * Operation Sirat-e-Mustaqeem
 * Second Battle of Swat
 * Operation Rah-e-Nijat
 * 2009 Khyber Pass offensive
 * Operation Janbaz
 * Nizam-e-Adl Regulation 2009
 * Mohmand Offensive
 * Operation Black Thunderstorm
 * Orakzai and Kurram offensive
 * Operation Koh-e-Sufaid
 * Operation Rah-e-Shahadat
 * Operation Khyber
 * Operation Zarb-e-Azb

Treatment of prisoners-of-war
According to the British officer John Masters, Pashtun women in the North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955) of British India during the Anglo-Afghan Wars would brutally castrate non-Muslim soldiers who were captured, especially British and Sikhs. Pashtun women urinated into prisoners' mouths. A method of execution by this is recorded: captured British soldiers were spread out and fastened with restraints to the ground, then a stick, or a piece of wood was used to keep their mouth open to prevent swallowing. Pashtun women then squatted and urinated directly into the mouth of the man until he drowned in the urine, taking turns one at a time. This method of execution was reported to have been practiced specifically by the women of the Afridi tribe of the Pashtuns.

Corps of Guides
Corps of cavalry and infantry, raised at Peshawar in 1846 by Lt. Harry Lumsden, and later based at Hoti Mardan. Originally one troop of cavalry and two companies of infantry, the cavalry component later expanded to 2½ squadrons, and the infantry to 4½ companies. Two further infantry battalions were raised in 1917.

From its inception the corps was clothed in native style, with smock, baggy trousers and turban of home-spun cotton, and jerkin of sheepskin. The cotton was dyed grey with a derivative of a dwarf palm known as mazari, while the leather was dyed khaki with mulberry juice. Thus was military dress first coloured khaki for its camouflage effect, and the Guides were the first troops to wear it. The drab colour is well suited to the barren rocky terrain of the North-West Frontier, and all but one of the other Punjab frontier units soon followed the Guides example.

In 1848 the Second Sikh War broke out and the corps won its first battle honours; 'M OOLTAN ', 'G OOJERAT ', and 'P UNJAUB '. Thereafter the Guides were engaged in most frontier affairs, and from 1857 the corps was included in the Punjab Irregular Force, and subsequently in the Punjab Frontier Force.

That same year the Corps of Guides was ordered to Delhi, covering the 930 km from Mardan in twenty-two days and famously going into action on arrival. They were duly honoured with D ELHI 1857.

At the beginning of the Second Afghan War in 1878, the Guides Infantry, together with the 1st Sikh Infantry, PFF, took part in forcing the Khyber, and were prominent in seizing the fortress of Ali Masjid. For this and subsequent efforts the Corps of Guides was awarded the battle honours A LI M ASJID, K ABUL 1879, and A FGHANISTAN 1878–80.

The last decade of the 19th century saw the Guides employed in the Chitral campaign of 1895, and the Punjab Frontier Revolt of 1897–8. Thus was the corps awarded the battle honours 'C HITRAL ', 'M ALAKAND ', and 'P UNJAB F RONTIER '.

The reforms of 1903 gave to the Queen's Own Corps of Guides (Lumsden's) a subsidiary title in the form of its founders name, but left it numberless. In 1911 the corps took up Frontier Force as its first subsidiary title.

During the First World War the cavalry branch of the Corps was deployed overseas to Mesopotamia, but not before winning a further honour in its own territory; 'N.W. F RONTIER I NDIA 1915'.

In 1922 the separation became permanent, when the mounted branch was redesignated the 10th Queen Victoria's Own Corps of Guides Cavalry (Frontier Force), and the infantry was amalgamated as the 5th Battalion, 12th Frontier Force Regiment (Queen Victoria's Own Corps of Guides).

Sind Frontier Force
Formed in 1846 to guard the southern part of the North-West Frontier. Initially consisting of just the Scinde Irregular Horse, the force under Capt. John Jacob was part of the Bombay Army.

Cavalry
The Scinde Irregular Horse was raised at Hyderabad in 1839 by Capt. Ward.

The regiment earned its first battle honour during the Operations in Scinde 1839-42, when it was awarded the unique distinction 'C UTCHEE '. For the subsequent Scinde Campaign of 1843 it was awarded 'M EEANEE ' and 'H YDERABAD '.

A second regiment was raised at Hyderabad in 1846 by Capt. J. Jacob.

During the Second Sikh War both the 1st and 2nd Irregular Horse earned further distinction with 'M OOLTAN ', 'G OOJERAT ', and 'P UNJAUB '.

A third regiment was raised in 1857, and in 1860 the regiments were designated simply Scinde Horse.

The 1st Scinde Horse was deployed to suppress the Sepoy Revolt of 1857–8, and was duly awarded C ENTRAL I NDIA.

All three regiments were rewarded for their part in the Second Afghan War:-
 * 1st Scinde Horse; A FGHANISTAN 1878-79
 * 2nd Scinde Horse; A FGHANISTAN 1879-80
 * 3rd Scinde Horse; K ANDAHAR 1880, A FGHANISTAN 1878-80

Its hard-won honours notwithstanding, the third regiment was disbanded in 1882.

The 1st and 2nd Regiments joined the Bombay line in 1885 as the 5th and 6th Bombay Cavalry respectively.

In the reformed Indian Army in 1903 they were likewise redesignated 35th Scinde Horse and 36th Jacob's Horse.

Infantry
Jacob's Rifles, raised in 1858 by Maj. John Jacob.

In 1861 the rifles joined the Bombay line as the 30th Regiment of Bombay Native Infantry.

The regiment was honoured for its part in the Second Afghan War with A FGHANISTAN 1878-80

Designated 130th Baluchis in 1903, the subsidiary title was restored in 1910.

Artillery
The force was augmented with No. 2 Coy. Bombay Native Artillery in 1875, when that company relieved the men of Jacob's Rfles manning the guns of the force headquarters at Jacobabad.

Converted to a mountain battery the following year, the company was accordingly redesignated No. 2 Bombay Mountain Battery.

For its part in the Second Afghan War the battery was awarded the honour A FGHANISTAN 1878-80

Later re-numbered as No. 6 (Bombay) Mountain Battery, and then briefly renamed the Jullundur Mountain Battery, the unit took its place in the reformed Indian Army of 1903 as 26th Jacob's Mountain Battery.

Frontier Brigade
Created in 1846 to police the newly acquired Punjab border against the Pakhtun hill tribes.

The brigade was formed by Lt. Col. Henry Montgomery Lawrence from four regiments of infantry raised in 1846 from veterans of the Sikh forces disbanded after the First Anglo-Sikh War:- The brigades Frontier designation was discontinued in 1847, and the four regiments became Sikh Local Infantry.
 * 1st Regiment, raised at Hoshiarpur by Capt. J. S. Hodson.
 * 2nd Regiment, raised at Kangra by Capt. J. W. V. Stephen.
 * 3rd Regiment, raised at Firozpur by Capt. F. Winter.
 * 4th Regiment, raised at Ludhiana by Capt. C. Mackenzie.

For their part in the Second Sikh War the 1st and 2nd (or Hill) regiments were awarded the battle honour 'P UNJAUB '.

Transfrontier Brigade
Formed by Col. Henry Lawrence in 1849.

Cavalry
Five cavalry regiments were raised in 1849 and designated Punjab Cavalry:-
 * 1st Regiment, raised at Peshawar by Lt. H. Daly.
 * 2nd Regiment, raised at Lahore by Lt. S. J. Browne.
 * 3rd Regiment, raised at Lahore by Lt. W. G. Prendergast.
 * 4th Regiment
 * 5th Regiment, raised at Multan by Capt. R. Fitzgerald.

Infantry
Five infantry regiments were raised in 1849 from Sikh Darbar regiments disbanded after the Second Anglo-Sikh War, and designated Punjab Infantry:-
 * 1st Regiment, raised at Peshawar by Capt. John Coke.
 * 2nd Regiment, raised at Mianwali by Lt. L. C. Johnston.
 * 3rd Regiment
 * 4th Regiment, raised at Lahore by Capt. George Gladwin Denniss II.
 * 5th Regiment, raised at Leiah by Capt. James Eardley Gastrell.
 * 6th Regiment, originally raised at Karachi in 1843 as the Scinde Camel Corps, and redesignated Punjab Infantry in 1853.

Punjab Irregular Force
Formed in 1851 by combining the Corps of Guides, the four regiments of Sikh Local Infantry, the Transfrontier Brigade, and five batteries of artillery. The units of the force came to be known collectively from its initials as Piffers.

Cavalry
The Punjab Cavalry regiments were redesignated Cavalry, Punjab Irregular Force.

While the 3rd and 4th regiments remained on the frontier, the 1st, 2nd, and 5th were employed in suppressing the Sepoy Revolt, and later rewarded with the battle honours D ELHI 1857, and L UCKNOW.

Artillery
Batteries were raised from various sources:- The Horse Light Field Batteries were generally known as Punjab Light Field Batteries.
 * No. 1 Horse Light Field Battery, PIF
 * No. 2 Horse Light Field Battery, PIF, raised at Bannu in 1851 by Lt. H. Hammond, from detachments of horse artillery formerly in the service of the Lahore Darbar.
 * No. 3 Horse Light Field Battery, PIF, raised at Dera Ghazi Khan in 1849 by Lt. D. McNeill, from a disbanded troop of horse artillery formerly in the service of the Lahore Darbar.
 * No. 4 or Garrison Company, PIF, raised at Bannu in 1851 by Lt. S. W. Stokes, from the supernumeraries of a Sikh detachment of artillery which had been broken up and drafted into the horse light field batteries.

Later the force gained two further batteries:-
 * Hazara Mountain Train Battery, PIF, in 1856. (Formed at Haripur in 1851, by Lt. G. G. Pearse.)
 * Peshawar Mountain Train Battery, PIF, in 1862. (Formed at Peshawar in 1853 by Capt. T. Brougham.)

Infantry
In 1857 the four regiments of Sikh Local Infantry became Sikh Infantry, Punjab Irregular Force.

The six Punjab Infantry regiments were simply redesignated Infantry, Punjab Irregular Force.

The 4th Regiment of Sikh Infantry served in the Second Burma War, winning the honour P EGU, and then marched 900 km from Abbottabad in thirty days to help suppress the revolt in Delhi, and like the Guides going into action on arrival. There it won also D ELHI 1857. The other Sikh Infantry regiments remained in the Punjab.

Leaving the 3rd, 5th, & 6th Punjab Infantry Regiments to guard the frontier, the 1st, 2nd, and 4th were sent to put down the revolt in Delhi. There they earned the honour D ELHI 1857. The 2nd and 4th regiments were also rewarded with L UCKNOW.

From 1861 the force included a 7th Infantry Regiment, formed from the Hazara Gurkha Battalion, which later that year joined the Gurkha Line as the 5th Gurkha Regiment.

Punjab Frontier Force
In 1865 the Punjab Irregular Force was renamed the Punjab Frontier Force, and the constituent units were redesignated accordingly.

During peacetime the Force was under the direct control of the Lt.-Governor of the Punjab, but in war it came under the Commander-in-Chief, India.

After the three Presidency armies, it was the most important military force at the Governor-General's disposal. Deployed and engaged in numerous border expeditions, it became the most experienced body of fighting troops in India. Most of the force saw action during the Second Afghan War. The designation Punjab Frontier Force was dropped in 1901, but with the Kitchener Reforms of the British Indian Army two years later, the former distinction was restored to the newly re-numbered regiments in the form of the subsidiary title Frontier Force.

Cavalry
Officially designated Cavalry, Punjab Frontier Force, the earlier style endured, and was restored in 1901.

Four of the regiments were honoured for service in the Second Afghan War:-
 * 1st Punjab Cavalry; A HMED K HEL, A FGHANISTAN 1878-80
 * 2nd Punjab Cavalry; A HMED K HEL, A FGHANISTAN 1878-80
 * 3rd Punjab Cavalry; K ANDAHAR 1880, A FGHANISTAN 1879-80
 * 5th Punjab Cavalry; C HARASIA, K ABUL 1879, A FGHANISTAN 1878-80

The 4th regiment served on the frontier before being disbanded in 1882.

In 1903 the four remaining regiments were brought into the new Indian Army line by adding twenty to their original numbers:-
 * 21st Prince Albert Victor's Own Cavalry (Frontier Force) (Daly's Horse)
 * 22nd Sam Browne's Cavalry (Frontier Force)
 * 23rd Cavalry (Frontier Force)
 * 25th Cavalry (Frontier Force)

Artillery
The two mountain trains were redesignated mountain batteries in 1865.

In 1876 the three Punjab Light Field Batteries were reduced to form two further mountain batteries, and the four were then renumbered according to their relative precedence, and designated Punjab Mountain Batteries, Punjab Frontier Force.

The former Garrison Company was also renumbered in the same sequence to become the No. 5 Garrison Battery, Punjab Frontier Force.

All four mountain batteries were honoured for their part in the Second Afghan War:-
 * No. 1 (Kohat) Punjab Mountain Battery; P EIWAR K OTAL, K ABUL 1879, A FGHANISTAN 1878-80
 * No. 2 (Derajat) Punjab Mountain Battery; C HARASIA, K ABUL 1879, K ANDAHAR 1880, A FGHANISTAN 1878-80
 * No. 3 (Peshawar) Punjab Mountain Battery; A FGHANISTAN 1878-79
 * No. 4 (Hazara) Punjab Mountain Battery; A LI M ASJID, K ABUL 1879, A FGHANISTAN 1879-80

In 1895 the Derajat and Hazara Mountain Batteries were part of the relief expedition that was rewarded with the honour C HITRAL.

The Frontier Revolt of 1897-8 saw the Kohat and Derajat batteries in action again, earning the honours T IRAH and P UNJAB F RONTIER.

In 1901 the battery numbers were dropped, and they became known by name only. Two years later the four mountain batteries were re-numbered from twenty-one, and the former Piffer batteries were thus:-
 * 21st Kohat Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)
 * 22nd Derajat Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)
 * 23rd Peshawar Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)
 * 24th Hazara Mountain Battery (Frontier Force)
 * The Frontier Garrison Artillery

Infantry
The four Sikh regiments were simply redesignated Sikh Infantry, Punjab Frontier Force.

The six former Punjab Infantry regiments were officially redesignated Infantry, Punjab Frontier Force, but the earlier style lingered and was restored in 1901.

Although never designated as such, the 5th Gurkha Regiment was brigaded with the force in practice.

All but two of the infantry regiments took the field in the Second Afghan War, and their subsequent awards were:-
 * 1st Sikh Infantry; A LI M ASJID, A FGHANISTAN 1878-80
 * 2nd Sikh Infantry; A MED K HEL, K ANDAHAR 1880, A FGHANISTAN 1878-80
 * 3rd Sikh Infantry; K ABUL 1879, K ANDAHAR 1880, A FGHANISTAN 1879-80
 * 1st Punjab Infantry; A FGHANISTAN 1878-79
 * 2nd Punjab Infantry; P EIWAR K OTAL, A FGHANISTAN 1878-79
 * 4th Punjab Infantry; A FGHANISTAN 1879-80
 * 5th Punjab Infantry; P EIWAR K OTAL, C HARASIA , K ABUL 1879, A FGHANISTAN 1878-80
 * 5th Gurkha Regiment; P EIWAR K OTAL, C HARASIA , K ABUL 1879, A FGHANISTAN 1878-80

Spending cuts after the war resulted in the disbandment of the 3rd Punjab Infantry in 1882.

Spared the same fate, the 4th Sikh Infantry was employed in the expedition of 1895 earning the honour C HITRAL.

The Frontier Revolt of 1897-8 saw the 3rd Sikh and 2nd Punjab Infantries employed in the Tirah Campaign, earning them the honors T IRAH and P UNJAB F RONTIER. The 5th Gurkha Rifles was also awarded P UNJAB F RONTIER.

In 1903 the four Sikh Infantry regiments were brought into the new Indian Army Line by adding fifty to their original numbers:-
 * 51st Sikhs (Frontier Force)
 * 52nd Sikhs (Frontier Force)
 * 53rd Sikhs (Frontier Force)
 * 54th Sikhs (Frontier Force)

The five remaining regiments of Punjab Infantry were consecutively renumbered in the same sequence to become:-
 * 55th Coke's Rifles (Frontier Force)
 * 56th Punjabi Rifles (Frontier Force)
 * 57th Wilde's Rifles (Frontier Force)
 * 58th Vaughan's Rifles (Frontier Force)
 * 59th Scinde Rifles (Frontier Force)

The 5th Gurkha Rifles (Frontier Force) took on the subsidiary title denoting their origin.

Frontier Corps
Although the units of the Frontier Corps operated under a variety of titles, from Rifles to Militia to Scouts, it was the latter term that came to stand as the generic term, and as new units were formed, it was the word 'Scouts' that became fixed and formalised for the regimental titles. The expression 'Scouts' was a militarily neutral term, conveying neither the "crack" reputation associated with the word 'Rifles' (cf.: 60th Rifles [HM], Gurkha Rifles [IA], etc.), nor the rather second-rate expectations of the term 'Militia'. As General Baden-Powell noted, when he was looking, many years later, for a suitably inspiring term to adopt for his youth movement to train young boys in fieldcraft and other 'para-military' activities, the word Scouts encapsulated a spirit of 'dash' (enthusiasm), expertise - within a defined set of skills- and familiarity with both the local conditions. Similarly, the Scouts of the Frontier Corps understood both the local terrain and the local political minefields, that is, who could be trusted (e.g. the Turi), and who could never (almost invariably, this would mean the Mahsuds); who was currently nursing a grievance and therefore best avoided, and who had just had a claim settled to their satisfaction and might be uncharacteristically friendly.

Like many things British, the development of the units of Scouts into the Frontier Corps was organic, unplanned and initially unsystematic. It began, in the British manner, as an improvisation to meet a need; it was maintained because it guaranteed certain unique skills at an acceptable price (the great Empire may have vaunted its 'pomp and circumstance' to wow the impressionable, but behind the scenes the deciding factor was often simply the acceptability or otherwise to HM Treasury) and only then was the principle regularised, standardised and systemised (cf. the development of the Frontier Force, from irregulars to a corps d'elite).

Chronology

 * 1878: the Khyber Rifles
 * 1889: the Zhob Militia
 * 1892: the Kurram Militia
 * 1900: the Chitral Scouts
 * 1900: the North Waziristan Militia
 * 1900: the South Waziristan Militia
 * 1913: the Gilgit Scouts
 * 1914–18: the Great War in Europe and the Near East
 * 1917: the Mohmand Militia
 * 1919: Third Anglo-Afghan War
 * 1919: Khyber Rifles disbanded
 * 1921: South Waziristan Militia disbanded
 * 1921: Mohmand Militia disbanded
 * 1922: the Tochi Scouts
 * 1922: the South Waziristan Scouts
 * 1939–45: the Second World War
 * 1946: the Pishin Scouts
 * 1946: Khyber Rifles reformed
 * 1947: independence of Pakistan in 1947
 * 1948: the Chagai Militia
 * 1949: the Northern Scouts
 * 1949: the Thal Scouts
 * 1960: the Mahsud Scouts
 * 1961: the Bajaur Scouts
 * 1964: the Karakoram Scouts
 * 1965: the Kalat Scouts
 * 1973: the Shawal Scouts

Location
Geographically, the Scouts were located, from north to south, as follows:
 * The Gilgit Scouts. HQ: Gilgit
 * The Chitral Scouts
 * The Khyber Rifles
 * The Kurram Militia. HQ: Parachinar
 * The North Waziristan Militia, then: The Tochi Scouts. HQ: Miranshah.
 * The South Waziristan Militia, then: The South Waziristan Scouts. HQ: (Militia): Wana, then (Scouts): Jandola.
 * The Zhob Militia. HQ: Fort Sandeman
 * (The Pishin Scouts)

Tribal affiliations
The Frontier Corps were not founded expressly on a tribal basis, but the older corps drew their recruits from the local tribal area:
 * the Khyber Rifles from the tribes bordering the Khyber; namely the Afridi, Shinwari, and Mullagori
 * the Kurram Militia from the Turi and Bangash of the Kurram Valley
 * the Chitral Scouts from the Chitrali of Chitral

Notable men of the Frontier Corps

 * George Roos-Keppel: founder of the Kurram Militia.

Other sources

 * Army Headquarters, India (1919). Quarterly Indian Army List January 1919. Calcutta.
 * Barthorp, Michael (1982). The North-West Frontier, New Orchard (first edition, later edition below).
 * Barthorp, Michael (2002). Afghan Wars and the North-West Frontier 1839–1947. Cassell. London. ISBN 0-304-36294-8.
 * Battles Nomenclature Committee (1921). The Official Names of the Battles and other Engagements fought by the Military Forces of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914–1919, and the Third Afghan War 1919. His Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
 * Chenevix Trench, Charles (1985). The Frontier Scouts. Jonathan Cape. London. ISBN 0-224-02321-7.
 * Cross, J. & Buddhiman Gurung (2002). Gurkhas at War. Greenhill Books. ISBN 978-1-85367-727-4.
 * Jackson, Maj. Donovan (1940). India's Army. Sampson Low. London.
 * General Staff Branch, Army Headquarters, India. (1926). The Third Afghan War 1919 Official Account. Government of India, Central Publication Branch. Calcutta.
 * Nevill, Capt. H.L. (1912). Campaigns on the North-West Frontier. Reprinted by Battery Press, 1999.
 * Official History of Operations on the N. W. Frontier of India 1920-35 Parts I, II and III. Naval & Military Press in association with the Imperial War Museum. ISBN 1843427648.
 * Pervaz Iqbal Cheema (2002). The Armed Forces of Pakistan. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86508-119-1.
 * Robson, Brian (2004). Crisis on the Frontier: The Third Afghan War and the Campaign in Waziristan 1919–20. Spellmount. Staplehurst, Kent. ISBN 978-1-86227-211-8.
 * Robson, Brian (2007). The Road to Kabul: The Second Afghan War 1878–1881. Spellmount. Stroud, Gloucestershire. ISBN 978-1-86227-416-7.
 * Roger, Alexander (2003). Battle Honours of the British Empire and Commonwealth Land Forces 1662–1991. Crowood Press. Marlborough, Wiltshire. ISBN 1-86126-637-5.
 * Stiles, Richard G. M. (1992). The Story of the India General Service Medal 1908–1935. Terence Wise. Knighton, Powys. ISBN 1-85674-010-2.
 * Sumner, Ian (2001). The Indian Army 1914–1947. Osprey Publishing. Oxford. ISBN 1-84176-196-6.
 * Wilkinson-Latham, Robert (1977). North-West Frontier 1837–1947, Osprey Publishing. London. ISBN 0-85045-275-9.
 * Moreman, Tim (1998). The Army in India and the Development of Frontier Warfare 1847–1947. Macmillan: London.


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Cempoala

Cempoala was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep

Cempoala

 * Even less than a dictionary definition. - Andre Engels 10:10, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment. I'm supposed to be at work now, so my hands are tied, but if anyone else speaks Dutch: try According to that, Cempoala was the capital of the Totonacs, a small Mayan culture. (Lots of good stuff on that site.) Definitely doesn't Google as a "type of Indian leader", though (and I wonder whether the article on Hernán Cortés that links to it knows this). JRM 10:48, 2004 Dec 6 (UTC)

 * Delete: A new article should be written, without this content, by those who know the Mayans.  I'm pretty sure that the link from Cortes is due to that, and not the Indian healer (healer of India or of the American Indians?).  Geogre 15:07, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep: The article has been entirely rewritten and is now well done. Geogre 14:10, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete Looks more like a place than a type of person. Possibly inaccurate stub. Wyss 23:50, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. It was an important MesoAmerican city with a population of 25,000 to 30,000 and kingdom of the Totnacs. It was the biggest MesoAmerican city on the Gulf of Mexico. It was the first major city that Cotes visited on arriving in Mexico and was an important ally. Current inaccurate substub replaced and Cortes article will be corrected. Capitalistroadster 11:30, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep and close vote, as the article to be voted on no longer meets criteria for deletion. Kudos to Capitalistroadster. JRM 12:29, 2004 Dec 7 (UTC)
 * Extreme keep with great thanks to Capitalistroadster. —[[en:RaD Man|RaD Man (talk)]] 15:36, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep this well-done article. [[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 17:25, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Looks like page was improved or corrected. --MPerel 00:11, Dec 10, 2004 (UTC)
 * keep nice dig, good save Pedant 00:22, 2004 Dec 11 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: User talk:221.163.10.254

title: User talk:221.163.10.254


text:
Talk:Deep background

Does this differ from the Chatham House Rule?

 * My understanding of the Chatham House Rule is that it applies to the participants of a group meeting, and particularly to certain meetings of diplomats held at the Royal Institute of International Affairs; whereas "deep background" is a journalistic term usually specifically referring to a one-on-one communication between an informant and a reporter. Also, the Chatham House term seems to be chiefly of British use. - [[User:KeithTyler|Keith D. Tyler  [ flame ]  ]] 19:03, Dec 6, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Deep background


text: User talk:61.246.245.2

title: User talk:61.246.245.2


text:
File:Ventura Enter.jpg

Summary

 * Entrance to the Ventura Campus of the Brooks Institute, its main campus located in Ventura, California.

Credits

 * I took this Picture on a trip to visit the school. I now attend Brooks Full time as a Film Major.
 * This picture is posted on my blog www.kylehamilton.com

title: File:Ventura Enter.jpg


text: User talk:199.8.99.254

title: User talk:199.8.99.254


text:
Gray's Anatomy (film)

Gray's Anatomy is an 80-minute concert film directed by Steven Soderbergh in 1996 involving a dramatized monologue by actor/writer Spalding Gray. The title is taken from the classic human anatomy textbook Gray's Anatomy, originally written by Henry Gray in 1858. It was shot in ten days in late January 1996 during a break Soderbergh had from post-production on his previous film, Schizopolis.

The monologist film is about Spalding Gray, the main character, who is diagnosed with a rare ocular condition called macular pucker. After hearing all of his options, such as Christian Science, Native American sweat lodges, and the "Elvis Presley of psychic surgeons", and the dangers of what surgery could bring, he decides to go through the other forms of medicine provided. This in turn takes him on a journey around the world and steers him away from surgery more so because of religious reasons, often in a dramatic and humorous fashion.

This was the fourth and last of Gray's theatrically released monologue films, following Swimming to Cambodia, Monster in a Box, and Terrors of Pleasure.

The film is available on DVD. A remastered version was released by The Criterion Collection on DVD and Blu-ray in June 2012.

Cast
Spalding Gray was raised in Rhode Island and attended school in Massachusetts. Gray's style as an actor was influenced by Allen Ginsberg, Ramblin' Jack Elliot, and the American Autobiographical movement. He mostly worked in experimental theater. In 1977, he co-founded the Wooster Theater Group in New York City. Two years later he performed his first monologue: Sex and Death at the Age of 14. In the '80s Gray traveled to Thailand where he won two Independent Spirit Awards for the film Swimming to Cambodia. He appeared in several independent films in the '90s before Gray's Anatomy was published.

Critical reception
Janet Maslin of the New York Times gave a positive review, calling it "A chatty, colorful, nicely sardonic account of how a crisis led Mr. Gray to assess his medical state, consider his mortality and take one more funny, self-dramatizing look at the eccentric world around him."

Desson Thomson of the Washington Post also reviewed the film positively, stating "Gray's Anatomy finds Spalding Gray turning a bout with a bizarre ocular condition into a dizzying, absorbing odyssey of the neurotic mind."

The Digital Fix described Gray's Anatomy as "very witty and a pleasure to listen to. As he passes fifty, Gray starts to worry about his own death before he finds the sight in his left eye is becoming distorted. Learning that he has a macular pucker, Gray seeks out alternative therapies, including mass nude encounters in a sweatbox, a raw-vegetable diet and a trip to the Philippines to meet a psychic surgeon."

On the other hand, the San Francisco Chronicle described Gray's Anatomy as an unremarkable story. "There's something intrinsically insincere about the whole quest. This creeping sense that Gray isn't really interested in anything he's talking about – that he, alone, is the subject of his own obsession gives Gray's Anatomy a distasteful edge."

The Chicago Tribune described Gray's Anatomy as "demonstrating that fully stimulating the senses isn't the same as fully engaging them. The film begins as ordinary as could be and then continues with scenery changes, lighting effects, and moody music."

title: Gray's Anatomy (film)


text:
Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova

Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova (29 November 1937 – 21 December 2023) was the head of the Salvadoran national guard between the years 1979 and 1983 and later served as the nation's Minister of Defense between 1983 and 1989.

In 1984, four national guardsmen who had once served under Vides Casanova's command – Daniel Canales Ramírez, Carlos Joaquín Contreras Palacios, Francisco Orlando Contreras Recinos and José Roberto Moreno Canjura – were convicted of murdering four American nuns and were sentenced to 30 years in prison. Their superior, sub-sergeant Luis Antonio Colindres Alemán, was also convicted of the murders.

In 1998, the four murderers confessed to abducting, raping and murdering the four nuns and claimed that they did so because Alemán had informed them that they had to act on orders from high-level military officers. Some were then released from prison after detailing how Vides and his cousin Col. Óscar Edgardo Casanova Vejar, the local military commander in Zacatecoluca, had planned and orchestrated the executions of the nuns. A 16-year legal battle to deport General Vides Casanova soon commenced.

Emigration to the United States
Following his retirement, General Vides left El Salvador and moved to Florida in 1989 as a legal permanent resident and lived in Palm Coast.

After his first wife died, Vides married Lourdes Llach, daughter of coffee baron, amateur astronomer, and former Salvadoran ambassador to the Holy See (1977–1991) Prudencio Llach Schonenberg.

Lawsuit cases
Vides Casanova was sued in the federal civil court of Miami, Florida in the United States in two precedent-setting cases. The cases are referred to by the surname of his co-defendant, José Guillermo García:
 * Ford v. Garcia, a lawsuit by the families of four Catholic nuns who were abducted, raped and murdered by a Salvadoran military death squad on 2 December 1980. The defense won the case, and the families appealed. Their appeal was denied, and in 2003, the United States Supreme Court refused to hear further proceedings.
 * Ramagoza v. Garcia, a lawsuit by survivors of torture during the Salvadoran Civil War, including Carlos Mauricio and Neris González. Garcia and Vides lost, and a judgment of over $54 million (U.S.) was entered against them, and upheld on appeal.

Deportation to El Salvador
On 6 October 2009 the United States Department of Homeland Security announced that it had initiated deportation proceedings against General Vides Casanova for assisting in the torture of Salvadoran civilians. On 24 February 2012, a Federal immigration judge cleared the way for his deportation.

On 11 March 2015, the Board of Immigration Appeals dismissed General Vides Casanova's appeal. On 8 April 2015, U.S. immigration officials deported General Vides Casanova to El Salvador. The lawsuit filed against Vides Casanova and General García was featured in the 2018 film "The Path of the Shadows".

Death
Vides Casanova died in San Salvador on 21 December 2023, at the age of 86.

title: Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova


text:
Relative homology

In algebraic topology, a branch of mathematics, the (singular) homology of a topological space relative to a subspace is a construction in singular homology, for pairs of spaces. The relative homology is useful and important in several ways. Intuitively, it helps determine what part of an absolute homology group comes from which subspace.

Definition
Given a subspace $$A\subseteq X$$, one may form the short exact sequence

 * $$0\to C_\bullet(A) \to C_\bullet(X)\to

C_\bullet(X) /C_\bullet(A) \to 0 ,$$

where $$C_\bullet(X)$$ denotes the singular chains on the space X. The boundary map on $$C_\bullet(X)$$ descends to $$C_\bullet(A)$$ and therefore induces a boundary map $$\partial'_\bullet$$ on the quotient. If we denote this quotient by $$C_n(X,A):=C_n(X)/C_n(A)$$, we then have a complex
 * $$\cdots\longrightarrow C_n(X,A) \xrightarrow{\partial'_n} C_{n-1}(X,A) \longrightarrow \cdots .$$

By definition, the nth relative homology group of the pair of spaces $$(X,A)$$ is

 * $$H_n(X,A) := \ker\partial'_n/\operatorname{im}\partial'_{n+1}.$$

One says that relative homology is given by the relative cycles, chains whose boundaries are chains on A, modulo the relative boundaries (chains that are homologous to a chain on A, i.e., chains that would be boundaries, modulo A again).

Properties
The above short exact sequences specifying the relative chain groups give rise to a chain complex of short exact sequences. An application of the snake lemma then yields a long exact sequence

 * $$\cdots \to H_n(A) \stackrel{i_*}{\to} H_n(X) \stackrel{j_*}{\to} H_n (X,A) \stackrel{\partial}{\to} H_{n-1}(A) \to \cdots .$$

The connecting map $$\partial$$ takes a relative cycle, representing a homology class in $$H_n(X,A)$$, to its boundary (which is a cycle in A).

It follows that $$H_n(X,x_0)$$, where $$x_0$$ is a point in X, is the n-th reduced homology group of X. In other words, $$H_i(X,x_0) = H_i(X)$$ for all $$i > 0$$. When $$i = 0$$, $$H_0(X,x_0)$$ is the free module of one rank less than $$H_0(X)$$. The connected component containing $$x_0$$ becomes trivial in relative homology.

The excision theorem says that removing a sufficiently nice subset $$Z \subset A$$ leaves the relative homology groups $$H_n(X,A)$$ unchanged. If $$A$$ has a neighbourhood $$V$$ in $$X$$ that deformation retracts to $$A$$, then using the long exact sequence of pairs and the excision theorem, one can show that $$H_n(X,A)$$ is the same as the n-th reduced homology groups of the quotient space $$X/A$$.

Relative homology readily extends to the triple $$(X,Y,Z)$$ for $$Z \subset Y \subset X$$.

One can define the Euler characteristic for a pair $$Y \subset X$$ by

 * $$\chi (X, Y) = \sum _{j=0} ^n (-1)^j \operatorname{rank} H_j (X, Y) . $$

The exactness of the sequence implies that the Euler characteristic is additive, i.e., if $$Z \subset Y \subset X$$, one has

\chi (X, Z) = \chi (X, Y) + \chi (Y, Z) .$$

Local homology
The $$n$$-th local homology group of a space $$X$$ at a point $$x_0$$, denoted
 * $$H_{n,\{x_0\}}(X)$$

is defined to be the relative homology group $$H_n(X,X\setminus \{x_0\})$$. Informally, this is the "local" homology of $$X$$ close to $$x_0$$.

Local homology of the cone CX at the origin
One easy example of local homology is calculating the local homology of the cone (topology) of a space at the origin of the cone. Recall that the cone is defined as the quotient space
 * $$CX = (X\times I)/(X\times\{0\}) ,$$

where $$X \times \{0\}$$ has the subspace topology. Then, the origin $$x_0 = 0$$ is the equivalence class of points $$[X\times 0]$$. Using the intuition that the local homology group $$H_{*,\{x_0\}}(CX)$$ of $$CX$$ at $$x_0$$ captures the homology of $$CX$$ "near" the origin, we should expect this is the homology of $$H_*(X)$$ since $$CX \setminus \{x_0\}$$ has a homotopy retract to $$X$$. Computing the local homology can then be done using the long exact sequence in homology
 * $$\begin{align}

\to &H_n(CX\setminus \{x_0 \})\to H_n(CX) \to H_{n,\{x_{0}\}}(CX)\\ \to & H_{n-1}(CX\setminus \{x_0 \})\to H_{n-1}(CX) \to H_{n-1,\{x_{0}\}}(CX). \end{align}$$ Because the cone of a space is contractible, the middle homology groups are all zero, giving the isomorphism
 * $$\begin{align}

H_{n,\{x_0\}}(CX) & \cong H_{n-1}(CX \setminus \{ x_0 \}) \\ & \cong H_{n-1}(X), \end{align}$$ since $$CX \setminus \{x_0\}$$ is contractible to $$X$$.

In algebraic geometry
Note the previous construction can be proven in algebraic geometry using the affine cone of a projective variety $$X$$ using Local cohomology.

Local homology of a point on a smooth manifold
Another computation for local homology can be computed on a point $$p$$ of a manifold $$M$$. Then, let $$K$$ be a compact neighborhood of $$p$$ isomorphic to a closed disk $$\mathbb{D}^n = \{ x \in \R^n : |x| \leq 1 \}$$ and let $$U = M \setminus K$$. Using the excision theorem there is an isomorphism of relative homology groups
 * $$\begin{align}

H_n(M,M\setminus\{p\}) &\cong H_n(M\setminus U, M\setminus (U\cup \{p\})) \\ &= H_n(K, K\setminus\{p\}), \end{align}$$ hence the local homology of a point reduces to the local homology of a point in a closed ball $$\mathbb{D}^n$$. Because of the homotopy equivalence
 * $$\mathbb{D}^n \setminus \{0\} \simeq S^{n-1}$$

and the fact
 * $$H_k(\mathbb{D}^n) \cong \begin{cases}

\Z & k = 0 \\ 0 & k \neq 0 , \end{cases}$$ the only non-trivial part of the long exact sequence of the pair $$(\mathbb{D},\mathbb{D}\setminus\{0\})$$ is
 * $$0 \to H_{n,\{0\}}(\mathbb{D}^n) \to H_{n-1}(S^{n-1}) \to 0 ,$$

hence the only non-zero local homology group is $$H_{n,\{0\}}(\mathbb{D}^n)$$.

Functoriality
Just as in absolute homology, continuous maps between spaces induce homomorphisms between relative homology groups. In fact, this map is exactly the induced map on homology groups, but it descends to the quotient.

Let $$(X,A)$$ and $$(Y,B)$$ be pairs of spaces such that $$A\subseteq X$$ and $$B\subseteq Y$$, and let $$f\colon X\to Y$$ be a continuous map. Then there is an induced map $$f_\#\colon C_n(X)\to C_n(Y)$$ on the (absolute) chain groups. If $$f(A)\subseteq B$$, then $$f_\#(C_n(A))\subseteq C_n(B)$$. Let

$$\begin{align} \pi_X&:C_n(X)\longrightarrow C_n(X)/C_n(A) \\ \pi_Y&:C_n(Y)\longrightarrow C_n(Y)/C_n(B) \\ \end{align}$$

be the natural projections which take elements to their equivalence classes in the quotient groups. Then the map $$\pi_Y\circ f_\#\colon C_n(X)\to C_n(Y)/C_n(B)$$ is a group homomorphism. Since $$f_\#(C_n(A))\subseteq C_n(B)=\ker\pi_Y$$, this map descends to the quotient, inducing a well-defined map $$\varphi\colon C_n(X)/C_n(A)\to C_n(Y)/C_n(B)$$ such that the following diagram commutes:

Chain maps induce homomorphisms between homology groups, so $$f$$ induces a map $$f_*\colon H_n(X,A)\to H_n(Y,B)$$ on the relative homology groups.

Examples
One important use of relative homology is the computation of the homology groups of quotient spaces $$X/A$$. In the case that $$A$$ is a subspace of $$X$$ fulfilling the mild regularity condition that there exists a neighborhood of $$A$$ that has $$A$$ as a deformation retract, then the group $$\tilde H_n(X/A)$$ is isomorphic to $$ H_n(X,A)$$. We can immediately use this fact to compute the homology of a sphere. We can realize $$S^n$$ as the quotient of an n-disk by its boundary, i.e. $$S^n = D^n/S^{n-1}$$. Applying the exact sequence of relative homology gives the following: $$\cdots\to \tilde H_n(D^n)\rightarrow H_n(D^n,S^{n-1})\rightarrow \tilde H_{n-1}(S^{n-1})\rightarrow \tilde H_{n-1}(D^n)\to \cdots.$$

Because the disk is contractible, we know its reduced homology groups vanish in all dimensions, so the above sequence collapses to the short exact sequence:

$$0\rightarrow H_n(D^n,S^{n-1}) \rightarrow \tilde H_{n-1}(S^{n-1}) \rightarrow 0. $$

Therefore, we get isomorphisms $$H_n(D^n,S^{n-1})\cong \tilde H_{n-1}(S^{n-1})$$. We can now proceed by induction to show that $$H_n(D^n,S^{n-1})\cong \Z$$. Now because $$S^{n-1}$$ is the deformation retract of a suitable neighborhood of itself in $$D^n$$, we get that $$H_n(D^n,S^{n-1})\cong \tilde H_n(S^n)\cong \Z$$.

Another insightful geometric example is given by the relative homology of $$(X=\Complex^*, D = \{1,\alpha\})$$ where $$\alpha \neq 0, 1$$. Then we can use the long exact sequence

\begin{align} 0 &\to H_1(D)\to H_1(X) \to H_1(X,D) \\ & \to H_0(D)\to H_0(X) \to H_0(X,D) \end{align} = \begin{align} 0 & \to 0 \to \Z \to H_1(X,D) \\ & \to \Z^{\oplus 2} \to \Z \to 0 \end{align} $$ Using exactness of the sequence we can see that $$H_1(X,D)$$ contains a loop $$\sigma$$ counterclockwise around the origin. Since the cokernel of $$\phi\colon \Z \to H_1(X,D)$$ fits into the exact sequence
 * $$ 0 \to \operatorname{coker}(\phi) \to \Z^{\oplus 2} \to \Z \to 0$$

it must be isomorphic to $$\Z$$. One generator for the cokernel is the $$1$$-chain $$[1,\alpha]$$ since its boundary map is
 * $$\partial([1,\alpha]) = [\alpha] - [1]$$

title: Relative homology


text:
User talk:Radicalsubversiv/Chuck F

172.188.54.71 offered his own list of Chuck and Reithy misdeeds here, which was very helpful (incidentally, the detail with which he accumulated evidence against Reithy strongly suggests they aren't the same). Since it wasn't really discussion, I've moved it to User:Radicalsubversiv/Chuck F/172ver. RadicalSubversiv E 10:32, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

(Moved here from the main evidence page, referring to Chuck's "rampage" of edit warring using open proxies on December 5:)

or: Why banning Chuck F might be an exercise in futility, as he seems determined to have things HIS WAY come hell or high water or irritated sysops

 * It is my view that this rampage demonstrates a contempt for Wikipedia policies and norms that is more than worthy of a lengthy hard ban. —No-One Jones (m) 09:39, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Radicalsubversiv/Chuck F


text:
AirUK

AirUK was a wholly privately owned, independent regional airline in the United Kingdom formed in 1980 as a result of a merger involving four rival UK-based regional airlines. British and Commonwealth (B&C)-owned British Island Airways (BIA) and Air Anglia were the two dominant merger partners. The merged entity's corporate headquarters were originally located at Redhill, Surrey, the location of the old BIA head office. It subsequently relocated to Crawley, West Sussex. In addition to the main maintenance base at Norwich Airport (Air Anglia's former engineering base), there also used to be a second major maintenance base at Blackpool Airport (the old BIA engineering base). This was closed down following Air UK's major retrenchment during Britain's severe recession of the early 1980s. In 1987, Air UK established Air UK Leisure as a charter subsidiary. The following year, Air UK shifted its headquarters to London Stansted Airport. When Stansted's new Norman Foster-designed terminal opened in 1991, the airline became its first and subsequently main tenant.

Air UK was a full member of the International Air Transport Association (IATA) for most of its existence.

Air UK originally was a wholly owned subsidiary of British Air Transport (Holdings), a successor to the Air Holdings Group owned 90% by B&C and 10% by Eagle Star Insurance. This made the Cayzer family, who owned B&C, the controlling shareholders. Following the beginning of the gradual liberalisation of the European Union (EU) internal air transport market in 1987, Dutch flag carrier KLM, a long-standing business partner of Air UK and its predecessor Air Anglia, acquired a 14.9% minority stake in Air UK's holding company. In 1995, KLM increased its minority stake in Air UK to 45%. In 1997, KLM became Air UK's sole shareholder when it acquired B&C's stake in British Air Transport (Holdings). The following year Air UK was renamed KLM uk.

Aircraft operated
Air UK operated the following aircraft types at one point or another during its 19-year existence:
 * Avion de Transport Regional (ATR) ATR-72 (these aircraft were exclusively operated by KLM uk)
 * BAC One-Eleven 200/400 series
 * British Aerospace BAe 146 100/200/300 series
 * Embraer EMB-110 Bandeirante
 * Fokker F27 Friendship 100/200/400/500/600 series
 * Fokker F28 Fellowship 1000/4000 series
 * Fokker 50
 * Fokker 100
 * Handley Page Dart Herald
 * Shorts 330
 * Shorts 360

Fleet in 1980
In July 1980 the Air UK fleet comprised 37 aircraft.

Air UK employed 1,700 people at this time.

Fleet in 1983
In April 1983 the Air UK fleet comprised 21 aircraft.

Air UK employed 850 people at this time.

Fleet in 1985
In March 1985 the Air UK fleet comprised 22 aircraft.

Air UK employed 850 people at this time.

Fleet in 1988
In March 1988 the Air UK fleet comprised 22 aircraft.

Two British Aerospace BAe 146-200 were on order.

Air UK employed 975 people at this time.

Fleet in 1990
In March 1990 the Air UK fleet comprised 27 aircraft.

Air UK employed 1,340 people at this time.

Fleet in 1995
In March/April 1995 the Air UK fleet comprised 28 aircraft.

Eight Fokker 50 were on order.

Air UK employed 1,466 people at this time.

Fleet in 1997
In March/April 1997 the Air UK fleet comprised 36 aircraft.

Four Fokker 100 were on order.

Air UK employed 2,000 people at this time.

"Third Force"
Air UK was the name of the new airline resulting from the merger of BIA and Air Anglia. (BIA had already absorbed Exeter-based Air Westward in March 1979). Cardiff-based Air Wales had become part of Air Anglia in June of that year. ) It was incorporated on 1 January 1980. Operations commenced on 16 January 1980. At the time of its inception, Air UK was the largest regional airline in the UK and the country's third-largest scheduled carrier.  It had a staff of 1,700, carried more than 1m, mainly scheduled, passengers annually and had a fleet of 40 aircraft, consisting of six jets (four ex-BIA BAC One-Eleven 400s and two ex-Air Anglia F-28 4000 series Fellowships) and 34 turboprops (including eighteen ex-BIA Handley Page Dart Heralds, ten ex-Air Anglia Fokker F-27 100/200 series Friendships and six Embraer 110 Bandeirantes originally part of the BIA, Air Wales and Air Westward fleets). Apart from the four One-Eleven 400s, which were predominantly operated on charter flights, all the other aircraft were part of Air UK's scheduled service fleet.

For marketing purposes, there was no gap between the letters "U" and "K" in the "Air UK" logo in the newly merged entity's first livery, which was a stylised Union Flag.

Former BIA managing director Peter Villa became Air UK's first MD as well.

At the time of its creation, Air UK was sometimes referred to as the unofficial "Third Force" among the main contemporary scheduled airlines in the UK (British Caledonian (BCal) being the UK's official "Second Force" and British Airways (BA) the primary UK flag carrier at that time).

Following the merger, most of the fleet progressively adopted Air UK's new blue, white and red colour scheme. Originally, this featured a predominantly blue fuselage with a white-red-white strip across the windows and a white roof. The tail was also predominantly blue, apart from the "Air UK" logo. However, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) disapproved of this predominantly blue livery, arguing that it could potentially pose a safety hazard for other aircraft as it was difficult for other crews to see the blue aircraft against a blue sky. To address the CAA's safety concerns, Air UK decided to amend its original colour scheme by opting for a hybrid blue-and-white scheme featuring a blue fuselage and a white tail.

Air UK's scheduled route network initially served the following 33 points: Aberdeen, Amsterdam, Basel, Belfast, Bergen, Birmingham, Blackpool, Bournemouth, Brussels, Dublin, Düsseldorf, Edinburgh, Exeter, Glasgow, Guernsey, Humberside, Isle of Man, Jersey, Leeds/Bradford, Le Touquet, London Gatwick, London Heathrow, London Stansted, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Ostend, Paris, Rotterdam, Southampton, Southend, Stavanger, and Teesside.

Air UK was the first and, at the time, only scheduled airline in the UK to fly from all three main London airports.

Following British Airways' decision to retire its Vickers Viscount turboprop fleet and to withdraw from its loss-making regional scheduled routes, Air UK assumed BA's regional routes from Heathrow to Guernsey, Manchester to the Isle of Man, Leeds to Belfast and Dublin, and Edinburgh to Jersey in April 1980. Air UK's new, year-round Heathrow—Guernsey route was its most prominent scheduled route serving London's premier airport. (During the late 1970s, in the days prior to the construction of the M11, Air UK's predecessor Air Anglia had launched a year-round scheduled service linking Heathrow with the company's bases in Norwich and Humberside, as well as a year-round scheduled operation between London Gatwick and Leeds. )

Retrenchment
The severe recession of the early 1980s necessitated a major retrenchment, resulting in extensive frequency, route and staff cutbacks. This entailed the closure of bases at Bournemouth, Humberside and Stansted as well as a major reduction in operations at Southend. As a consequence of these cutbacks, ten turboprop aircraft (seven Heralds and three Bandeirantes) were withdrawn from service while the two F-28 jets were leased out to French regional carrier Air Alsace. This in turn resulted in the closure of the former BIA engineering base at Blackpool, accounting for 220 out of a total of 400 job losses. It also resulted in the suspension of scheduled passenger and cargo services to 14 points by late 1981. At the start of the 1981–82 winter timetable in November 1981, Air UK relaunched scheduled operations from Stansted by opening a new route to Amsterdam. This was the first international scheduled service from London's third airport in over ten years. The resulting network linked 20 points in the British Isles and six in Europe. Management hoped that these business realignments – including cutting the company's workforce in half over a two-year period — would reverse heavy losses Air UK had incurred during its first two years of operation, thereby stabilising the company and positioning it for future growth.

Reorganisation and renewed expansion
In 1982, Peter Villa led a management buyout of Air UK's charter business, resulting in reconstituting BIA as a charter-only airline and his departure from Air UK along with the four BAC One-Eleven 400s. In addition to the tough economic climate and merger blues during the airline's inception as a result of combining two organisations with vastly different cultures and management styles, the operation of these aircraft had largely been responsible for Air UK's poor financial performance that threatened the airline's survival.

1982 was also the year the CAA transferred Air UK's Gatwick—Guernsey licence to Guernsey Airlines, a newly formed regional operator, following numerous passenger complaints about the service Air UK had been providing ever since it had assumed the former BIA operation on that route. That year also saw Air UK joining forces with British Midland to form Manx Airlines, a new, jointly owned regional subsidiary based on the Isle of Man. Air UK parent B&C owned 25% of Manx Airlines, making it the new joint venture's junior partner. (British Midland, which owned the remaining 75%, was the senior partner.) Air UK and British Midland hoped that transferring their loss-making Isle of Man operations to a dedicated, lower cost subsidiary would eventually make these services profitable.

In 1983, Air UK broke even for the first time. This was also the year the airline acquired its first Shorts 330 commuter turboprop plane, which it named Enterprise in a publicity stunt at Stansted Airport where the naming ceremony took place in the shadow of a Boeing 747 shuttle carrier aircraft used by NASA to launch Space Shuttle Enterprise.

By 1985, Air UK acquired additional Shorts 330/360s and Fokker F-27s. The latter included the first stretched 500 series F-27s featuring an increased seating capacity of 52 (as opposed to 44 for all shorter fuselage F-27 models). To further support its ongoing expansion, Air UK temporarily leased an F-28 1000 series as well as two BIA One Eleven 400s during that period. (All of these aircraft wore different, white-based colour schemes.) Reintroduction of jet equipment enabled Air UK to assume British Caledonian's regional operation between Glasgow, Newcastle and Amsterdam at the start of the 1985 summer timetable period, thereby further strengthening its position as the UK's leading regional feeder operator at Amsterdam Schiphol and as the airport's largest foreign scheduled carrier. The additional aircraft also permitted several year-round, domestic and international scheduled services from Stansted to be reinstated.

In 1987, Air UK placed its first order for BAe's new 146 regional jetliner. The introduction of Air UK's first 146 200 series regional jet coincided with the introduction of a new livery, consisting of a white fuselage and tail with three different blue cheatlines merging into a stylised Union Flag on the aircraft's tail. In addition, this livery differed from the previous one by dropping the gap between the words "Air" and "UK" while inserting a gap between the letters "U" and "K" in "UK".

Following British Airways' takeover of British Caledonian in December 1987, the CAA awarded Air UK the licences for the ex-BCal domestic feeder routes from Gatwick to Glasgow and Edinburgh in 1988. This resulted in an order for four stretched BAe 146-300s to enable the launch of high-frequency services with up to seven daily round-trips on both routes from the start of the 1988–89 winter timetable period.

By 1994, Air UK acquired several, new Fokker 100 jet aircraft. The introduction of these aircraft led to the adoption of another new livery, the final Air UK-themed livery in the airline's 19-year history. This livery combined elements of the earlier livery with a new, single dark blue cheatline that included a thin, pale blue stripe merging into a dark blue tail featuring the previous Union Flag logo. It also combined elements of both previous liveries by dropping the gap between the "U" and "K" in "UK" (as in Air UK's original blue livery) as well as dropping the gap between the words "Air" and "UK" (as in the airline's second livery).

By 1995, Air UK had replaced all of the older, smaller F-27 100/200/400/600 series aircraft in its fleet with additional, stretched F-27-500s. (Air UK operated a total of 22 F-27s of various marks throughout its existence, all of which it had acquired second-hand.)

By the late 1990s, a fleet of new Fokker 50 and ATR-72 turboprops replaced the aging F-27-500s. During that period Air UK also retired all of its 146-200s as well as the 146-100s.

Air UK Leisure
In 1987, Air UK established Air UK Leisure as its new charter subsidiary in association with charter brokerage firm Viking International.

Air UK Leisure's corporate headquarters were located at Air UK's Stansted base. Its main operating bases were at London Gatwick, London Stansted and Manchester.

Operations commenced with three second-hand Boeing 737-200s. These were replaced with seven brand-new 737-400s, making Air UK Leisure first European operator of the -400 in October 1988.

In 1993, Air UK Leisure entered the long-haul leisure market through the acquisition of a pair of Boeing 767 300 ER series widebodied aircraft. Both aircraft were contracted by tour operator Unijet. Although Air UK Leisure operated these aircraft under the same Air Operator Certificate (AOC) as its 737 400 series narrow-bodied short-/medium-haul fleet, it adopted the Leisure International Airways brand for its long-haul operation.

Air UK Leisure was subsequently sold to Unijet, which in turn became part of the First Choice group.

Focusing on Stansted
Following the move to Stansted in 1988, Air UK became London's third airport's biggest resident airline and its main scheduled operator. The company began building a comprehensive network of short-haul domestic and European feeder routes that was intended to provide connecting traffic for the long-haul carriers that were then expected to commence operations from Stansted, as a result of the increasingly tight slot situation at both London Heathrow as well as London Gatwick, at the time London's two main gateway/hub airports, especially at peak times. Air UK's move to the new Norman Foster-designed terminal in early 1991 provided the impetus for the launch of several new, year-round scheduled routes linking Stansted with important business destinations including Belfast, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Inverness, Madrid, Milan Linate, Munich and Zürich (in addition to the existing year-round scheduled routes serving Aberdeen, Amsterdam, Brussels, the Channel Islands, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Paris). However, the unfavourable economic conditions in the UK at the time, i.e. the severe early 1990s recession and the fallout from the first Gulf War, resulted in a sharp contraction of both the business and leisure travel markets. This in turn resulted in the spectacular collapse of the International Leisure Group (ILG) and its Air Europe airline subsidiary, at the time the largest independent airline in the UK and Gatwick's biggest user, accounting for one-fifth of all the airport's slots. The then prevailing harsh economic climate also resulted in route and schedule cutbacks at other major airlines operating out of both main London airports. As a result, it became much easier to obtain viable slots at these airports, including at peak times. This meant that none of the contemporary major long-haul carriers were showing any interest in commencing operations at Stansted (with the sole exception of American Airlines, which ran a short-lived Stansted—Chicago service during the early 1990s). In addition, Stansted's considerably smaller catchment area and its greater distance from most parts of London compared with Heathrow and Gatwick, combined with poorer transport links in relation to Heathrow's and Gatwick's better accessibility, meant that Air UK found it extremely difficult to make its Stansted operation viable.

Rebranding
In 1997, KLM became the sole owner of Air UK. This resulted in the airline being rebranded as KLM uk in January 1998, including the adoption of a new livery. The legal name changed from Air UK Limited to KLM uk Limited in April 1998.

Initially, the rebranded airline launched new routes from London City serving KLM's Amsterdam Schiphol hub as well as Glasgow and Edinburgh. However, from January 2000, the KLM uk routes that did not serve Amsterdam were either progressively transferred to Buzz, the KLM group's new low-cost carrier, along with the remaining 146-300 aircraft or closed. KLM uk adopted this new strategy in response to its increasing inability to match the far lower costs of the rapidly growing "no frills" competition on the main London—Scotland trunk routes, especially Luton-based EasyJet and former British Airways subsidiary Go based at Stansted itself. By 2001, Buzz operated 14 point-to-point routes from Stansted. Many of these were former Air UK routes served with a fleet of eight BAe 146-300s handed down from Air UK and two independently sourced, second-hand Boeing 737-300s. In addition, scheduled routes not transferred to Buzz and serving destinations other than Amsterdam were eventually all withdrawn, thus reducing the network to only 15 routes exclusively linking regional UK airports to Amsterdam Schiphol. This also resulted in the retirement of KLM uk's ATR-72s.

In 2002, KLM decided to integrate what was left of KLM uk into KLM Cityhopper, its wholly owned, Dutch-based regional subsidiary. It also decided to sell Buzz to Ryanair the following year. This transaction constituted the final link in a long chain of events connecting the early- to mid-20th century decision of British & Commonwealth Shipping, a shipping company that could trace its roots to the 19th century, to diversify into commercial aviation through ownership of several of the post-/pre-war independent airlines that merged to form British United Airways, the UK's dominant private sector airline conglomerate of the 1960s, with what is arguably the world's most commercially successful airline of the first decade of the 21st century.

Further developments
By late 2009, several regional point-to-point routes plied by Air UK and its predecessors for many years, which were dropped soon after Dutch flag carrier KLM had become the airline's sole owner, had been taken over by Eastern Airways and Flybe, with the former concentrating on the ex-Air Anglia oil-related business routes along Britain's East Coast and the latter focusing on former BIA/Air Westward routes serving the southern and western parts of the UK.

Incidents and accidents
There were four recorded non-fatal incidents during Air UK's 19-year existence from 1980 until 1998.

 * On 11 June 1984,an empty ex-BIA Handley Page Dart Herald (registration: G-BBXI), was parked at Bournemouth Airport when a lorry struck the aircraft and damaged it beyond repair.
 * On 19 July 1990, an ex-Air Anglia F-27-200 (registration G-BCDO) had an accident while landing at Amsterdam Schiphol Airport at the end of a scheduled flight from London Stansted. The aircraft's right-hand main gear failed to lock down while preparing to land. This resulted in a forced landing with the right gear retracted, damaging the aircraft beyond repair. There were no injuries among the 17 passengers and four crew members. (The aircraft was subsequently ferried to Air UK's base at Norwich Airport, where it was withdrawn from service and scrapped.)
 * On 31 March 1992, a BAe 146-300 G-UKHP overran runway 34 at Aberdeen (Dyce) Airport after landing on a wet runway with high crosswinds. The pilot failed to deploy the spoilers and ran off the end of the runway. The aircraft was not badly damaged and no passengers were hurt.
 * On 7 December 1997, an F-27-500F (registration: G-BNCY) had an accident at Guernsey Airport at the end of a scheduled service from Southampton. The aircraft overran the runway while landing in high crosswinds and came to rest in an adjacent field with its left landing gear collapsed. There were no injuries among the 50 passengers and four crew. (The aircraft was damaged beyond repair and subsequently written off.)

title: AirUK


text:
Sir Herbert Williams, 1st Baronet

Sir Herbert Geraint Williams, 1st Baronet, (2 December 1884 – 25 July 1954) was a British politician and Conservative Member of Parliament (MP).

Biography
Herbert Williams was born in Hooton, Cheshire, on 2 December 1884. He was educated at Liverpool University with degrees in science and engineering. In 1911 he became secretary and manager of the Machine Tools Trade Association. He served on Wimbledon Borough Council.

Williams contested the Combined English Universities in 1918 and Wednesbury in 1922 and 1923 without success. From 1924 to 1929, Williams was MP for Reading and served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade. He was a member of the first Court of the University of Reading following its receipt of a Royal Charter in 1926.

Williams was returned to Parliament in Croydon South in a by-election in February 1932. He was comfortably re-elected in 1935 and served through the war. He was vocal in arguing against the Beveridge Report in Parliament, despite it being proposed by his Croydon Conservative colleague, Henry Willink MP. He was an alderman of London County Council in 1940–45.

Sir Herbert lost his seat in the 1945 General Election to Labour's David Rees-Williams. In February 1950, the Croydon seats were rearranged and the Conservatives won all three seats. Sir Herbert was returned in the new Croydon East seat and was re-elected in 1951. He was made a baronet on 3 July 1953.

He died in 1954 aged 69 and a by-election was held in his seat in September.

Legacy
Herbert Williams wrote books on parliamentary matters, including The Member of Parliament and his Constituency.

Sir Herbert's daughter, Rosemary, married Glasgow property millionaire Sir Ian Mactaggart, Bt. Their daughter, Fiona Mactaggart was the Labour MP for Slough from 1997 to 2017

title: Sir Herbert Williams, 1st Baronet


text:
Sender Donebach

The Sender Donebach was a 500-kilowatt long wave radio transmitter operating on 153 kHz and transmitting the program of German public broadcaster Deutschlandfunk. The facility, which was the property of Media Broadcast, was built between 1965 and 1967 on a former airfield, and entered service on March 10, 1967.

It was part of an omnidirectional aerial, consisting of four 200-metre-high radio masts, which were connected using wires on their tops. The middle mast was fed via radio power. This very efficient transmission aerial led to interference with the Romanian transmitter Braşov on the same frequency, so only 70 kilowatts of power were used, instead of 250. But even with this reduced power, interference to Braşov occurred, so in 1972 the radio facility Donebach was rebuilt as a directional aerial with a minimum towards Braşov. Therefore, two radio masts were taken down and the remaining two were rebuilt as umbrella aerials. This made a transmission power of 250 kilowatts possible.

The Geneva Frequency Plan of 1975 set new power limits to the Donebach transmitter and now there was a daytime operation with 500 kilowatts and a night time operation at night time. This facility was remarkable because
 * the frequency of the carrier was derived from a rubidium atomic clock, which was in the station building. It was as the carrier frequency of DCF77, a standard frequency.
 * the 363-metre-high masts were the second tallest structures in Germany, just behind the Fernsehturm Berlin.

Geographical coordinates of the masts

 * 49.56°N, 9.18194°W
 * 49.56194°N, 9.17444°W

Roofing & Base-Jumping
This Antenna was a popular spot among climbers and Base-Jumpers.

title: Sender Donebach


text:
When Johnny Comes Marching Home

"When Johnny Comes Marching Home" (Roud 6637), sometimes "When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again", is a song from the American Civil War that expressed people's longing for the return of their friends and relatives who were fighting in the war.

Origins
Irish-American bandleader Patrick Gilmore wrote the lyrics to "When Johnny Comes Marching Home" during the American Civil War. Its first publication was deposited in the Library of Congress on September 26, 1863, with words and music credited to "Louis Lambert"; copyright was retained by the publisher, Henry Tolman & Co., of Boston. Why Gilmore published under a pseudonym is unclear, but popular songwriters of the period often employed pseudonyms to add a touch of romantic mystery to their songs. Gilmore is said to have written the song for his sister Annie as she prayed for the safe return of her fiancé, Union Light Artillery Captain John O'Rourke, from the Civil War,  although it is not clear if they were already engaged in 1863; the two were not married until 1875.

Gilmore later acknowledged that the music was not original but was, as he put it in an 1883 article in the Musical Herald, "a musical waif which I happened to hear somebody humming in the early days of the rebellion, and taking a fancy to it, wrote it down, dressed it up, gave it a name, and rhymed it into usefulness for a special purpose suited to the times."

The melody was previously published around July 1, 1863, as the music to the Civil War drinking song "Johnny Fill Up the Bowl". A color-illustrated, undated slip of Gilmore's lyrics, printed by his own Boston publisher, actually states that "When Johnny Comes Marching Home" should be sung to the tune of "Johnny Fill Up the Bowl". The original sheet music for "Johnny Fill Up the Bowl" states that the music was arranged (not composed) by J. Durnal. There is a melodic resemblance of the tune to that of "John Anderson, My Jo" (to which Robert Burns wrote lyrics to fit a pre-existing tune dating from about 1630 or earlier), and Jonathan Lighter has suggested a connection to the 17th-century ballad "The Three Ravens".

"When Johnny Comes Marching Home" is also sung to the same tune as "Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye" and is frequently thought to have been a rewriting of that song. "Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye" was not published until 1867, however, and it originally had a different melody.

"When Johnny Comes Marching Home" was immensely popular and was sung by both sides of the American Civil War. It became a hit in England and Ireland as well and was eventually lyrically rewritten and became the related tune "Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye".

Alternative versions
Quite a few variations on the song, as well as songs set to the same tune but with different lyrics, have appeared since "When Johnny Comes Marching Home" was popularized. The alleged larcenous tendencies of some Union soldiers in New Orleans were parodied in the lyrics "For Bales", to the same tune. A British version appeared in 1914 with a similar title, "When Tommy Comes Marching Home". The 1880 U.S. presidential election campaign featured a campaign song called "If the Johnnies Get into Power," which supported the Republicans James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur against the "Johnnies" (Democrats Winfield S. Hancock and William H. English).

The children's songs, "Ants Go Marching", or "Ants Go Marching One By One", and "The Animals Went in Two by Two" ("Into the Ark") re-used the tune and the refrain.

Lyrics

The original lyrics, written by Patrick Gilmore during the American Civil War, were published in 1863 in Erastus Beadle's booklet, Beadle's Dime Song Book, No. 15: A Collection of New and Popular Comic and Sentimental Songs in pages and.

When Johnny comes marching home again, Hurrah, hurrah! We'll give him a hearty welcome then, Hurrah, hurrah! The men will cheer, the boys will shout, The ladies, they will all turn out, And we'll all feel gay, When Johnny comes marching home.

The old church bell will peal with joy, Hurrah, hurrah! To welcome home our darling boy, Hurrah, hurrah! The village lads and lassies say, With roses, they will strew the way, And we'll all feel gay, When Johnny comes marching home.

Get ready for the jubilee, Hurrah, hurrah! We'll give the hero three times three, Hurrah, hurrah! The laurel wreath is ready now, To place upon his loyal brow, And we'll all feel gay, When Johnny comes marching home.

Let love and friendship on that day, Hurrah, hurrah! Their choicest treasures then display, Hurrah, hurrah! And let each one perform some part, To fill with joy the warrior's heart, And we'll all feel gay, When Johnny comes marching home.

Some later recordings substitute glad for gay.

In the John Ford western The Horse Soldiers, the last line was changed to "And we'll all raise hell when Johnny comes marching home".

"Johnny Fill Up the Bowl"
"Johnny Fill Up the Bowl", which provided the tune for "When Johnny Comes Marching Home", was a topical drinking song that commented on events in the American Civil War. It was frequently refitted with new words by soldiers and other publishers.

A satirical variant of "Johnny Fill Up the Bowl", entitled "For Bales" or, more fully, "For Bales! An O'er True Tale. Dedicated to Those Pure Patriots Who Were Afflicted with 'Cotton on the Brain' and Who Saw The Elephant", was published in New Orleans in 1864, by A. E. Blackmar.

Notable recordings
The song became popular during World War II with recordings in 1942 by Glenn Miller on RCA Bluebird Records with vocals by Tex Beneke, Marion Hutton, and The Modernaires, and Guy Lombardo and The Andrews Sisters on Decca Records.

In 1959, Mitch Miller recorded the song, followed by Jaye P. Morgan the following year.

English pop singer Adam Faith sang a version titled "Johnny Comes Marching Home", used over the opening and closing title credits for the British crime thriller Never Let Go (1960). This version was arranged and conducted by John Barry. Another version was released as a single, reaching No. 5 in the UK Singles Chart.

British punk band The Clash recorded a reworded version in 1978 titled "English Civil War (Johnny Comes Marching Home)". This version was also by The Levellers on the Julie EP released in 1994.

In 1983–84, the French punk band Bérurier Noir took up the melody on the track "Johnny Reviens d'la Guerre" (English: Johnny returns from the war) from the album Macadam Massacre.

title: When Johnny Comes Marching Home


text:
Samuel Greg

Samuel Greg (26 March 1758 – 4 June 1834) was an Irish-born industrialist and entrepreneur of the early Industrial Revolution and a pioneer of the factory system. He built Quarry Bank Mill, which at his retirement was the largest textile mill in the country. He and his wife Hannah Greg assumed welfare responsibilities for their employees, many of whom were children, building a model village alongside the factory. At the same time, Greg inherited and operated a slave plantation in the West Indies where he tortured slaves by whipping them.

Atlantic-trading Belfast family
Greg was born in Belfast, Ireland, the second son, and one of thirteen children, born to Elizabeth (Hyde) (1721–1780) and Thomas Greg of Belfast (1718 – 1796). With his business partner and brother-in-law, Waddell Cunningham, Thomas Greg commanded one of the greatest mercantile fortunes in Ireland.

The son of a Scottish blacksmith, in the 1740s Thomas Greg bought a small ship which carried salted provisions, linen and butter to the West Indies and returned with flaxseed. Dealings in New York brought him into contact and partnership with Waddell Cunningham, another Belfast Presbyterian. By 1775 Greg and Cunningham was one of the largest shipping companies in New York, having benefitted from the rise in the prices of provisions during the Seven Years’ War, a licence to attack enemy and plunder enemy vessels, and the opportunity to smuggle to the embargoed French colonies. After the war, Greg and Cunningham set up a sugar plantation on Dominica called "Belfast" for which Thomas Greg's brother John, already established on the island, supplied slaves.

At home, as Belfast's richest merchants, the partners played a leading role in improving the town's port and commercial infrastructure, including construction of the White Linen Hall which attracted the linen trade from the north of Ireland that had formerly gone through Dublin.

At the age of eight, Samuel Greg was sent to live with his maternal uncle, Robert Hyde, at Ardwick Hall, Manchester, in the heart of England. His uncles, Robert and Nathaniel, were linen merchants and, after completing his education at Harrow School, near London, Samuel joined their business in 1778.

Marriage to Hannah Lightbody
In 1789 Greg married Hannah Lightbody (1766–1828), the daughter of a wealthy Liverpool merchant. At Cross Street Chapel, Hannah introduced Samuel (raised Presbyterian) to Unitarianism, a latitudinarian faith indulgent of "rational dissent". The new church was also his introduction to an influential network of Manchester and Liverpool trading and banking families. Greg was active as a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.

Hannah had completed her education at a Unitarian academy at Stoke Newington outside London, where she lived with her cousin Thomas Rogers, a close friend and an immediate neighbour to Richard Price. Richard Price was the "non-conforming minister of eminence" that Edmund Burke pilloried in his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) as the leading light of a circle of "literary caballers and intriguing philosophers" naïve and seditious in their embrace of the French revolutionary doctrine. It was in this same circle that Samuel's older sister Jane Greg moved, associating with John Horne Tooke of the London Corresponding Society (arrested, but acquitted, in 1794 of high treason) and Irish radical Roger O'Connor. Although the extent of her activities are unclear, in suppressing the Society of United Irishmen in advance of their rising in 1798, the British commander, General Lake, described Jane Greg as "the most violent creature possible" and as someone who had caused "very great [political] mischief" in her native Belfast.

Hannah's religious and social views are credited with influencing Samuel's approach to the workers' welfare.

A former director of the Quarry Bank Mill, and author of a book about Hannah Greg, provided this summary of her philosophy and work. "She was liberal and compassionate by nature, and all her friends were active campaigners to stop the slave trade and to move forward the emancipation of the slaves in the West Indies and America ... In reality, Hannah Greg did not say anything publicly about this because, apart from anything else, Samuel Greg inherited slave plantations. She couldn’t be a public hypocrite so she kept quiet."

Paternalistic employer
With the death of Robert Hyde in 1782, Greg took over his uncle's interests in Manchester. Convinced of the prospects for mechanised textile production and the latest developments in water and steam power, Greg invested his wife's £10,000 dowry in building the Quarry Bank Mill in Styal on the bank of the River Bollin in Cheshire. The difficulty, in the rural setting, was labour. Hannah Greg's influence has been seen in what might otherwise be seen as a hard-headed, if unusual, decision to invest in improved conditions so as to make the new and regimented mill work attractive. In Styal Greg developed what came to be considered a "model village". Each family (average of eight people per family) had a cottage built offering a parlour, a kitchen, two bedrooms, a cistern, a backyard and a good-sized vegetable garden. This alone was not sufficient: from 1790 operations were relying upon children—half the workforce. Factory owners, like Greg, were paid between £2 and £4 for each workhouse child they employed. The children, housed in an Apprentice House, received their board and lodging, and two pence a week. The younger children worked as scavengers and piecers, but after a couple of years at Styal they were allowed to become involved in spinning and carding. Some of the more older boys became skilled mechanics. The arrangement was still operating in 1835 when Andrew Ure observed "at a little distance from the factory, on a sunny bank, stands a handsome house, two stories high, built for the accommodation of the female apprentices. They are well fed, clothed and educated. The apprentices have milk-porridge for breakfast, potatoes and bacon for dinner, and meat on Sundays". A former director of the Quarry Bank Mill, and author of a book about Hannah Greg, provided this summary of child labour at the mill, based on extensive research. "Over half of Samuel Greg’s workforce were poor and orphaned children ... the children were given good medical care by the Greg family doctor, and education in writing and maths three nights a week ... although the child workers were not subjected to corporal punishment, bad behaviour brought overtime, threats that girls would have their heads shaved or young workers being locked in a room for days on a porridge-only diet'."

The children were overseen by Hannah Greg, who delivered the services of a doctor, two teachers and two singing masters. After the children's thirteen-hour shift, Hannah provided them with lessons in reading, writing and arithmetic. When she was in Styal she delivered the lessons to the girls, and preached to them on Sundays.[18] The Greg children, of which she and Samuel had thirteen, were expected to take part in the teaching. It was part of her dissenting belief that people should mix together, be frugal and accept their responsibilities to others.

By 1816 Quarry Bank employed 252 people and was producing 342,578 pounds of cotton cloth. Ten years later, the mill was employing 380 and output had reached 699,223 pounds. As well as taking a large share of the home market, Samuel Greg was also selling cloth to Italy, France, North America, Russia, Germany and South America. The success of Quarry Bank Mill encouraged Greg to open mills at Caton (150 workers), Lancaster (560 workers), Bury (544 workers), Bollington (450 workers). By 1831 Samuel Greg & Company, in which the engineer Peter Ewart and Greg's four sons were partners, owned five factories, over 4,000 power looms, employed over 2,000 people and turned four million pounds of cotton into cloth. Overall, Samuel Greg & Company was producing 0.6% of all yarn and 1.03% of all cloth produced in Britain.

Slave owner
The Styal community was not the model for all Greg's operations, and its clear that there were limits to his relative beneficence as an employer. In 1795, with his brother Thomas, Samuel Greg had inherited, and continued to operate as a slave plantation, the Hillsborough Estate on the West Indian island of Dominica, from his paternal uncle John Greg. The Gregs supplied the enslaved Africans on the estate with clothing and blankets made at Quarry Bank Mill.

There were of 71 male slaves and 68 female slaves on the Hillsborough Estate when, in January 1814, twenty absconded. They were recaptured and punished with 100 lashes for the males and 50 lashes for the females.

In September 2020, the National Trust, (owner of Quarry Bank Mill and Styal Estate), provided this concise summary of the family's involvement with the slave trade: the mill "was built using family wealth related to slavery". "Samuel Greg ... his father Thomas and uncle John had interests in four estates in Dominica and St Vincent, ... while Samuel and his brother Thomas inherited the Hillsborough plantation in Dominica and other estates".

In 2020, the National Trust was working on a plan to include displays about the original owners' links to colonialism and slavery in the Americas.

Heirs
In 1832, Greg was attacked by a stag in the grounds of Quarry Bank Mill. The injury led to his retirement. By this time, it had become the largest spinning and weaving business in the United Kingdom. Greg never recovered from the attack and died two years later.

Of Hannah and Samuel's thirteen children Robert Hyde Greg continued in the textile business and became an Member of Parliament for Manchester in 1839 opposed to extension of the franchise and to factory legislation; Samuel Rathbone Greg had little inclination for business and developed a career as a writer and critic publishing in 1840 Past and Present Efforts for the Extinction of the African Slave Trade in which he argued that cotton, sugar and coffee could be grown more cheaply by free labour; Elizabeth Greg (married to William Rathbone V) founded the first public wash-houses in the United Kingdom in the wake of the 1832 cholera epidemic, and later helped William Forster in formulating the 1870 Education Act. Ellen Maria married George Melly and he and their daughter Florence Melly took an interest in improving education.

The estate and mill were eventually inherited by Robert Hyde Greg and then by Alexander Carlton Greg, who donated the site in 1939 to the National Trust.

title: Samuel Greg