text:
William Manley

Surgeon General William George Nicholas Manley, (17 December 1831 – 16 November 1901) was a British Army officer, surgeon and a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. He received awards from several other countries, and is the only person to have been awarded both the VC and the Iron Cross.

Early life
Manley was born in Dublin, Ireland, on 17 December 1831, the second son of the Reverend William Nicholas Manley, his mother being a daughter of Dr. Brown of the Army Medical Staff. He was educated at the Blackheath Proprietary School and became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons of England in 1851.

Military career
In 1854 Manley joined the army medical staff, and was attached to the Royal Regiment of Artillery serving in Crimea. He was present for the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War. He was later posted with his regiment in New Zealand.

Victoria Cross
Manley was 32 years old, and an assistant surgeon in the Royal Regiment of Artillery during the Waikato-Hauhau Maori War, New Zealand when the following deed took place on 29 April 1864 near Tauranga, New Zealand, during the assault on the rebel pā ("pah") Gate Pā, for which he was awarded the VC. "For his conduct during the assault on the Rebel Pah, near Tauranga, New Zealand, on the 29th of April last, in most nobly risking his own life, according to the testimony of Commodore Sir William Wiseman, Bart., C.B., in his endeavour to save that of the late Commander Hay, of the Royal Navy, and others. Having volunteered to accompany the storming party into the Pah, he attended on that Officer when he was carried away, mortally wounded, and then volunteered to return, in order to see if he could find any more wounded. It is stated that he was one of the last Officers to leave the Pah."

He also served in the same war under Sir Trevor Chute, and was present at the assault and capture of the Okotukou, Putahi, Otapawe, and Waikohou Pahs. For his services on these occasions he was again mentioned in dispatches and promoted to staff surgeon.

Later career
When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870 he proceeded with the British Ambulance Corps, and was attached to the 22nd division of the Prussian Army. He was present for several battles, and received several decorations including the Iron Cross (second class) on the recommendation of the German Crown Prince: "For services with the British Ambulance Corps caring for the wounded of the 22nd Division in the actions of Chateau-neuf and Bretoncelle, on 18th and 21st December 1870, and the battles of Orleans and Cravant, on 10th December 1870."

In 1878–79 he served with the Quetta Field force in the Second Anglo-Afghan War, and in 1882 he was in Egypt for the Anglo-Egyptian War as Principal Medical officer of the Second Division under Sir Edward Hamley and was present at the Battle of Tel el-Kebir. After this war he was promoted to Deputy Surgeon-General.

Later life
Manley was awarded the honorary rank of surgeon general and retired from the army in 1884 with a distinguished service pension. Upon retirement he was made a Knight of the Venerable Order of Saint John of Jerusalem and a Companion of the Order of the Bath. He died in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, on 16 November 1901.

Family
Manley married Miss M. E. Darton, daughter of Thomas Hartwood Darton, of Temple Dinsley, Hertfordshire. They had one daughter and five sons, including Lieutenant G. E. D. Manley, who died while on service in China shortly before his father's death in 1901.

Honours and awards

Manley was awarded 18 medals by several countries, and was the only recipient of both the VC and the Iron Cross, the highest medals of the United Kingdom and Prussia (later part of the German Empire).

Among his awards were:

During his time in New Zealand he also received the bronze medal of the Royal Humane Society for rescuing a man from drowning, and after the siege of Paris he received the Cross of the Société française de secours aux blessés militaires.

His medals are on display in the medals gallery of Firepower - The Royal Artillery Museum in Woolwich, south east London.

General References

 * The Register of the Victoria Cross (1981, 1988 and 1997)
 * Ireland's VCs, Dept of Economic Development, 1995, ISBN 1-899243-00-3
 * Monuments to Courage, David Harvey, 1999
 * Ireland's VCs, Dept of Economic Development, 1995, ISBN 1-899243-00-3
 * Monuments to Courage, David Harvey, 1999
 * Monuments to Courage, David Harvey, 1999

title: William Manley


text:
User talk:Fluffy Bunny

Welcome
Hello, , and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you are stuck, and looking for help, please come to the Wikipedia Boot Camp, where experienced Wikipedians can answer any queries you have! Or, you can just type   on your user page, and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~~~. Four tildes (~~~~) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. Again, welcome!
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Fluffy Bunny


text:
Michael Krasny

Michael Krasny may refer to:

 * Michael Krasny (talk show host) (born 1944), American journalist, host of the radio talk show Forum
 * Michael Krasny (businessman), American businessman, founder of CDW

title: Michael Krasny


text:
Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti

The Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (ქართლ-კახეთის სამეფო; 1762–1801 ) was created in 1762 by the unification of the two eastern Georgian kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti. From the early 16th century, according to the 1555 Peace of Amasya, these two kingdoms were under Iranian control. In 1744, Nader Shah granted the kingship of Kartli to Teimuraz II and that of Kakheti to his son Heraclius II, as a reward for their loyalty. When Nader Shah died in 1747, Teimuraz II and Heraclius II capitalized on the instability in Iran proper, and declared de facto independence. After Teimuraz II died in 1762, Heraclius succeeded him as ruler of Kartli, thus unifying the two kingdoms.

Heraclius was able, after centuries of Iranian suzerainty over Georgia, to guarantee the autonomy of his kingdom throughout the chaos that had erupted following Nader Shah's death. He became the new Georgian king of a politically united eastern Georgia for the first time in three centuries. Though Heraclius tendered his de jure submission to the newly established Zand dynasty quickly after the unification in 1762, the kingdom remained de facto autonomous for the next three decades to come. In 1783, Heraclius signed the Treaty of Georgievsk with the Russian Empire, by which he formally laid Kartli-Kakheti's investiture in the hands of the Russian monarch, and made the kingdom a Russian protectorate. Amongst others, this provided the nominal guarantee for protection against new Iranian attempts, or by any others, to (re)conquer or attack eastern Georgia. By the 1790s, a new strong Iranian dynasty, the Qajar dynasty, had emerged under Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, which would prove pivotal in the history of the short-lived kingdom.

In the next few years, having secured mainland Iran, the new Iranian king set out to reconquer the Caucasus and to re-impose its traditional suzerainty over the region. After Heraclius II refused to denounce the treaty with Russia and to voluntarily reaccept Iran's suzerainty in return for peace and prosperity for his kingdom, Agha Mohammad Khan invaded Kartli-Kakheti, captured and sacked Tbilisi, effectively bringing it back under Iranian control. This was short-lived, however, for Agha Mohammad Khan was assassinated two years later. Heraclius II himself died a year after that.

The following years, which were spent in confusion, culminated in 1801 with the official annexation of the kingdom by Paul I within the Russian Empire during the nominal ascension of Heraclius's son George XII to the Kartli-Kakhetian throne. Following the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813, Iran officially ceded the kingdom to Russia, marking the start of a Russian-centred chapter in Georgian history.

History
After Nader Shah's death in 1747, Heraclius II and Teimuraz II capitalized on the eruption of chaos in mainland Iran. In the ensuing period Heraclius II made alliances with the khans of the area, established a leading position in the southern Caucasus, and requested Russian aid. In 1762, he succeeded his father as king of Kartli, and with already being king of Kakheti, eastern Georgia thus became politically unified for the first time in three centuries. Around 1760, it had become evident as well that Karim Khan Zand had become the new ruler of Iran. Shortly after, in 1762-1763, during Karim Khan's campaigns in Azerbaijan, Heraclius II tendered his de jure submission to him and received his investiture as vali ("governor", "viceroy") of Gorjestan (Georgia), the traditional Safavid office, which by this time however had become an "empty honorific". Karim Khan died in 1779 however, with Persia again being engulfed into chaos. Seeking to remain independent, but also realizing that he would need a foreign protector with regard to his kingdom's foreign policy, King Heraclius II concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk with Russia in 1783, resulting in the transfer of responsibility for defense and foreign affairs in the eastern kingdom, as well as importantly, officially abjuring any dependence on Iran or any other power. However, despite these large concessions made to Russia, Heraclius II was successful in retaining internal autonomy in his kingdom.

Heraclius II's "curiously ambivalent position" in these decades is reflected in the coins issued by him in his realm. Silver coins were struck with the name of Ismail III on it, or with the Zand-style inscription ya karim ("O Gracious One"), whereby an epithet to God was invoked, which actually referred to Karim Khan Zand. These coins were minted in Tbilisi up until 1799 – some twenty years after Karim Khan Zand's death. In the same decades, the copper coins struck at Tbilisi bore three types of iconography; Christian, Georgian, "and even" Imperial Russian (such as the double-headed eagle). By minting the silver coins with a reference to Karim Khan Zand on it they were usable for trade in Iran, whereas the copper coins, struck for only local use, reflected Heraclius II's political orientation towards Russia.

Court and reign
While Heraclius II's court maintained a certain Persian-type pomp, and he himself dressed in the Persian style as well, he launched an ambitious program of "Europeanization" which was supported by the Georgian intellectual élites; it was not overwhelmingly successful however, because Georgia remained physically isolated from Europe and had to expend all available resources on defending its precarious independence. He strove to enlist the support of European powers, and to attract Western scientists and technicians to give his country the benefit of the latest military and industrial techniques. His style of governing resembled that of contemporary enlightened despots in Central Europe. He exercised executive, legislative, and judicial authority and closely supervised the activities of government departments. Heraclius's primary objective in internal policy was to further centralize the government through reducing the powers of the aristocracy. For this purpose, he attempted to create a governing élite composed of his own agents to replace the self-minded aristocratic lords in local affairs.

Qajar invasion
In the last few decades of the 18th century, Georgia had become a more important element in Russo-Iranian relations than some provinces in northern mainland Iran, such as Mazandaran or even Gilan. Unlike Peter I, Catherine, the then ruling monarch of Russia, viewed Georgia as a pivot for her Caucasian policy, as Russia's new aspirations were to use it as a base of operations against both Iran and the Ottoman Empire, both immediate bordering geo-political rivals of Russia. On top of that, having another port on the Georgian coast of the Black Sea would be ideal. A limited Russian contingent of two infantry battalions with four artillery pieces arrived in Tbilisi in 1784, but was withdrawn, despite the frantic protests of the Georgians, in 1787 as a new war against Ottoman Turkey had started on a different front.

The consequences of these events came a few years later, when a new dynasty, the Qajars, emerged victorious in the protracted power struggle in Iran. Qajar shah, Agha Mohammad Khan, as his first objective, resolved to bring the Caucasus again fully under the Iranian orbit. For Agha Mohammad Khan, the re-subjugation and reintegration of Georgia into the Iranian Empire was part of the same process that had brought Shiraz, Isfahan, and Tabriz under his rule. He viewed Georgia, like the Safavids and Nader Shah before him, no different from the provinces in mainland Iran, such as Khorasan. As the Cambridge History of Iran states, its permanent secession was inconceivable and had to be resisted in the same way as one would resist an attempt at the separation of Fars or Gilan. It was therefore natural for Agha Mohammad Khan to perform whatever necessary means in the Caucasus in order to subdue and reincorporate the recently lost regions following Nader Shah's death and the collapse of the Zands, including putting down what in Iranian eyes was seen as treason on the part of the vali of Georgia.

Finding an interval of peace amid their own quarrels and with northern, western, and central Persia secure, the Iranians demanded Heraclius II to renounce the treaty with Russia and to re-accept Persian suzerainty, in return for peace and the security of his kingdom. The Ottomans, Iran's neighboring rival, recognized the latter's rights over Kartli and Kakheti for the first time in four centuries. Heraclius appealed then to his theoretical protector, Empress Catherine II of Russia, asking for at least 3,000 Russian troops, but he was ignored, leaving Georgia to fend off the Iranian threat alone. Nevertheless, Heraclius II still rejected the shah's ultimatum.

Agha Mohammad Khan subsequently crossed the Aras River, and after a turn of events by which he gathered more support from his subordinate khans of Erivan and Ganja, he sent Heraclius a last ultimatum, which he also declined, but, sent couriers to St. Petersburg. Gudovich, who sat in Georgievsk at the time, instructed Heraclius to avoid "expense and fuss", while Heraclius, together with Solomon II and some Imeretians headed southwards of Tbilisi to fend off the Iranians.

With half the number of troops Agha Mohammad Khan had crossed the Aras river, he now marched directly upon Tbilisi, where it commenced into a huge battle between the Iranian and Georgian armies. Heraclius had managed to mobilize some 5,000 troops, including some 2,000 from neighboring Imereti under its King Solomon II. The Georgians, hopelessly outnumbered, were eventually defeated despite stiff resistance. In a few hours, the Iranian king Agha Mohammad Khan was in full control of the Georgian capital. The Persian army marched back laden with spoil and carrying off thousands of captives.

By this, after the conquest of Tbilisi and being in effective control of eastern Georgia, Agha Mohammad was formally crowned Shah in 1796 in the Mughan plain. As the Cambridge History of Iran notes; "Russia's client, Georgia, had been punished, and Russia's prestige, damaged." Heraclius II returned to Tbilisi to rebuild the city, but the destruction of his capital was a death blow to his hopes and projects. Upon learning of the fall of Tbilisi General Gudovich put the blame on the Georgians themselves. To restore Russian prestige, Catherine II declared war on Persia, upon the proposal of Gudovich, and sent an army under Valerian Zubov to the Qajar possessions on April of that year, but the new Tsar Paul I, who succeeded Catherine in November, shortly recalled it.

Aftermath and absorption into the Russian Empire
Reestablishment of Iranian rule over Georgia was short-lived this time, and the next few years were years of muddling and confusion. In 1797, Agha Mohammad Khan was assassinated in his tent in Shusha, the capital of the Karabakh khanate, which he had taken just some days earlier. On January 14, 1798, as King Heraclius II died, and he was succeeded on the throne by his eldest son, George XII (1746–1800) who, on February 22, 1799, recognized his own eldest son, the Tsarevich David (Davit Bagrationi-batonishvili), 1767–1819, as official heir apparent. In the same year, following the power vacuum in Georgia that got created mainly due to Agha Mohammad Khan's death, the Russian troops entered Tbilisi. Pursuant to article VI of the 1783 treaty, Emperor Paul confirmed David's claim to reign as the next king on April 18, 1799. But strife broke out among King George's many sons and those of his late father over the throne, Heraclius II having changed the succession order at the behest of his third wife, Queen Darejan (Darya), to favor the accession of younger brothers of deceased kings over their own sons.

The resulting dynastic upheaval prompted King George to secretly invite Paul I of Russia to invade Kartli-Kakheti, subdue the Bagrationi princes, and govern the kingdom from St. Petersburg, on the condition that George and his descendants be allowed to continue to reign nominally – in effect, offering to mediatise the Bagrationi dynasty under the Romanov emperors. Continued pressure from Persia, also prompted George XII's request for Russian intervention.

Paul tentatively accepted this offer, but before negotiations could be finalized, he changed his mind and issued a decree on December 18, 1800 annexing Kartli-Kakheti to Russia and deposing the Bagratids. Paul himself was assassinated shortly thereafter. It is said that his successor, Emperor Alexander I, considered retracting the annexation in favor of a Bagratid heir, but being unable to identify one likely to retain the crown, on September 12, 1801 Alexander proceeded to confirm annexation. Meanwhile, King George had died on December 28, 1800, before learning that he had lost his throne. By the following April, Russian troops took control of the country's administration and in February 1803 Tsarevich David Bagrationi was escorted by Russian troops from Tbilisi to St. Petersburg.

As it was impossible for Iran to give up Georgia, which had made part of the concept of Iran for centuries like the rest of its Caucasian territories, the annexation of Kartli-Kakheti led directly to the Russo-Persian Wars of the 19th century, namely that of 1804–1813 and 1826–1828. During the 1804–1813 war, the Russians scored a crucial victory over the Iranian army at the Zagam river saving Tbilisi from Iranian reconquest. The war eventually ended with the Treaty of Gulistan, which forced Iran to officially cede eastern Georgia, Dagestan, as well as most of the modern-day Azerbaijan Republic to Russia. By the 1826-28 war, Russia took modern-day Armenia, the Nakhichevan Khanate, the Lankaran Khanate and Iğdır from Iran. Thus, by 1828, the Russians had gained an immensely strong foothold in the Caucasus. Parts of western Georgia were added to the empire during the same period through wars with the Ottoman Empire.

title: Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti


text:
M-325

In the history of cryptography, M-325, also known as SIGFOY, was an American rotor machine designed by William F. Friedman and built in 1944. Between 1944 and 1946, more than 1,100 machines were deployed within the United States Foreign Service. Its use was discontinued in 1946 because of faults in operation. Friedman applied for a patent on the M-325 on 11 August 1944; it was and was granted on 17 March 1959 (US patent #2,877,565).

Like the Enigma, the M-325 contains three intermediate rotors and a reflecting rotor.

title: M-325


text:
Clarence Jeffries

Clarence Smith Jeffries, VC (26 October 1894 – 12 October 1917) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest decoration for gallantry "in the face of the enemy" that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces. He was posthumously decorated with the Victoria Cross following his actions in the First Battle of Passchendaele during the First World War, in which he led several parties of men in an attack that eventuated in the capture of six machine guns and sixty-five prisoners, before being killed himself by machine gun fire.

Born in a suburb of Newcastle, New South Wales, Jeffries was employed as a surveyor at a mining company where his father served as general manager following his completion of school. Joining a militia battalion in 1912, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant upon the outbreak of war and tasked with the instruction of volunteers for the newly raised Australian Imperial Force. Transferring into the Australian Imperial Force himself in 1916, Jeffries embarked with his battalion for service on the Western Front. Wounded at Messines, he was promoted to captain before being killed fourteen days short of his twenty-third birthday.

Early life
Jeffries was born in the Newcastle suburb of Wallsend, New South Wales, on 26 October 1894. He was the only child of Joshua Jeffries, a colliery manager, and his wife Barbara, née Steel. Jeffries attended Dudley Primary School before moving onto Newcastle Collegiate and High schools. Apprenticed as a mining surveyor at the Abermain Collieries on the state's northern coalfields, where his father was general manager, Jeffries was noted as a cricketer and a keen horseman who took a particular interest in breeding thoroughbreds. In July 1912, Jeffries joined the 14th (Hunter River) Infantry Regiment, Citizens Military Force, as a private under the compulsory training scheme. He was promoted to sergeant a year later.

First World War
Following the outbreak of the First World War, Jeffries was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Citizens Military Force on 22 August 1914. By this time he was in charge of the survey department at the Abermain Collieries, but was mobilised for home defence duties and the instruction of volunteers for the newly raised Australian Imperial Force at Newcastle and Liverpool camps. Promoted lieutenant in the Citizens Military Force in July 1915, he transferred to the Australian Imperial Force on 1 February 1916 with the substantive rank of second lieutenant, and was placed in command of C Company of the 34th Battalion. In May, the battalion embarked from Sydney for the United Kingdom, with Jeffries aboard HMAT Hororata. Arriving in late June, the battalion spent the next five months training in England, during which time Jeffries was promoted to lieutenant.

In late November 1916, the 34th Battalion was shipped to France for service on the Western Front. Initially posted to the Armentières sector in Belgium, the battalion did not participate in its first major battle until June 1917, when it took part in the Battle of Messines after the British and Dominion operations switched to the Ypres sector of Belgium. During the engagement, Jeffries received a bullet wound to the thigh while leading a reconnaissance patrol and was evacuated to the 3rd General Hospital in London. While recuperating, he was promoted to captain on 26 June, before rejoining his battalion in September as a company commander.

Victoria Cross
On 12 October 1917, the 34th Battalion—as a member of the 9th Brigade—was to take part in the 3rd Australian Division's attack on Passchendaele, Belgium. Subject to several days of heavy rain, the battlefield had been transformed into a boggy marsh on which the attack was to commence. Jeffries commanded B Company during the attack, which he halted at the entrance to Broodseinde railway cutting, as many of the direction tapes leading to the starting position had been destroyed or swallowed up by the mud. To avoid any mishaps, Jeffries and another of the battalion's company commanders, Captain T.G. Gilder, pushed on alone as far as Keerselaarhoek cemetery to find the tapes marking the battalions starting line for the attack. Thus, by 03:00 the 34th Battalion was formed up on the line of attack.

At the designated time of 05:25, the British opened up with an artillery barrage on the German positions just as the Australian forces entered no man's land for the attack. Heavy machine gun fire assaulted the troops from all directions as they bunched together on the firmer ground to avoid sinking in the boggy mud. Serious resistance was encountered at Hilside Farm, a strong point to the east of Augustus Wood in the centre of the highest part of the Passchendaele ridge. The position consisted of two pillboxes, supported by fifty metres of trench that was occupied by approximately thirty men with four machine guns. The fire from these machine guns forced the men of the 34th Battalion to seek cover on the exposed crest and threatened to halt the entire advance.

Jeffries, realising his force was suffering heavy casualties, quickly organised a bombing party of fourteen men and set about outflanking the pillboxes. Accompanying Jeffries was Sergeant James Bruce, a 39-year-old Scottish-born miner who had worked for Jeffries' father at the Abermain Collieries. According to popular legend, Bruce had promised to look out for his boss's son, and remained at Jeffries' side throughout the attack. Working around the position, the party attacked the emplacement from the rear, capturing four machine guns and thirty-five prisoners; thus reviving the advance. Jeffries then led his company forward under heavy artillery and machine gun fire to reach their first objective.

Despite the heavy losses which left gaping holes in the Allied line, it was decided that the next stage of the advance was to go ahead. At 08:25, parties from the 34th and 35th Battalions headed out along the south-eastern edge of the ridge towards the outskirts of Passchendaele. Almost immediately, they came under heavy fire from a pillbox close by a railway embankment, at which time Major J.B. Buchanan, the senior brigade officer with the advance party, fell dead, leaving Jeffries to assume control. Gathering a party of eleven men, he set about silencing the machine gun position. Edging across the open ground, the party attacked the position from the west just as the machine gun was firing to the north. Realising that an attack was imminent, the machine gunner switched around, mortally wounding Jeffries in the stomach and sending the rest of the party to ground. When its fire eased, the remaining members of the group worked around the position, rushed it and seized two machine guns in conjunction with thirty prisoners.

With the second objective only partially captured, the remnants of the 9th Brigade, battered by artillery and machine gun fire, were forced to relinquish their position and retreat back to their own lines. All that remained on the Passchendaele ridge of the 9th Brigade was the dead and wounded, among whom was Clarence Jeffries, who was later counted among those with no known grave.

Legacy
For his actions during the battle at Passchendaele, Jeffries was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross, the notification of which was published in the London Gazette on 18 December 1917. His citation read:

"War Office, 18th December, 1917

His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers, Noncommissioned Officers and Man:—

Capt. Clarence Smith Jeffries, late Australian Imperial Force.

For most conspicuous bravery in attack, when his company was held up by enemy machine-gun fire from concrete emplacements. Organising a party, he rushed one emplacement, capturing four machine guns and thirty-five prisoners. He then led his company forward under extremely heavy enemy artillery barrage and enfilade machine-gun fire to the objective.

Later, he again organised a successful attack on a machine-gun emplacement, capturing two machine guns and thirty more prisoners.

This gallant officer was killed during the attack, but it was entirely due to his bravery and initiative that the centre of the attack was not held up for a lengthy period. His example had a most inspiring influence."

Severely affected by the unknown fate of his son's body, Joshua Jeffries set out for Belgium in 1920 in an attempt to discover his son's "lost grave". He returned to Australia disappointed, only to learn in January 1921 that Clarence's body had been exhumed from a battlefield grave on 14 September 1920, and re-buried in Tyne Cot Cemetery, Plot XL, Row E, Grave 1. The body had been identified by a set of captain's pips, Australian numerals and the penciled initials "C.S.J." found on the ground sheet in which the body was wrapped. Three years later, Joshua Jeffries returned to Belgium once again; this time to pay his last respects to his son. As a debt of gratitude to the late Lieutenant James Bruce, MC, DCM, who as a sergeant had assisted Clarence at Passchendaele before being killed himself on 17 July 1918, Joshua employed Bruce's two eldest sons as trainee mining surveyors at the Abermain Collieries.

Following a campaign by the citizens of Abermain, the Capt. Clarence Smith Jeffries Memorial Park was established in 1947, and upon Barbara Jeffries death in 1964, she bequeathed her son's medals to the Warriors Chapel at Christchurch Cathedral, Newcastle, where they are currently on display. Jeffries is also commemorated by photographic portraits in the Abermain Memorial and Citizens' Club and by a carved chair presented to Abermain Holy Trinity Anglican Church by his uncle and aunt in 1918. In 1976, the Jeffries and Currey Memorial Library was opened by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Roden Cutler, at Dudley Public School to honour two of the school's pupils who were decorated with the Victoria Cross during the First World War: Clarence Jeffries and William Currey. The pair are also commemorated by the Capt. Clarence Smith Jeffries (V.C.) and Pte. William Matthew Currey (V.C.) Memorial Wall located in the grounds of Sandgate General Cemetery, Newcastle, which was unveiled in an official ceremony on 16 April 2000. The Clarence Jeffries Housing Estate at Bullecourt Army Barracks in Adamstown is also named in his honour.

title: Clarence Jeffries


text:
STC

STC may refer to:

Education

 * Saint Theresa's College (disambiguation), any of several institutions
 * St. Thomas' College, Matale, Sri Lanka
 * S. Thomas' College, Mount Lavinia, Sri Lanka
 * Scott Theological College, Kenya
 * Sha Tin College, Hong Kong
 * South Tama County Community School District, Iowa, United States
 * South Texas College, Texas, United States
 * South Thames College
 * South Tyneside College, Tyne & Wear, UK

Organizations

 * Saudi Telecom Company
 * Scarborough Town Centre
 * SeeBeyond Technology Corporation, originally Software Technology Corporation
 * Shakespeare Theatre Company, Washington, D.C.
 * SHAPE Technical Centre
 * Society for Technical Communication
 * Solidaridad de Trabajadores Cubanos (Cuban Workers' Solidarity), a Cuban trade union
 * Southern Transitional Council, a secessionist government in southern Yemen
 * Space Transport Corporation
 * Standard Telephones and Cables (1917–1991), a British corporation
 * Standard Telephones and Cables F. C. (now Nortel F. C.), a football club
 * STC Recordings, a record label
 * STCmicro, a Chinese manufacturer of Intel MCS-51 compatible microcontrollers
 * Stewart Information Services Corporation, New York Stock Exchange Ticker symbol STC
 * Student Transportation of Canada
 * Sydney Theatre Company, in Australia
 * Sydney Turf Club, an Australian horse-racing venue operator.
 * Storage Technology Corporation (StorageTek)

Science and technology

 * Sensitivity time control, a radar signal processing technique
 * Silicon tetrachloride, a chemical compound
 * Sound transmission class, a rating of how well a building partition attenuates airborne sound
 * Space–time code, used to improve the reliability of data transmission in wireless communication systems
 * Spike-triggered covariance, an analysis tool for characterizing a neuron's response properties
 * Stability and Traction Control, a type of electronic stability control for vehicles
 * Standard Test Condition, a measurement standard for PV solar panels
 * Subscriber Trunk Dialling, a telephone numbering plan feature and telecommunications technology in the United Kingdom and various Commonwealth countries for the dialling of trunk calls by telephone subscribers without the assistance of switchboard operators.

Transportation

 * Singapore Traction Company, a tram, trolleybus and motor operator in Singapore
 * St. Cloud Regional Airport (IATA airport code)
 * Saskatchewan Transportation Company
 * Sistema de Transporte Colectivo, operates the Mexico City Metro mass transit system
 * Supplemental type certificate, an approved major modification or repair to an existing type certified aircraft, engine or propeller
 * Intercity STC, a Ghanaian transport company
 * Sengkang MRT/LRT station (LRT station code)

Other uses

 * Short-title catalogue, a bibliographical resource
 * Sonic the Comic, about the Sega video game character Sonic the Hedgehog
 * The Soundtrack Channel

title: STC


text:
Leslie Manser

Leslie Thomas Manser, VC (11 May 1922 – 31 May 1942) was a British bomber pilot and a recipient of the Victoria Cross, which was awarded posthumously following an attack on the German city of Cologne.

Early life
Leslie Thomas Manser was born in New Delhi, India, during his father's employment as an engineer with the Post and Telegraph Department and, when the family returned to Britain, they settled in Radlett, Hertfordshire. He was a pupil of Victoria Boys' School, Kurseong, Darjeeling and Aldenham School, Elstree, Hertfordshire.

Royal Air Force
Manser was accepted by the Royal Air Force (RAF) in August 1940, and was commissioned as a pilot officer in May 1941. After a navigational course and final operational training at No. 14 Operational Training Unit, RAF Cottesmore, he was posted to No. 50 Squadron operating the Handley Page Hampden at RAF Swinderby, Lincolnshire, on 27 August.

Two days after joining his squadron, Manser experienced his first operation: as a second pilot, he took part in a bombing raid on Frankfurt. During the next two months he flew six more sorties against targets including Berlin, Hamburg and Karlsruhe, before being posted to No. 25 Operational Training Unit, Finningley on 7 November and a month later posted back to No. 14 Operational Training Unit as an instructor.

Manser served briefly with No. 420 Squadron RCAF (Hampdens) from March to April 1942 when he rejoined No. 50 Squadron then operating from RAF Skellingthorpe, and converted to the new Avro Manchester medium bomber. He piloted one of the new aircraft during a leaflet drop over Paris, and flew a further five sorties during April and May. Manser was promoted to flying officer on 6 May.

Participating in Operation Millenium, a bombing raid on Cologne on the night of 30 May 1942, Manser was captain and first pilot of Avro Manchester bomber 'D' for Dog. As he came over the target, his aircraft was caught in searchlights and although he bombed the target successfully from 7000 ft it was hit by flak. In an effort to escape the anti-aircraft fire he took violent evasive action, this reduced his altitude to only 1000 ft but he did not escape the flak until he was clear of the city. By this time the rear gunner was wounded, the front cabin full of smoke and the port engine overheating. Rather than abandon the aircraft and be captured, Manser tried to get the aircraft and crew to safety. The port engine then burst into flames, burning the wing and reducing airspeed to a dangerously low level. The crew made preparations to abandon the aircraft, by then barely controllable and with a crash inevitable. The aircraft was by now over Belgium, and Manser ordered the crew to bail out but refused the offer of a parachute for himself. He remained at the controls and sacrificed himself in order to save his crew. As the crew parachuted down they saw the bomber crash in flames into a dyke at Bree, Belgium,21 km north east of Genk.

Pilot Officer Barnes was taken prisoner, but Sergeant Baveystock, Pilot Officer Horsley, Sergeant King, Sergeant Mills and Sergeant Naylor all evaded capture and made their way back to the United Kingdom. The testimonies of the five evaders were instrumental in the posthumous award of the Victoria Cross for Manser. The citation for the award read: "... In pressing home his attack in the face of strong opposition, in striving, against heavy odds, to bring back his aircraft and crew and, finally, when in extreme peril, thinking only of the safety of his comrades, Flying Officer Manser displayed determination and valour of the highest order."

Manser is buried at the Heverlee War Cemetery in Leuven, Belgium.

Manser was the brother-in-law of British Army captain John Neil Randle, who was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross in 1944.

Legacy
On part of the old RAF Skellingthorpe airfield from which Manser flew his last sortie, a new primary school was built. It was opened in 1981 and named the Leslie Manser Primary School. On 31 June 2004 a Memorial to Manser was unveiled in natural domain the "Zig", Stamprooierbroek near Molenbeersel, Kinrooi in the north-east of Belgium.

Manser's Victoria Cross is on display in the Lord Ashcroft Gallery at the Imperial War Museum, London.

title: Leslie Manser


text:
National Institute of Engineering

The National Institute of Engineering (NIE) is a private engineering college located in Mysore, Karnataka, India. It was established in 1946 and granted autonomy in 2007 from Visvesvaraya Technological University.

History
NIE was started in 1946 with diploma programs in Civil Engineering in a room under a thatched roof in Lakshmipuram under leadership of kushagra. The first batch consisted of 86 students. Later, the classes were held in a shed in the nearby Sharada Vilas High School campus, in Mysore. S. Ramaswamy, D. V. Narasimha Rao and T. Ramarao ("Tunnel" Ramarao), the founders, established NIE by 1950 with its own class rooms and workshops on a 6 acre campus. NIE started AMIE courses in Civil Engineering for intermediate-passed students in 1948. The students were permitted to change over to the regular degree course leading to B.E. degree in Civil Engineering of the University of Mysore. Thus, NIE became the second engineering college in the state of Karnataka and the first in Mysore. The first batch of students in Civil Engineering graduated in 1953.

A Golden Jubilee Complex was completed in 1996 on a 6 acre plot opposite the main building in part of the golden jubilee celebrations. In 2004, the college received World Bank aid under the TEQIP project. The funds obtained were used to strengthen the Centres of Excellence in the college and to set up new ones.

In 2007, NIE attained autonomy under Visvesvaraya Technological University. In 2011, NIE received further World Bank aid under the TEQIP-II. These funds were used to augment the postgraduate programs.

In March 2019, the government of Karnataka approved a private university status for NIE society through notification of The NIE University Act 2019, and it is set to start NIE University. D.A. Prasanna was designated the founder chancellor.

Location and campus

The institute is presently located on Mananthavady Road and Koorgalli (adjacent to BEML), Mysore Spread across 25 acres. The NIE Administrative Block houses the administrative offices, libraries, a gymnasium, department offices, laboratories, bank, several workshops. The Golden Jubilee Block, operational since 2000, houses the Golden Jubilee Lecture Theatre Complex, a canteen and a playground area. The Diamond Jubilee Sports Complex was set up in 2009. It contains a large, 1200-capacity arena which houses courts for badminton, table tennis and other indoor sports including basketball.

Rankings
The National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) ranked NIE in the 201–250 band among engineering colleges in India in 2022.

Notable alumni

 * Deepak Hegde, economist, professor of strategy and management, New York University Stern School of Business
 * H. R. Janardhana Iyengar, engineer, Mysuru
 * Kumar Malavalli, founder of Brocade Communication Systems
 * N. R. Narayana Murthy, Executive Chairman, Infosys
 * E. A. S. Prasanna, test cricketer - spin bowler
 * Nirmalananda Swamiji, head of Adichunchanagiri Math

title: National Institute of Engineering


text:
Clifford Coffin

Major General Clifford Coffin (10 February 1870 – 4 February 1959) was a British Army officer and recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

Biography
Born in Blackheath, the son of Lieutenant General Sir Isaac Coffin, Clifford Coffin was educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. He was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the Corps of Royal Engineers. He served in the Second Boer War and was mentioned in dispatches.

He was 47 years old, and a temporary brigadier general commanding the 25th Infantry Brigade during the First World War, when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross for "most conspicuous bravery and devotion to duty".

On 31 July 1917 in Westhoek, Belgium, Coffin's brigade had been shattered attempting to cross the marshy ground around the Hanebeek stream. According to his citation in the London Gazette: "When his command had been held up in attack owing to heavy machine-gun and rifle fire from front and right flank, and was establishing itself in a forward shell-hole line, he went forward and made an inspection of his front posts. Though under the heaviest fire from both machine-guns and rifles, and in full view of the enemy, he showed an utter disregard of personal danger, walking quietly from shell-hole to shell-hole, giving advice and cheering his men by his presence. His very gallant conduct had the greatest effect on all ranks, and it was largely owing to his personal courage and example that the shell-hole line was held in spite of the very heaviest fire. Throughout the day his calm courage and example exercised the greatest influence over all with whom he came into contact, and it is generally agreed that Brigadier-General Coffin's splendid example saved the situation, and had it not been for his action the line would certainly have been driven back".

Coffin served as Officer Commanding Troops, Ceylon and ADC to King George V. He later achieved the rank of major general and was Colonel Commandant Royal Engineers.

He died in February 1959 and is buried at Holy Trinity Churchyard, Colemans Hatch, East Sussex. His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Royal Engineers Museum in Chatham, Kent. In 2012, his grave was renovated by the Victoria Cross Trust.

title: Clifford Coffin


text:
Boss key

A boss key, or boss button, is a special keyboard shortcut used in PC games or other programs to hide the program quickly, possibly displaying a special screen that appears to be a normal productivity program (such as a spreadsheet application). One of the earliest implementations was by Friendlyware, a suite of entertainment and general interest programs written in BASIC and sold with the original IBM AT and XT computers from 1982 to 1985. When activated (by pressing F10), an ASCII bar graph with generic "Productivity" and "Time" labels appeared. Pressing F10 again would return to the Friendlyware application.

In PC games
The nominal purpose of the boss key is to make it appear to superiors and coworkers that employees are doing their job when they are actually playing games or using the Internet for non work-related tasks. It was a fairly common feature in early computer games for personal computers, because at the time people often did not have home computers and playing at work was their only option. Most boss keys were used to show dummy DOS prompts. The use has faded somewhat, as modern multitasking operating systems have evolved. However, some programs still retain a boss key feature, such as instant messaging clients or their add-ons or comic book viewers like MComix.

The boss key was first used in the Apple II game "Bezare", published by Southwestern Data Systems. The idea of it was proposed by Roger Wagner (founder of Southwestern Data Systems, and later Roger Wagner Publishing) on a hang-gliding trip in Mexico in March, 1981, in a conversation between Roger Wagner and Doug Carlston (of Broderbund Software). Steve Wozniak, Andy Hertzfeld and a number of other early personal computing pioneers were also part of that event. Wes Cherry, the author of the original Microsoft Solitaire, had included a boss key to display a fake spreadsheet or random C code, but was asked by his superiors to remove this on release.

Another early example of the boss key is in the IBM PC version of Asylum, which clears the screen when F9 is pressed. Certain games have taken the idea of the boss key and used it to comic effect. Infocom's adult-themed Leather Goddesses of Phobos (only the IBM PC version) had a boss key which would hide the game and show a screen designed to look like a Cornerstone database view. Upon closer inspection, however, the screen was not exactly boss safe, being populated with order info on rather ridiculous adult items, including an "inflatable milkman". Sierra On-Line's comedy/sci-fi adventure game Space Quest III had a so-called boss key available from the game's pulldown menu. However, when the user selected it, the screen would cut to black and inform the user that their boss wouldn't be happy if they knew how long the user had been playing the game. It then displayed the total elapsed game time. The first few games in Sierra's Leisure Suit Larry series included a boss key in the pulldown menus (shortcut usually Ctrl+B). However, when this is used, it results in an instantaneous game over with the first game saying "Sorry, but you'll have to restore your game; when you panic, I forget everything!". The boss key for the computer submarine game GATO was the Esc key, which, when pressed, brought up a Lotus 1-2-3 type spreadsheet screen.

Microsoft's implementation
In 1993 Microsoft introduced a five-pack collection of games whose boss button was the ESC key, positioned in the upper left corner of the keyboard, as contrasted to the use of two keys, the CTRL key plus the letter "B" (for "boss"). Moreover, to demonstrate the power of Windows, it could fill the entire screen or just a portion thereof.

In popular culture
The boss button has appeared on every NCAA tournament since the 2005 NCAA men's basketball tournament website for March Madness, which allowed viewers to watch every game.

Alternatives
On modern operating systems, applications may be minimized or switched to the background with a keyboard shortcut. Under desktop environments with multiple workspaces, one possibility is to maintain one "boss" workspace and to switch to it when the boss is coming. A 2014 newspaper article titled "How to watch the Olympics at work without getting caught" described a Mozilla Firefox feature that provides a keyboard shortcut named PanicButton.

title: Boss key


text:
Talk:Californios

Page move
This article should probably bemoved to Californio - singular - as that is the Wiki standard.

 * A more accurate title would be "List of Californios". gK [[User talk:GK|¿?]] 03:14, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * That's my fault - that list is a scratchpad and it has too many Yankees on it anyway. The article is still a stub. Other topics that the article might cover include the lifestyles of old California, the land grants and ranchos, Native American/Californio relations, the settlement of property claims after admission to the Union - anything that isn't covered by History of California article. I've been doing some California history articles and trying to add both the Indian tribe and the rancho or mission that the area belonged too. These are topics that are common to much of California history, so having one article to refer to in sub-histories would be useful. I'll go ahead and move the article to Californio, and leave the plural redirect. Willmcw 08:32, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * All that you've suggested should go into this article sounds like, to me, something that would be more appropriate for the Alta California article. The rancho information is probably something that should be added to articles on different California cities if they are early cities or have some direct connection to one of the ranchos (e.g. the Rancho Los Cerritos historical site in Long Beach, California). gK [[User talk:GK|¿?]] 09:57, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * You are right - that Alta California article should take most of this Californio info. I'd forgotten about it. The problem with ranchos is that some were so large that many cities were carved from even a single one. That is certainly true with Rancho los Cerritos. Maybe a Rancho article could handle some lists of major ranchos, with sublists of the places now built on them. It's not an urgent issue. Willmcw 19:21, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Your're right. A Ranchos of California article is probably the way to go, although there is still some stuff that can be put into the existing city articles. For example, mentioning that the City of Cerritos, California is named after Rancho Los Cerritos, which explains why a basically flat city is named Little Hills. A Rancho article may take some offline digging. I once tried to find a good comprehensive list of the California Ranchos online, and although I found some fairly good info for certain regions, I couldn't find anything that covered all of California. gK [[User talk:GK|¿?]] 04:30, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

FYI, I've started collecting Rancho info and putting it in the Alta California article. Once it becomes useful it might split off into its own article. -Willmcw 00:26, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I've added some information about the revolt of the Californios against the Americans in 1846-1848. I've called the section "Californio Independence" because there wasn't, as far as I can tell, a conscious attempt to create a "Republic de los Californios", but the Californios had been abandoned by Mexico. I've also added similarly worded paragraphs to the California Republic article, and the List of extinct states. Argyriou 22:41, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

- I dont care how u edit it really... as long as it gets done, i'm needing it for my homework... from:newguy298

I think this article has too many discrepencies, too much esoteric opinion and in general, a poor discription of a Californio. For those of you who believe that their was not a Spanish cultural lifestyle within the Rancheros, you don't know what you're writing, or talking about. Let me ask you (rhetoricaly) how could Juan Antonio Carrillo defeat 203 US Marines, killing 14 of them, with only 50 men? Do any of you "authors" know what a Lancer was, or how that tradition carried on in California, but not in Mexico? my advantage is that not only am I educated, I am also a decendant of Spanish Californios...(DonDeigo 22:31, 11 December 2006 (UTC))

 * Thank you for your suggestion! When you feel an article needs improvement, please feel free to make those changes. Wikipedia is a wiki, so anyone can edit almost any article by simply following the  link at the top. You don't even need to log in (although there are many reasons why you might want to).  The Wikipedia community encourages you to be bold in updating pages. Don't worry too much about making honest mistakes — they're likely to be found and corrected quickly. If you're not sure how editing works, check out how to edit a page, or use the sandbox to try out your editing skills.  New contributors are always welcome. Argyriou (talk) 22:54, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

Californios and La Raza: removed edit in question
I apologize for not properly researched the claims, but there's a grain of truth in what made Californios, Hispanos, Chicanos and Mexicanos apart and similar in terms of culture, ethnicity and national identity. Here's an edit on the growing consciousness of "La Raza" and Californios are "indigenous" people of California by means of indigenous, Mexican Indian and Spanish roots.

<>

What do others think of Californio legends and myths ingrained into the "La Raza" and "Aztlan" movements in recent years? 209.247.21.247 13:25, 6 June 2007 (UTC)

Face it
The "Californios" were all mass-murdered, it was a holocaust. How would they vanish from the face of the Earth so quickly after 1848? I have heard about Cajuns, I have heard about Creoles, I have heard about Melungeons, but I have never heard about any sub-national American ethnic group related to the Hispanic people who inhabited California prior than the Mexican-American war. We can easily think non-White Californios mixed with the new Mexican immigrants and vanished in such proccess -but as for White Californios? I don't think White Californios vanished through marriage with White Americans. White Americans hated Catholic people and they didn't even consider Spaniards White back in that day, then they would not be associating themselves with White Californios; as well the White Californios would not marry non-White Hispanics themselves either. So, even if non-White Californios disappeared through intermarriage with recent Mexican immigrants, the White Californios should still exist as an isolated minority till the day of today because they would not have had chance to marry outside their group. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Patrasmentium (talk • contribs) 18:33, 22 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Do you really think these were all mass-murdered?, first of all, how many were these, maybe all were exiled but killed would have led to asignificant historiography in the subject. Additionally some stayed as wine landers I think, but yet there are no many sources on the topic. -- Andersmusician  VOTE  18:34, 24 October 2007 (UTC)
 * At least two prominent Californio families still exist, the Marquez family of Pacific Palisades, CA who owned Rancho Boca de Santa Monica and the Machado family who owned Rancho La Ballona comprising a large portion of what is now a large part of the Los Angeles Westside:. According to ,"It can be conservatively estimated that there are between 320,000 and half-a-million descendants of Californios alive today". As for Patrasmentium's comment: it is true there was tremendous prejudice against even white Californios and white Latinos in the 19th and early 20th centuries, which fostered the massive fraud that economically devastated the Californio community ; however one must remember the shortage of women during the early American period of California, particularly of white women. Marriage between an Anglo male and Californio female seems to have been far more common than the reverse.  71.116.244.127 (talk) 04:26, 4 October 2008 (UTC)

NOTE: As a direct descendent of the Grijalva, Yorba, Avila, Verdugo, Sepulveda, and Ruiz families, I am living proof that there was no such "mass murder" (an absurd concept). Also as a family genealogist and Californio historian, I can assure you that there are thousands and thousands of descendents from this pioneer Spanish/Mexican families living in California today. There are more than 2000 known descendents of one Catalan soldier, Jose Antonio Yorba, alone. Caucasian male pioneers (who came to California before 1849) all married Hispanic descendents of the Spanish soldados de cuero (leather jackets), not Mexican-born pobladores (civilian settlers).

Spanish vs Mexican
The term Californio appears to belong only to the Spanish settlers, not the Mexican ones. Leonard Pitt, in his book The decline of the Californios: a social history of the Spanish-speaking Californians, 1846-1890, writes "As Californio influence waned in Los Angeles, immigrant Mexicans assured the continuance of Spanish-American culture. Pitt contrasts Mexican communities with native-born Californio ones. Rosaura Sánchez in her book Telling identities: the Californio testimonios writes about conflict involving Mexicans who insulted the Californios. Sanchez puts Mexicans in the category of foreigners, in the eyes of the Californios. Barbara L. Voss wrote in The archaeology of ethnogenesis: race and sexuality in colonial San Francisco that the Californios consolidated their culture in the face of mass immigration from Anglos and Mexicans in the late 1830s and the 1840s. These authors make it clear that the term Californio does not include Mexican immigrants to California. Binksternet (talk) 00:35, 4 February 2010 (UTC)
 * There were never very many Spanish-born immigrants to Alta California, other than the Franciscan missionaries (who had no descendants to speak of). Even before Mexican independence, most Spanish colonists sent to California were Mexican-born. The children of those colonists became the Californios. I've found no evidence of any "mass immigration" from anywhere until the Gold Rush began in 1848. WCCasey (talk) 22:49, 13 September 2011 (UTC)

Concerns about neutrality
I have some concerns about the neutrality of this article. It seems heavily biased against non-hispanic Americans. For example, while the article states that the laws created by the U.S. 'effectively encourage squatting', it states further down that a majority of Californio claims (604/813) were upheld in U.S. courts. It also claims that the Act of March 3, 1851, was in contradiction of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, but it only states that the treaty required protection of property rights. The Act of March 3, 1851, according to this article, does not appear to deny property rights in any way, merely demanding that title be presented in order for those rights to be recognized. As I understand it, the sparse population of the region would suggest that much land would in fact fall under public domain. The article also repeatedly refers to non-hispanic Californians as 'invaders'. The fact is that many of these people were legal residents of the territory, some naturalized Mexican citizens, who were themselves unhappy with Mexican authority and took the opportunity to liberate themselves. As stated in the article, the Californios themselves attempted to gain independence on more than one occasion (see wikipedia article http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_California#Political_division_and_permanent_separation). —Preceding unsigned comment added by Js117 (talk • contribs) 12:05, 22 June 2010 (UTC)
 * This article definately has a biased tinge, the sources they have used are in themselves biased and not historical.--Hunnydaisy (talk) 17:55, 22 January 2011 (UTC)

 * I respectfully disagree with the two editors above regarding the neutrality of the article. The comment above that "The Act of March 3, 1851...does not appear to deny property rights in any way, merely demanding that title be presented in order for those rights to be recognized" does not mention the fact (from the article) that the Act placed a 2-year time limit on the filing of claims. That was not in the Treaty of 1848, and was a severe hardship for non-English-speaking, cash-poor Californios unfamiliar with the U.S. legal and governmental system. Yes, most of the claims were eventually honored, but in most cases not for 10-25 years, by which time many of the original Californio rancho owners were perilously in debt or had already gone broke pursuing their claims. To pay legal fees, they sold or granted much of their land to lawyers and other creditors. For a typical story, see Rancho Sausal Redondo. Regarding "public domain": virtually all of the agricultural land within about 50 miles of one of the 21 Missions was contained in the rancho grants. Only northern, interior, mountainous and desert non-native-tribal areas were available to become public domain. WCCasey (talk) 23:04, 24 February 2012 (UTC)

I think more than two years is enough time for editors to deal with the stated neutrality concerns, so I removed the POV tag from the article. WCCasey (talk) 04:48, 7 September 2012 (UTC)

Regarding a recent deletion
An edit made by GeorgeLouis on September 4, 2012, removed the text "(primarily U.S. and British)" from the end of the sentence "Neither were the significant numbers of non-Spanish speaking California-born children of resident foreigners.", which ends the first paragraph in the article. The reason given was "(No source. Also, there were people of all nationalities, many French and Germans.)"

I agree with the deletion, but not for the reason stated. The overwhelming majority of the non-native, non-Californio residents in California prior to the Gold Rush of 1848 were, in fact, U.S. and British. That information, however, is not really relevant to the subject of the article, and certainly does not belong in the first paragraph. WCCasey (talk) 04:44, 7 September 2012 (UTC)

 * There were other Latin Americans (former Spanish colonies like Peru and Chile) to have settled in Spanish-Mexican California. California's climate is similar to that of central Chile. And Peru is a country on the Pacific coast of South America with oceanic navigational routes to California. 67.49.85.100 (talk) 02:38, 5 April 2019 (UTC)

The other Californios
There were Californios in Alta California, but in Baja California (present day Mexico) there are still californios, Californios of Alta California and Baja California were exactly the same. If this article is about californios you should mention something about the Baja California californios. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 201.153.219.212 (talk) 05:36, 26 November 2012 (UTC)
 * But nowadays the demonym of Baja California and Baja California Sur is "Bajacaliforniano".--Isinbill (talk) 16:00, 23 October 2021 (UTC)

Re: material removed from infobox
Some editor spent considerable time trying to assemble data on the number of Californios counted in the 1850 US census for California, and I want to acknowledge the effort. There were, however, several problems. The stated criteria were: "U.S. 1850 California Census asks state of birth of all residents and finds about 7,696 residents who say they were born in California. Adding the approximate 200 Hispanics in San Francisco (1846 directory) whose Census records were burned and an unknown (but small as shown in 1852 CA Census recount) number in Contra Costa and Santa Clara county whose census was lost gives less than 9,000 Hispanics state wide."

I removed this material for the following reasons:
 * 1) Simply being born in California prior to 1850 did not make one a Californio. The editor may have taken the additional step of counting only those with "Hispanic" names but, if so, that was not made clear. "Hispanic" was not one of the ethnicity choices at that time, and many names could be misidentified.
 * 2) Many Native Americans in California became Spanish-speakers and Catholics, and were given Hispanic baptismal names by the Spanish missionaries. Those people, however, were not Californios. Their children perhaps could be considered Californios - a possibility not covered in the article. The number of such people still living in 1850, however, was very small.
 * 3) Use of the term "region" is confusing. Census data is collected by county, not by region.
 * 4) The list of "regions" and/or counties was incomplete.
 * 5) One "region" name was missing.
 * 6) The 1850 census is a good data source, but the primary definition of Californio only includes those born before the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. An accurate count from census data, therefore, would have to exclude those born between that date and 1850. It's unclear whether that was done.

I hope the editor will give this another try, with more explanation, and in the body of the article rather than in the infobox. The data can, of course, be recovered from the earlier revision. WCCasey (talk) 01:28, 16 July 2013 (UTC)

 * The editor who did this was an anonymous editor with an IP number starting with 24.x. This same editor has put unreferenced text into a lot of California topics, creating quite a cleanup job. Here is the article in October 2008 before the anon started expanding it. I do not hold much hope that the IP editor will return to fix the text. Binksternet (talk) 03:03, 16 July 2013 (UTC)

Not about California
Hmains makes the point that "(This article is about Californios and their society; it is not about California which is found in other articles.)" I agree that the article is supposed to be about Californios. That's exactly why I changed several instances of "Californio" to "Californian". Those were statements that applied to all Californians of the period - not just those Californians who were also native-born Californios. The alternative (which wouldn't bother me) is to remove about 2/3 of the article. WCCasey (talk) 05:16, 13 March 2014 (UTC)
 * I began revision of the article to focus more on Californios and less on general early California history. I'll work in small chunks so it will be easier to discuss and fix any objections. Thanks, editors. WCCasey (talk) 02:04, 14 March 2014 (UTC)
 * I would not call what you just did 'small chunks'. You removed a good deal of text completely; rewrote other text; and added text.  I have no idea whether the result is factually correct or incorrect.  The article before you touched it had very insufficient citations; unfortunately, your text does not add citations so who is to know where your information is from.  The article before you could have had a great deal of material deleted as 'no reference'; the same is true of your changes/additions.  Others who know this subject area better than me may have other things to say. Hmains (talk) 03:21, 14 March 2014 (UTC)
 * I've identified two reasons for removing text from this article. One is that a lot of the text is not about Californios (your original point, Hmains). An example of that was removal of the subsection titled "Ideology of the Criollos". The second type of removal is what, to me, read as derogatory and POV comments about the Californio period in California history. One example was"...government (what little there was)...". Another, which I intend to remove or modify in future, is "...rancho owners often went from rancho to rancho on a large horse bound party circuit. Weddings, christenings, and funerals were all "celebrated" with large gatherings."

I invite editors to place tags after specific text that seems to need sourcing. That will help me (and others) to clean up citation deficiencies. In general, where text is linked to other articles that are sourced, I don't feel that the same sources need to be cited in this article. Also, future edits by me in this article will be smaller (small chunks), making them easier to discuss. WCCasey (talk) 17:36, 14 March 2014 (UTC)

Expanded definition?
Since most of what has previously been written in WP about Californios uses an expanded definition that includes many early Californians born elsewhere. Rather than remove a lot of names from Californio lists and categories, I've changed my mind and decided to keep (and better explain) the expanded definition. The essential Californio unit was the family, so I'm thinking that any member of a Californio family is a Californio - unless he/she moved permanently away from California.

One question: should the term Californio be applied to the Franciscan padres who spent large portions of their adult lives at the California missions and died there? (e.g. Serra, Crespi and others) WCCasey (talk) 17:05, 16 March 2014 (UTC)

 * Let's not wander away from the definitions of Californio that can be found in the literature. I see nobody discussing Crespi as a Californio, however, there are Anglos who acculturated as Californios (Abel Stearns, Benjamin D. "Don Benito" Wilson, John "Don Juan" Temple, William Wolfskill) and other Anglos who did not change the culture they brought with them (Phineas Banning, Joseph Lancaster Brent, Francis Mellon). See A Companion to Los Angeles, page 398. Cheryl Ann Smith-Lintner says that the rancho period of the 1820s was when Californio culture arose, these being the elite gentry, who were often the retired soldiers born elsewhere, and their families. The generation born in California were the explicit form of Californio culture. See Becoming Californio, page 3. Leonard Pitt's classic The Decline of the Californios defines the Californios as the elite ranching class. Binksternet (talk) 19:00, 16 March 2014 (UTC)
 * I tend to agree that the padres should not be called Californios. I already added the subsection Californio to mention naturalized foreigners like Stearns. The Franciscan mission historian Zephyrin Engelhardt called the original Spanish-speaking immigrants to Alta California Los Fundadores (the founders). He excluded priests from that group. WCCasey (talk) 20:43, 16 March 2014 (UTC)
 * The term Californio should be limited to those born of the Mexican citizenry (born or naturalized) immigrant population in the place prior to statehood so as to be able to isolate them from all other groups of people such as civilians that left Mexico for whatever reason and settled, soldiers whose purpose in the place was due to military orders although some stayed when they retired and the padres that were in California as ordered by their authorities. How should the children of the Scottish-born immigrant and naturalized citizen Hugo Reid be classified since he married a native Californian Indian. How should most of the New Mexico born children of John Rowland be classified although his first wife was born there her family among those that migrated from Mexico to settle. And Rowland's co-grantee the English born naturalized citizen William Workman should have his grandchildren classified as since his wife possibly was being a native American Indian from New Mexico and their only child married the American immigrant and naturalized F.P.F. Temple from the adjoining rancho?GinAndChronically (talk) 06:13, 5 July 2014 (UTC)

 * I think native-Spanish-speaking is also an important part of the definition, as is the cultural distinction - especially because of the later history of Californios after statehood. I haven't seen any source that describes children of naturalized foreigners as Californios, unless one parent was a Californio. I support any editor who wants to create a separate article for any identifiable group of early Californians (or all early Californians, not just Californios). Until that happens, however, I'm fine with separating them into sections within this article. I like being able to find all of those pioneer names in one place. WCCasey (talk) 20:29, 5 July 2014 (UTC)
 * Maybe sources find it irrelevant to say that the Alta California-born children of naturalized foreigners are Californios since they usually are US and of course by 1847 the area is effectively not Mexico. Within 10 years many of those Californios will be effectively separated from their land and those that still had it were severely affected by the drought with the US predominately taking advantage of moving stock north in order to tide over as well as sell to the predominately white market in the north.GinAndChronically (talk) 09:32, 8 July 2014 (UTC)

 * The Los Angeles Time article used to indicate that Californios are Hispanic people native to California contains errors: None of the people the source cited as "Californios" are natives of California, but of Mexico, Guatemala, Arizona and New Mexico, some of them hardly ever even lived in California. The Spanish spelling of the term "Californian" is "Californiano" (not "Californio"). Californios are the descendants of California settlers. Indeed, most of Hispanics have never heard the "Californio" term. Even the people of Baja California, Mexico, call themselves "Bajacalifornianos".--Isinbill (talk) 15:38, 23 October 2021 (UTC)
 * It is not your place to say that the LA Times, a reputable source, misuses the term; the author is entitled to use the term as they define it. It is not our place to prop up or force a singular usage of the term, there are plenty of others that use Californio as a blanket term for Californian Hispanics just like Tejano is used in Texas (though certainly no where near the popularity of Tejano in Texas). This article needs to present all the usages of the term. Also you're partially correct/wrong in regards to Baja. The term Bajacalifornio used to be more popular in usage and has undoubtedly been replaced in widespread usage by Bajacaliforniano, however that does not mean Bajacalifornio (or sometimes Baja Californio) is not used, in both old and recent sources, like Baja Legends: The Historic Characters, Events, and Locations (published 2002) or Familia: Migration and Adaptation in Baja and Alta California, 1880-1975 (published 1987), or in Spanish sources like Historia general de Baja California Sur: Los procesos políticos (published 2002) or Digesto Constitucional Mexicano de Baja California (published 2010) [this last one uses bajacalifornio and bajacaliforniano interchangeably]. Making incorrect assertions like the term isn't used in Baja or statements that reputable sources are using terms incorrectly are both not convincing arguments to me. Cristiano Tomás (talk) 19:40, 23 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I suggest that the article begin with the following sentence: "Californio is a term often used to designate a Hispanic native or resident of California, especially the Spanish and Mexican settlers and their descendants. This phrase is more unbiased than the one in the article because it refers to the two mainstream understandings of the term (i.e., that a Californio is a Hispanic of California and that he is a descendant of the state's settlers). Moreover, that phrase would help distinguish this article from the article "Hispanics and Latinos in California". Many Hispanics probably consider that both articles are talking about exactly the same topic since, according to the introduction of both articles, they are talking about Hispanics in California. It should not be forgotten that, officially in the USA, a Hispanic is a person from Spain and Hispanic America and his (or her) descendants, while a Latino is a person from Hispanic America, even if some intellectuals include Brazilians as part of the Latinos. On the other hand, for many Hispanics living in the US the terms "Hispanic" and "Latino" are synonymous. That is why the article "Hispanic or Latino Americans" is called "Hispanic or Latino Americans". In addition, most Hispanics today are unfamiliar with the term "Californio" (in Spanish, Californians are "Californianos"), so it is not a mainstream term. My suggested definition of the term "Californio" is also based on the various definitions I have read about that term and which are pointed out in the article.--Isinbill (talk) 00:21, 13 November 2021 (UTC)
 * I support this suggestion by Isinbill. Jeff in CA (talk) 14:22, 13 November 2021 (UTC)
 * I think this is an absolutely fair lead sentence, it gives both a larger expanded definition and the more narrow definition in the same sentence! I'll add it now. Cheers, Cristiano Tomás (talk) 22:44, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Californios


text:
Pan Asia Technical Automotive Center

The Pan Asia Technical Automotive Center (or PATAC) is a joint venture between General Motors and SAIC Motor. It is a design and engineering center in Pudong, Shanghai, China, and is involved in engineering for Shanghai GM products, but also functions as one out of six technical development and design centers worldwide of General Motors.

Overview
PATAC has prepared several global GM vehicles for the Chinese market. From PATAC's own development come the Chevrolet Sail and the second generation Buick GL8. The facelifted Chevrolet Aveo (T200) sedan was also designed in collaboration with PATAC. The centre is also creating every two years a concept car, a total of seven until 2013. Among them two concepts of a new Buick Riviera, in 2007 and 2013.

PATAC disposes of various facilities for design and for motor vehicle development and evaluation, among them a climate wind tunnel, opened on March 27, 2012.

PATAC also manages together with Shanghai GM the 5.67-square-kilometer proving ground in Guangde County, Anhui (31.04427°N, 119.42575°W) with 60 km test roads, opened on September 22, 2012.

The joint-venture PATAC is not to be confused with GM China's own GM China Advanced Technical Center (ATC), which is located in Shanghai next to the GM China headquarters.

title: Pan Asia Technical Automotive Center


text:
Alan Jerrard

Alan Jerrard, VC (3 December 1897 – 14 May 1968) was an English aviator and a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.

An officer of the South Staffordshire Regiment he was 20 years old when, attached as a lieutenant in No. 66 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps during the First World War, he performed an act of bravery for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross.

Early life
Jerrard was born in Lewisham in 1897 and moved in 1902 with his family to Sutton Coldfield where his father was headmaster of Bishop Vesey's Grammar School for 24 years. Later Jerrard attended Oundle School in Northamptonshire and Birmingham University.

First World War
Jerrard volunteered for the British Army and served with the 5th South Staffordshire Regiment before transferring to the Royal Flying Corps in 1916, where he trained as a fighter pilot.

From mid-1917, he served in No. 19 Squadron RFC in France, but he was injured in an air crash on 5 August 1917, flying a SPAD VII. From 22 February 1918, he served in No. 66 Squadron RFC in Italy, as a lieutenant, flying Sopwith Camels. Between 27 February and 21 March he scored four aerial victories, including one balloon.

Victoria Cross
Jerrard was awarded the VC for the following deed:

On 30 March 1918 near Mansuè, Italy, Lieutenant Jerrard, with two other officers, Peter Carpenter and Harold Ross Eycott-Martin, on offensive patrol, shot down one of five enemy aircraft. Then flying at 50 ft. he attacked an aerodrome with some 19 machines either landing or attempting to take off. After destroying one of these he was attacked by more enemy aircraft but, seeing a brother-officer in difficulties, went to assist him, destroying a third enemy machine, then continued his attacks, only retreating, with five machines in pursuit, on the orders of the patrol leader. Even then, he repeatedly turned to beat off the enemy until finally forced down.

After the war records revealed that the Camel's opponents were four Austrian Albatros D.III (Oef) fighters, one of which was damaged and had to land, while another pilot was injured by a bullet. Jerrard was shot down by the ace Benno Fiala von Fernbrugg from Flik 51/J, and became a prisoner of war. Although the RFC credited Jerrard with 3 claims on this date, Jerrard himself did not claim to destroy any planes in that skirmish, only that he claimed to shoot one up. He was the only Camel pilot to be awarded a VC.

Jerrard remained a prisoner until the end of 1918, when he managed to escape and reach Allied lines. He later served in Russia in 1919 and achieved the rank of flight lieutenant.

Jerrard's VC and other medals are displayed on rotation in the Imperial War Museum.

title: Alan Jerrard


text:
User talk:Erikmit

My name is Erik Mitbrodt, I am a student at the University of Victoria majoring in Languages and Anthropology. I find this site really useful for research prior to beginning any project. I am very interested in world events especually those involving Latin America and Venezuela.

title: User talk:Erikmit