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Propelling nozzle

A propelling nozzle is a nozzle that converts the internal energy of a working gas into propulsive force; it is the nozzle, which forms a jet, that separates a gas turbine, or gas generator, from a jet engine.

Propelling nozzles accelerate the available gas to subsonic, transonic, or supersonic velocities depending on the power setting of the engine, their internal shape and the pressures at entry to, and exit from, the nozzle. The internal shape may be convergent or convergent-divergent (C-D). C-D nozzles can accelerate the jet to supersonic velocities within the divergent section, whereas a convergent nozzle cannot accelerate the jet beyond sonic speed.

Propelling nozzles may have a fixed geometry, or they may have variable geometry to give different exit areas to control the operation of the engine when equipped with an afterburner or a reheat system. When afterburning engines are equipped with a C-D nozzle the throat area is variable. Nozzles for supersonic flight speeds, at which high nozzle pressure ratios are generated, also have variable area divergent sections. Turbofan engines may have an additional and separate propelling nozzle which further accelerates the bypass air.

Propelling nozzles also act as downstream restrictors, the consequences of which constitute an important aspect of engine design.

Principles of operation

 * A nozzle operates according to the Venturi effect to bring the exhaust gasses to ambient pressure, while forming them into a propulsive jet; if the pressure upstream of the nozzle is high enough, the flow will reach sonic speed (choke). The role of the nozzle in back-pressuring the engine is explained below.
 * The energy to accelerate the stream comes from the temperature and pressure of the gas. The gas expands adiabatically with low losses and hence high efficiency. The gas accelerates to a final exit velocity which depends on the pressure and temperature at entry to the nozzle, the ambient pressure it exhausts to (unless the flow is choked), and the efficiency of the expansion. The efficiency is a measure of the losses due to friction, non-axial divergence as well as leakage in C-D nozzles.
 * Airbreathing engines create forward thrust on the airframe by imparting a net rearward momentum to the exhaust gas. If thrust exceeds the resistance incurred by the aircraft moving through the air, it will accelerate. The jet may or may not be fully expanded.
 * On some engines that are equipped with an afterburner the nozzle area is varied during non-afterburning or dry thrust conditions. Typically the nozzle is fully open for starting and at idle. It may then close down as the thrust lever is advanced reaching its minimum area before or at the Military or maximum dry thrust setting. Two examples of this control are the General Electric J-79 and the Klimov RD-33 in the MIG-29. Reasons for varying the nozzle area are explained in section: Nozzle area control during dry operation.

Convergent nozzle
Convergent nozzles are used on many jet engines. If the nozzle pressure ratio is above the critical value (about 1.8:1) a convergent nozzle will choke, resulting in some of the expansion to atmospheric pressure taking place downstream of the throat (i.e., smallest flow area), in the jet wake. Although jet momentum still produces much of the gross thrust, the imbalance between the throat static pressure and atmospheric pressure still generates some (pressure) thrust.

Divergent nozzle
The supersonic speed of the air flowing into a scramjet allows the use of a simple diverging nozzle

Convergent-divergent (C-D) nozzle
Engines capable of supersonic flight have convergent-divergent exhaust duct features to generate supersonic flow. Rocket engines — the extreme case — owe their distinctive shape to the very high area ratios of their nozzles.

When the pressure ratio across a convergent nozzle exceeds a critical value, the flow chokes, and thus the pressure of the exhaust exiting the engine exceeds the pressure of the surrounding air and cannot decrease via the conventional Venturi effect. This reduces the thrust producing efficiency of the nozzle by causing much of the expansion to take place downstream of the nozzle itself. Consequently, rocket engines and jet engines for supersonic flight incorporate a C-D nozzle which permits further expansion against the inside of the nozzle. However, unlike the fixed convergent-divergent nozzle used on a conventional rocket motor, those on turbojet engines must have heavy and expensive variable geometry to cope with the great variation in nozzle pressure ratio that occurs with speeds from subsonic to over Mach3.

Nonetheless, low area ratio nozzles have subsonic applications.

Fixed-area nozzle
Non-afterburning subsonic engines have nozzles of a fixed size because the changes in engine performance with altitude and subsonic flight speeds are acceptable with a fixed nozzle. This is not the case at supersonic speeds as described for Concorde below.

With low area ratio
At the other extreme, some high bypass ratio civil turbofans control the fan working line by using a convergent-divergent nozzle with an extremely low (less than 1.01) area ratio on the bypass (or mixed exhaust) stream. At low airspeeds, such a setup causes the nozzle to act as if it had variable geometry by preventing it from choking and allowing it to accelerate and decelerate exhaust gas approaching the throat and divergent section, respectively. Consequently, the nozzle exit area controls the fan match, which, being larger than the throat, pulls the fan working line slightly away from surge. At higher flight speeds, the ram rise in the intake chokes the throat and causes the nozzle's area to dictate the fan match; the nozzle, being smaller than the exit, causes the throat to push the fan working line slightly toward surge. This is not a problem, however, for a fan's surge margin is much greater at high flight speeds.

In rockets (with high area ratio)

Rocket motors also employ convergent-divergent nozzles, but these are usually of fixed geometry, to minimize weight. Because of the high pressure ratios associated with rocket flight, rocket motor convergent-divergent nozzles have a much greater area ratio (exit/throat) than those fitted to jet engines.

Variable-area for afterburning
The afterburners on combat aircraft require a bigger nozzle to prevent adversely affecting the operation of the engine. The variable area iris nozzle consists of a series of moving, overlapping petals with a nearly circular nozzle cross-section and is convergent to control the operation of the engine. If the aircraft is to fly at supersonic speeds, the afterburner nozzle may be followed by a separate divergent nozzle in an ejector nozzle configuration, as below, or the divergent geometry may be incorporated with the afterburner nozzle in the variable geometry convergent-divergent nozzle configuration, as below.

Early afterburners were either on or off and used a 2-position clamshell, or eyelid, nozzle which gave only one area available for afterburning use.

Ejector
Ejector refers to the pumping action of the very hot, high speed, engine exhaust entraining (ejecting) a surrounding airflow which, together with the internal geometry of the secondary, or diverging, nozzle controls the expansion of the engine exhaust. At subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the exhaust to a convergent shape. When afterburning is selected and the aircraft speeds up, the two nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a convergent-divergent shape, speeding the exhaust gasses past Mach1. More complex engine installations use a tertiary airflow to reduce exit area at low speeds. Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and reliability in cases where the secondary nozzle flaps are positioned by pressure forces. The ejector nozzle is also able to use air which has been ingested by the intake but which is not required by the engine. The amount of this air varies significantly across the flight envelope and ejector nozzles are well suited to matching the airflow between the intake system and engine. Efficient use of this air in the nozzle was a prime requirement for aircraft that had to cruise efficiently at high supersonic speeds for prolonged periods, hence its use in the SR-71, Concorde and XB-70 Valkyrie.

A simple example of ejector nozzle is the fixed geometry cylindrical shroud surrounding the afterburning nozzle on the J85 installation in the T-38 Talon. More complex were the arrangements used for the J58 (SR-71) and TF-30 (F-111) installations. They both used tertiary blow-in doors (open at lower speeds) and free-floating overlapping flaps for a final nozzle. Both the blow-in doors and the final nozzle flaps are positioned by a balance of internal pressure from the engine exhaust and external pressure from the aircraft flowfield.

On early J79 installations (F-104, F-4, A-5 Vigilante), actuation of the secondary nozzle was mechanically linked to the afterburner nozzle. Later installations had the final nozzle mechanically actuated separately from the afterburner nozzle. This gave improved efficiency (better match of primary/secondary exit area with high Mach number requirement) at Mach2 (B-58 Hustler) and Mach3 (XB-70).

Variable-geometry convergent-divergent
Turbofan installations which do not require a secondary airflow to be pumped by the engine exhaust use the variable geometry C-D nozzle. These engines don't require the external cooling air needed by turbojets (hot afterburner casing).

The divergent nozzle may be an integral part of the afterburner nozzle petal, an angled extension after the throat. The petals travel along curved tracks and the axial translation and simultaneous rotation increases the throat area for afterburning, while the trailing portion becomes a divergence with bigger exit area for more complete expansion at higher speeds. An example is the TF-30 (F-14).

The primary and secondary petals may be hinged together and actuated by the same mechanism to provide afterburner control and high nozzle pressure ratio expansion as on the EJ200 (Eurofighter). Other examples are found on the F-15, F-16, B-1B.

Thrust-vectoring

Nozzles for vectored thrust include fixed geometry Bristol Siddeley Pegasus and variable geometry F119 (F-22).

Thrust-reversing
The thrust reversers on some engines are incorporated into the nozzle itself and are known as target thrust reversers. The nozzle opens up in two halves which come together to redirect the exhaust partially forward. Since the nozzle area has an influence on the operation of the engine (see below), the deployed thrust reverser has to be spaced the correct distance from the jetpipe to prevent changes in engine operating limits. Examples of target thrust reversers are found on the Fokker 100, Gulfstream IV and Dassault F7X.

Noise-reducing
Jet noise may be reduced by adding features to the exit of the nozzle which increase the surface area of the cylindrical jet. Commercial turbojets and early by-pass engines typically split the jet into multiple lobes. Modern high by-pass turbofans have triangular serrations, called chevrons, which protrude slightly into the propelling jet.

The other purpose of the propelling nozzle
The nozzle, by virtue of setting the back-pressure, acts as a downstream restrictor to the compressor, and thus determines what goes into the front of the engine. It shares this function with the other downstream restrictor, the turbine nozzle. The areas of both the propelling nozzle and turbine nozzle set the mass flow through the engine and the maximum pressure. While both these areas are fixed in many engines (i.e. those with a simple fixed propelling nozzle), others, most notably those with afterburning, have a variable area propelling nozzle. This area variation is necessary to contain the disturbing effect on the engine of the high combustion temperatures in the jet pipe, though the area may also be varied during non-afterburning operation to alter the pumping performance of the compressor at lower thrust settings.

For example, if the propelling nozzle were to be removed to convert a turbojet into a turboshaft, the role played by the nozzle area is now taken by the area of the power turbine nozzle guide vanes or stators.

Reasons for C-D nozzle over-expansion and examples
Overexpansion occurs when the exit area is too big relative to the size of the afterburner, or primary, nozzle. This occurred under certain conditions on the J85 installation in the T-38. The secondary or final nozzle was a fixed geometry sized for the maximum afterburner case. At non-afterburner thrust settings the exit area was too big for the closed engine nozzle giving over-expansion. Free-floating doors were added to the ejector allowing secondary air to control the primary jet expansion.

Reasons for C-D nozzle under-expansion and examples
For complete expansion to ambient pressure, and hence maximum nozzle thrust or efficiency, the required area ratio increases with flight Mach number. If the divergence is too short giving too small an exit area the exhaust will not expand to ambient pressure in the nozzle and there will be lost thrust potential With increasing Mach number there may come a point where the nozzle exit area is as big as the engine nacelle diameter or aircraft afterbody diameter. Beyond this point the nozzle diameter becomes the biggest diameter and starts to incur increasing drag. Nozzles are thus limited to the installation size and the loss in thrust incurred is a trade off with other considerations such as lower drag, less weight.

Examples are the F-16 at Mach2.0 and the XB-70 at Mach3.0.

Another consideration may relate to the required nozzle cooling flow. The divergent flaps or petals have to be isolated from the afterburner flame temperature, which may be of the order of 3600 F, by a layer of cooling air. A longer divergence means more area to be cooled. The thrust loss from incomplete expansion is traded against the benefits of less cooling flow. This applied to the TF-30 nozzle in the F-14A where the ideal area ratio at Mach2.4 was limited to a lower value.

What is adding a divergent section worth in real terms?
A divergent section gives added exhaust velocity and hence thrust at supersonic flight speeds.

The effect of adding a divergent section was demonstrated with Pratt & Whitney's first C-D nozzle. The convergent nozzle was replaced with a C-D nozzle on the same engine J57 in the same aircraft F-101. The increased thrust from the C-D nozzle (2000 lb at sea-level take-off) on this engine raised the speed from Mach1.6 to almost 2.0 enabling the Air Force to set a world's speed record of 1207.6 mph which was just below Mach2 for the temperature on that day. The true worth of the C-D nozzle was not realised on the F-101 as the intake was not modified for the higher speeds attainable. Another example was the replacement of a convergent with a C-D nozzle on the YF-106/P&W J75 when it would not quite reach Mach2. Together with the introduction of the C-D nozzle, the inlet was redesigned. The USAF subsequently set a world's speed record with the F-106 of 1526 mph (Mach2.43).

Nozzle area control during dry operation
Some very early jet engines that were not equipped with an afterburner, such as the BMW 003 and the Jumo 004 (which had a design ), had a variable area nozzle formed by a translating plug known as a Zwiebel [wild onion] from its shape. The Jumo 004 had a large area for starting to prevent overheating the turbine and a smaller area for take-off and flight to give higher exhaust velocity and thrust. The 004's Zwiebel possessed a 40 cm range of forward/reverse travel to vary the exhaust nozzle area, driven by an electric motor-driven mechanism within the body's divergent area just behind the turbine.

Afterburner-equipped engines may also open the nozzle for starting and at idle. The idle thrust is reduced which lowers taxi speeds and brake wear. This feature on the J75 engine in the F-106 was called 'Idle Thrust Control' and reduced idle thrust by 40%. On aircraft carriers, lower idle thrust reduces the hazards from jet blast.

In some applications, such as the J79 installation in various aircraft, during fast throttle advances, the nozzle area may be prevented from closing beyond a certain point to allow a more rapid increase in RPM and hence faster time to maximum thrust.

In the case of a 2-spool turbojet, such as the Olympus 593 in Concorde, the nozzle area may be varied to enable simultaneous achievement of maximum low-pressure compressor speed and maximum turbine entry temperature over the wide range of engine entry temperatures which occurs with flight speeds up to Mach2.

On some augmented turbofans the fan operating line is controlled with nozzle area during both dry and wet operation to trade excess surge margin for more thrust.

Nozzle area control during wet operation
The nozzle area is increased during afterburner operation to limit the upstream effects on the engine. To run a turbofan to give maximum airflow (thrust), the nozzle area may be controlled to keep the fan operating line in its optimum position. For a turbojet to give maximum thrust, the area may be controlled to keep the turbine exhaust temperature at its limit.

What happens if the nozzle doesn't open when the afterburner is selected?
In early afterburner installations, the pilot had to check the nozzle position indicator after selecting afterburner. If the nozzle did not open for some reason, and the pilot did not react by cancelling the afterburner selection, typical controls of that period (e.g. the J47 in the F-86L), could cause the turbine blades to overheat and fail.

Other applications
Certain aircraft, like the German Bf 109 and the Macchi C.202/205 were fitted with "ejector-type exhausts". These exhausts converted some of the waste energy of the (internal combustion) engines exhaust-flow into a small amount of forward thrust by accelerating the hot gasses in a rearward direction to a speed greater than that of the aircraft. All exhaust configurations do this to some extent if the exhaust gasses are discharged in a rearward direction.

A particular thrust-producing exhaust device was patented by Rolls-Royce Limited in 1937. On the 1944 de Havilland Hornet's Rolls-Royce Merlin 130/131 engines the thrust from the multi-ejector exhausts were equivalent to an extra 70bhp per-engine at full-throttle height.

title: Propelling nozzle


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Bertrand Hallward

Bertrand Leslie Hallward (24 May 1901 – 17 November 2003) was a British educationalist who served as Headmaster of Clifton College and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Nottingham.

Family and education
Hallward was born in Hove, Sussex, to Norman Hallward, who worked for the Indian Civil Service, and Eva Gurdon, the daughter of an Indian Army officer. Among his paternal ancestors were several Anglican clergymen, and on his mother's side he was the nephew of Bertrand Evelyn Mellish Gurdon.

He was a pupil at Warden House in Deal, Kent, and at Haileybury College, and later an undergraduate at King's College, Cambridge. After two terms teaching at Harrow School he returned to Cambridge as a fellow of Peterhouse, where he quickly developed an interest in academic administration.

In 1926 he married Margaret Tait (1900–1991), the daughter of the Rev. Arthur Tait, Principal of Ridley Hall, Cambridge, and granddaughter of the Rt. Rev. Thomas Drury, Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Bertrand and Margaret had four daughters together.

Clifton College
Having unsuccessfully applied for the headmastership of Felsted School in 1931, Hallward was offered the position of Headmaster of Clifton College in Bristol in 1939. After a bomb hit the school, he moved the pupils to Bude in Cornwall for the remainder of the Second World War. Returning to Bristol, he set about increasing enrollment and improving the quality of the staff.

University of Nottingham
In 1947, after declining an offer from Charterhouse School, Hallward applied to become principal of University College, Nottingham, which, when his term began the following year, had received full university status. He immediately began enlarging and developing the campus from 122 to 400 acres and enhancing the quality of teaching. He retired from the University of Nottingham in 1965.

Other interests and later life
Hallward served as chairman of the Nottingham Playhouse for 15 years. On retirement, he built an ocean-going yacht, sailing around the Mediterranean Sea during the summer months.

He celebrated his 100th birthday at Peterhouse in 2001 and died in 2003, at the age of 102.

The Hallward Library, opened in 1972, at the University of Nottingham was named after him and, after his death, a girls' boarding house at Clifton College was established and named after him (Hallward's House).

title: Bertrand Hallward


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Battle of Asculum

The Battle of Asculum took place near Asculum (modern Ascoli Satriano) in 279 BC between the Roman Republic under the command of the consuls Publius Decius Mus and Publius Sulpicius Saverrio, and the forces of King Pyrrhus of Epirus. The battle took place during the Pyrrhic War, after the Battle of Heraclea of 280 BC, which was the first battle of the war. There exist accounts of this battle by three ancient historians: Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plutarch, and Cassius Dio. Asculum was in Lucanian territory, in southern Italy. The Battle of Asculum was the original “Pyrrhic victory”.

Prelude and armies
Cassius Dio wrote that during the winter of 280/279 BC both sides prepared for the next battle. In the spring of 279 BC, Pyrrhus invaded Apulia. Many places were captured or capitulated. The Romans came upon him near Asculum and encamped opposite him. In Plutarch's account, after resting his army, Pyrrhus marched to Asculum to confront the Romans.

According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Pyrrhus had 70,000 infantry, of whom 16,000 were Greeks. The Romans had more than 70,000 infantry, of whom about 20,000 were Romans (four legions which at the time had 4,000 men each), the rest being troops from allies. The Romans had about 8,000 cavalry and Pyrrhus had slightly more, plus 19 war elephants. The 1st century AD Roman senator Frontinus estimated a strength of 40,000 men for both sides. Pyrrhus had men from Thesprotia, Ambracia, and Chaon, two cities and a district in Epirus, and mercenaries from the Aetolians, Acarnanians, and Athamanians. These Greeks fought in the Macedonian Phalanx battle formation. He had cavalry squadrons from Thessaly. The Greeks of the city of Tarentum, in southern Italy, were allies of Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus also had allies from three Italic peoples in southern Italy: the Bruttii, Lucani, and Samnites. Among the allies of Rome mentioned by Dionysius of Halicarnassus there were the Frentani, Marrucini, Paeligni, Dauni, and Umbrians. There might also have been contingents from the Marsi and Vestini, who were also allies of Rome.

Since Pyrrhus' elephants had caused much terror and destruction in the Battle of Heraclea, the Romans devised special wagons against them. They were four-wheeled and had poles mounted transversely on upright beams. They could be swung in any direction. Some had iron tridents, spikes, or scythes, and some had "cranes that hurled down heavy grappling irons". Many poles protruded in front of the wagons and had fire-bearing grapnels wrapped in cloth daubed with pitch. The wagons carried bowmen, hurlers of stones, and slingers who threw iron caltrops and men who threw grapnels on fire against the trunks and faces of the elephants. The Romans had 300 such wagons.

Pyrrhus lined up the Macedonian phalanx of the Epirots and Ambracians, mercenaries from Tarentum with white shields, and the Bruttii and Lucani allies on the right wing. The Thesprotians and Chaonians were deployed in the centre next to the Aetolian, Acarnanian, and Athamanian mercenaries. The Samnites formed the left wing. On the right wing of the cavalry were the Samnite, Thessalian, and Bruttii squadrons and Tarentine mercenaries. On the left wing were the Ambracian, Lucanian, and Tarentine squadrons and Acarnanian, Aetolian, Macedonian, and Athamanian mercenaries. Pyrrhus divided the light infantry and the elephants into two groups and placed them behind the wings, on a slightly elevated position. Pyrrhus had an agema of 2,000 picked cavalrymen behind the battle line to help hard-pressed troops. The Romans had their first and third legions on the right wing. The first faced the Epirot and Ambracian phalanx and the Tarentine mercenaries. The third faced the Tarentine phalanx with white shields and the Bruttii and Lucani. The fourth legion formed the centre. The second legion was on the right wing. The Latins, Volsci, and Campanians (who were part of the Roman Republic) and Rome's allies were divided into four legions which were mingled with the Roman legions to strengthen all the lines. The light infantry and wagons which were to be deployed against the elephants were outside the line. Both the Roman and the allied cavalry were on the wings.

Battle
In Plutarch's account, the battle was fought over two days. In the accounts of Cassius Dio and Dionysius of Halicarnassus it lasted one day. According to Plutarch the battle was won by Pyrrhus, according to Cassius Dio, it was won by the Romans. Dionysius of Halicarnassus did not state the outcome of the battle.

Plutarch's account
By Plutarch's account the battle lasted two days. After resting his army, Pyrrhus marched to Asculum to confront the Romans. However, he was forced into an area where, due to the wooded banks of the river, he could not deploy the cavalry or use his elephants against the Romans. The fighting was fierce and many were killed or wounded, before the battle was interrupted by nightfall. During the night Pyrrhus sent a detachment to occupy the unfavourable areas of the field so that he could fight and deploy his elephants on level ground. He put many archers and slingers between the elephants and charged in compact formation. The Romans could not use sidelong shifts or make counter-movements as on the previous day. They had to fight on level ground in a frontal attack. They fought fiercely with their swords against the Macedonian pikes, in an attempt to repulse the enemy troops before the elephants could charge. Despite their resistance, they were eventually driven back by the elephants and fled to their camp.

Cassius Dio's account
Cassius Dio wrote that the two sides avoided each other for several days. There were rumours that Publius Decius Mus (one of the two consuls for 279 BC) was getting ready to devote himself like his father and grandfather. In a devotio a Roman commander sacrificed his life by launching himself into the enemy ranks as a vow to the gods in exchange for victory when the Roman troops were overwhelmed. This galvanised the Roman soldiers. The rumour alarmed the Italic followers of Pyrrhus, who believed that Decius' death would ruin them. Pyrrhus endeavoured to reassure them and ordered them to seize alive anyone who wore the garments the Decii family used when devoting themselves. He sent a man to tell Publius Decius that he would not succeed in his intent and after being taken alive he would die miserably. The Roman consuls replied that there was no need to resort to a devotio because the Romans would defeat him without it.

In Cassius Dio's version of the battle, the river between the two camps was not easy to ford. The Romans asked whether Pyrrhus would choose to cross it unmolested or whether he would allow them to do so unharmed so that the two forces would fight intact, thus giving an accurate test of their valour. Pyrrhus, confident of the strength of his elephants, allowed the Romans to cross the river. However, the Romans deployed their wagons against the elephants, shooting fire and missiles. The Romans gradually forced the Epirotes back until Pyrrhus moved the elephants to the other end of the line, away from the wagons. He used them to charge the Roman cavalry, which was routed by the elephants before they even got close. Meanwhile, some Dauni had set out against the camp of the Epirotes. This won the battle for the Romans because when Pyrrhus sent some of his men against them, the rest suspected that the camp had fallen and that their companions had fled. Because of this they gave way. Many fell and Pyrrhus and many of his officers were wounded. Others died later because of lack of food and of medical supplies. Pyrrhus withdrew to Tarentum before the Romans became aware of this. The Romans did not pursue him because many of their men were wounded. They went into winter quarters in Apulia, while Pyrrhus sent for soldiers and money from home and went on with his other preparations.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus' account
In the account of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Roman cavalry engaged in hand-to-hand, stationary combat, and the Greek cavalry engaged in flanking manoeuvres. When the Romans were pursued by the Greeks, they turned their horses around and fought the infantry. When the battle was even, the Greeks swerved to the right, counter-marched past one another and then turned to charge the enemy. The right wing of the infantry of each army was the stronger one. The Macedonian phalanx repulsed the first Roman legion and the Latins who fought alongside it. Pyrrhus ordered the elephants to charge the part of the Roman line which was in difficulty. The Romans sent the wagons against them, with some initial success. Then the men leading the elephants stopped driving them forward and threw down spears. Lightly-armed Greek troops attacked the wagons and those who manned them fled into the nearest infantry line, throwing it into confusion. The Bruttii and Lucanians in the middle of the formation of Pyrrhus fled when they were repulsed by the Roman fourth legion. When the line was broken through, the Tarentines also fled. Pyrrhus sent part of the agema and part of the cavalry on the right wing to help this weakened line.

Some of the Daunians from Arpi (4000 infantry and 4000 cavalry), who had been sent to help, got close to Pyrrhus’ camp by chance while travelling on a road that led to the enemy's rear. They decided to attack the camp, and after having heard from some prisoners that it had but a few guards, attacked on all sides. Pyrrhus sent the elephants and the bravest cavalrymen to the camp, but it was taken and set on fire before they arrived. The Daunians fled to a hill which could not be ascended by horses or elephants. The enemy detachment then attacked the third and fourth legions, which had routed their opponents. After fleeing up a steep and wooded hill, they lined up in battle order. Although the horses and elephants of Pyrrhus could not pursue them, many were killed or wounded by bowmen and slingers. Pyrrhus sent forward the Athamanians, the Acarnanians and some of the Samnites. The Romans sent forward some cavalry squadrons, and the two forces clashed with many casualties at the bottom of the hill. Both sides recalled their troops just before sunset. The Romans crossed the river to reach their camp. Pyrrhus, whose forces had lost the tents, pack-animals and baggage which were kept in the camp, encamped on a hill and spent the night outdoors and without food. Many of the wounded died as a result of the conditions.

Aftermath
Plutarch noted that according to Hieronymus of Cardia the Romans lost 6,000 men and that, according to Pyrrhus' own commentaries, he lost 3,505 men. He wrote that Dionysius of Halicarnassus made "no mention of two battles at Asculum, nor of an admitted defeat of the Romans" and that (in a passage which is now lost) Dionysius wrote that over 15,000 men on both sides fell in the battle. Plutarch also wrote that Pyrrhus said to someone who was congratulating him: "If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined." This was because he lost a great part of the forces he had brought to Italy and most of his commanders. He could not call up more men from home and his allies in Italy were becoming indifferent. The Romans, instead, could quickly replenish their forces "as if from a fountain gushing forth indoors", and did not lose courage or determination in defeat.

Realising that he could not win a war against the Romans, Pyrrhus accepted a request from the Greek city-states of eastern and southern Sicily to help them against the Carthaginians in western Sicily. He went to Sicily and campaigned there for three years. His allies in southern Italy were aggrieved because he abandoned them. He took over all the Carthaginian domains in Sicily except for the stronghold of Lilybaeum. His siege of this city was unsuccessful. After this he wanted to build a large fleet to invade Carthage's home territory in Africa. He needed to man and equip these ships and to do this he treated the Greek city-states despotically. These cities turned against him. He was forced to return to southern Italy. He fought the Romans at the Battle of Beneventum (275 BC), where he was defeated. He then left Italy and returned to Epirus.

title: Battle of Asculum


text:
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I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GNU Free Documentation License,  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know at my talk page where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks so much. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk, automation script)]] 21:36, Dec 10, 2004 (UTC)

P.S. You can help tag other images at User:Yann/Untagged_Images. Thanks again.

India-tours-and-packages.jpg listed for deletion
An image that you uploaded, India-tours-and-packages.jpg, has been listed at Images and media for deletion because it lacks source and license information, and it is not used in any articles. Please go there to voice your opinion (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry), if you are interested in it not being deleted. Thank you.

title: User talk:Lottagaa


text:
Talk:Network security policy

Would it not be best to use keep unauthorise personel out instead of "keep the bad guys out" Using "personnel" not "personel" maybe! "Keep the bad guys out" says the same thing less formally.

I'm more concerned at the statements around network security policy being 'a document several pages long written by committee' and 'complex'. Well-written policies (and/or higher level principles or axioms) avoid complexities, laying out the fundamental rules simply and straightforwardly, ideally in just a page or two. Details about specific network access rules etc. are normally documented in lower-level security standards, while the processes for managing network security are documented in lower-level procedures and lower-level guidelines offer pragmatic assistance on all the above. NoticeBored (talk) 19:58, 2 January 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Network security policy


text:
User talk:Trond~enwiki

Hi! welcome to Wikipedia!

Hope you enjoy contributing to Wikipedia. Be bold in editing pages. Here are some links that you might find useful:

 * Try the Tutorial. If you have less time, try How to edit a page.
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 * You can experiment in the Sandbox.
 * For help, see Where to ask a question.
 * Some other pages that will help you know more about Wikipedia: Manual of Style and Five pillars, Neutral point of view, Civility, What Wikipedia is not
 * You can contribute in many ways: write a great article, fight vandalism, upload pictures, perform maintainance tasks, contribute to existing projects...

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-- utcursch | talk

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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title: User talk:Trond~enwiki


text: Category:Counties of Poland

title: Category:Counties of Poland


text:
Taman Johor Jaya

Taman Johor Jaya is a suburb in Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia. Johor Jaya consists of mainly residential zones, but it also has light industrial and commercial zones.

Development history
Johor Jaya was developed by Housing Developer Daiman Development Berhad, a subsidiary of Daiman Group. Construction and development works started in 1983. The first phase of development focused mainly on the construction of single storey terrace houses. Construction of the houses completed in 1987, but residents were initially hesitant to move into their houses due to reports of house break-ins. Daiman subsequently announced plans in January 1989 to develop the next 3 phases in Anggerik, Dedap and Teratai. Plans were made to build single and double storey terrace houses, shophouses and a sports complex. Development of these 3 phases completed by 1992, and there were some 11,132 residential houses built by then. The then-general manager of Daiman Group, Tan Yeong Kan quoted that the completion of the development phases were fuelled by their company's cash surpluses with no borrowings. Development of the Keembong and Seroja phases followed suit between 1992 and 1993. The development of the final phase of Johor Jaya around Jalan Rosemerah Utama began in the mid-1990s and concluded with the construction of build-to-order bungalows in the area to the west of the Daiman Golf Course in 1998.

The Family Food Centre was built in 2004 along Jalan Dedap 14 serving various type of common Malay cuisine. A new neighbouring megamall, ÆON Tebrau City, was built in 2005 along Tebrau Highway. Other neighbouring hypermarkets include Giant in Plentong and ÆON Big along Tebrau Highway, just south of ÆON. The At-Taqwa Mosque, which was built in 2009, is located along Jalan Dedap 10. Johor Jaya new police station is in Rosmerah. There is also a Hindu Temple located beside the police station.

Demographics
Most of Johor Jaya's residents are Malays (51.7%), followed by Chinese (40.9%) and Indians (6.8%).

Commerce
Johor Jaya's key shopping district is located Dedap phase, and is home to various SMEs that consisted of eateries, pubs and car repair shops. Morning markets set up by street vendors are also a common sight on Sunday mornings, although some of the vendors are illegal and shoppers have complained of traffic congestion problems. Durian vendors also make their presence felt between June and August, which are brought in from Bentong, Pahang.

Retail outlets

 * Giant Hypermarket, Jalan Masai Lama/Jalan Johor Jaya
 * Nurture Supermarket, Jalan Dedap 14
 * The Store Johor Jaya, Jalan Dedap 4
 * Tesco Hypermarket, Plentong
 * Tesco Hypermarket, Tebrau
 * The Store Hypermarket, Pandan
 * ÆON Big Hypermarket, Pandan (Previously known as Carrefour Hypermarket)
 * ÆON Mall Tebrau City (Previously known as Jusco Tebrau City)
 * Econsave Cash and Carry, Desa Cemerlang
 * SENTAI, Jalan Seroja 37 (Household, Restaurant and Hotel supplies)

Education

 * SJK (C) Johor Jaya, Jalan Rosmerah 5/1
 * SK Taman Johor Jaya 1, Jalan Bakawali 20
 * SK Taman Johor Jaya 2, Jalan Keembong 43
 * SK Taman Johor Jaya 3, Jalan Teratai 50
 * SK Taman Johor Jaya 5, Jalan Anggerik 21
 * SMK Agama Johor Bahru, Jalan Anggerik 21
 * SMK Taman Johor Jaya 1, Jalan Bakawali 75
 * SMK Taman Johor Jaya 2, Jalan Teratai 32

Transportation
The suburb is accessible by Causeway Link route 6B from Johor Bahru Sentral railway station.

title: Taman Johor Jaya


text:
User:HPN/Wikipedia activity

My Activity on Wikipedia
Contributions to Kannada Wikipedia | Count Contributions to English Wikipedia Contributions | Count Articles started by me

My contributions include a decent number of images uploaded under GFDL.  I maintain a partial list of articles I start on kn and en wikipedias on a web log here  . Though the log doesn't list all the articles I started, you can enjoy few brief notes about those which I've listed.

I'm a sysop & bureaucrat at kn:wikipedia, kn:wiktionary

I maintain the Kannada Wikipedia mailing list.

The List of Wikipedias I have edited
kn | en | sa | hi | mr | fr | de | sv

The List of Wiktionaries I have edited
kn Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. If you are viewing it elsewhere, you may be visiting an outdated mirror. Please direct yourself to the real thing at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Hpnadig

title: User:HPN/Wikipedia activity


text:
User talk:Tom-atle

Hi! welcome to Wikipedia!

Hope you enjoy contributing to Wikipedia. Be bold in editing pages. Here are some links that you might find useful:

 * Try the Tutorial. If you have less time, try How to edit a page.
 * To sign your posts (for eg. on talk pages) use 	 ~  (four tildes). This will insert your name and timestamp. To insert just your name, type (3 tildes).
 * You can experiment in the Sandbox.
 * For help, see Where to ask a question.
 * Some other pages that will help you know more about Wikipedia: Manual of Style and Five pillars, Neutral point of view, Civility, What Wikipedia is not
 * You can contribute in many ways: write a great article, fight vandalism, upload pictures, perform maintainance tasks, contribute to existing projects...

I hope you stick around and keep contributing to Wikipedia. Drop us a note at New user log.

-- utcursch | talk

title: User talk:Tom-atle


text:
Armor (novel)

Armor is a military science fiction novel by John Steakley. It features the military use of exoskeletons and insect-like alien enemies but concentrates on the psychological effects of violence on human beings.

It was first published in December 1984.

Plot summary
Armor is the story of humanity's war against an alien race whose foot soldiers are three-meter-tall insects, referred to in the book as "ants". It is also the story of a research colony on the fringes of human territory which is threatened by pirates. The two sub-plots intersect at the end, with each providing answers and insight into events of the other.

The title refers to the nuclear-powered exoskeletons worn by the soldiers, but also references the emotional armor the protagonists maintain to survive.

The plot on Banshee
The protagonist is Felix, an enlistee who's been given "scout" duty on an alien planet in the seemingly endless Antwar. Little is known of him initially but that he suffers from burnout and refuses to die, even when it seems inevitable. When entering into combat, a persona he calls the "Engine" takes over. The Engine makes him into a ruthless killing machine dedicated to keeping him alive at all costs.

The novel starts with Felix and his company assaulting an inhospitable planet aptly named "Banshee." Using armored infantry suits, soldiers drop onto the planet from starships via a teleportation device called "Transit." The attack goes horribly wrong, as Felix's company is completely wiped out, and the mountain fort they were originally supposed to capture is revealed to be a giant hive. In the aftermath of his first encounter, Felix regroups with the surviving humans. There, he meets another highly skilled scout named Forest, who participated in the fleet-wide Armored Olympics against decorated soldier Nathan Kent. It is also revealed that the Ants can lock onto the fleet's Transit beacons and barrage them with missiles fired from the Hive, making retreat impossible.

During a fallback to an elevated bluff, a dying soldier keys all functions on the suit and blows up the nuclear powered armor. Several warriors are killed in the disaster, including Forest. Before dying she confesses to Felix that she always loved Kent. With no options left the warriors resort to attacking the Hive to secure transport back to the ship. Exploiting the Hive's tunnel system, they plan to use a wounded soldier as a bomb to destroy it. Before the attack, Felix meets a soldier named Bolov who tells him that as a scout on his first drop, Felix has a 10% chance of survival.

Felix and his fellow soldiers are ambushed by ants on their way up the hive. During the attack, the soldier they planned on using as a bomb is killed, rendering him useless. In a stroke of bad luck, Bolov is also mortally wounded, grudgingly accepts the task of sacrificing himself and is thrown in the Hive by Felix. The Hive is then destroyed and the survivors are able to retreat back to the ship.

After 19 drops on Banshee, Felix has learned that he is an almost unstoppable warrior. His 20th drop is revealed to be a fleet mission to create humanity's first forward operating base on Banshee. He also learns that Nathan Kent will be dropping with him.

The soldiers successfully create an impregnable fort on Banshee. Felix learns from his inexperienced Commanding Officer, Canada Shoen, that one of the purposes of the fort is to show non-combat officers and journalists what the war is like. Felix is disgusted by this revelation. After spending time with Nathan Kent, he tells him about Forest's death and her true feelings for him. Kent is devastated and attacks Felix in a drunken rage. The fort withstands several assaults from the ants and wears them down almost to complete exhaustion. During a celebration for their victory, ants attack from underground and kill dozens of people, before ultimately being crushed again.

Felix discovers that his 21st drop will be with the Masao, the hereditary ruler of an extremely wealthy extra-solar planet of the same name founded and inhabited by Japanese. They drop into an area not infested with ants so that he can see Banshee for himself. The Masao goads Felix until he admits his past as the Guardian Archon, the elected leader of Golden, a similarly affluent planet. Felix's wife Angel was killed in a tragic freighter accident when she fled Golden, whose people would not accept her because she was from Earth. Felix had blamed Golden, shirked his responsibilities and joined the fleet in hopes of dying in battle. The Masao, who is his lifelong best friend, Allie, begs for Felix to return to Golden. He agrees to leave the military as Allie has brought a small courier ship and funds for him and his desire to die had subsided, but still refuses to return to Golden. Only moments before being teleported onto the ship, Felix notices a Hive in the distance that barrages them with missiles, killing Allie.

In the ensuing chaotic moments after being beamed back to the ship, Kent grabs Felix, who is being blamed for Allie's death. He pops Felix's armor and pushes him onto the ship that Allie had brought before being killed by troops as he blocked their path to Felix.

The plot on Sanction
A secondary plot takes place on Sanction, a planet far removed from the fighting, at a Fleet research facility. The two plots are intertwined, with events Felix experienced on Banshee recalled as flashbacks.

Jack Crow is a notorious celebrity and one-time pirate. A morally questionable character with views and opinions that are just as questionable, he is a tough man who does not hesitate to kill. He is constantly at odds with his own morality but he knows the difference between his celebrity reputation and his real personality. At times, his reputation is more of a burden than a blessing.

Jack, having been imprisoned, escapes and reaches the ship of a mutineer and deserter from the Antwar named Borglyn. Jack strikes a deal where, in exchange for Borglyn saving his life, he will infiltrate and sabotage the Fleet research project on Sanction so Borglyn can access its limitless Fleet power source to refuel his ship, a pretense as Borglyn actually wants to take over the planet. Borglyn will also pay Jack and give him a VIP courier ship to go his own way.

On Sanction, Jack takes an old suit of battle armor from the courier ship to project Director Hollis "Holly" Ware, to ingratiate himself and get the necessary access to fulfill his bargain with Borglyn. But Jack is then asked by Holly to participate in an experiment to retrieve the data from the suit's battle recorder, which is the "memory" of the wearer while the suit was active.

Out of curiosity and a bit of false bonhomie, Jack agrees; he, Holly and Lya (a Fleet psychologist and Holly's girlfriend) spend several sessions "immersed" firsthand in the life of Felix on Banshee and on board ship. During these sessions, more of events on Banshee are described, and the reader is introduced for the first time to Felix as he sees himself and experiences battle.

Through either the complacency or gross incompetence of his superiors, Felix has suffered unbelievably, yet continues to soldier on. This also challenges the trio to deal with the knowledge that the public story of the Antwar is far different from the true horror. These immersions change Jack - as it does the others - so that he chooses to make an almost certain suicidal stand with Holly against Borglyn's attack on the facility.

Throughout the novel, Jack comes into contact with the alcoholic owner of Sanction, a wealthy rancher named Lewis. Lewis is profoundly anti-war and doesn't allow his citizens to carry energy weapons. Jack comes to despise Lewis for his irresponsible drunken nature. During Borglyn's attack, Jack and Holly are on the verge of defeat when Lewis mounts a last minute rescue. Sensing the hopelessness of the situation, he reactivates the armor, revealing himself to be Felix. The ship Borglyn gave Jack was Felix's. He dons the fully charged scout armor and uses it to destroy Borglyn's forces and attack the ship. At the last second, Borglyn fires all of the ships weapon's, seemingly destroying everything around it. He orders the crew to lift off to escape Felix.

Jack and Holly watch in awe as this happens, and catch a final glimpse of Felix on the back of the starship through a security camera just before the ship moves out of range. The government of Golden sends emissaries to Sanction to learn the story. They refuse to end their search for their leader as no wreckage or bodies were found. Jack, Holly, and Lya start new lives on Sanction outside of fleet influence.

Relation to Vampire$
Characters named "Felix" and "Jack Crow" appear in the 1990 John Steakley novel Vampire$, along with an easter egg about the Antwar. Vampire$ is set in a contemporary modern age fantasy world, unlike the science fiction future world of Armor.

Developments
A sequel was in the works at the time of Steakley's death. An excerpt can be found at a fan web-page, posted with the author's consent.

title: Armor (novel)


text:
The Skylark of Space

The Skylark of Space is a science fiction novel by American writer Edward E. "Doc" Smith, written between 1915 and 1921 while Smith was working on his doctorate. Though the original idea for the novel was Smith's, he co-wrote the first part of the novel with Lee Hawkins Garby, the wife of his college classmate and later neighbor Carl Garby. The novel starts as an edisonade, but turns into a space travel adventure when the characters go into deep space. The Skylark of Space is considered to be one of the earliest novels of interstellar travel and the first example of space opera. Originally serialized in 1928 in the magazine Amazing Stories, it was first published in book form in 1946 by the Buffalo Book Co. The novel was followed by three sequels, beginning with Skylark Three.

Plot synopsis

 * Note: This synopsis is consistent with the novel in its later forms (1946 and subsequent editions) but differs in detail from the original 1928 text as transcribed at Project Gutenberg. There were significant changes between the 1928 magazine publication and the 1946 hardcover, and between the early hardcovers and the late 1950s and later paperback editions.

The Skylark of Space is the first book of the Skylark series and pits the idealistic protagonist, Dick Seaton, against the mercantile antagonist Marc "Blackie" DuQuesne.

At the beginning of the story, Seaton accidentally discovers a workable space drive in combining pure copper with a newly discovered [fictional] element "X" (suggested to be a stable transactinide element in the platinum group) in solution. Having failed to re-create the effect, Seaton realizes that the missing component is a field generated by DuQuesne's particle accelerator, and thereafter sets up a business with his millionaire friend, Martin Crane, to build a spaceship. DuQuesne conspires to sabotage Seaton's spaceship and build his own from Seaton's plans, which he uses to kidnap Seaton's fiancée, Dorothy Vaneman, to exchange for the "X". In the resulting fight, DuQuesne's ship is accidentally set to full acceleration on an uncontrolled trajectory, until the copper 'power bar' is exhausted at a vast distance from Earth's Solar System. Using an "Object Compass" that once locked on an object, always points toward that object, Seaton and Crane follow DuQuesne in their own spaceship (the eponymous Skylark) to rescue Dorothy and her fellow-hostage, Margaret "Peg" Spencer, until the Skylark discovers DuQuesne's ship derelict in orbit around a massive dead star (resembling a cold neutron star). Having obtained the hostages, Seaton extracts a promise from DuQuesne to "act as one of the party until they get back to Earth", in which relationship they leave orbit and travel further in search of additional fuel.

On an Earthlike exoplanet, they obtain "X" from an outcrop almost purely of that mineral; then leave that planet in search of copper. Following an encounter with a "Disembodied Intelligence", they enter a cluster of stars nicknamed “The Green System” and locate a planet having copper sulfate oceans. On the Earth-like "Osnome", they befriend the rulers of Mardonale, one of the two factions of the Osnomian natives. When the Mardonalian ruler attempts to betray Seaton and his friends, they find allies in Prince Dunark (a crown-prince of Mardonale's rival "Kondal") and his consort Princess Sitar, whom they later assist in destroying Mardonale. In gratitude, the Kondalians make new copper "power bars" and rebuild the Skylark as Skylark Two, with new weapons known to Kondalian science. Thereafter Seaton's marriage to Dorothy, and Crane's to Margaret, are solemnized by the Kondalian monarchy, and Seaton himself declared nominal "Overlord" of Kondal. The Skylark then returns to Earth, laden with jewels, platinum, radium, and a plenitude of "X"; but near Earth, DuQuesne leaves the Skylark by parachute, and the story ends with the Skylark's landing on Crane's Field.

Reception
Frederik Pohl says of the book: "With the exception of the works of H. G. Wells, possibly those of Jules Verne—and almost no other writer—it has inspired more imitators and done more to change the nature of all the science fiction written after it than almost any other single work." Mike Ashley called it "the seminal space opera." Despite its influence, its critical reputation is mixed; Groff Conklin's review of the 1950 edition noted that "This tale is the sort of thing that only insatiable fans will enjoy, being . . . uncommonly amateur and awkward", and Isaac Asimov wrote that "It had adventure of an unprecedented kind ... the first great 'classic' of American science fiction", but "As literature, it was a total flop". Damon Knight, however, praised the novel for its "fast, lean plot, an air of excitement, . . . four characters who are comfortingly bigger than life [and] the feeling that adventures are waiting everywhere," concluding that "In The Skylark, everything is big and simple." R. D. Mullen wrote that Smith's "great success" was "surely due first of all to the skill with which Smith mixed elements of the spy thriller and the western story . . . with those of the traditional cosmic voyage. In the science fiction novel Islands in the Sky by Arthur C. Clarke a starship is named The Skylark of Space, "a name apparently taken from a famous old science fiction story".

Sequels
The novel was followed by three sequels:
 * 1) Skylark Three (Amazing Stories, Aug–Oct 1930)
 * 2) Skylark of Valeron (Astounding Stories Aug 1934 – Feb 1935, Fantasy Press 1949)
 * 3) Skylark DuQuesne (Worlds of If Jun–Oct 1965, Pyramid Books 1966) - Hugo Award nominee

title: The Skylark of Space


text: User talk:62.219.155.196

title: User talk:62.219.155.196


text:
Vehicle armour

Military vehicles are commonly armoured (or armored; see spelling differences) to withstand the impact of shrapnel, bullets, shells, rockets, and missiles, protecting the personnel inside from enemy fire. Such vehicles include armoured fighting vehicles like tanks, aircraft, and ships.

Civilian vehicles may also be armoured. These vehicles include cars used by officials (e.g., presidential limousines), reporters and others in conflict zones or where violent crime is common. Civilian armoured cars are also routinely used by security firms to carry money or valuables to reduce the risk of highway robbery or the hijacking of the cargo.

Armour may also be used in vehicles to protect from threats other than a deliberate attack. Some spacecraft are equipped with specialised armour to protect them against impacts from micrometeoroids or fragments of space debris. Modern aircraft powered by jet engines usually have them fitted with a sort of armour in the form of an aramid composite kevlar bandage around the fan casing or debris containment walls built into the casing of their gas turbine engines to prevent injuries or airframe damage should the fan, compressor, or turbine blades break free.

The design and purpose of the vehicle determines the amount of armour plating carried, as the plating is often very heavy and excessive amounts of armour restrict mobility. In order to decrease this problem, some new materials (nanomaterials) and material compositions are being researched which include buckypaper, and aluminium foam armour plates.

Steel
Rolled homogeneous armour is strong, hard, and tough (does not shatter when struck with a fast, hard blow). Steel with these characteristics are produced by processing cast steel billets of appropriate size and then rolling them into plates of required thickness. Rolling and forging (hammering the steel when it is red hot) irons out the grain structure in the steel, removing imperfections which would reduce the strength of the steel. Rolling also elongates the grain structure in the steel to form long lines, which enable the stress the steel is placed under when loaded to flow throughout the metal, and not be concentrated in one area.

Aluminium
Aluminium is used when light weight is a necessity. It is most commonly used on APCs and armoured cars. While certainly not the strongest metal, it is cheap, lightweight, and tough enough that it can serve as easy armour.

Iron
Wrought iron was used on ironclad warships. Early European iron armour consisted of 10 to 12.5 cm of wrought iron backed by up to one metre of solid wood. It has since been replaced by steel due to steel being significantly stronger.

Titanium
Titanium has almost twice the density of aluminium, but can have a yield strength similar to high strength steels, giving it a high specific strength. It also has a high specific resilience and specific toughness. So, despite being more expensive, it finds an application in areas where weight is a concern, such as personal armour and military aviation. Some notable examples of its use include the USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II and the Soviet/Russian-built Sukhoi Su-25 ground-attack aircraft, utilising a bathtub-shaped titanium enclosure for the pilot, as well as the Soviet/Russian Mil Mi-24 attack helicopter.

Uranium
Because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armour, sandwiched between sheets of steel armour plate. For instance, some late-production M1A1HA and M1A2 Abrams tanks built after 1998 have DU reinforcement as part of the armour plating in the front of the hull and the front of the turret, and there is a program to upgrade the rest (see Chobham armour).

Plastic
Plastic metal was a type of vehicle armour originally developed for merchant ships by the British Admiralty in 1940. The original composition was described as 50% clean granite of half-inch size, 43% of limestone mineral, and 7% of bitumen. It was typically applied in a layer two inches thick and backed by half an inch of steel.

Plastic armour was highly effective at stopping armour piercing bullets because the hard granite particles would deflect the bullet, which would then lodge between plastic armour and the steel backing plate. Plastic armour could be applied by pouring it into a cavity formed by the steel backing plate and a temporary wooden form.

Some main battle tank (MBT) armour utilises polymers, for example polyurethane as used in the "BDD" applique armour applied to modernized T-62 and T-55.

Glass
Bulletproof glass is a colloquial term for glass that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck by bullets. The industry generally refers to it as bullet-resistant glass or transparent armour.

Bullet-resistant glass is usually constructed using a strong but transparent material such as polycarbonate thermoplastic or by using layers of laminated glass. The desired result is a material with the appearance and light-transmitting behaviour of standard glass, which offers varying degrees of protection from small arms fire.

The polycarbonate layer, usually consisting of products such as Armormax, Makroclear, Cyrolon, Lexan or Tuffak, is often sandwiched between layers of regular glass. The use of plastic in the laminate provides impact-resistance, such as physical assault with a hammer, an axe, etc. The plastic provides little in the way of bullet-resistance. The glass, which is much harder than plastic, flattens the bullet and thereby prevents penetration. This type of bullet-resistant glass is usually 70–75 mm (2.8–3.0 in) thick.

Bullet-resistant glass constructed of laminated glass layers is built from glass sheets bonded together with polyvinyl butyral, polyurethane or ethylene-vinyl acetate. This type of bullet-resistant glass has been in regular use on combat vehicles since World War II; it is typically about 100–120 mm (3.9–4.7 in) thick and is usually extremely heavy.

Newer materials are being developed. One such, aluminium oxynitride, is much lighter but at US$10–15 per square inch is much more costly.

Ceramic
Ceramic's precise mechanism for defeating HEAT was uncovered in the 1980s. High speed photography showed that the ceramic material shatters as the HEAT round penetrates, the highly energetic fragments destroying the geometry of the metal jet generated by the hollow charge, greatly diminishing the penetration. Ceramic layers can also be used as part of composite armour solutions. The high hardness of some ceramic materials serves as a disruptor that shatters and spreads the kinetic energy of projectiles.

Composite

Composite armour is armour consisting of layers of two or more materials with significantly different physical properties; steel and ceramics are the most common types of material in composite armour. Composite armour was initially developed in the 1940s, although it did not enter service until much later and the early examples are often ignored in the face of newer armour such as Chobham armour. Composite armour's effectiveness depends on its composition and may be effective against kinetic energy penetrators as well as shaped charge munitions; heavy metals are sometimes included specifically for protection from kinetic energy penetrators.

Composite armour used on modern Western and Israeli main battle tanks largely consists of non-explosive reactive armour (NERA) elements - a type of Reactive armour. These elements are often a laminate consisting of two hard plates (usually high hardness steel) with some low density interlayer material between them. Upon impact, the interlayer swells and moves the plates, disrupting heat 'jets' and possibly degrading kinetic energy projectiles. Behind these elements will be some backing element designed to stop the degraded jet or projectile element, which may be of high hardness steel, or some composite of steel and ceramic or possibly uranium.

Soviet main battle tanks from the T-64 onward utilised composite armour which often consisted of some low density filler between relatively thick steel plates or castings, for example Combination K. For example, the T-64 turret had a layer of ceramic balls and aluminum sandwiched between layers of cast steel armour, whilst some models of the T-72 features a glass filler called "Kvartz". The tank glacis was often a sandwich of steel and some low density filler, either textolite (a fibreglass reinforced polymer) or ceramic plates. Later T-80 and T-72 turrets contained NERA elements, similar to those discussed above.

Ships

Belt armour is a layer of armour-plating outside the hull (watercraft) of warships, typically on battleships, battlecruisers, cruisers and some aircraft carriers.

Typically, the belt covers from the deck down someway below the waterline of the ship. If built within the hull, rather than forming the outer hull, it can be fitted at an inclined angle to improve the protection.

When struck by a shell or torpedo, the belt armour is designed to prevent penetration, by either being too thick for the warhead to penetrate, or sloped to a degree that would deflect either projectile. Often, the main belt armour was supplemented with a torpedo bulkhead spaced several metres behind the main belt, designed to maintain the ship's watertight integrity even if the main belt were penetrated.

The air-space between the belt and the hull also adds buoyancy. Several wartime vessels had belt armour that was thinner or shallower than was desirable, to speed production and conserve resources.

Deck armour on aircraft carriers is usually at the flight deck level, but on some early carriers was at the hangar deck. (See armoured flight deck.)

Aircraft
Armour plating is not common on aircraft, which generally rely on their speed and maneuverability to avoid attacks from enemy aircraft and ground fire, rather than trying to resist impacts. Additionally, any armour capable of stopping large-calibre anti-aircraft fire or missile fragments would result in an unacceptable weight penalty. So, only the vital parts of an aircraft, such as the ejection seat and engines, are usually armoured. This is one area where titanium is used extensively as armour plating. For example, in the American Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II and the Soviet-built Sukhoi Su-25 ground attack aircraft, as well as the Mil Mi-24 Hind ground-attack helicopter, the pilot sits in a titanium enclosure known as the "bathtub" for its shape. In addition, the windscreens of larger aircraft are generally made of impact-resistant, laminated materials, even on civilian craft, to prevent damage from bird strikes or other debris.

Armoured fighting vehicles
The most heavily armoured vehicles today are the main battle tanks, which are the spearhead of the ground forces, and are designed to withstand anti-tank guided missiles, kinetic energy penetrators, high-explosive anti-tank weapons, NBC threats and in some tanks even steep-trajectory shells. The Israeli Merkava tanks were designed in a way that each tank component functions as added back-up armour to protect the crew. Outer armour is modular and enables quickly replacing damaged parts.

Layout
For efficiency, the heaviest armour on an armoured fighting vehicle (AFV) is placed on its front. Tank tactics require the vehicle to always face the likely direction of enemy fire as much as possible, even in defence or withdrawal operations.

Sloping and curving armour can both increase its protection. Given a fixed thickness of armour plate, a projectile striking at an angle must penetrate more armour than one impacting perpendicularly. An angled surface also increases the chance of deflecting a projectile. This can be seen on v-hull designs, which direct the force of an Improvised explosive device or landmine away from the crew compartment, increasing crew survivability.

Spall liners
Beginning during the Cold War, many AFVs have spall liners inside of the armour, designed to protect crew and equipment inside from fragmentation (spalling) released from the impact of enemy shells, especially high-explosive squash head warheads. Spall liners are made of aramids (Kevlar, Twaron), UHMWPE (Dyneema, Spectra Shield), or similar materials.

Appliqué
Appliqué armour, or add-on armour, consists of extra plates mounted onto the hull or turret of an AFV. The plates can be made of any material and are designed to be retrofitted to an AFV to withstand weapons that can penetrate the original armour of the vehicle. An advantage of appliqué armour is the possibility to tailor a vehicle's protection level to a specific threat scenario.

Improvised
Vehicle armour is sometimes improvised in the midst of an armed conflict by vehicle crews or individual units. In World War II, British, Canadian and Polish tank crews welded spare strips of tank track to the hulls of their Sherman tanks. U.S. tank crews often added sand bags in the hull and turrets on Sherman tanks, often in an elaborate cage made of girders. Some Sherman tanks were up-armoured in the field with glacis plates and other armour cut from knocked-out tanks to create Improvised Jumbos, named after the heavily armoured M4A3E2 assault tank. In the Vietnam War, U.S. "gun trucks" were armoured with sandbags and locally fabricated steel armour plate. More recently, U.S. troops in Iraq armoured Humvees and various military transport vehicles with scrap materials: this came to be known as "hillbilly armour" or "haji armour" by the Americans. Moreover, there was the Killdozer incident, with the modified bulldozer being armoured with steel and concrete composite, which proved to be highly resistant to small arms.

Spaced

Armour with two or more plates spaced a distance apart, called spaced armour, has been in use since the First World War, where it was used on the Schneider CA1 and Saint-Chamond tanks. Spaced armour can be advantageous in several situations. For example, it can reduce the effectiveness of kinetic energy penetrators because the interaction with each plate can cause the round to tumble, deflect, deform, or disintegrate. This effect can be enhanced when the armour is sloped. Spaced armour can also offer increased protection against HEAT projectiles. This occurs because the shaped charge warhead can detonate prematurely (at the first surface), so that the metal jet that is produced loses its coherence before reaching the main armour and impacting over a broader area. Sometimes the interior surfaces of these hollow cavities are sloped, presenting angles to the anticipated path of the shaped charge's jet in order to further dissipate its power. Taken to the extreme, relatively thin armour plates, metal mesh, or slatted plates, much lighter than fully protective armour, can be attached as side skirts or turret skirts to provide additional protection against such weapons. This can be seen in middle and late-World War II German tanks, as well as many modern AFVs. Taken as a whole, spaced armour can provide significantly increased protection while saving weight.

The analogous Whipple shield uses the principle of spaced armour to protect spacecraft from the impacts of very fast micrometeoroids. The impact with the first wall melts or breaks up the incoming particle, causing fragments to be spread over a wider area when striking the subsequent walls.

Sloped

Sloped armour is armour that is mounted at a non-vertical and non-horizontal angle, typically on tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles. For a given normal to the surface of the armour, its plate thickness, increasing armour slope improves the armour's level of protection by increasing the thickness measured on a horizontal plane, while for a given area density of the armour the protection can be either increased or reduced by other sloping effects, depending on the armour materials used and the qualities of the projectile hitting it. The increased protection caused by increasing the slope while keeping the plate thickness constant, is due to a proportional increase of area density and thus mass, and thus offers no weight benefit. Therefore, the other possible effects of sloping, such as deflection, deforming and ricochet of a projectile, have been the reasons to apply sloped armour in armoured vehicles design. Another motive is the fact that sloping armour is a more efficient way of covering the necessary equipment since it encloses less volume with less material. The sharpest angles are usually seen on the frontal glacis plate, both as it is the hull side most likely to be hit and because there is more room to slope in the longitudinal direction of a vehicle.

Reactive

Explosive reactive armour, initially developed by German researcher Manfred Held while working in Israel, uses layers of high explosive sandwiched between steel plates. When a shaped-charge warhead hits, the explosive detonates and pushes the steel plates into the warhead, disrupting the flow of the charge's liquid metal penetrator (usually copper at around 500 degrees Celsius; it can be made to flow like water by sufficient pressure). Traditional "light" ERA is less effective against kinetic penetrators. "Heavy" reactive armour, however, offers better protection. The only example currently in widespread service is Russian Kontakt-5. Explosive reactive armour poses a threat to friendly troops near the vehicle.

Non-explosive reactive armour is an advanced spaced armour which uses materials which change their geometry so as to increase protection under the stress of impact.

Active protection systems use a sensor to detect an incoming projectile and explosively launch a counter-projectile into its path.

Slat
Slat armour is designed to protect against anti-tank rocket and missile attacks, where the warhead is a shaped charge. The slats are spaced so that the warhead is either partially deformed before detonating, or the fuzing mechanism is damaged, thereby preventing detonation entirely. As shaped charges rely on very specific structure to create a jet of hot metal, any disruption to this structure greatly reduces the effectiveness of the warhead. Slat armour can be defeated by tandem-charge designs such as the RPG-27 and RPG-29.

Electric armour
Electric armour is a recent development in the United Kingdom by the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory. A vehicle is fitted with two thin shells, separated by insulating material. The outer shell holds an enormous electric charge, while the inner shell is at ground. If an incoming HEAT jet penetrates the outer shell and forms a bridge between the shells, the electrical energy discharges through the jet, disrupting it. Trials have so far been extremely promising, and it is hoped that improved systems could protect against KE penetrators. The developers of the Future Rapid Effect System (FRES) series of armoured vehicles are considering this technology.

title: Vehicle armour


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Wikipedia talk:Mexican radio nonsense campaign

Please do not mark these articles with delete as part of this campaign; this is not yet a criteria for speedy deletion. Instead, you will have to use vfd tags, and argue for their deletion on WP:VFD. Cheers. --DropDeadGorgias (talk) 13:25, Nov 30, 2004 (UTC)


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Talk:Sir Ector

Untitled
What story places Sir Ector's home in the north of England or the south of Scotland? Malory calls him "a lord of fair lyuelode in many partyes in Englond & walys": in particular he has "grete lyuelode aboute london". Franey 13:25, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

In a book of mine all people called "Ector" here are called "Antor". This book was translated from French, so is this the French version of the name?--Hun2 13:13, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

I know Robert de Boron used Antor for this character, as did Tennyson. I'll put it in.--Cuchullain 01:54, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Does his wive have a special name? If she has, please add.--Hun2 17:39, 12 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Not that I've ever seen.--Cúchullain t / c 22:16, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

Does anybody have an answer to Faney's question? It might square up with a lot of other character's origins. ---G.T.N. (talk) 22:03, 23 March 2008 (UTC)

Sword in the stone and Excalibur
I read somewhere that when the sword from the stone broken in battle, a blacksmith made the Excalibur for him. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.36.252.195 (talk) 07:07, 24 February 2009 (UTC)

"Wart"
Was Arthur called "Wart"?80.141.164.118 (talk) 17:40, 12 February 2013 (UTC)

 * In The Once and Future King and the Disney movie, yes.--Cúchullain t/ c 17:45, 12 February 2013 (UTC)

Article name should be something like "Ector (Arthurian legend)"
As well. 5.173.77.148 (talk) 07:22, 6 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sir Ector


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User:JRM/Sandbox

 * ''Please do not edit this page. It's used by me to experiment with things the preview function isn't good enough for. If you edit it, my poor little brain gets all confused. Use the main Sandbox instead, or create your own Sandbox.

 Sichuan (help·info)

title: User:JRM/Sandbox


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Talk:Oral hypoglycemic agent

The original core text of this article was entitled Oral hypoglycemic agents, had been contributed primarily by user:Bryan Derksen, and and concerned only sulfonylureas. I moved it here and redirected. alteripse 13:31, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Oral hypoglycemic agent


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Pertactin

In molecular biology, pertactin (PRN) is a highly immunogenic virulence factor of Bordetella pertussis, the bacterium that causes pertussis. Specifically, it is an outer membrane protein that promotes adhesion to tracheal epithelial cells. PRN is purified from Bordetella pertussis and is used for the vaccine production as one of the important components of acellular pertussis vaccine.

A large part of the N-terminus of the pertactin protein is composed of beta helix repeats. This region of the pertactin protein is secreted through the C-terminal autotransporter. The N-terminal signal sequences promotes the secretion of PRN into the periplasm through the bacterial secretion system (Sec) and consequently, the translocation into the outer membrane where it is proteolytically cleaved. The loops in the right handed β-helix of the N-terminus that protrudes out of cell surface (region R1) contains sequence repeats Gly-Gly-Xaa-Xaa-Pro and the RGD domain Arg-Gly-Asp. This RGD domain allows PRN to function as an adhesin and invasin, binding to integrins on the outer membrane of the cell. Another loop of the extending β-helix is region 2 (R2) which contains Pro-Gln-Pro (PQP) repeats towards the C-terminus. This protein’s contribution to immunity is still premature. Reports suggest that R1 and R2 are immunogenic regions, however, recent studies regarding genetic variation of those regions prove otherwise.

In B.bronchiseptica
Pertactin adheres to only ciliated epithelial cells of B. bronchiseptica in vivo. However, in vitro, PRN does not adhere to either. PRN does however help provide resistance towards a hyperinflammatory response of innate immunity for B. bronchiseptica. With respect to the adaptive immunity, studies show that PRN plays a role in combating neutrophil-mediated clearance of B. bronchiseptica.

title: Pertactin


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/High Erisian Church

High Erisian Church was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete

High Erisian Church
A joke spinoff of a joke. Somewhere along the line it stops being notable, or particularly funny for that matter. --Woggly 13:36, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. And ditto for Erisism (I'll VfD it in just a sec), and do watch User:WiseGuy H.E.C. for anything else he comes up with. Aside from not meeting Wikipedia standards, none of this is even funny, and that is surely an affront to the goddess. This sort of content-free, predictable drivel should be buried under several tons of flax. JRM 14:01, 2004 Nov 30 (UTC)
 * Delete. Same prank as Erisism. --Gene s 14:40, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: DCEdwards1966 19:54, Nov 30, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, unless one ounce of this data can be corroborated. --[[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 22:36, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Even is it can be corroborated, it's still not worth seperating out from the Erisism article, if that one is even worth keeping. - Lifefeed 15:01, Dec 2, 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Livery Dole

Livery Dole in Exeter, Devon, is an ancient triangular site between what is today Heavitree Road and Magdalen Road, in the eastern suburbs of Exeter. It was most notoriously used as a place for executions, and has contained an almshouse and chapel since 1591.

Toponymy
The name "Livery Dole" is first recorded in a document of 1279 and probably derives from the Old English Leofhere, a man who owned the land, and dole, meaning a piece of land.

Place of execution

There were two places in Livery Dole used for executions. Until 1531, heretics were burned at the stake near the modern day junction of Magdalen Road and Barrack Road. From 1531 to 1818 hangings were performed on a site near College Avenue known as "Magdalen Drop".

The most notable execution was the 1531 burning at the stake of the Protestant martyr Thomas Benet. Lighted furze was pushed into his face when he refused to deny as heresy his action of nailing on the west door of Exeter Cathedral a message proclaiming the pope to be an Anti-Christ and rejecting his supremacy in religious affairs.

In 1909 a monument in the form of an obelisk of Dartmoor granite was erected to Benet's memory in nearby Denmark Road. This monument was designed by Harry Hems and was erected with money raised through public subscription. It also commemorates the martyrdom of Agnes Prest who in 1557 was burnt for heresy at the stake in Southernhay. Two bronze sculpted relief panels by Harry Hems on the base of the obelisk depict Benet banging on the door of the Cathedral and Prest burning at the stake. The following inscriptions are contained on two bronze plaques affixed on opposite sides of the base: "In grateful remembrance of Thomas Benet, M.A. who suffered at Livery Dole A.D. 1531 for denying the supremacy of the Pope and of Agnes Prest who suffered on Southernhay A.D. 1557 for refusing to accept the doctrine of Transubstantiation. Faithful unto death". And: "To the glory of God & in honour of his faithful witnesses who near this spot yielded their bodies to be burned for love to Christ and in vindication of the principles of the Protestant Reformation this monument was erected by public subscription AD 1909. They being dead yet speak".

According to Charles Worthy, in his History of the Suburbs of Exeter (1892), the iron ring which was placed around the victims' bodies and the chain which attached them to the stake were found in 1851 during rebuilding work on the almshouses.

Chapel and almshouses
Occupying the apex, or easternmost part, of the triangular site is the Chapel of Saint Clarus, an English missionary martyred in about 894 near the River Epte in Normandy.

The present building made from red Heavitree stone dates from a re-building of 1592 by Sir Robert Dennis (died 1592) of Holcombe Burnell, but it was built originally between 1418 and 1439 to serve as a chantry in which to pray for the souls of persons executed on this spot. The chapter roll of 1439 mentions the Livery Dole Chapel as "Capella Sancti Clari extra portam australem infra parochiam de Hevetre" ("The Chapel of Saint Clarus outside the southern gate (of the City of Exeter) within the parish of Heavitree"). In the year 1418 however the chapel was not included amongst a deed of that date found in the 19th century amongst the records of Exeter City Corporation listing all the other chapels in Heavitree, namely St Clements and St Eligius.

Sir Robert Dennis (1525–1592) of Holcombe Burnell and Bicton stated in his will dated 25 July 1592 and proved 22 September 1592, that he had "designed to set aside a plot of ground and to erect an alms-house and chapel for a certain number of poor people with weekly stipends and certain yearly commodities, as would appear in a devise signed and sealed by him". He appointed his son Sir Thomas Dennis as sole executor, with the testator's brothers Edward and Walter Dennis as overseers together with George Cary of Cockington and four others. He requested in his will that if he should die before its completion his son Sir Thomas Dennis should complete the building work "in consideration of the love he bore him and that he had not disinherited him". He also directed his overseers to complete the work if his son should refuse to do so. Sir Robert did indeed die before the work was finished, and his son Sir Thomas Dennis completed the work in 1594. A "peppercorn" chief rent of one penny per annum was payable by the Livery Dole Hospital to the lord of the manor of Heavitree.

There is not the slightest doubt of this Sir Thomas Dennis having been the testator's son, yet on a seemingly contemporary stone tablet erected over the entrance to the formerly existing quadrangle he was erroneously described as Sir Robert's brother: "These alms-houses were founded by Sir Robert Dennis, knight, in March 1591 and finished by Sir Thomas Dennis his brother (sic) in 1594". The tablet contains also a heraldic escutcheon sculpted in relief showing the following ten quarterings of the Dennis family. The Dennis almshouses occupy the central part of Livery Dole to the west of the chapel.

Rolle family
In the 17th century the Rolle family of Stevenstone was the heir of the Dennis family of Bicton. Henry Rolle, 1st Baron Rolle (1708–1750) left in his will an endowment to "The Hospital of Livery Dole". The almshouses were demolished and rebuilt in 1849 by Louisa, Lady Rolle (1794–1885), nee Trefusis, daughter of Robert George William Trefusis, 17th Baron Clinton (1764–1797), and widow of John Rolle, 1st Baron Rolle (died 1842) of Bicton House. In his will Lord Rolle stipulated that "the patronage of the Livery Dole in Heavitree...shall be in the owner of my mansion house at Bicton", and he had left a life interest in that mansion to his widow. The original almshouses stood at the south-west side of the chapel, but the new buildings were positioned north-west of the chapel, which allowed space for lawns and gardens in front of them. Lady Rolle also rebuilt Bicton Church and Otterton Church. Following Lady Rolle's death in 1885 the patronage descended to Lord Rolle's residuary legatee, his widow's nephew Hon. Mark (Trefusis) Rolle (1836–1907), second son of Charles Trefusis, 19th Baron Clinton.

20th century
The windows of St Clarus's Chapel were destroyed by German bombing of Exeter in May 1942 during World War II. The chapel was restored by Mark Rolle's nephew and heir Charles Hepburn-Stuart-Forbes-Trefusis, 21st Baron Clinton (1863–1957). The east window was rebuilt by him in 1946, and some mediaeval stained glass roundels from a tower in the demolished old Church at Bicton were inserted into the side windows in 1947.

The almshouses were extended in 1980.

General Gordon Memorial
At the apex of the Livery Dole triangle, where the two roads meet, was formerly situated a toll house. On that spot since 1885 and still standing today is a Victorian memorial lamp post bearing the inscription: "Charles George Gordon, 26th January 1885". It was erected in memory of General Gordon who was killed in the Siege of Khartoum in 1885, and paid for by Prebendary Barnes, vicar of Heavitree, who was a friend of the General's.

title: Livery Dole


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Hornsund

Hornsund is a fjord on the western side of the southernmost tip of northern Norway's Spitsbergen island.

The fjord's mouth faces west to the Greenland Sea, and is 12 km wide. The length is 30 km, the mean depth is 90 m, and the maximal depth is 260 m. Hornsund cuts different geological formations, from the Precambrian to the west to the upper Mesozoic to the east, and it is perpendicular to the main regional fractures of Spitsbergen. The coastline of Hornsund is diversified, with a number of bays at the mouths of mountainous glacial valleys. Some of these bays have appeared as late as the beginning of the last century due to recession of glaciers.

A Polish research station has been operating there since 1957.

History
The English explorer Jonas Poole visited Hornsund in 1610, giving the fjord its name after his men had brought back a reindeer antler. In 1613 the first whaling ships used Hornsund, the majority of which were driven away by the English. In 1614 the fjord was ceded to the Dutch, but only for this season. In 1617 and 1618 Dutch ships again used Hornsund, but were either driven away or had their goods stolen. Danish ships also resorted to the fjord in 1617, and were forced to give a fifth of their catch to the English. The English held a near monopoly on whaling in the bay until they abandoned it in the late 1650s. In 1634 there was a dispute between the London and Yarmouth ships there, resulting in the death of one man.

title: Hornsund


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Freeport Doctrine

The Freeport Doctrine was articulated by Stephen A. Douglas at the second of the Lincoln-Douglas debates on August 27, 1858, in Freeport, Illinois. Former one-term U.S. Representative Abraham Lincoln was campaigning to take Douglas's U.S. Senate seat by strongly opposing all attempts to expand the geographic area in which slavery was permitted. Lincoln tried to force Douglas to choose between the principle of popular sovereignty proposed by the Kansas-Nebraska Act (which left the fate of slavery in a U.S. territory up to its inhabitants), and the majority decision of the United States Supreme Court in the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford, which stated that slavery could not legally be excluded from U.S. territories (since Douglas professed great respect for Supreme Court decisions, and accused the Republicans of disrespecting the court, yet this aspect of the Dred Scott decision was contrary to Douglas's views and politically unpopular in Illinois). Instead of making a direct choice, Douglas's response stated that despite the court's ruling, slavery could be excluded from any territory by the refusal of the people living in that territory to pass laws favorable to slavery. Likewise, if the people of the territory supported slavery, legislation would provide for its continued existence.

Douglas's actual words were:

"'The next question propounded to me by Mr. Lincoln is, Can the people of a Territory in any lawful way, against the wishes of any citizen of the United States, exclude slavery from their limits prior to the formation of a State constitution? I answer emphatically, as Mr. Lincoln has heard me answer a hundred times from every stump in Illinois, that in my opinion the people of a Territory can, by lawful means, exclude slavery from their limits prior to the formation of a State constitution. Mr Lincoln knew that I had answered that question over and over again. He heard me argue the Nebraska bill on that principle all over the State in 1854, in 1855, and in 1856, and he has no excuse for pretending to be in doubt as to my position on that question. It matters not what way the Supreme Court may hereafter decide as to the abstract question whether slavery may or may not go into a Territory under the Constitution, the people have the lawful means to introduce it or exclude it as they please, for the reason that slavery cannot exist a day or an hour anywhere, unless it is supported by local police regulations. Those police regulations can only be established by the local legislature; and if the people are opposed to slavery, they will elect representatives to that body who will by unfriendly legislation effectually prevent the introduction of it into their midst. If, on the contrary, they are for it, their legislation will favor its extension. Hence, no matter what the decision of the Supreme Court may be on that abstract question, still the right of the people to make a Slave Territory or a Free Territory is perfect and complete under the Nebraska bill. I hope Mr. Lincoln deems my answer satisfactory on that point.'"

By taking this position, Douglas was defending his Popular Sovereignty or "Squatter Sovereignty" principle of 1854, which he considered to be a compromise between pro-slavery and anti-slavery positions. It was satisfactory to the legislature of Illinois, which reelected Douglas over Lincoln to the Senate. However, the Freeport Doctrine, or "Freeport Heresy" as Southern Democrats called it, alienated many of them. Douglas had actually stated the essence of the doctrine previous to the debate at Freeport, but its prominent public assertion at Freeport contributed (along with other political disputes, such as over the Lecompton Constitution) to antagonizing those in the Southern United States who were demanding ever-increasing protections for slavery. These Southerners subsequently insisted on the Congressional repudiation of the Freeport Doctrine (i.e., the passage of slave codes for the territories), in order to block Douglas's presidential bid in 1860. This led to the split of the Democratic party in 1860, and Douglas's loss in the 1860 presidential election.

title: Freeport Doctrine