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Copper electroplating

Copper electroplating is the process of electroplating a layer of copper onto the surface of a metal object. Copper is used both as a standalone coating and as an undercoat onto which other metals are subsequently plated. The copper layer can be decorative, provide corrosion resistance, increase electrical and thermal conductivity, or improve the adhesion of additional deposits to the substrate.

Overview
Copper electroplating takes place in an electrolytic cell using electrolysis. As with all plating processes, the part to be plated must be cleaned before depositing metal to remove soils, grease, oxides, and defects. After precleaning, the part is immersed in the cell's aqueous electrolyte solution and functions as the cathode. A copper anode is also immersed in the solution. During plating, a direct electric current is applied to the cell which causes the copper in the anode to dissolve into the electrolyte through oxidation, losing electrons and ionizing into copper cations. The copper cations form a coordination complex with salts present in the electrolyte, after which they are transported from the anode to the cathode. At the cathode, the copper ions are reduced to metallic copper by gaining electrons. This causes a thin, solid, metallic copper film to deposit onto the surface of the part.

The anodes can be either simple copper slabs or titanium or steel baskets filled with copper nuggets or balls. The anodes may be placed in anode bags, which are typically made of polypropylene or another fabric and are used to contain insoluble particles that flake off the anode and prevent them from contaminating the plating bath.

Copper electroplating baths can be used to plate either a strike or flash coating, which is a thin highly-adherent initial layer that is plated with additional layers of metal and that serves to improve adhesion of the subsequent layers to the underlying substrate, or a thicker coating of copper that may serve as the finish layer or as a standalone coating.

Types of plating chemistries
There are a variety of different electrolyte chemistries that can be used for copper electroplating, but most can be broadly characterized into five general categories based on the complexing agent:
 * 1) Alkaline cyanide
 * 2) Alkaline non-cyanide
 * 3) Acid sulfate
 * 4) Acid fluoroborate
 * 5) Pyrophosphate

Alkaline cyanide
Alkaline cyanide baths have historically been one of the most commonly-used plating chemistries for copper electrodeposition. Cyanide copper baths typically provide high covering and throwing power, allowing uniform and complete coverage of the substrate, but often plate at lower current efficiency. They produce a metal finish favored for its diffusion blocking character. Diffusion blocking is used to improve the long term adherence of different metals, e.g. chromium and steel. It is also used to prevent the second material from diffusing into the substrate.

Cyanide baths contain cuprous cyanide as the source of copper(I) ions, sodium or potassium cyanide as a source of free cyanide that complexes with cuprous cyanide to render it soluble, and sodium or potassium hydroxide for increased conductivity and pH control. Baths may also contain Rochelle salts and sodium or potassium carbonate, as well as a variety of proprietary additives. Cyanide copper baths can be used as low-efficiency strike-only baths, medium-efficiency strike-plate baths, and high efficiency plating baths.

Operating conditions

 * Temperature: 24-66 °C (strike); 40-55 °C (strike-plate); 60-71 °C (high-efficiency)
 * Cathode current density: 0.5-4.0 A/dm2 (strike); 1.0-1.5 A/dm2 (strike-plate); 8.6 A/dm2 (high-efficiency)
 * Current efficiency: 30-60% (strike); 30-50% (strike-plate); 90-99% (high-efficiency);
 * pH: >11.0

Toxicity
Commercial platers typically use a copper cyanide solution, which retains a high concentration of copper. However, the presence of free cyanide in the baths makes them dangerous due to the highly toxic nature of cyanide. This creates both health hazards as well as issues with waste disposal.

Alkaline non-cyanide
Due to safety concerns surrounding the use of cyanide-based plating chemistry, alkaline copper plating baths that do not contain cyanide have been developed. However, they generally see only limited use compared with the more common cyanide-based alkaline chemistry.

Acid sulfate
Acid copper sulfate electrolytes are relatively simple solutions of copper sulfate and sulfuric acid that are cheaper and easier to maintain and control than cyanide copper electrolytes. Compared to cyanide baths, they provide higher current efficiency and allow for higher current density and thus faster plating rates, but they usually have less throwing power, although high-throw variations exist. Additionally, they cannot be used to plate directly onto less-noble metals such as steel or zinc without first applying a cyanide-based strike or other barrier layer, otherwise the acid in the bath will cause an immersion coating to form that will compromise adhesion. Due to this phenomenon as well as the lower throwing power, acid sulfate baths are not usually used as strike baths.

Along with alkaline cyanide, acid copper baths are among the most commonly-used copper plating electrolytes, with industrial applications that include decorative plating, electroforming, rotogravure, and printed circuit board and semiconductor fabrication.

Acid sulfate baths contain cupric sulfate as the source of copper(II) ions; sulfuric acid to increase bath conductivity, ensure copper salt solubility, decrease anode and cathode polarization, and increase throwing power; and a source of chloride ions such as hydrochloric acid or sodium chloride, which helps reduce anode polarization and prevents striated deposits from forming. Most baths also contain a variety of organic additives to help refine the grain structure, improve ductility, and brighten the deposit. Variations of the acid copper electrolyte include general-purpose baths, high-throw baths, and high-speed baths. The high-throw and high-speed baths are used when greater throwing power and faster plating rates are required, including for printed circuit board fabrication where high throw is required to plate the low-current-density areas in the through holes.

Operating conditions

 * Temperature: Usually ambient, although some baths may operate as high as 43 °C
 * Cathode current density: 2–20 A/dm2 (general purpose); 1.5–5 A/dm2 (high throw); 5–20 A/dm2 (high speed)
 * Current efficiency: 100%

Additives
Various common and proprietary additives have been developed for acid copper electrolytes to help improve throwing and leveling power, brighten the finish, control hardness and ductility, and impart other desired properties to the deposit. Historical formulations dating to the mid-20th century often used thiourea and molasses, while other formulations used various gums, carbohydrates, and sulfonic acids.

For semiconductor and printed circuit board applications, acid copper baths use additives that facilitate plating in high-aspect-ratio vias and through holes. Such additives can be grouped into three categories:
 * Suppressors (also known as inhibitors or carriers) (typically polyethers such as polyethylene glycol or polypropylene glycol)
 * Accelerators (also known as brighteners) (typically thiols or disulfides such as 3-Mercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid or bis-(3-sodium sulfopropyl) disulfide)
 * Levelers (examples include dyes such as Janus Green B, Alcian Blue, and Diazine Black)

Without these additives, copper will preferentially deposit on the surface near the top of the vias instead of inside the vias due to the lower local current density inside the vias, leading to top-down via filling and undesirable voids. The suppressor inhibits plating near the top of the via and the surface, while the brightener accelerates plating near the bottom of the via. The leveler helps prevent buildup at the via opening and creates a smoother surface finish.

Acid fluoroborate
Copper fluoroborate baths are similar to acid sulfate baths, but they use fluoroborate as the anion rather than sulfate. Copper fluoroborate is much more soluble than copper sulfate, which allows one to dissolve larger quantities of copper salt into the bath, enabling much higher current densities than what is possible in copper sulfate baths. Their main use is for high-speed plating where high current densities are required. Drawbacks to the fluoroborate chemistry include lower throwing power than acid sulfate baths, higher cost to operate, and greater safety hazards and waste treatment concerns.

Acid fluoroborate baths contain cupric tetrafluoroborate and fluoroboric acid. Boric acid is typically added to the bath to prevent hydrolysis of the fluoroborate ions, which generates free fluoride in the bath. Unlike acid sulfate baths, fluoroborate baths usually do not contain organic additives.

Operating conditions

 * Temperature: 18-66 °C
 * Cathode current density: 13-38 A/dm2 (high concentration); 8-13 A/dm2 (low concentration)
 * pH: 0.2-0.6 (high concentration); 1.0-1.7 (low concentration)

Pyrophosphate
Pyrophosphate copper plating baths possess gentler chemistry compared to the toxic alkaline cyanide baths and the corrosive acid copper baths, operating at mildly alkaline pH and utilizing relatively non-toxic pyrophosphate compounds. While pyrophosphate electrolytes are easier to waste treat than alkaline cyanide and acid plating baths, they are more difficult to maintain and control. Pyrophosphate baths offer high throwing power and produce bright, ductile deposits, making them particularly useful for printed circuit board fabrication where high throw is required for plating high-aspect-ratio through holes.

Pyrophosphate baths contain cupric pyrophosphate as a source of copper(II) ions, potassium pyrophosphate as a source of free pyrophosphate that increases bath conductivity and helps with anode dissolution, ammonia for increased anode dissolution and deposit grain refinement, and a source of nitrate ions such as potassium or ammonium nitrate to decrease cathode polarization and increase the maximum allowed current density. When the bath is made up, the copper pyrophosphate and potassium pyrophosphate react to form a complex, [K6Cu(P2O7)2], which dissociates to form the Cu(P2O7)26− anion from which copper deposits. Variations of the pyrophosphate electrolyte include general-purpose baths, strike baths, and printed circuit baths. Printed circuit baths typically contain organic additives to improve ductility and throwing power.

In pyrophosphate baths, orthophosphate ions are formed from the hydrolysis of pyrophosphate and tend to build up in the electrolyte over time, which presents maintenance challenges. Orthophosphate ions decrease bath throwing power and deposit ductility at concentrations above 40–60 g/L, and they lead to lower solution conductivity, banded deposits, and lower bright current density range at concentrations beyond 100 g/L. Orthophosphate is removed from the bath by either doing partial bails and dilutions or by completely dumping and remaking the bath.

Current control
It is important to control the current to produce the smoothest copper surface possible. With a higher current, hydrogen bubbles will form on the item to be plated, leaving surface imperfections. Often various other chemicals are added to improve plating uniformity and brightness. These additives can be anything from dish soap to proprietary compounds. Without some form of additive, it is almost impossible to obtain a smooth plated surface.

The surface formed always needs to be polished to achieve a shine. As formed it has a matte luster.

Applications
Excluding the continuous strip plating industry, copper is the second most commonly-plated metal after nickel. Copper electroplating offers a number of advantages over other plating processes, including low metal cost, high-conductivity and high-ductility bright finish, and high plating efficiency. The process has a variety of both decorative and engineering applications.

Decorative applications
Decorative copper electroplating takes advantage of the high levelling power of copper bath formulations that produce bright deposits, the ability of copper to cover defects in the base metal, and the softness of copper that makes it easy to buff and polish for a glossy finish. While copper may be used as the final decorative surface layer, it is usually subsequently plated with other metals that are more resistant to wear or tarnish such as chromium, nickel, or gold; in this case, the brightness of the copper undercoat enhances the appearance of the subsequent finish layer. Products that utilize decorative copper plating include automotive trim, furniture, door and cabinet handles, light fixtures, kitchen utensils, other household goods, and apparel.

Copper plating is also used for minting currency.

Engineering applications
Copper electroplating sees widespread usage in the manufacture of electrical and electronic devices, owing to copper's high electrical conductivity – it is the second-most electrically conductive metal after silver. Copper is electroplated onto printed circuit boards to add metal to the through holes and fabricate the board's conductive circuit traces. This is done either through a subtractive process where copper is plated as a blanket unpatterned layer that is subsequently etched with a patterned mask to form the desired circuitry (panel plating), or through an additive or semi-additive process where a patterned mask that exposes the desired circuitry is applied to the board followed by copper plating onto the unmasked circuit areas (pattern plating). The semiconductor industry uses the damascene process to pattern-plate copper into vias and trenches of interconnects for metallization. Copper is also used to plate steel wire for electrical cabling applications.

As a soft metal, copper is also malleable and so has the inherent flexibility to maintain adhesion even if a substrate is subject to being bent and manipulated post plating. When electroplated, copper provides a smooth and even coverage which therefore provides an excellent base for additional coating or plating processes. Corrosion resistance is another advantage to copper. Although copper is not as effective at resisting corrosion as nickel and so is commonly used as a base layer for nickel if enhanced corrosion protection is needed; typically the case for materials that are required to work in marine and subsea environments. Lastly, copper has anti-bacterial properties and so is used in some medical applications.

title: Copper electroplating


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User talk:Abek

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Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! -- Graham ☺ | Talk 03:49, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
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Edit to brewery article
Heya, Abek. Sorry for the delay – I've been away for a couple of days. If I made any changes to brewry that aren't correct, please, feel free to go ahead and correct the entry. I'm far from perfect. :) – ClockworkSoul 19:59, 21 Apr 2005 (UTC)
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Himmel der Bayern
My mistake. Wouldn't "Bavarians' Heaven" (english plural possesive) be a better representation than "Heaven for Bavarians" (preposition construction)? DirectorStratton 21:48, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Beer Categories
It has been suggested by User:BrianSmithson that the Beer and brewery categories should be renamed. The proposal has been supported by User:Syrthiss, and supported and expanded by myself. The notion is that the regional categories should follow the format of "Beer and breweries in Africa" /Europe/Asia/North America/South America/Oceania. "Brewers and breweries" could also be renamed "Beer and breweries by region". And all the countries should also be renamed (and merged if needed) as, for example, "Beer and breweries of Germany", "Beer and breweries of Britain", "Beer and breweries of Poland". The word in each case would be beer rather than beers to allow for general articles on beer culture in each region as well as individual beers.

Comments, suggestions, objections and simple votes to Wiki Beer Project SilkTork 14:47, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

Beer & brewery notability criteria discusion document
A discussion document has been opened up. WikiProject Beer/Notability Criteria. Please put in your views either on the main page or on the attached talk page. SilkTork 17:53, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

Brewery poll
Your vote/opinion on brewery notability is requested here: SilkTork 12:00, 20 July 2006 (UTC)

Beer category decision
A discussion has been opened on changes that have been made to the existing Beer category system. The changes reverse the decision made by the Project in April 2006. The changes were based on agreement by only two people, and by a discussion that took place outside the Beer Project. There may be some merit in the changes, and to prevent future conflict it is important that there is some discussion of the matter. If you're interested, please see Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Beer.  SilkTork  *YES! 14:00, 14 July 2008 (UTC)

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User talk:Editor99

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User talk:Reilly06

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Damai

Damai (दमाइँ ; IAST: Damāĩ) is an occupational caste found among Khas people comprising 45 subgroups. Their surnames take after the subgroup they belong to. People belonging to this caste are traditionally tailors and musicians capable of using the naumati baja - an ensemble of nine traditional musical instruments. The term Damai is coined from the musical instrument Damaha. The 1854 Nepalese Muluki Ain (Legal Code) categorized Damai as "Lower caste” category. Thus, the tribal designation of Khas is given only in few context to Kami, Damai and Sarki due to traditional status. K.C's of Kageswori municipality,Thali are one of the Damai group of the Kathmandu Valley.

The Government of Nepal abolished the caste-system and criminalized any caste-based discrimination, including "untouchability" in 1963. The country, previously ruled by a Hindu monarchy was a Hindu nation which has now become a secular state. It was declared a republic in 2008, thereby ending it as the Hindu Kingdom with its caste-based discriminations and the untouchability roots.

According to the 2021 Nepal census, Damai make up 1.94% of Nepal's population (or 565,932 people). Damai are categorized under "Hill Dalit" among the 9 broad social groups, along with Kami, Badi, Sarki and Gaine by the Government of Nepal.

Geographical distribution
At the time of the 2011 Nepal census, the frequency of Damai by province was as follows:
 * Karnali Province (4.0%)
 * Gandaki Province (3.9%)
 * Sudurpashchim Province (2.6%)
 * Lumbini Province (1.9%)
 * Koshi Province (1.8%)
 * Bagmati Province (1.4%)
 * Madhesh Province (0.2%)

The frequency of Damai was higher than national average (1.8%) in the following districts:
 * Parbat (7.5%)
 * Myagdi (5.8%)
 * Kalikot (5.1%)
 * Dailekh (5.0%)
 * Baglung (4.7%)
 * Doti (4.6%)
 * Surkhet (4.6%)
 * Mustang (4.4%)
 * Bajura (4.2%)
 * Jajarkot (4.0%)
 * Lamjung (3.9%)
 * Dadeldhura (3.8%)
 * Gulmi (3.7%)
 * Kaski (3.7%)
 * Syangja (3.7%)
 * Western Rukum (3.7%)
 * Rolpa (3.6%)
 * Humla (3.5%)
 * Tanahun (3.4%)
 * Okhaldhunga (3.3%)
 * Arghakhanchi (3.2%)
 * Eastern Rukum (3.2%)
 * Mugu (3.2%)
 * Pyuthan (3.2%)
 * Achham (3.1%)
 * Sindhuli (3.1%)
 * Tehrathum (3.1%)
 * Gorkha (3.0%)
 * Salyan (3.0%)
 * Udayapur (2.8%)
 * Dang (2.7%)
 * Khotang (2.7%)
 * Bhojpur (2.6%)
 * Dhading (2.5%)
 * Jumla (2.5%)
 * Nawalpur (2.5%)
 * Kanchanpur (2.3%)
 * Ramechhap (2.3%)
 * Dolakha (2.2%)
 * Kailali (2.2%)
 * Panchthar (2.2%)
 * Sankhuwasabha (2.2%)
 * Baitadi (2.1%)
 * Chitwan (2.1%)
 * Dhankuta (2.1%)
 * Jhapa (1.9%)
 * Palpa (1.9%)
 * Sindhupalchowk (1.9%)

title: Damai


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Full Faith and Credit Clause

Article IV, Section 1 of the United States Constitution, the Full Faith and Credit Clause, addresses the duty that states within the United States have to respect the "public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state". According to the Supreme Court, there is a difference between the credit owed to laws (i.e. legislative measures and common law) as compared to the credit owed to judgments. Judges and lawyers agree on the meaning of the clause with respect to the recognition of judgments rendered by one state in the courts of another. Barring exceptional circumstances, one state must enforce a judgment by a court in another, unless that court lacked jurisdiction, even if the enforcing court otherwise disagrees with the result. At present, it is widely agreed that this clause of the Constitution has a minimal impact on a court's choice of law decision provided that no state's sovereignty is infringed, although this clause of the Constitution was once interpreted to have greater impact.

Text
Article IV, Section 1:

"Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof."

Background
A similar clause existed in Article IV of the Articles of Confederation, the predecessor to the U.S. Constitution: "Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State." In 1781, a committee of the Continental Congress reported that execution of that clause in the Articles of Confederation required a declaration of two different things: "[1] the method of exemplifying records and [2] the operation of the Acts and judicial proceedings of the Courts of one State contravening those of the States in which they are asserted."

A Pennsylvania court stated in 1786, that this provision in the Articles of Confederation did not direct that "executions might issue in one state upon the judgments given in another", but rather was "chiefly intended to oblige each state to receive the records of another as full evidence of such acts and judicial proceedings."

At the 1787 Constitutional Convention, James Madison said that he wanted to supplement that provision in the Articles of Confederation, to let Congress "provide for the execution of Judgments in other States, under such regulations as might be expedient." By September 1, 1787, negotiations at the Constitutional Convention had led to the following draft which included supplementary language as Madison had requested, similar to what the committee of the Continental Congress had reported in 1781:

"Full faith and credit ought to be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings, of every other state; and the legislature shall, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings, shall be proved, and the effect which judgments, obtained in one state, shall have in another."

After several further modifications, the Full Faith and Credit Clause assumed the form in which it remains today. James Wilson said during the constitutional convention that, if Congress were to not use its power under the latter part of this clause, then the former part of this clause "would amount to nothing more than what now takes place among all Independent Nations". Later, during the ratification process, James Madison remarked further on this subject, in Federalist No. 42. He wrote that the corresponding clause in the Articles of Confederation was "extremely indeterminate, and can be of little importance under any interpretation which it will bear". Of the expanded clause in the Constitution, Madison wrote that it established a power that "may be rendered a very convenient instrument of justice, and be particularly beneficial on the borders of contiguous States."

Interpretation
In 1790, shortly after the Constitution had been ratified, Congress took action under the Full Faith and Credit Clause, enacting that "the records and judicial proceedings, authenticated as aforesaid, shall have such faith and credit given to them in every Court within the United States, as they have by law or usage in the Courts of the state from whence the said records are or shall be taken." In 1813, the Supreme Court interpreted this federal statute, in the leading case of Mills v. Duryee, where the judgment of a New York court was used in a local District of Columbia court. Justice Joseph Story wrote for the Court that it was the federal statute (rather than the constitutional provision) that made records from one state effective in another state:

"It is argued, that this act provides only for the admission of such records as evidence, but does not declare the effect of such evidence, when admitted. This argument cannot be supported. The act declares, that the record, duly authenticated, shall have such faith and credit as it has in the state court from whence it is taken. If in such court it has the faith and credit of evidence of the highest nature, viz., record evidence, it must have the same faith and credit in every other court."

Although the Court was engaged in statutory interpretation in Mills, the Court eventually characterized Mills as a constitutional decision, in the 1887 case of Chicago & Alton v. Wiggins. During the following decades and centuries, the Supreme Court has recognized a "public policy exception" to both the Full Faith and Credit Clause and the accompanying federal statute. In 1939, the Court in Pacific Employers Insurance v. Industrial Accident wrote: "[T]here are some limitations upon the extent to which a state may be required by the full faith and credit clause to enforce even the judgment of another state in contravention of its own statutes or policy. See Wisconsin v. Pelican Insurance Co., 127 U.S. 265; Huntington v. Attrill, 146 U.S. 657; Finney v. Guy, 189 U.S. 335; see also Clarke v. Clarke, 178 U.S. 186; Olmsted v. Olmsted, 216 U.S. 386; Hood v. McGehee, 237 U.S. 611; cf. Gasquet v. Fenner, 247 U.S. 16. And in the case of statutes...the full faith and credit clause does not require one state to substitute for its own statute, applicable to persons and events within it, the conflicting statute of another state, even though that statute is of controlling force in the courts of the state of its enactment with respect to the same persons and events."

The Supreme Court continues to apply its public policy exception differently for state judgments as compared to state laws. In the 2003 case of Franchise Tax Board v. Hyatt, the Court reiterated that, "[o]ur precedent differentiates the credit owed to laws (legislative measures and common law) and to judgments."

If the legal pronouncements of one state conflict with the public policy of another state, federal courts in the past have been reluctant to force a state to enforce the pronouncements of another state in contravention of its own public policy. In cases of out-of-state judgments, the Court has stated that there may be exceptions to the enforcement and jurisdiction of out-of-state judgments, but maintains that there is no public policy exception to the Full Faith and Credit Clause for judgments.

Federal statutory law (28 USC § 1738) provides that:

"Such Acts, records and judicial proceedings or copies thereof, so authenticated, shall have the same full faith and credit in every court within the United States and its Territories and Possessions as they have by law or usage in the courts of such State, Territory or Possession from which they are taken."

Application to family law
The Full Faith and Credit Clause has been applied to orders of protection, for which the clause was invoked by the Violence Against Women Act, and child support, for which the enforcement of the clause was spelled out in the Federal Full Faith and Credit for Child Support Orders Act.

Until the Supreme Court struck down all laws banning interracial marriage in 1967, a number of states banned interracial marriage and did not recognize marriage certificates issued in other states for interracial couples. The full faith and credit clause was never used to force a state to recognize a marriage it did not wish to recognize. However, the existence of a common-law marriage in a sister state (still available in nine states and the District of Columbia) has been recognized in divorce or dissolution of marriage cases.

The clause's application to state-sanctioned same-sex marriages, civil unions, and domestic partnerships is unresolved, although the case of marriage has been rendered moot. In 1996 the U.S. Congress enacted the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), a statute defining marriage as being between one man and one woman for federal purposes and allowed states to refuse to recognize same-sex marriages performed in other states. Whether the latter provision of DOMA violated the Full Faith and Credit Clause was debated among legal commentators. Some scholars viewed DOMA as a violation of the Full Faith and Credit Clause. Other legal scholars disagreed. Ultimately, the U.S. Supreme Court in United States v. Windsor struck down DOMA as a violation of the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause and did not address the Full Faith and Credit Clause in its decision.

In March 2016, the Supreme Court ruled in V.L. v. E.L. that under the Full Faith and Credit Clause, the State of Alabama must recognize the adoption decree granted to a same-sex couple by a Georgia state court in 2007, regardless of how that court came to its conclusion granting the decree.

The Respect for Marriage Act repealed the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) and required the U.S. federal government to recognize the validity of same-sex and interracial marriages in the United States, and to protect religious liberty. Its author, Senator Tammy Baldwin, has stated that its constitutional authority stems from the full faith and credit clause.

Global influence
The wording of this clause was closely followed by the framers of the Constitution of Australia from 1901, namely, in Section 118 of the Constitution of Australia.

title: Full Faith and Credit Clause


text:
Twenty-fourth Amendment

The Twenty-fourth Amendment may refer to:

 * Twenty-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India (1971), granting parliament the power to amend any part of the constitution
 * Twenty-fourth Amendment of the Constitution Bill 2001 (Ireland)
 * Twenty-fourth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan (2017)
 * Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1964)

title: Twenty-fourth Amendment


text:
Talk:Segmented Addressing

This text seems to be copied from Intel's processor guide, see e.g. page 19 of http://www.intel.com/design/intarch/manuals/27320401.pdf -- Brona 03:53, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Segmented Addressing


text:
Talk:Tunku Abdul Rahman

ms:Perbincangan:Tunku Abdul Rahman

Copyedit
As requested, I have copyedited this article, and reduced the overly-admiring tone.

Questions arising: Adam 1 July 2005 07:22 (UTC)
 * What does YTM stand for?
 * He cannot be called "The Tunku," which sounds too admiring and POV. I have called him Abdul Rahman.
 * But he was known as "The Tunku", not just "Tunku". E.g. see this newspaper article. --Dwchin (talk) 09:11, 19 January 2010 (UTC)
 * Alor Setar or Alor Star? Both spellings appear. I believe the official spelling was changed at some point.
 * What did he do during the war? Did he collaborate with the Japanese as most of the princes did? Did he oppose or support MPAJA?
 * There is no reference to the Emergency. What role did he play?

YTM is Yang Teramat Mulia, the title of the son of a reigning Sultan. As for Alor Star/Setar, I think Setar is the "correct" spelling but Star remains more common. Jpatokal 1 July 2005 08:32 (UTC)

Thanks. If YTM is the title of the son of a reigning Sultan, then what is Tunku? Is this a hereditary title, or did he acquire it? If so, when? Adam 1 July 2005 08:44 (UTC)

 * Tunku just means Prince. So Tunku is Abdul Rahman's title and YTM is his style.  Check out the Malay titles article for some insight into the maddeningly complex system... Jpatokal 1 July 2005 16:30 (UTC)

 * I just added a request for cleanup or more exact a request to rewrite with less detail. I was reading the encyclopedia Britannica article and comparing with Wikipedias and there is no comparison (not that there really should be). But what I am getting at is EB has a snippet, whereas WIki is pages and pages. A lot of the info is unreferenced, it reads as if it was copied from a single source, it goes into way too much detail as I find myself having difficulty maintaining concentration. I am not trying to hurt anyone's feelings just give an impartial opinion. He seems to be an extremely important figure in Malaysia's history and deserves to have an "A" style article written about him. I am no expert and most assuredly have issues even when I am an expert with copy editing, but someone needs to grab this with both hands and give it some love and care. Again please understand that all I am trying to do is impart my experience when reading it. I will re-read it in a couple of days to see if I was just having a bad day. speednat (talk) 21:32, 5 September 2013 (UTC)

Sorry to repeat myself, but: Adam 4 July 2005 12:31 (UTC)
 * What did he do during the war? Did he collaborate with the Japanese? Did he oppose or support MPAJA?
 * What role did he play in the Emergency?
 * Was he born with the titles YTM and Tunku, or were they conferred on him, and if so when?

 * As the son of a sultan, he was born with the title Tunku, and a Tunku's style is YTM. Jpatokal 6 July 2005 07:59 (UTC)

Now YTM has disappeared and "Tunku Sam" has appeared. I have never heard this name and it gets no Google hits. Is this a joke? And could our Malaysian friends please come up with an agreement on what he ought to be called? Adam 12:37, 10 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm pretty certain that it's just a joke. I've reverted (both in the article and on the photo). --Mel Etitis  ( Μελ Ετητης ) 14:12, 10 July 2005 (UTC)

Konfrontasi
I'm surprised that there is no mention of this subject in the article. Grant | Talk 06:19, 10 May 2007 (UTC)

Cleanup?
I've read through the article and can't find reasons for the tagging done. Please explain whats wrong with the article. Nsaa (talk) 16:52, 18 June 2009 (UTC)

 * A brief scan over it shows that it is full of uncited anecdotes, many of which are defamatory in nature. This person is an important figure in Malaysian history, and appears to be the target of defamation in this article.—Tetracube (talk) 17:10, 18 June 2009 (UTC)

Formation of Malaysia
"remaining Prime Minister following the formation of Malaysia in 1963, when Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore joined the federation, until his retirement in 1970."

It is unclear to what is meant by the word "federation" within that sentence because the word "federation" is used as a noun. Technically speaking, the act of federating Sabah, Sarawak, Singapore and Federation of Malaya formed Malaysia. To say that Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore joined the federation (assuming federation refers to Malaysia) is a confusing and misleading statement because there is nothing to be joined in the first place. It is also wrong to say Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore joined the Federation of Malaya simply because the Proclamation of Malaysia does not say so. The Proclamation of Malaysia states very clearly that the Federation of Malaysia is formed by the act of federating the sovereign states of North Borneo (Sabah), Sarawak, Singapore and Federation of Malaya. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 115.133.38.234 (talk) 11:45, 10 July 2015 (UTC)

Chad
. 121.122.69.39 (talk) 01:37, 5 July 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tunku Abdul Rahman


text:
User talk:Cosmo the third

Welcome!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia. Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! By the way, you can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using three tildes, like this: ~ ~ ~. Four tildes (~ ~ ) produces your name and the current date. If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my Talk page. Again, welcome! -- Graham ☺ | Talk 03:53, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

cuttlefish
I've never heard that usage, and I can't find it on Google. If you can provide a credible source, you can add it to the article. Otherwise, I'm removing it. - UtherSRG 13:27, Dec 17, 2004 (UTC)

Hunter S. Thompson
I presume your listing of HST twice in Recent Deaths was an error.. it was already in the list when you added it. CryptoDerk 05:10, Feb 21, 2005 (UTC)

File source problem with File:UVTrailsAlliance.gif
Thank you for uploading File:UVTrailsAlliance.gif. I noticed that the file's description page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is unclear. If you did not create this file yourself, you will need to specify the owner of the copyright. If you obtained it from a website, please add a link to the website from which it was taken, together with a brief restatement of that website's terms of use of its content. However, if the copyright holder is a party unaffiliated from the website's publisher, that copyright should also be acknowledged.

If you have uploaded other files, consider verifying that you have specified sources for those files as well. You can find a list of files you have created [ in your upload log]. Unsourced and untagged images may be deleted one week after they have been tagged per Wikipedia's criteria for speedy deletion, F4. If the image is copyrighted and non-free, the image will be deleted 48 hours after 21:02, 1 May 2010 (UTC) per speedy deletion criterion F7. If you have any questions or are in need of assistance please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 21:02, 1 May 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cosmo the third


text:
Axarquía

Axarquía is a comarca of Andalusia in southern Spain. It is the wedge-shaped area east of Málaga. Its name is traced back to Arabic الشرقية (aš-Šarqiyya, meaning "the eastern [region]"). It extends along the coast and inland. Its coastal towns make up the Costa del Sol Oriental - one of the sunniest places in mainland Spain with the average of 320 sunny days a year. The natives of the region are called axárquicos.

The comarca is composed of 31 municipalities, of which the capital is Vélez-Málaga. The Vélez, Algarrobo and Torrox rivers all run through the region. Its highest mountain is La Maroma, highest point of the Sierra de Tejeda, Penibaetic System.

The Axarquía comarca is also known as Axarquía-Costa del Sol, for it includes the Costa del Sol Oriental sector of the Costa del Sol, east of Málaga city made up of Rincón de la Victoria, Vélez-Málaga, Algarrobo, Torrox and Nerja municipal terms.

Etymology
The Dictionary of the Spanish Royal Academy defines the word "jarquía" (xarquía in old Castilian) as "district or territory located east of a great city and dependent on it" and says that it proceeds from Arabic شرقية  Šarqiyya, meaning "eastern part" or " eastern." It coincides with the region of Axarquia which lies in the east of Málaga. The Royal Academy, in its spelling of the Spanish Language, 1999 edition, explains that, in old Castilian, consonant fricative phoneme ⟨x⟩ represented the palatal [ ʃ ]  as in English sh sound, found in words like Axarquía, Don Quixote, Mexico, Texas  etc.

title: Axarquía


text: User talk:68.83.42.114

title: User talk:68.83.42.114


text:
Shahtoosh

Shahtoosh (from Persian شاهتوش 'king of wools'), also known as Shatoush, is a wool obtained from the fur of the chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii, also called Tibetan antelope). Also, shawls made from the wool of the chiru are called shahtoosh. Shahtoosh is the finest animal wool, followed by vicuña wool.

As undomesticated wild animals, the chirus cannot be shorn, so they are killed for this purpose. Due to the severe decline of the chiru population by 90% in the second half of the 20th century, they were internationally classified as a critically endangered species until 2016. Since 2016, they have been classified as a near threatened species due to species conservation programs and partial recovery of population size. The wool is mostly used to make luxurious scarves and shawls, although the production, sale, and acquisition of shahtoosh has been illegal under CITES since 1979. On the black market, shahtoosh shawls fetch prices ranging from $5,000 to $20,000.

Properties
The average fiber diameter of the down hair is 11.45 microns with a standard deviation of 1.78 microns and a coefficient of variation of 15.55 %, and a span from 6.25 to 16.25 microns. Because of the small fiber diameter, the down hair of the chirus is the finest of all animal hairs. The down hair is wavy and mosaic scaled with a scale spacing of 5.3 scales per 100 microns. The scale width tapers in the upward direction of the hair to the next scale ring. At the scale edge, the hair is thicker, making the fiber diameter uneven along the length of the hair. The hair of the chirus is beige to gray, and white on the belly. Only 12-14 % of the down hair is white and more expensive. The lighter the hair color, the lighter shades can be dyed.

The guard hairs are separated from the down hair by sorting. However, due to the fineness and low tensile strength of the fiber, sorting can only be done manually and incompletely, resulting in guard hairs in scarves. Due to tiny air bubbles in the hair, the guard hairs of shatoosh show a pattern like laid stone slabs under a light microscope. This allows shatoosh to be distinguished from cashmere wool products under a light microscope, where guard hairs of cashmere wool look like dark stripes with light-colored edges.

Use
The animals, which live wild on the Tibetan Plateau, the Changtang region,Tibet, Xinjiang, and Qinghai and are under species protection, are killed for the illegal production of textiles in order to obtain the particularly fine warming wool hair of the undercoat. The wool of three to five animals is needed for a scarf, as each chiru produces only about 125-150 grams of the raw wool. Therefore, the population of about one million in the 1950s dropped drastically to an estimated 45,000 (1998 estimate) or 75,000 (2000 estimate) and recovered to about 150,000 animals by 2009 due to species protection. The wool is shipped from the Tibetan Changtang area to Kashmir in India, where it is processed into scarves in the Srinagar area. In 2003, it was estimated that 14,293 people were directly or indirectly involved in the production of shahtoosh shawls. Efforts are underway in India to domesticate some chirus so that shorn shatoosh can be legally used.

Shahtoosh wool is spun and woven, either in rectangular plain weave or diamond-shaped plain weave (called chashme bulbul 'eye of the nightingale' or 'diamond weave'). Shahtoosh shawls can be pulled through a ring due to the small diameter of the fibers ('ring test'), although this also applies to thinly woven shawls made from other wools. By admixing pashmina, shahtoosh can be embroidered more extensively. Blended fabrics of shahtoosh and pashmina are designated differently according to the proportions: Shurah Dani = 100 % Shahtoosh, Bah Dani = 75 % Shahtoosh and 25 % Pashmina, Aeth Dani = 50 % Shahtoosh (as warp) and 50 % Pashmina (as weft). Shawls for women are often 2 m × 1 m in size and weigh circa 100 g, while shawls for men are often 3 m × 1.5 m (called doshala).

Law enforcement
An investigation on a 1994 charity event in New York by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service led to the subpoenaing of celebrities who purchased shahtoosh scarves, as well as the first criminal cases for the sale of this material in the US. In April 2000, British authorities fined a London-based trading company for the illegal possession of 138 scarves. Between 2010 and 2018, a total of 295 scarves were confiscated in Switzerland, corresponding to an average of 33 scarves per year. Despite some successful arrests of illegal trafficking rings, a large number of "petty criminals" get away with it, as it is usually claimed to be pashmina or similar legal fabrics. A clear clarification that can be used in court is only obtained after a laboratory examination (DNA test, measurement under a light microscope or a scanning electron microscope).

History
Under Emperor Akbar, the imperial wardrobe began to utilize Tus or Shahtoos on a large scale. It was the costliest, warmest and most delicate shawl. It was soft enough to pass through a finger ring. Its natural colours were black, white and red. It is said that Akbar once gave orders for the white to be dyed into red, but the shawl did not take the colour of the dye. People began to use it simply in its natural colours.

title: Shahtoosh


text: Template:Paulding class destroyer

title: Template:Paulding class destroyer


text:
Hans Singer

Sir Hans Wolfgang Singer (29 November 1910 – 26 February 2006) was a German-born British development economist best known for the Prebisch-Singer thesis, which states that the terms of trade move against producers of primary products. He is one of the primary figures of heterodox economics.

Early life
He was born in Elberfeld, Germany (then the German Empire) on 29 November 1910. A German Jew, Singer had intended to become a medical doctor before he was inspired to study economics after attending a series of lectures by prominent economists Joseph Schumpeter and Arthur Spiethoff in Bonn. Singer fled the rise of Adolf Hitler in 1933, arriving in the United Kingdom as a refugee.

Career
In 1933, Schumpeter convinced John Maynard Keynes of Cambridge University to accept Singer as one of his first PhD candidates, and Singer received his doctorate in 1936. His first academic post was in Manchester where he stayed from 1938 until 1944. Under Keynes, he produced two papers in 1937 and 1940 studying unemployment. Keynes had also helped secure Singer's speedy release after his former student was interned by the British government at the start of the Second World War. In 1938, Singer applied for British citizenship, listing as references Keynes, William Beveridge, William Temple, and the vice-chancellor of Manchester University. His request was granted in 1946.

There, he authored the 1949 UN publication on Relative prices of exports and imports of under-developed countries, where he noted that the terms of trade for primary products had been declining for more than half a century, reversing the improving trend before 1870. Theoretically, this could happen if productivity increased faster in primary production than in industry, but this was hardly plausible. Instead, this meant that "the underdeveloped countries helped to maintain, in the prices which they paid for their imports, a rising standard of living in the industrialized countries, without receiving, in the price of their own products, a corresponding equivalent contribution towards their own standard of living". Raul Prebisch read this report in manuscript form and incorporated both the data and the conclusions into his own report for the UN Commission for Latin America. Singer's controversial conclusions were rejected by the subcommission and was the reason why Prebisch in turn avoided the general fate of UN authors to remain anonymous, the idea being to present the views as belonging to the individual author rather than being the objective, officially sanctioned position of the UN. When Singer henceforth wanted to express these views, he too had to publish under his own name, which he did in a 1950 article on the costs of international trade.

This drew criticism from fellow economists Jacob Viner and Gottfried Haberler and led to his fame as co-originator with Raul Prebisch for the Prebisch-Singer thesis. Since, it was well-known at the time that Singer was the author of the 1949 UN publication on relative prices, it was also referred to as the Singer-Prebisch theorem, to indicate the primacy of authorship. The fundamental claim of the hypothesis is that poorer nations that specialise in primary products such as raw materials and agricultural products will become the losers from the terms of trade when exchanging their goods for manufactures from rich industrialised nations. The theorem posed, and the falling terms of trade showed, that productivity gains made by the primary producer generated lower prices for industrial consumers, while productivity gains by industrial nations were reflected in greater output but not in lower export prices for industrial goods. In this exchange, all of the benefits of international trade went to the wealthy industrial nations, both as consumers and as producers.

As a result, Singer was a passionate advocate for increased foreign aid in a variety of forms to the developing world to offset the disproportionate gain to developed nations of trade. He attempted to create a "soft-loan" fund to offer loans at interest rates below market rates to be administered by the United Nations, but it was systematically blocked by the United States and the United Kingdom, which wished to retain control of money flowing out of the UN. He was thus considered "one of the wild men of the UN" by Eugene R. Black Sr. of the World Bank and American Senator Eugene McCarthy. His ideas were influential in the establishment of the bank's International Development Association, the United Nations Development Programme, and the World Food Programme.

Fellow economist Sir Alec Cairncross has said of Singer, "There are few of the developing countries that he has not visited and still fewer that he has not advised. He must have addressed a wider variety of academics and a wider variety of places about a wider variety of subjects than any other economist, living or dead." Singer, like Prebisch, was influential on neo-Marxist development theorists such as Paul Baran and Andre Gunder Frank, although these focused on transfers of profits as a mechanism of exploitation rather than the terms of trade. However, he was not normally considered a neo-Marxist himself and did not consider himself one.

Later life
In 1969, he left the UN to join the influential Institute of Development Studies (IDS) at the University of Sussex in England. He produced about 30 books under his name and nearly 300 other publications. The International Institute of Social Studies (ISS) awarded its honorary fellowship to Hans Singer in 1977. Singer was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994. In 2001 the UN World Food Programme awarded him the Food for Life award in recognition of his contribution to the battle against world hunger. In November 2004, Singer was awarded the first Lifetime Achievement Award from the Development Studies Association.

Singer died in Brighton on 26 February 2006.

Legacy
In commemoration and in honour of Sir Hans Singer the German Development Institute and the Institute of Development Studies initiated the Hans Singer Memorial Lecture on Global Development, which alternates between Bonn and Brighton on an annual basis. The first memorial lecture was given by the renowned development economist Paul Collier of the University of Oxford in May 2009 in Bonn. The second lecture was held in October 2010 in Brighton with Jomo Kwame Sundaram, Assistant Secretary General of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). The third memorial lecture was given by Stephen Chan of the School of Oriental and African Studies at University of London in November 2011 at the German Development Institute in Bonn.

title: Hans Singer


text:
Christopher Priest

Christopher Priest may refer to:

 * Christopher Priest (novelist) (1943-2024), British novelist
 * Christopher Priest (comics) (born 1961), American writer of comic books also known as Jim Owsley
 * Chris Priest (footballer) (born 1973), former English midfielder

title: Christopher Priest


text:
Dines' compensation

Dines' compensation, or Dines compensation principle, is a rule of thumb devised by English meteorologist William Henry Dines which states that winds converging on a given column of air at one altitude tends to be balanced by winds diverging at another altitude, and vice versa. As an example, the air under a thunderstorm rushes in at ground level, rises up through the cumulonimbus cloud, and then disperses at the top of the cloud so there is a balancing of converging and diverging air flows and no net increase in air molecules above a given location.

Dines compensation is a demonstration of conservation of mass under the weak constraint that the height of the atmosphere is approximately the same anywhere on Earth.

Mathematically it may be stated that the sign of the horizontal divergence changes at least once in any given column of air.

A corollary is that rising air at any given point in the atmosphere tends to be balanced by sinking or subsiding air elsewhere. This is a salient feature of mesoscale atmospheric circulation (i.e. supercells) and in macroscale and mesoscale tropical circulations. For instance, it is not uncommon to see high altitude anticyclonic cirrus outflow from a hurricane in visible satellite imagery which is compensating for the inbound winds at sea level.

Dines compensation is useful in weather forecasting to connect the formation and movement of ground-level high and low pressure zones with wind phenomenon in the upper troposphere such as Rossby waves and jet streams. In general Dines compensation ties together vertical and horizontal air movements in the atmosphere.

title: Dines' compensation


text: Category:Districts of Himachal Pradesh

title: Category:Districts of Himachal Pradesh


text:
Albert Trott

Albert Edwin Trott (6 February 1873 – 30 July 1914) was a Test cricketer for both Australia and England. He was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1899. He is believed to be the only batsman to have struck a ball over the top of the Lord's Pavilion. He is also one of only two players to take two hat-tricks in the same first-class innings, the other being Joginder Rao. Despite his notability, having played in 375 first-class matches including 5 Tests, he was almost penniless when he killed himself at the age of 41.

Birth
Trott was born in Abbotsford, Melbourne, Australia. He was one of eight children of accountant Adolphus Trott and his wife Mary-Ann (née Stephens). His older brother, Harry Trott also played Test cricket for Australia. They played junior cricket with the local Capulet club and then played together for Victoria in Australia's domestic first-class cricket competition, the Sheffield Shield.

Cricket career in Australia
Trott's story represents one of the great enigmas of Australian cricket history. After just three first-class matches for Victoria, he burst onto the Test scene against AE Stoddart's England team in the 3rd Test at Adelaide in 1894–95, with an amazing debut which included taking 8 for 43 with his slinging, round-arm bowling and scoring 38 and 72 with the bat, both not out, batting at number 10. Australia won the match by 382 runs. He followed this up in the 4th Test in Sydney, by scoring 85 not out in Australia's only innings. Trott was not asked to bowl by captain George Giffen, with England being bowled out cheaply twice by Harry Trott, Charlie Turner and George Giffen. Australia won by an innings and 147 runs to tie the series 2–2. Trott played again in the 5th Test at Melbourne, which England won to win the Ashes, chasing down a target of 297 runs in the second innings with only four wickets down.

Albert's brother, Harry Trott, was named captain of the Australian team which toured England in 1896. Despite Albert having averaged 102.5 with the bat in the Test series against England, he was not selected for the tour. Nonetheless, Trott sailed to England independently in 1896, on the same ship as the Australian touring side.

Cricket career in England
In England, Trott joined the ground staff at Lord's with a view to qualifying by residence to play for Middlesex. He started to play for the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in 1896, and with the help of the Australian cricketer and Test umpire Jim Phillips, he started to play for Middlesex in 1898. Despite missing a month due to an injured hand, he took 102 wickets in his first season, forming a formidable bowling partnership with J. T. Hearne.

Between December 1898 and April 1899, Trott took part in a tour of South Africa organised by Lord Hawke. He played in two matches against the South Africa national cricket team which were retrospectively awarded Test status and thus became one of only sixteen players to have played test cricket for two countries and the last cricketer to have played for both England and Australia.

He was at the peak of his powers as an all-rounder in 1899 and 1900. In 1899 he scored 1,175 first-class runs and took 239 wickets, and in 1900 he scored at 1,337 runs and took 211 wickets. Trott's penchant for the spectacular did not fail him: having already landed the ball on the pavilion balcony at Lord's in the match, he became the only batsman to hit a ball over the current Lord's pavilion, bludgeoning Monty Noble out of the ground on 31 July 1899. The ball hit a chimney and fell into the garden outside the house of Philip Need, the Lord's dressing room attendant. At the time, Trott had been playing for the MCC and Ground against the Australians; the MCC team also included WG Grace and KS Ranjitsinhji. Noble soon had his revenge when Trott was dismissed shortly afterwards, caught off a top edge at third man. Only two months earlier, playing for Middlesex against Sussex, Trott had hit a lofted drive from Fred Tate into the ironwork at the top of one of the pavilion towers. He was a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1899. He took all ten wickets in an innings (10 for 42) bowling for Middlesex against Somerset at Taunton in 1900.

Trott was widely acknowledged as the finest all-round cricketer of his day. A true student of the game, Trott's bowling relied less on pace than it did on guile and spin; his variations ensured that a batsman rarely faced the same ball twice in an over. Trott was a dynamo in the field, with the ball seldom escaping his commodious clutch. He regularly turned matches for Middlesex with his powerful hitting, using a 3 lb bat, at least half a pound heavier than was then usual.

However, from 1901 or 1902, Trott declined abruptly. His weight increased rapidly and he lost mobility, so he could not bowl the very fast ball that was so deadly in his early years. His haul of wickets fell rapidly: from 176 in 1901 to 133 in 1902 and 105 in 1903. By 1905, he was extremely expensive and ineffective (taking only 62 wickets), and only in the very dry summer of 1906 did his batting reach the levels of his early years with Middlesex.

Trott's ability to entertain never left him. His popularity rose as he enjoyed regular ales with spectators on the boundary while fielding. In his benefit match in 1907, he took four wickets in four balls, and then followed up with a second hat trick later in the innings. The feat of two hat-tricks in an innings has been repeated only once in first-class cricket, by Joginder Rao). However, the early end to the match meant that it did not raise as much money for him as it might have done, and he is said to have remarked that he had "bowled himself into the poorhouse".

Death
After retiring from cricket, Trott suffered a lengthy illness. He had a heart condition complicated by nephralgia.

In 1914, he wrote his will on the back of a laundry ticket, leaving his wardrobe and £4 to his landlady. Shortly afterwards, one day before the 15th anniversary of his famous strike over the pavilion at Lord's, he shot himself in Willesden Green, Middlesex.

He was buried at Willesden New Cemetery in plot 613P at the expense of Middlesex County Cricket Club. A headstone was erected in 1994.

Speculation that the South African-born English cricketer Jonathan Trott might be a distant relation of Albert and Harry Trott appears to be ill-founded. Jonathan's family originates in Woodbridge, Suffolk, whereas Harry and Albert's family originates in Yorkshire.

title: Albert Trott


text: User talk:130.219.223.169

title: User talk:130.219.223.169


text:
The Pas (electoral district)

The Pas was a provincial electoral division in north-central Manitoba, Canada. It was created in 1912 following the expansion of the province's northern border, and existed until its dissolution in 2018. It was named for the rural town of The Pas.

Until the 1960s, elections in The Pas were deferred until a few weeks after the rest of the province for logistical reasons. It was not unheard of for politicians from the south of the province to run in The Pas after being chosen as cabinet ministers by newly elected provincial governments; Edward Brown and John Bracken were both elected in this manner.

Located in the north of the province, The Pas was bordered by the riding of Rupertsland to the east and south, Thompson and Flin Flon to the north, Swan River and Lake Winnipeg to the south, and the province of Saskatchewan to the west. In addition to the Town of The Pas, it also included Easterville and Norway House.

The Pas was represented by candidates of the New Democratic Party from 1969 onward (and for all but 11 years since 1943), and for much of that time was considered safe for the party. Its last three MLAs—Oscar Lathlin, Frank Whitehead, and Oscar's daughter Amanda Lathlin—were all Indigenous. Whitehead had previously won a by-election on March 24, 2009, following Oscar Lathlin's death. He held it until his resignation in 2014, and Amanda Lathlin won the ensuing by-election.

Following the 2018 redistribution, the riding was abolished, and its area was re-distributed into The Pas-Kameesak, Flin Flon and Keewatinook ridings. Amanda Lathlin transferred to The Pas-Kameesak.

Demographics
The riding's population in 1996 was 19,449. In 1999, the average family income was $42,878, and the unemployment rate was 17.80%. Health and social services account for 14% of the riding's economy, with retail trade accounting for another 14%.

Sixty-seven per cent of the riding's residents are aboriginal, the second-highest rate in the province.

title: The Pas (electoral district)


text:
Kangaroo Route

The Kangaroo Route is a term coined by Qantas, referring to the commercial passenger air routes flown between Australia and the United Kingdom via the Eastern Hemisphere.

The route has been operated since 1934, but found its name in 1944 from the unique mode of travel of the kangaroo, as the route's "hops" were reminiscent of a kangaroo's hops both use to cover long distances. The term is trademarked and traditionally used by Qantas, although it is often used in the media and by airline competitors to describe all Australia to United Kingdom flights.

In addition to Qantas, by 2003, over 20 airlines operated routes connecting Australia and the UK, including British Airways, Cathay Pacific, Emirates, Etihad, Malaysia Airlines, Qatar Airways, Singapore Airlines, Thai Airways and Turkish Airlines with most involving a single transfer between flights at their respective hubs. Only British Airways and Qantas offer through direct flights (not requiring passengers to change plane en route), both making a fuel stop at Singapore Changi Airport as of 2024.

Qantas commenced operating non-stop flights from Perth to London with Boeing 787s on 25 March 2018. This ended the era of the continents of Europe and Oceania not being connected by non-stop flights, marking the first time that all of the world's continents, excluding Antarctica, are connected by non-stop flights.

Origins of the name
Qantas operated the Australian part of the Kangaroo Route for nine years before coining (and later trademarking) the name.

After starting airmail operations between Brisbane and Singapore in 1934, Qantas began operating passenger flights connecting Brisbane to Singapore in 1935 following successful awarding of the Australian government's tender.

After disruption to the route due to the emerging hostilities of World War II, the connectivity was famously restored by Qantas with its "Double Sunrise" service connectivity between Perth and Ceylon on the Indian Ocean Route with Catalina flying boats in 1943. With the addition of the land based Liberator aircraft to the route in 1944, the "Indian Ocean Route" was officially renamed "The Kangaroo Service"  by Qantas' Managing Director Hudson Fysh and pilot Bill Crowther; a play on words of the aviation term "hop" (referring to a leg of a route), and the hop of a kangaroo, an Australian icon.

Along with the newly created Qantas logo of the flying kangaroo, the terms "Kangaroo Service" and "Kangaroo Route"   were trademarked by Qantas and became the airline's branded term to describe Qantas' Australia-United Kingdom connectivity.

A significant milestone in 1947 when Qantas began operating the entire Kangaroo Route independently. This April 1947 inauguration is referred to as the birth date of the Kangaroo Route by Qantas, even though it had been operating a part of that route for almost a decade.

Early years (1935–1940)
In 1935 Qantas started flying passengers to Singapore in a De Havilland 86 to connect with London-bound Imperial Airways. London to Brisbane service commenced on 13 April 1935. Imperial Airways and Qantas Empire Airways opened the 12,754 mi London to Brisbane route for passengers for a single fare £195. There were no through bookings on the first service because of heavy sector bookings, but there were two through passengers on the next flight that left London on 20 April. The route opened for passengers from Brisbane to London on 17 April; flights were weekly and the journey time was 12$1/2$ days.

Eastbound passengers from London would first fly from Croydon to Paris, take an overnight train to Brindisi, and fly onward with stops at Athens, Alexandria (overnight), Gaza, Baghdad (overnight), Basra, Kuwait, Bahrain, Sharjah (overnight), Gwadar, Karachi, Jodhpur (overnight), Delhi, Cawnpore, Allahabad, Calcutta (overnight), Akyab, Rangoon, Bangkok (overnight), Alor Star, Singapore (overnight), Batavia, Sourabaya, Rambang (overnight), Koepang, Darwin (overnight), Longreach (overnight), and Charleville. London-Karachi was operated by Imperial Airways, Karachi-Singapore jointly by Imperial and Indian Trans-Continental Airways, and Singapore-Brisbane by Qantas.

Impediment and interruption due to WWII (June 1940 – Feb 1942)
On June 11, 1940, Italy entered WWII and the Kangaroo Route connection across the Mediterranean Sea from Egypt was severed with the resulting loss of all access to commercial air routes. While direct passenger air connectivity was lost, previous contingency plans were put into action, utilising the structure of the "Horseshoe Route" that connected Australia and England for passengers and airmail via Durban, South Africa where passengers would connect to steamboat service. This service was swiftly started just 8 days later with the first flight leaving Australia on June 19, 1940 and continuing its operation, modifying as necessary until its final reserve route ("Reserve Route 3") via Broome was lost on February 15, 1942 with the fall of Singapore.

Plans for restoration of the connectivity were started in early 1943, resulting in the ideation, equipping, and successful testing of what would become the Double Sunrise service. Earlier in 1939 an alternative route via the Indian Ocean was proposed and designed by the Australian Government for potential use in case of emergency. The designed route was Port Hedland - Batavia - Christmas Island - Cocos Island - Diego Garcia - The Seychelles - Mombasa. This route was surveyed and tested in June 1939 but would ultimately not be used, in part as Batavia had already fallen in March 1942 in the Battle of Java (1942).

Innovation and resumption via "The Double Sunrise" (July 1943 – July 1945)
On July 29, 1943, Qantas resumed the kangaroo route's modified operation, using a fleet of 5 Consolidated PBY Catalina aircraft to cross the Indian ocean nonstop. The planned route was for flights between Crawley, Western Australia, and RAF Base Koggala in southern Ceylon. Designed to exploit the Catalina's extreme flight range, the flights became the longest non-stop commercial air route, covering over 3,500 nautical miles (6,500 kilometres; 4,000 miles) across the Indian Ocean. Navigated without the aid of radio, the crews relied solely on rudimentary navigation by compass and stars during the trip. Taking between 27 and 33 hours, with departure timed so that the flight crossed Japanese occupied territory during darkness, the crew and passengers would observe the sunrise twice, which led to the service being known as "The Double Sunrise". The Double Sunrise flights remain the longest (in terms of airtime) commercial flights in history.

Initially, passengers and mail were then transferred via ground transport from Galle to Karachi connecting with BOAC service onwards to London. In November 1943, this was replaced by adding an additional hop to the kangaroo route operated by the Qantas Catalinas up the Indian coast to Karangi Creek in Karachi. In June 1944, Qantas augmented the Kangaroo Route's Catalina service with an additional route operated by converted Consolidated Liberator bombers. The Liberators flew from Perth to Learmonth before flying a shorter 3,077 mi (4,952 km) over-water route to an airfield northeast of Colombo, but they could make the journey in 17 hours with 5,500 pounds (2,500 kg) of payload, whereas the Catalinas usually required at least 27 hours and their payload was limited to only 1,000 pounds (450 kg). This route was named 'The Kangaroo Service ' and was the genesis for the Kangaroo Route's naming. It also marked the first time that Qantas's now-famous Kangaroo logo was used; passengers received a certificate proclaiming them as members of The Order of the Longest Hop.

In June 1945, Avro Lancastrians were introduced on the England–Australia service, and the Liberators and Catalinas were soon shifted to other Qantas routes. The Catalina operated Double Sunrise service ended on 18 July 1945.

Route normalization - Western legs (May 1945)
On May 30, 1945 - following the end of the war in the European Theatre, Lancastrian operated flights by BOAC resumed from Hurn Airport in southern England, connecting in Karachi to Qantas' operated service which flew via Karachi - Minneriya (Ceylon) - Learmonth to Sydney. Covering the Kangaroo Route in a scheduled time of 70 hours.

Route normalization - Eastern legs (April 1946)
On April 7, 1946 - Qantas ended its Indian Ocean Service, and reverted the Kangaroo Route back via Darwin and Singapore. For the first time flying directly from Sydney to Darwin to Singapore, eliminating all previous domestic Australian stops. BOAC and Qantas service combined to operate the Kangaroo Route from Sydney to London time in a new record of 63 hours.

Multiple stops (1947–1973)

In 1947, Qantas took over complete operation of the route from Australia to The United Kingdom utilizing their new Lockheed Constellations. BOAC would continue to run its own service in parallel. Qantas first flew the Kangaroo Route on 1 December 1947. A Lockheed Constellation carried 29 passengers and 11 crew from Sydney to London with stops in Darwin, Singapore, Calcutta, Karachi, Cairo, and Tripoli (passengers stayed overnight in Singapore and Cairo). A return fare was £585, equivalent to 130 weeks average pay.

In the 1950s and 1960s some Qantas Kangaroo Routes featured other stops, including Frankfurt, Zürich, Rome, Athens, Beirut, Tehran, Bombay, and Colombo. In May 1958 the Kangaroo Route had 11 westward flights a week: four Qantas Super Constellations, four BOAC Britannias, and one Air India Super Constellation from Sydney to London, one KLM Super Constellation Sydney to Amsterdam, and one TAI Douglas DC-6B Auckland to Paris. In February 1959 Qantas' fastest Super Constellation took 63 hr 45 min Sydney to Heathrow and BOAC's Britannia took 49 hr 25 min. Jet flights (Qantas with Boeing 707) started in 1959; in April 1960 the fastest trip from Sydney to London was 34 hr 30 min with eight stops.

In the late 1950s, Qantas had a round-the-world network, flying Australia to Europe westward on the Kangaroo Route and eastward on the Southern Cross Route (via the Pacific Ocean). In 1964 Qantas started a third route to London via Tahiti, Mexico, and the Caribbean, called the Fiesta Route. Qantas dropped its Southern Cross Route and Fiesta Route in 1975. By 1969, Qantas had 11 Kangaroo Route flights a week from Sydney to London, taking 29–32 hours with 5–6 stops each; BOAC's 7-9 weekly flights previously had 7 stops.

In 1971 Qantas added Boeing 747s, reducing the travel time and number of stops (in the late 1970s flights typically stopped at Singapore and Bahrain). Fares fell, opening air travel to more people with more competition.

One-stop flights (1974–2018)

In April 1974 Qantas commenced operating a one stop service from Perth to London with only one stop in Bombay with Boeing 707s.

In 1989 Qantas set a world distance record for commercial jets when a Boeing 747-400, the City of Canberra (VH-OJA), flew non-stop from London to Sydney in just over 20 hours (with special fuel and without passengers or cargo). This was the only nonstop flight ever made between both cities for the next 3 decades.

Starting in January 2009, Qantas began utilising its new A380 aircraft on the Kangaroo Route, raising its capacity to 450 passengers per flight.

As part of a partnership approved in 2013 with Emirates, Qantas announced that its services to London would stop in Dubai rather than Singapore, beginning that same year. Qantas also announced that its services to Frankfurt via Singapore would be discontinued in April 2013, leaving London as its only European destination.

Following years of low demand on the Sydney-Dubai route, Qantas announced in 2017 that its flights between Sydney and London would be reverting to a Singapore stop instead of Dubai from 25 March 2018.

Non-stop flights (2018– )

Non-stop flights from Perth to London commenced in March 2018 with Boeing 787s, with the Kangaroo route becoming a non-stop route for the first time, while also connecting Australia and Europe via a non-stop route for the first time. These flights operate out of Perth's Terminal 3 rather than the traditional T1 in order to facilitate seamless transfers from Qantas domestic flights. The route also opens up the possibility of further direct flights to Europe from Perth such as Rome (launched June 2022) and Paris (launched July 2024).

In late March 2020, prior to Qantas cutting all international services due to the COVID-19 pandemic, several repatriation flights were operated with a routing of Sydney-Darwin-London. The Singaporean government had banned transit passengers and airspace in the Middle East was closed, due to the pandemic. This was the first time an Airbus A380 flew nonstop between Australia and Europe.

In November 2021, Qantas resumed non-stop Kangaroo Route flights, this time from Darwin to London before resuming the non-stop route between Perth and London in May 2022 following the reopening of Western Australia for international travel.

Qantas' evolution of the Kangaroo Route
Since its founding in 1935, Qantas has evolved the Kangaroo Route over time in terms of "hops" (routings), duration, and aircraft used. Illustrated in the below table are snapshots of that ongoing evolution over the years.

Note:

Competing one-stop flights
While "The Kangaroo Route™ " is a trademarked term belonging to Qantas, it is often genericized by the media, other operators, and even Qantas themselves to refer to all flights between Australia and the United Kingdom.

Today Qantas remains the sole operator of "The Kangaroo Route" as well as the only nonstop flight between Australia and the United Kingdom. British Airways continues to operate its legacy route it has served since 1935 when it was Imperial Airways, offering the only other direct flight from Australia to the United Kingdom.

Forming a competitive market, there are over 20 airlines operating competing one-stop flights from Australia to the United Kingdom via the Eastern Hemisphere as seen in the table below:

Project Sunrise
On 25 August 2017, Qantas announced Project Sunrise, aiming to fly non-stop from the East Coast of Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) to London, Paris, Cape Town, Rio de Janeiro and New York City by 2022, and challenged Boeing and Airbus to create aircraft that can travel to such places without stopping. Both Boeing and Airbus submitted proposals in 2019. Boeing announced some delays in the B777-8 project in August 2019 after Etihad Airways dropped orders made in 2013, but the company made it clear that it remained in contention for Project Sunrise.

On 18–20 October 2019, Qantas made a 19-hour test flight QF7879 with a Boeing 787-9 from New York to Sydney. The next month, Qantas operated its first 19-20 hour test flight from London to Sydney using again a Boeing 787-9. Two months later, on 13 December 2019, Qantas announced that their preferred aircraft for the project was the Airbus A350-1000. The aircraft will have an additional fuel tank and slightly increased MTOW to deliver the performance required on the Project Sunrise routes. Qantas stated they were working with Airbus to order up to 12 aircraft, with the final decision expected within 2020.

On 5 May 2020, Qantas Group CEO Alan Joyce announced that Project Sunrise would be put on hold due to the impact of COVID-19 on global travel. Qantas would review its project at the end of 2021, towards a 2024 start of the 21-hour flights, meaning a delay of one year.

On 2 May 2022, Qantas placed a formal order for 12 Airbus A350-1000 aircraft for Project Sunrise flights to commence in "late 2025" between its first two routes: Sydney to London, and Sydney to New York. The 238 seats will be split into 6 first class suites (three-abreast), 52 business class suites (four-abreast), 40 premium economy seats at 40″ pitch (eight-abreast) and 140 economy class seats at 33″ pitch (nine-abreast). Qantas expects these ultra-long-haul flights to drive an annual earnings increase of A$400 million ($261 million) in the first full year with all 12 aircraft in service.

In February 2024, Qantas announced that due to manufacturing delays (which were blamed on a regulator required fuel-tank redesign ), delivery of the A350-1000 aircraft would be delayed by 6 months, thus the launch of the first project Sunrise flights would be delayed until mid-2026. The third centre fuel tank was certified by June 2024, deliveries were then expected from the third quarter of 2026.

In literature
The book Beyond the Blue Horizon by travel correspondent Alexander Frater documents the author's attempt to fly all the sectors on the original 1935 Imperial/Qantas London-Brisbane route in 1984.

title: Kangaroo Route


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Transnestria

Transnestria was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was REDIRECT

This page has been listed as a copyright violation since December 3. The author claims to own the copyright for the text posted on his website (see Talk:Transnestria), but no efforts to remove the copyvio tag have been made. Also, there is already a Transnistria page, and the text here was just an article for a poltical magazine and not an encyclopedia entry. Martg76 04:11, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC) This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like some other VfD subpages, is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.
 * Delete. I think this should have been handled in the copyvios page, not relisted here. jni 06:38, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * There is no copyright problem. See Vandalism_in_progress, [User:Politician]. Merge and redirect content from before the copyvio notice. -- Jmabel | Talk 06:54, Dec 17, 2004 (UTC)
 * Does wikipedia allow adding extra invariant sections ("so long as people cite back to the site for which I work")? Still, I don't really like those kinds of restrictions, Delete. --fvw *  07:00, 2004 Dec 17 (UTC)
 * Citing back, one way or another, is required by GFDL. -- Jmabel | Talk 07:23, Dec 17, 2004 (UTC)
 * No, it is not. Wikipedia requires it, but that is in exchange for not mentioning the author and the version history, which is required by the GNU/FDL. GNU/FDL was made for paper publications, thus requiring a backlink would be strange at the least. - Andre Engels 09:56, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Abstain. There's nothing sriously wrong with the article. If there's no copyvio, why the problem?
 * Merge the few facts not already there into Transnistria - and facts aren't copyrighted, so no worries. Keep Transnestria as a redirect. Samaritan 10:21, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Redirect. Mark Richards 16:43, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Redirect and Delete, but not in that order. hfool 01:30, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
User:RC T.

RC T. is based in Toronto, Canada.

Specifically knowledgeable and/or interested in:
 * Music, especially 1960's, jazz and pop from 1920's to 1940's, late 70's/early 80's punk, 1980's metal, and contemporary indie rock (and all forgotten musicians in between).
 * Literature, especially WWI to WWII era, Canadian writing (Can Lit), and strange, obscure ephemera.
 * Film, from the begining of time to present. Expect me to link subjects to the 100-plus years of cinema, bringing attention to the largely ignored film category of Subject Matter.
 * Canadian content.
 * Arcane, occult, dark, sinister subjects and personalities.
 * Visual arts, especially painters and illustrators, especially those linked to Paris, New York, Toronto, and Montreal.
 * Brand name histories (because I often wonder where my food comes from, and now have a reason to search for answers).
 * Obscure, totally forgotten thinkers and great/not-so-great ideas in human history.

That's all you're getting for now. Nothing personal.

title: User:RC T.


text:
Nesomyinae

The Malagasy rodents are the sole members of the subfamily Nesomyinae. These animals are the only native rodents of Madagascar, come in many shapes and sizes, and occupy a wide variety of ecological niches. There are nesomyines that resemble gerbils, rats, mice, voles, and even rabbits. There are arboreal, terrestrial, and semi-fossorial varieties.

These rodents are clearly most closely related to some muroid rodents found on the African mainland. Some molecular phylogeneticists consider this clade of Malagasy and African rodents to represent a distinct family, the Nesomyidae. Other researchers place the Nesomyinae into a large family, Muridae, along with all members of the superfamily Muroidea.

It has been reported that the Nesomyinae is not monophyletic, but this has not been supported in other analyses. Additionally, there were problems with this particular study, notably the use of Calomyscus as an outgroup while more distantly related muroids (rhyzomyines) were included in the ingroup. It seems likely that all rodents in Madagascar are descendants from a single invasion of the island.

If monophyletic, the nesomyines represent one of only four colonization events of terrestrial mammals from mainland Africa. The other groups are tenrecs, lemurs and Malagasy carnivorans. Molecular clock analyses suggest that the ancestor of the nesomyines colonized Madagascar about 20-25 million years ago. This is at approximately the same time as the Malagasy carnivorans, but is considerably more recent than the estimated colonization times of tenrecs and lemurs.

Nesomyinae contains 9 genera and 27 species.

Taxonomy
Subfamily Nesomyinae - Malagasy rodents
 * Genus Brachytarsomys - Malagasy white-tailed rats
 * White-tailed antsangy, Brachytarsomys albicauda
 * Brachytarsomys mahajambaensis (extinct)
 * Hairy-tailed antsangy, Brachytarsomys villosa
 * Genus Brachyuromys - Malagasy short-tailed rats
 * Betsileo short-tailed rat, Brachyuromys betsileoensis
 * Gregarious short-tailed rat, Brachyuromys ramirohitra
 * Genus Eliurus - Tufted-tailed rats
 * Tsingy tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus antsingy
 * Ankarana Special Reserve tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus carletoni
 * Ellerman's tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus ellermani
 * Daniel's tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus danieli
 * Grandidier's tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus grandidieri
 * Major's tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus majori
 * Lesser tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus minor
 * Dormouse tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus myoxinus
 * White-tipped tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus penicillatus
 * Petter's tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus petteri
 * Tanala tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus tanala
 * Webb's tufted-tailed rat, Eliurus webbi
 * Genus Gymnuromys
 * Voalavoanala, Gymnuromys roberti
 * Genus Hypogeomys
 * Votsovotsa (Malagasy giant rat), Hypogeomys antimena
 * Hypogeomys australis (extinct)
 * Genus Macrotarsomys - Big-footed mice
 * Bastard big-footed mouse, Macrotarsomys bastardi
 * Greater big-footed mouse, Macrotarsomys ingens
 * Petter's big-footed mouse, Macrotarsomys petteri
 * Genus Monticolomys
 * Malagasy mountain mouse, Monticolomys koopmani
 * Genus Nesomys
 * White-bellied nesomys, Nesomys audeberti
 * Western nesomys, Nesomys lambertoni
 * Nesomys narindaensis (extinct)
 * Island mouse, Nesomys rufus
 * Genus Voalavo
 * Eastern voalavo, Voalavo antsahabensis
 * Northern voalavo, Voalavo gymnocaudus

title: Nesomyinae


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Paulding-class destroyer

The Paulding-class destroyers were a series of United States Navy destroyers derived from the Smith-class destroyer with the torpedo tubes increased from three to six via twin mounts. They were the first destroyers in the US Navy with oil-fired boilers. The 21 Pauldings doubled the number of destroyers in the US Navy. The Paulding class derived its name from the class's lead ship, USS Paulding (DD-22), named for Rear Admiral Hiram Paulding (1797–1878). Like the Smiths, they were nicknamed "flivvers" after the small and shaky Model T Ford once the larger "thousand tonner" destroyers entered service.

Authorisation
The Act of 13 May 1908 made provision for "...Ten torpedo-boat destroyers, to have the highest practicable speed, and to cost, exclusive of armament, not to exceed eight hundred thousand dollars each, to be built by contract, not more than three by any one contractor...." The Act of 3 March 1909 made provision for "...Five torpedo-boat destroyers, to have the highest practicable speed, and to cost, exclusive of armament, not to exceed eight hundred thousand dollars each...." The Act of 24 June 1910 made provision for "...Six torpedo-boat destroyers, to have the highest practicable speed, and to cost in all not to exceed seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars each, and toward the construction of said torpedo-boat destroyers the sum of two million two hundred and twenty-five thousand dollars is hereby appropriated...."

Generally 21 ships, hull numbers 22 through 42, are considered Pauldings. However, some references list hull numbers 32 through 42 as the Monaghan class. Others break out hulls 24–28, 30, 31, 33 and 36 as Roe class, with hulls 32, 35, and 38–42 as Monaghan class. Curiously, Jane's Fighting Ships of World War I refers to hulls 22–42 as the 21 [ships of the] Drayton class, going on to say "Unofficially known as 'Flivver Type'"; the book includes Paulding in the class listing, but not as the class leader.

Armament
The torpedo armament was six 18-inch (450 mm) torpedo tubes in three twin mounts. This was an easy upgrade from the three single tubes with reloads of the Smith class, as the new design twin mounts actually weighed less than the older single mounts. The gun armament was the same as the Smith class, with five 3 in/50 caliber guns. During World War I, one or two depth charge tracks were equipped for the convoy escort mission.

Engineering
There was some variation in engineering among the ships of this class. The most visible was that hulls 24–27, 30–32, 34, 36, 37, 39, and 40 had three stacks instead of four, with the middle stack being larger as two boiler uptakes were trunked together in it. Most of the ships' direct drive turbines were arranged as in the Smith class on three shafts, with a high-pressure center turbine exhausting to two low-pressure turbines on the outboard shafts. Cruising turbines were also fitted on the outboard shafts in these ships to improve fuel economy at low speeds. However, hulls 26–27, 30–31, and 34 had two turbines on two shafts (Zoelly or Curtis), with cruising stages included in the turbine casings.

This was the first USN destroyer class with oil-fired boilers. Compared with the Smith class, the Pauldings had 12,000 shp instead of 10,000 shp, making them about a knot faster. From DD-32 on, most references state that Thornycroft boilers instead of Normand were equipped. However, the Navy's official Ships' Data Book for 1911 shows that other types of boilers were used as well, including Yarrow and White-Forster.

Paulding made 32.8 kn on trials at 17,393 shp. Normal fuel oil capacity was 241 tons with a design range of 3000 nmi at 16 kn.

Service
The Pauldings were commissioned in 1910–1912 and were active throughout World War I, primarily as convoy escorts in the Atlantic. They were equipped with one or two depth charge tracks for this mission. All served in the United States Navy; twelve were transferred to the United States Coast Guard 1924–30 for the Rum Patrol; and all were scrapped 1934–35 to comply with the London Naval Treaty.

title: Paulding-class destroyer


text:
Coldstream railway station, Melbourne

Coldstream is a closed railway station, located in Station Street, Coldstream, Victoria, Australia, on the now-closed Healesville greater-metropolitan line.

History
The station buildings were destroyed by fire in the late 1990s. The track from Coldstream to Yarra Glen was formerly leased by the Yarra Valley Tourist Railway, who discontinued their lease due to the poor condition of bridges along the line. An old platform in poor condition remains at the former station.

Until 1992, freight trains ran to Coldstream to service the fertilizer factory adjacent to the former station.

In 2019, The Daylesford Spa Country Railway removed the turnouts from Coldstream for use at Bullarto by the railway.

As of January 2020, Coldstream station has become part of the Yarra valley rail trail and the platform has been restored.

title: Coldstream railway station, Melbourne