text:
Musica reservata

In music history, musica reservata (also musica secreta) is either a style or a performance practice in a cappella vocal music of the latter half of the 16th century, mainly in Italy and southern Germany, involving refinement, exclusivity, and intense emotional expression of sung text.

Definition
The exact meaning, which appears in scattered contemporary sources, is a matter of debate among musicologists. While some of the sources are contradictory, four aspects seem clear:

 * 1) musica reservata involved the use of chromatic progressions and voice-leading, a manner of composing which became fashionable in the 1550s, both in madrigals and motets;
 * 2) it involved a style of performance, perhaps with extra ornamentation or other emotive methods;
 * 3) it used word-painting, i.e. use of specific and recognizable musical figures to illuminate specific words in the text; and
 * 4) the music was designed to be performed by, and appreciated by, small groups of connoisseurs.

Composers in the style of musica reservata included Nicola Vicentino (spelled as Musica riserbata), who wrote about it in his L'antica musica ridotta alla moderna prattica (1555); Philippe de Monte, the prolific composer of madrigals who mainly worked in Vienna; and above all, Orlande de Lassus, the renowned and versatile composer working in Munich whose Prophetiae Sibyllarum, probably written in the 1560s, may represent the peak of development of the style. The chord progression which begins the Prophetiae Sibyllarum is jarring even to ears accustomed to 20th-century music: the opening chords are C major – G major – B major – C♯ minor – E major – F♯ minor, all in root position, sung to the text: "Carmina chromatico, quae audis modulata tenore" – literally "songs, which you hear rendered by a chromatic tenor" (maybe with reference to all-chromatic composition which 'technically' based on a chromatic tenor).

The style of musica reservata, with its implication of a highly refined, perhaps manneristic style of composition and performance along with a very small audience, is reminiscent both of the ars subtilior of the Avignon group of composers of the late 14th century, and also perhaps some of the contemporary avant-garde classical music of the late 20th century. The style can also be compared to the Italian composer Carlo Gesualdo's chromatic madrigals and motets a few decades later.

References and further reading

 * Gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1954.  ISBN 0-393-09530-4
 * Article "Musica reservata", in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol.  London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980.  ISBN 1-56159-174-2
 * Harold Gleason and Warren Becker, Music in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Music Literature Outlines Series I). Bloomington, Indiana.  Frangipani Press, 1986.  ISBN 0-89917-034-X

title: Musica reservata


text:
User:Blainegarrett~enwiki

Toast
Hello.

My name is Blaine Flynn Garrett. I am a long time wikipedia user and new (2004-12-8) contributor.

I am a Computer Science and Art major at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities

Currently, I specialize in web application development and website interface design. I hope to eventually work on VR systems and AI development.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Blainegarrett~enwiki


text:
Talk:Brothers Quay

Untitled
The only online sources verifying the claim that The Synthetic Dream Foundation worked with the Quays are duplicates of this article. Accordingly I have removed the claim until some independent verification—a print source would be ideal—surfaces. —No-One Jones 06:25, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * This is a well-known spammer. I will start keeping a closer eye on this from now on. -Ld | talk 20:48, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * He claims to own the film with the score. Perhaps he would be so kind as to tell us which release of which film he owns? —Charles P. (Mirv) 21:58, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

"Quay Brothers" or "Brothers Quay"?
Why is the article called Brothers Quay? The films I have seen credit the Quays with the phrase "QUAY BROTHERS". Is there some good reason for naming the article opposite how I have seen them credited? Are people merely modeling the phrase after "The Brothers Grimm"? 68.163.219.59 00:41, 3 September 2007 (UTC)
 * What's the difference? Both are fine, both are used, its simply whichever you choose.Landroo (talk) 01:04, 6 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Both usages are interchangeable - some of their films are credited to 'Brothers Quay', others to 'Quay Brothers'. The Quay-designed cover of the BFI DVD compilation of their work deliberately makes this ambiguous, and I suspect that's just the way they like it.81.151.15.66 (talk) 22:43, 10 August 2008 (UTC)

Untitled
I have done some edits on the Quay Brothers page and while I made changes to references, film titles, external links, they arent appearing on the regular Wiki page. I'm concerned that they are 'lost'. I am a new user (studiously have done tutorials, etc, before editing), so perhaps they are still there? Trickfilmuk (talk) 11:36, 16 May 2010 (UTC)Trickfilmuk

 * Yes, they're all there - check the "View history" tab above the article. I'd suggest adding some sub-headings and unlinking some/most/all of the red links (unless you're planning articles on the red-linked people/organisations?).  Oh, and when you're adding stuff to a Talk page, the thing to do is to click the "New section" tab up at the top and choose a suitable header.  Then when you save your comments, they'll appear neatly below the ones that are already there.  Happy editing!  --GuillaumeTell 18:13, 16 May 2010 (UTC)

Edits
A group of people and I are working on a few of the stubs and unwritten pages of certain short films that the Quay Brothers have made. In particular, we are working on In Absentia (film), Institute Benjamenta, or This Dream People Call Human Life, The Comb (From The Museums Of Sleep), The Epic of Gilgamesh, or This Unnameable Little Broom, Nocturna Artificialia. My sandbox has our intended edits but we are still working on them. AnnaRussett (talk) 22:44, 15 November 2011 (UTC)
 * I just wrote up a draft of Institute Benjamenta, I'd love if someone familiar with their work took a look at it sometime. Mark Arsten (talk) 17:59, 21 November 2011 (UTC)

New film
The Quays have recently finished another film, The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka, with world premiere due at New York's MOMA on January 6th and 7th:. --87.151.23.126 (talk) 18:37, 15 December 2012 (UTC)

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Talk:Marius Kurkinski

Untitled
This article was listed on votes for deletion; see Votes for deletion/Marius Kurkinski. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk, automation script)]] 06:26, Dec 8, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Marius Kurkinski


text:
Shira people

The Sira or Shira people, the Eshira, are a Punu ethnic group of Gabon primarily living in the forests and grasslands south of the Ogooué River and west of its tributary the N'Gounié.

Origin and Ethnogenesis
According to the oral tradition of the Sira or Punu 9 clans they migrated from the North via Egypt to Nubia where they settled in Merowé near the junctures of the Sira and Nile river between -500 BC and 100 AD. There by the Sira river was the place where they got that name from. From the 6th to the 18th century they migrated from Nubia via Uganda and DRC into their actual area, after wars with  other groups. During the 19th century they traded Copper, and were highly regarded for their tobacco and raphia cloth. Their numbers were greatly reduced by smallpox epidemics in 1865 and 1898.

Paul du Chaillu travelled through Eshira areas in 1858 and 1864, and recorded that each clan controlled its own affairs. Mulenda of the Kamba clan was the most important of the chiefs; he owned 300–400 slaves, and died of smallpox in 1885. The Holy Ghost Fathers established a mission in 1895.

Subgroups of the Eshira include the Punu.

title: Shira people


text:
Talk:Memorial Quadrangle

This article was listed on votes for deletion; see Votes for deletion/Memorial Quadrangle. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk, automation script)]] 06:28, Dec 8, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Memorial Quadrangle


text:
Talk:Dukes of Swabia family tree

Muriel, is there a way to make this tree image smaller? It's pretty humongous on my 1280x800 screen; I have to scroll sideways to see it all. Randee15 06:29, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * You were right, it was a monster! Is it better now? You can navigate with the pixels in the Image lk, see my difference. muriel@pt 11:09, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Wow, that was fast! Yes, it's perfect now. :-) Randee15 12:40, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Template:Familytree
This article may benefit from use of Template:Familytree -- Jreferee 18:13, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dukes of Swabia family tree


text:
Don't Ask

Don't Ask is the third studio album by Australian singer Tina Arena released by Columbia Records on 14 November 1994.

Overview
Arena co-wrote all of the songs on the original release of the album which was produced by David Tyson. The album spawned six successful singles "Chains", "Sorrento Moon (I Remember)", "Heaven Help My Heart", "Wasn't It Good", "That's the Way a Woman Feels" and the cover version of Maria McKee's song "Show Me Heaven" which was recorded for the international version and was not released as a single in Australia.

Don't Ask and its singles earned Arena ten ARIA Awards nominations throughout 1995 and 1996, winning five, including Album of the Year. It is the first album by a female artist to do so.

Personnel

 * Tina Arena − vocals, background vocals
 * Peter Asher − percussion
 * Erika Duke-Kirkpatrick − cello
 * Claude Gaudette − piano
 * Raven Kane − background vocals
 * Peter Kent − violin
 * Kirkpatrick − cello
 * Matt Lang − percussion
 * Bob Mann − guitar
 * Marilyn Martin − background vocals
 * Pat Mastelotto − percussion, drums
 * Robert Parde − background vocals
 * John Pierce − bass guitar
 * Tim Pierce − acoustic guitar, guitar
 * Rick Price − acoustic guitar, background vocals
 * David Tyson − keyboard, Hammond organ, background vocals
 * Carlos Vega − drums
 * The Waters Family − background vocals
 * Jai Winding − piano, keyboard

Production

 * Producers: Peter Asher, Chris O'Brien, David Tyson
 * Engineers: Greg Droman, George Massenburg, Frank Wolf
 * Mixing: Chris Lord-Alge
 * Mixing assistant: Steve Gallagher
 * Mastering: Doug Sax
 * Production coordination: Tony DeFranco
 * Programming: Chris O'Brien, Dave Tyson
 * Arrangers: Tina Arena, David Campbell, Robert Parde, David Tyson

Charts
Don't Ask became Arena's highest selling album to date selling in excess of 2 million copies worldwide and was certified ten times platinum by the ARIA.

title: Don't Ask


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Talk:Don't Ask

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Talk:Shipyard

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Themailguy. Peer reviewers: Rickyediting, Duke.met.

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Comments
I edited out some absurd looking quotes around the words 'defense enterprise' regarding Northrop-Grumman. Cynical Scare Quotes are hardly an NPOV thing. Doesn't matter whether the topic is related. - Kade 06:33, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)

This article needs heavy revision. It seems to be heavily dependent on people with special interests supplying information about the country or yard with which they are most familiar. As a result, the section listing "Prominent Dockyards and Shipyards" is so far out of proportion as to be positively misleading. (For example, you would get the idea that the US is a prominent shipbuilding country and China is not.) The article on "Shipbuilding" is much more balanced. In the present article, the list section should be deleted with a link referring to the separate article "List of shipbuilders and shipyards". Mstarli (talk) 07:00, 11 December 2012 (UTC)

Missing a few important yards
The South East Asia section completely ignores several important yards in Singapore which is a major shipbuilding nation as well.

182.19.157.251 (talk) 15:49, 28 February 2014 (UTC)

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User talk:OAfreak

Hello OAfreak, and welcome to Wikipedia. I've reverted your edits to the Order of the Arrow article for a variety of reasons, mostly because deleting valid, accurate content is generally not accecpted without first discussing it on the article's talk page. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page or how to format them visit our manual of style. Experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Gentgeen 06:35, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Welcome!

Hello,, and welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for your contributions. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are a few good links for newcomers: I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Please sign your name on talk pages using four tildes (~~); this will automatically produce your name and the date. If you need help, check out Questions, ask me on my talk page, or place  on your talk page and someone will show up shortly to answer your questions. Again, welcome! It is especially nice to welcome scouts and scouters to Wikipedia.
 * The five pillars of Wikipedia
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Yours in the Wimachtendienk, Johntex 21:06, 25 May 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:OAfreak


text:
CNBC (disambiguation)

CNBC is an American business news television channel, formerly called Consumer News and Business Channel until 1991.

CNBC may also refer to:

Organisations

 * Commercial Neutral Broadcasting Company, a pirate radio station from the Netherlands (1960–1961)
 * Canadian Neutron Beam Centre, a national centre for materials research using neutrons
 * Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, a bioscience and biomedicine research institute of the University of Coimbra, Portugal
 * Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, a joint Carnegie Mellon University/University of Pittsburgh research center in Pittsburgh, PA, US; See Peter K. Machamer

title: CNBC (disambiguation)


text: User talk:69.212.246.212

title: User talk:69.212.246.212


text:
Figure–ground (perception)

Figure–ground organization is a type of perceptual grouping that is a vital necessity for recognizing objects through vision. In Gestalt psychology it is known as identifying a figure from the background. For example, black words on a printed paper are seen as the "figure", and the white sheet as the "background".

Gestalt psychology
The Gestalt theory was founded in the 20th century in Austria and Germany as a reaction against the associationist and structural schools' atomistic orientation. In 1912, the Gestalt school was formed by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka. The word "gestalt" is a German word translated to English as "pattern" or "configuration." Gestalt concepts can also be referred to as "holism." Gestalt Psychologists were attempting to humanize what was considered a sterile approach. Gestalt psychology establishes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts. The concepts explored by Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka in the 20th century established the foundation for the modern study of perception.

"The Gestalt concept is that "not only movement, or process as such, but also the direction and distribution of process is determined dynamically by interaction." Sensory organization is not dependent upon isolated stimuli and local stimulation, but upon the relative properties of stimulation and the dynamical context."

Wertheimer described holism as the "fundamental formula" of Gestalt psychology: "There are wholes, the behavior of which is not determined by that of their individual elements, but where the part-processes are themselves determined by the intrinsic nature of the whole."

Examples
The Rubin vase faces–vase drawing that Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin described exemplifies one of the key aspects of figure–ground organization, edge-assignment and its effect on shape perception. In the faces–vase drawing, the perceived shape depends critically on the direction in which the border (edge) between the black and white regions is assigned. If the edges between the black and white regions are assigned inward, then the central white region is seen as a vase shape in front of a black background. No faces are perceived in this case. On the other hand, if the edges are assigned outward, then the two black profile faces are perceived on a white background, and no vase shape is perceived. The human visual system will settle on either of the interpretations of the Rubin vase and alternate between them, a phenomenon known as multistable perception. Functional brain imaging shows that, when people see the Rubin image as a face, there is activity in the temporal lobe, specifically in the face-selective region.

An additional example is the "My Wife and My Mother-in-Law" illusion drawing. The image is famous for being reversible. "The viewer may either observe a young girl with her head turned to the right or an old woman with a large nose and protruding chin, depending on one's perspective."

Development
Figure–ground perception precedes all other visual perceptual skills and is one of the first to develop in a young baby. The development of perceptual organization develops as early as infancy in human beings. In regards to nature versus nurture, concepts such as "lightness" and "proximity" may develop as early as birth, but recognizing "form similarity" may not be functional until activated by particular experiences.

Three- to four-month olds respond to differences in lightness rather than differences in form similarity. It is suggested that scaffolding (the development of new skills over time based on the building of other skills) is responsible for the development of perceptual organization. Environment plays a major role in the development of figure-ground perception.

The development of figure–ground perception begins the day the baby can focus on an object. The faces of caregivers, parents, and familiar objects are the first to be focused on and understood. As babies develop, they learn to distinguish the objects they desire from their surroundings. Sitting up, crawling, and walking present ample opportunity to develop the skill during development. Between the ages of 2–4 the skill can be further cultivated by teaching the child to group or sort items.

Perceptual process
The perceptual decision in which the brain decides which item is the figure and which are part of the ground in a visual scene can be based on many cues, all of which are of a probabilistic nature. For instance, size assists in distinguishing between the figure and the ground, as smaller regions are often (but not always) figures. Object shape can assist in distinguishing figure from ground because figures tend to be convex. Movement also helps; the figure may be moving against a static environment. Color is also a cue because the background tends to continue as one color behind potentially multiple foreground figures, whose colors may vary. Edge assignment also helps; if the edge belongs to the figure, it defines the shape while the background exists behind the shape. However, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the two because the edge that would separate figure from ground is part of neither, equally defining both the figure and the background.

The LOC (lateral occipital cortex) is highly important for figure–ground perception. This region of the visual cortex (located lateral to the fusiform gyrus and extending anteriorly and ventrally) has consistently shown stronger activation in response to objects versus non-objects."

Evidently, the process of distinguishing figure from ground (sometimes called figure–ground segmentation) is inherently probabilistic, and the best that the brain can do is to take all relevant cues into account to generate a probabilistic best-guess. In this light, Bayesian figure–ground segmentation models have been proposed to simulate the probabilistic inference by which the brain may distinguish figure from ground.

Subjective factors can also influence figure–ground perception. For instance, if a viewer has the intention to perceive one of the two regions as the figure, it will likely alter their ability to analyze the two regions objectively. In addition, if a viewer's gaze is fixated on a particular region, the viewer is more likely to view the fixated region as the figure. Although subjective factors can alter the probability of seeing the figure on one particular side of an edge, they tend not to overpower compositional cues.

Artistic applications
Figure–ground organization is used to help artists and designers in composition of a 2D piece. Figure–ground reversal may be used as an intentional visual design technique in which an existing image's foreground and background colors are purposely swapped to create new images.

Non-visual
Figure–ground perception can be expanded from visual perception to include non-visual concepts such as melody/harmony, subject/background and positive/negative space. The concept of figure and ground fully depends on the observer and not on the item itself.

In the typical sonic scenarios people encounter, auditory figure and ground signals often overlap in time as well as in frequency content. In these situations, auditory objects are established by integrating sound components both over time and frequency. A 2011 study suggests that the auditory system possesses mechanisms that are sensitive to such cross-frequency and cross-time correlations. Results of this study demonstrated significant activations in the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) and the superior temporal sulcus related to bottom-up, stimulus-driven figure–ground decomposition.

In crowded rooms or parties, a person is able to zero in on the conversation they are having with one person (figure) while drowning out the background noise (ground). This can also be referred to as the "cocktail party effect."

Figure–ground segregation in hearing is not automatic; rather, it requires attention and draws on resources that are shared across vision and audition.

Types of figure–ground problems
There are three types of figure–ground problems:
 * 1) The figure and the ground compete.
 * 2) The figure should be the ground and the ground should be the figure.
 * 3) The figure and ground create an optical illusion.

title: Figure–ground (perception)


text:
In Deep (Tina Arena album)

In Deep is the fourth studio album by Australian singer-songwriter Tina Arena released by Columbia Records in Australia on 18 August 1997 (see 1997 in music). The album entered the Australian ARIA Albums Chart at Number 1, on 25 August 1997, knocking Middle of Nowhere by Hanson off the top spot, making it Arena's second Number 1 album, to Don't Ask.

The singles released from In Deep were successful in most music markets, including Australia, France and New Zealand.

In France, In Deep peaked at Number 3 on the French Albums Chart, stayed in the Top 10 for 29 weeks, and spent a total of 79 weeks in the Top 75. In New Zealand, the album entered the RIANZ Albums Chart at Number 22, then moved up to its peak position of Number 16 the week after, then spent a total of 6 weeks in the NZ Top 50.

Overview
In Deep was recorded in Los Angeles, with production duties divided between Foreigner guitarist Mick Jones (who produced albums for Van Halen and Billy Joel) and David Tyson (who collaborated with Arena on Don't Ask). Arena stated the album is "essentially a live record", because concerts are what she thrived on; she also expressed that the album is "international in spirit" and that she did not want to make a record that sounded like her previous album, instead wanting to make a record that reflected her "growth as a singer, writer, performer and human being."

Several tracks were substantially remixed for international editions of the album, and the track listing was additionally expanded and altered, notably to feature Arena's duet with Marc Anthony, "I Want to Spend My Lifetime Loving You", and the titular song from the musical Whistle Down the Wind, which was released in the United Kingdom. French language tracks Arena recorded were also included on that region's release. In total, the album yielded ten singles across its various editions: "Burn", "If I Didn't Love You", "Now I Can Dance", "Whistle Down the Wind", "I Want to Know What Love Is", "If I Was a River", "I Want to Spend My Lifetime Loving You", "Aller plus haut", "Les trois cloches" and "Segnali di fumo"; the latter three were exclusively released within French-speaking markets. The cover for the Australian version is slightly different and paler; Arena is centred on the cover between white borders.

Commercial performance
In Deep entered at Number 1 on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart but sales in Australia were not as high as her previous album Don't Ask (1994).

The album debuted at Number 1 on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart on 25 August 1997, knocking Middle of Nowhere by Hanson off the top spot, making it Arena's second Number 1 album. During its fourth week in the charts, the album regained the top spot for two consecutive weeks. In Deep spent a total of three weeks at Number 1 and went on to spend a total of 60 weeks in the Top 100, re-entering once, and being certified triple platinum by ARIA. It was the eighth highest selling album in Australia for 1997 and the eighty-fifth for 1998. It was also nominated for three ARIA Awards in 1998 for Highest Selling Album, Best Female Artist and Highest Selling Single for "Burn".

In France, the album peaked at Number 3 on the French Albums Chart, stayed in the Top 10 for 29 weeks, and spent a total of 79 weeks in the Top 75. The album became the 11th highest selling album in France for 1999 and the 18th highest selling album in 2000. The album was certified triple platinum in France by SNEP.

In New Zealand, it entered the RIANZ Albums Chart at No. 22, then moved up to its peak position of No. 16 the week after. The album spent a total of 6 weeks in the Top 50.

In the United Kingdom, the album was not as successful as her previous top 20 album Don't Ask. In Deep peaked at Number 102, spending 2 weeks in the top 200.

The singles released from In Deep were successful in most music markets, including Australia and France. Released in July/August 1997, "Burn" reached No. 2 on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart—becoming Arena's highest peak in Australia—and also peaking in the top 50 in New Zealand and the UK. "Burn" also made history when it became the fastest-added Australian song of all time in radio. The song was nominated for an ARIA Award for Highest Selling Single (see ARIA Music Awards of 1997). The French version also included Arena's first French-language single, "Aller plus haut". The song became a huge hit in France, where it peaked at No. 2 for 6 consecutive weeks, becoming Arena's highest peak there.

Personnel

 * Schuyler Deale – bass
 * Jeff Jacobs – keyboards, piano, programming
 * John Robinson – drums, percussion
 * Leland Sklar – bass
 * David Tyson – keyboards, piano, programming

Charts
In Deep has sold over 1.5 million copies worldwide.

Singles
The following singles were top five hits.

title: In Deep (Tina Arena album)


text:
Talk:In Deep (Tina Arena album)

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title: Talk:In Deep (Tina Arena album)


text:
Erich S. Gruen

Erich Stephen Gruen (, ; born May 7, 1935) is an American classicist and ancient historian. He was the Gladys Rehard Wood Professor of History and Classics at the University of California, Berkeley, where he taught full-time from 1966 until 2008. He served as president of the American Philological Association in 1992.

Biography
Born in Vienna, coming from a Jewish family, he received BAs from Columbia University and Oxford University, and a PhD from Harvard University in 1964. Gruen was a varsity lightweight rower at Columbia and valedictorian of his 550-man graduating class. From 1957 to 1960, he was a Rhodes Scholar at Merton College, Oxford.

His earlier work focused on the later Roman Republic, and culminated in The Last Generation of the Roman Republic, a work often cited as a response to Ronald Syme's The Roman Revolution. Gruen's argument is that the Republic was not in decay, and so not necessarily in need of "rescue" by Caesar Augustus and the institutions of the Empire. He later worked on the Hellenistic period and on Judaism in the classical world.

Gruen taught what was purportedly his final undergraduate lecture course, The Hellenistic World, in the Fall of 2006. Despite his retirement from full-time teaching, he continues to oversee doctoral dissertations and is widely sought for visiting professorships. In addition to U.C. Berkeley, Gruen has taught at Harvard University, the University of Colorado at Boulder, and Cornell University. He says that his most inspirational teaching experience, however, was a brief stint instructing prisoners at San Quentin State Prison in the late 2000s. At Berkeley, his students have included Kenneth Sacks.

In 1969–70 and 1989–90, Gruen was the recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship. He received the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art in 1998.

Books

 * (Reviewed by )
 * (Reviewed by )
 * (Reviewed by )
 * (Reviewed by )
 * (Reviewed by )
 * (Reviewed by )

title: Erich S. Gruen


text: File:Tina Arena - Just Me.jpg

title: File:Tina Arena - Just Me.jpg


text:
Nyanga River

The Nyanga River, 600 km, (French: Rivière Nyanga) is a river that runs through southern Gabon and northern Republic of the Congo. It is the second most important river in Gabon after the Ogooue. It is well known for the numerous rapids that break up its otherwise smooth course.

Course
It rises on the border between the two countries, near the juncture of N'Gounié and Ogooué-Lolo provinces of Gabon, runs south along the border and then southwest through the Niari province of Congo, then enters the Nyanga province of Gabon and makes a sharp bend to the northwest. It passes through Nyanga's capital Tchibanga (the largest city on the river), then gradually bends around to the southwest again, running through a series of rapids before coming out onto a coastal plain and emptying into the Atlantic Ocean.

Tributaries

 * Moukalaba, which receives water of its own tributary, the Ganzi River
 * Douli

title: Nyanga River


text:
Vinegar Joe (band)

Vinegar Joe were an English Blues rock band, formed in 1971 in London. They released three albums on Island Records, but were best known for their live shows and launching the solo careers of Elkie Brooks and Robert Palmer.

History
Vinegar Joe evolved out of Dada, a 12-piece Stax-influenced, jazz/blues rock fusion band. Dada released one eponymous album in 1970, with a line up including vocalist Elkie Brooks and guitarist Pete Gage. Singer Robert Palmer, formerly with the Alan Bown Set joined Dada after the album had been recorded. Dada were signed by Ahmet Ertegun for Atlantic Records. After their US tour, Ahmet sub-licensed them to Chris Blackwell of Island Records for the UK and rest of the world, with instructions to reduce the line up to form Vinegar Joe in 1971, adding keyboard player Dave Thompson, but the band was still without a drummer. Phil Collins had unsuccessfully applied for the job. Conrad Isidore and Rob Tait drummed on the first album. Tim Hinkley added keyboards alongside Dave Thompson and it was Hinkley who appeared on the cover of the first album. Their debut LP Vinegar Joe was released in April 1972 on Island Records in the UK and Atco Records in the US. The album cover featured plasticine models of the band created by John Padley.

Tim Hinkley took over from Thompson on keyboards and was succeeded by John Hawken. Drummer Rob Tait played the first series of live shows succeeded by John Woods. Mike Deacon took over on keyboards. During recording of their second album, Rock'n Roll Gypsies, also released in 1972, Keef Hartley played drums. Guitarist Jim Mullen also joined the band for this record and played on the US tour. The artwork for the album was supplied by Hipgnosis. Drummer Pete Gavin joined the band prior to the US tour and recording of their third and final album Six Star General released in 1973. The band dissolved in the spring of 1974. Alan Powell played drums during the band's final weeks.

Subsequently, Brooks and Palmer went on to enjoy success as solo musicians. Gage became a record producer and arranger, working with Brooks, his wife, until their divorce, and a range of musicians such as Joan Armatrading and specialising in upcoming rockabilly and punk bands including as Restless and King Kurt.

Albums

 * Dada – Dada, Atco Records, 1970 (pre-Vinegar Joe)
 * Vinegar Joe – Island Records (UK), Atco Records (US) 1972 (re-issued on Lemon)
 * Rock'n Roll Gypsies – Island Records (UK), Atco Records (US) 1972
 * Six Star General – Island Records (UK), Atco Records (US) 1973

Compilation albums

 * Six Star Gypsies, 1994
 * Speed Queen of Ventura: An Introduction to Vinegar Joe, 2003
 * Vinegar Joe: The Island Recordings 1972-1973, 3CD, 2021 Cherry Red Records.

Former members

 * Elkie Brooks – vocals (1971–1974)
 * Pete Gage – guitars (1971–1974)
 * Robert Palmer – vocals (1971–1974)
 * Steve York – bass (1971–1974)
 * Dave Thompson – keyboards (1971–1972)
 * Conrad Isidore – drums (1971–1972)
 * Rob Tait – drums (1971–1972)
 * John Hawken – keyboards (1972)
 * John Woods – drums (1972)
 * Mike Deacon – keyboards (1972–1974)
 * Keef Hartley – drums (1972–1973)
 * Jim Mullen – guitars (1972–1974)
 * Pete Gavin – drums (1973–1974)
 * Alan Powell – drums (1974)

 * Additional musicians
 * Dave Brooks – tenor saxophone
 * Tim Hinkley – keyboards
 * Nick South – bass
 * Gasper Lawal – percussion

title: Vinegar Joe (band)


text:
User talk:Jonathan Rabbitt

if you could spare an email to amadeus@toast.net (no "t" at the end of amadeus), i'd appreciate the Fischer-Tropsch pdf links. it appears that we joined wikipedia at about the same time. i've been a long time reader but just made the time to contribute recently. Amadeust 06:45, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Image:Falcon AU XR8 1.jpg
On the upload summary, you claim that this is "[your] own photo" yet the image is tagged as fair use. These two assertions conflict with each other; if the photo is indeed one you took, then you are able to release it into the public domain or under the GFDL, or under another license such as Creative Commons.

If the photo is not, in fact yours, then it will need to be deleted as soon as possible to avoid legal wrangling for the Wikimedia Foundation.

Could you review the image description page, and correct the source and licensing details as soon as possible? Thanks. Rob Church Talk 15:12, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

 * JYolkowski fixed this one up for me. I'm ok with that.  I was a bit of a newbie when I uploaded the photo originally, and didn't fully comprehend the various licensing options.  Jonathan 11:30, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

Image:Falcon AU XR8 2.jpg
On the upload summary, you claim that this is "[your] own photo" yet the image is tagged as fair use. These two assertions conflict with each other; if the photo is indeed one you took, then you are able to release it into the public domain or under the GFDL, or under another license such as Creative Commons.

If the photo is not, in fact yours, then it will need to be deleted as soon as possible to avoid legal wrangling for the Wikimedia Foundation.

Could you review the image description page, and correct the source and licensing details as soon as possible? Thanks. Rob Church Talk 15:12, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Ditto, as per above Jonathan 11:31, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

RE AU Falcon Article
Jonathan, in the process of editing the AU Falcon article, I have replaced one of your XR8 photo's with a base model photo. I thought that it was necessary to replace it to show what the base model looks like. Thankyou though, I have used one of your photos and it was very useful. Have a look. Ford AU Falcon Thanks HB4026 03:22, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

Proposed church article rename
Hi, I'm contacting you because you were involved in early discussions on the Wikipedia article name for the topic currently at Christian Conventions. It has been proposed to rename to Two by Twos. Please join in the discussion if you have an opinion on this at Talk:Christian Conventions. Cheers Donama (talk) 00:55, 18 August 2010 (UTC)

Melbourne meetup
Hey all, just a reminder that there's a meetup tomorrow at 11am in North Melbourne. There are more details at the meetup page. Hope to see you tomorrow! SteveBot (talk) 04:38, 24 March 2012 (UTC)

Meetup invitation: Melbourne 26
Hi there! You are cordially invited to a meetup next Sunday (6 January). Details and an attendee list are at Meetup/Melbourne 26. Hope to see you there! John Vandenberg 05:33, 27 December 2012 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Jonathan Rabbitt


text:
Wales Green Party

The Wales Green Party (Plaid Werdd Cymru) is a semi-autonomous political party within the Green Party of England and Wales (GPEW). It covers Wales, and is the only regional party with semi-autonomous status within the GPEW. The Wales Green Party puts up candidates for council, Senedd, and UK Parliament seats.

Organisation, leadership and representation
The Wales Green Party elects a Spokesperson and two Deputy Spokespeople every 2 years, as well as electing council members on an annual basis to make day to day decisions between AGMs. All elected roles in the Wales Green Party are voluntary.

The current Leader of the Wales Green Party is Anthony Slaughter, with Helen Westhead and Amerjit Kaur-Dhaliwal as Co-Deputy Leaders. Wales-wide decisions are taken by the Wales Green Party Council which is composed of the spokespeople, elected officers, and a representative from each local party.

As of 2023, the Wales Green Party is represented internally within the GPEW by Adam Turner and John Matthews, on the Green Party Regional Council (GPRC).

The Wales Green Party's Amelia Womack served as the Deputy Leader of the Green Party of England and Wales from September 2014 to September 2022.

In April 2023, one of the Wales Green Party's Co-Deputy Leaders, Amerjit Kaur-Dhaliwal, stepped down from their role, saying that "volunteering at this time has become a luxury I can no longer afford, given the cost-of-living crises."

Leadership history
Pippa Bartolotti became Wales Green party leader in January 2012. She stood (unsuccessfully) for the leadership of the GPEW later that year. After four years of leadership, Bartolotti decided against standing for a further term as leader in the 2015 Leadership election which was won by Alice Hooker-Stroud, while Hannah Pudner became deputy leader. Alice was then re-elected in 2016 along with Grenville Ham and a returning Pippa Bartolotti as deputy leaders. Alice resigned in 2017 stating that her position had become "untenable" due to the voluntary nature of the role. Alice was succeeded in early 2017 by Grenville Ham. Grenville defected to Plaid Cymru in late 2018 citing the party's vote to remain a part of the Green Party of England and Wales rather than to become an independent party (as the Scottish Greens had previously done) as his reason. Like Alice, Grenville described his position as "untenable". Mirka Virtanen was elected deputy leader in 2016 to begin in 2017, replacing Pippa Bartolotti, and Benjamin Smith was co-opted to the vacant deputy leader role in July 2017.

Anthony Slaughter (former deputy leader) was named the current leader of the Wales Green Party in December 2018, beating Mirka Virtanen (deputy leader at the time) and Alex Harris in the leadership election. Duncan Rees was elected deputy leader. Mirka was co-opted back into the deputy leader role until December 2019. Lauren James was selected to replace her in April 2020.

Green Isles Alliance
The Wales Greens are represented on a Green Isles Alliance which includes Green parties from England and Wales (Plaid Werdd), Scotland, Ireland (Comhaontas Glas), Northern Ireland and the Isle of Man (Partee Glass Vannin). The alliance acts as a forum for the parties to advance shared political goals.

Membership
In July 2018, the Wales Green Party had around 1,500 members. In April 2023, the Wales Green Party was reported to have over 1,800 members. By the end of 2019, the Green Party in England and Wales had a combined 49,013 members (up from 38,707 in 2018).

Pre-1990
The Green Parties in the United Kingdom have their roots in the PEOPLE Party which was founded in 1972, which became the Ecology Party in 1975, and then the Green Party in 1985.

In 1973, three Welsh Green candidates (P. Jones, W. Jones and V. Carney) won seats in the inaugural Welsh district council elections in the Gadlys and Town wards on Cynon Valley Borough Council. The party narrowly missed out on a fourth seat to the Labour Party.

Early years (1990s)
In 1990, the Scottish and Northern Irish branches left the UK Greens to form separate parties. The English and Welsh parties became the Green Party of England and Wales, with the Welsh branch being semi-autonomous.

In 1991, Marcus Hughes and Brian Stringer were elected to represent the Bynea and Dafen wards on Llanelli Borough Council In 1995, both then stood unsuccessfully as 'Independent Green' candidates, losing their seats to Labour on the new Carmarthenshire County Council. In 1993, the Party won a county council seat on Anglesey (Ynys Môn) after a sitting councillor in the Aethwy ward had joined the Greens, but the Party did not defend this seat or stand any other candidates at the 1995 Isle of Anglesey County Council election two years later.

At the 1992 general election, local Greens entered an electoral alliance with Plaid Cymru in the constituency of Ceredigion and Pembroke North. The alliance was successful with Cynog Dafis being returned in a surprise result as the MP, defeating the Liberal Democrat incumbent by over 3,000 votes. The agreement broke down by 1995 following disagreement within the Welsh Green Party over endorsing another party's candidate, though Dafis would go on to serve in parliament as a Plaid Cymru member until 2000, and in the National Assembly for Wales from 1999 until 2003. Dafis later stated that he did not consider himself to be the "first Green MP".

On 29 August 1997, the Wales Green Party issued a joint declaration with the Liberal Democrats and Plaid Cymru, supporting the 'Yes for Wales' campaign and the establishment of a new National Assembly for Wales in the 1997 Welsh devolution referendum.

Devolution (1999–present)
In the 1999 Welsh local elections, Klaus Armstrong-Braun became the first Green Party councillor to be elected to one of Wales' twenty two unitary councils, winning a seat on Flintshire County Council. In 2006, the party elected Ann Were as party leader, the first female leader of a Welsh political party.

In 2010, the party became the only Green party within the United Kingdom to have not elected a Green candidate to a UK or devolved legislature, after Caroline Lucas was elected to the UK Parliament. In 2011, the Green Party campaigned in support of a yes vote in the 2011 Welsh devolution referendum. In 2013, the Wales Green Party archive at the National Library was damaged in a fire with some historical material either destroyed or permanently damaged.

In 2015, the Party agreed to support as many powers for Wales as possible, 'up to and including independence'. In the 2017 Welsh local elections, the Wales Green Party had their first county councillor elected to Powys County Council, for the Llangors ward.

In July 2018 the party held a vote on whether to split from the GPEW to form a separate organisation. Of those members who voted, 65% voted against the proposal, despite the leader Grenville Ham campaigning for independence. In October 2020, party members voted that they would campaign to support Welsh independence if a referendum was called on the matter, with party leader Anthony Slaughter arguing that many green policies could not be implemented in Wales without further devolved powers or independence.

In September 2021, Matt Townsend called for the party to become independent from its Westminster counterpart, despite members voting against it three years earlier. Writing in Bright Green, Townsend pointed out that the Scottish and Northern Irish Green parties were both independent from the GPEW. "This has left Wales as one of very few nations around the world to not have its own Green Party," he said. Townsend also noted that whilst the Scottish Greens had now entered government with the SNP, the Wales Green Party failed to win any seats at the 2021 Senedd election. Slaughter told Nation.Cymru in August 2023 that, with the expansion of the Senedd in 2026, he expected Green MSs to be elected for the first time.

In their manifesto for the 2024 United Kingdom general election, the party committed itself to Welsh independence.

Policies
While associated mainly with environmentalist policies, the party has a history of support for communitarian economic policies, including well-funded, locally controlled public services within the confines of a steady-state economy. It is supportive of proportional representation voting systems and takes a progressive approach to social policies, including supporting a universal basic income and transitioning to a four day working week. It also supports the devolution of further powers to Wales as part of a long term vision which advocates Welsh independence. In October 2020, the party announced that it would campaign for Welsh independence should a referendum be held.

The party is strongly opposed to nuclear power and radioactive waste, with an emphasis instead on expanding localised renewable energy projects. Other policies within Policies for a Sustainable Society in Wales include phasing out waste incineration, improving public transport and supporting new safestanding areas in Welsh sports stadiums. Also included within the party’s policies is the commitment to "bring the rail system, including track and operators, back into public ownership".

The Green Party support ending the role of the monarchy as an office of government and giving members of the royal family the same civil rights and tax obligations as other citizens.

The party supports universal free school meals, both during school term time and during school holidays.

Wales Young Greens
Wales Young Greens is the youth and student 'local group' of the Young Greens of England and Wales.

The current co chairs of the Young Greens of England and Wales are Jane Baston and Luanne Thornton.

Welsh Green Pride
Welsh Green Pride is the LGBTIQA+ Liberation group within the Wales Green Party which runs alongside but separate to the GPEW group LGBTIQA+ Greens. Its current Spokesperson is Ash Jones, and it has two deputy spokespeople Mike Whittall and Michael Cope. The group started a UK wide review of the discriminatory blood ban 'which excludes any LGBTIQ+ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, Intersex & Queer) people who have had sexual relations in the past 12 months from donating blood'.

Local elections

 * Figures do not include community or town councils.

Police and Crime Commissioners
The party did not field candidates in the 2012, 2016 or 2021 police and crime commissioner elections in Wales.

2022
The 2021 Welsh local elections were postponed until 2022 to avoid a clash with the 2021 Senedd election, with the future electoral cycle also changed from four to five years by the Welsh Government. The Wales Green Party formed an electoral pact with Plaid Cymru to fight seats in Cardiff.

The party won eight seats in the election, exceeding a previous high of three seats held in the early 1990s (prior to the two tier system of county and district councils being abolished and replaced by twenty two new unitary councils in 1995). A further two were elected via an alliance with Plaid Cymru in Cardiff.

2017
In the 2017 Welsh local elections, the Welsh Greens elected their first ever councillor. In 2021 Powys councillor Emily Durrant defected to Plaid Cymru.

2021
The Green Party stood a full set of regional list candidates as well as thirteen constituency candidates in the 2021 Senedd election.

Some of the party's key policies for the 2021 Senedd election include: ending fees for people's first university degree, targeting Wales to be carbon net zero by 2030 by replacing fossil fuels with onshore and offshore renewable energy, and introducing free public transport for local journeys for people in Wales aged under 21. The party also said it would build 12,000 homes to the highest environmental standards and would start a transformation fund to invest in local communities and create thousands of green jobs.

During the campaign it was initially announced the party would be excluded from taking part in the BBC One Wales leaders debate scheduled for 29 April 2021. However, BBC Wales later announced that a revised format would allow the party to participate in the second half of the TV debate.

 Regional list

 Constituencies

2016
In September 2015, Amelia Womack, Deputy Leader of GPEW, announced her intention to stand in the National Assembly elections for Wales Green Party. An ITV article titled "Green deputy leader wants to switch to Welsh politics" wrote of Newport-born Womack's intention to stand in the Welsh elections saying; "She's seeking the nomination for the Cardiff Central constituency and – more significantly – hoping to be top of the Wales Green Party's regional list for South Wales Central." Notably the article went on to say "Opinion polls have occasionally suggested that the Greens could gain a list seat in the Senedd".

10 February 2016 Welsh Greens abandoned progressive alliance negotiations a few months before the Senedd elections. The manifesto included plans to scrap the M4 relief road, build 12,000 new homes a year and provide free childcare to every child in Wales.

 Regional list

 Constituencies

 * DNS = Did not stand.

2011
The Wales Green Party again fielded candidates in all 5 top-up regions for the 2011 election. For the first time since 1999, the Greens also stood in a constituency - they once again opted to stand in Ceredigion.

During the 2011 campaign, they specifically targeted Labour voters with the aim of persuading them to use their regional list vote for the Greens, using the slogan "2nd vote Green". They claimed that Labour list votes were "wasted" and that over 70,000 votes in South Wales Central went "in the bin at every election" as Labour had never won a top-up seat in that region.

On this occasion, South Wales Central was the region the party targeted. The region includes Cardiff, with its large student population, and also the constituency of Cardiff Central, the only Liberal Democrat-Labour marginal seat in Wales. Welsh Green leader and South Wales Central candidate Jake Griffiths stated they were also aiming to attract disaffected Liberal Democrat voters in the region.

The Greens polled 32,649 votes, 3.4% of the total votes cast for the regional lists. In South Wales Central, they took over 10,000 votes, 5.2% of the total, though they were still almost 6,000 votes away from winning a seat. The regional results were as follows:

In Ceredigion, Chris Simpson polled 1,514 votes, or 5.2%. He came fifth out of five candidates.

2007
In 2007, the party again fielded a list of candidates in each of the top-up regions but no candidates for the constituencies. The Wales Green Party proposed that Wales should "be at the forefront of....a green industrial revolution". The party targeted South Wales West - the region where they had performed best in 2003.

The Welsh Greens polled 33,803 votes, or 3.5% of the total, a slight decrease on 2003. The party failed to win any seats, with their best performance this time being Mid and West Wales with 4.0% of the vote. In South Wales West their vote declined by one percentage point, their worst result of the five regions.

2003
In the 2003 election, the party again fielded a list of candidates for each of the electoral regions but this time stood no candidates for the constituencies. The Welsh Greens failed to win any seats, polling 30,028 votes, or 3.5%. Their best performance was in South Wales West where they polled 6,696 votes, or 4.8% of the total.

1999
In the 1999 inaugural election for the National Assembly, the Welsh Greens stood candidates in all five electoral regions used to elect "top-up" members of the assembly. Additionally, one candidate stood for the constituency seat of Ceredigion. The party stated that they aimed to poll around 7% of the vote and win at least one top-up seat.

The Welsh Greens ultimately polled 25,858 votes in the regional lists, 2.5% of the total, and 1,002 constituency votes (3.1%) in Ceredigion. No Welsh Greens were elected.

2019
The Wales Green Party entered an electoral pact in eleven Welsh seats with Plaid Cymru and the Welsh Liberal Democrats, as part of the Remain Alliance. As a result of this agreement, the party did not contest ten Welsh seats and instead supported pro-European Plaid Cymru or Liberal Democrat candidates. In the Vale of Glamorgan constituency, Anthony Slaughter stood for the Green Party as the Remain Alliance candidate but was not elected. The 2019 manifesto was titled If not now, when? and included various commitments, including taxing frequent flyers, creating more energy-efficient homes, decommissioning North Sea oil rigs and phasing out the UK’s coal industry.

2015
The Wales Green Party fielded their highest number of UK general election candidates and achieved their best UK election result in Wales.

title: Wales Green Party


text:
Just Me (Tina Arena album)

Just Me is the fifth studio album by Australian singer Tina Arena, released in Australia on 12 November 2001 by Columbia Records. Arena co-wrote tracks on the album with Desmond Child, Robbie Neville, Mark Hudson, Victoria Shaw and Peter-John Vettese. Debuting in the Australian ARIA Albums Chart top ten, Just Me was Arena's third top ten album but the album was considered a commercial failure. Two singles taken from the album; "Soul Mate #9" and "Dare You to Be Happy" were not major hits, while the third single "Symphony of Life" became Arena's fifth top ten hit.

Writing and content
The album was written mainly in Europe and the United States. Arena worked with different collaborators than on her previous albums including Nile Rodgers, Peter-John Vettese, Lukas Burton and Paul Manners, which Arena hoped would strengthen her appeal to both old and new fans. At the time, Arena stated "I set out to make a record that reflected all of the personal, sonic and lyrical growth that I believe I have undergone in recent years. The only master plan, the only objective I set for myself, was to experiment and write the freshest sounding record I could - one that was truly an indication of where I am at in my life right now." She also states "I don't see this album as a continuation of my previous work. I think it is definitely a new beginning - almost a rebirth. That's part of the reason it took a long time to make. I wanted to be sure about what I wanted to say and how I wanted to say it, and I think it was good to gain a little bit of perspective away from a fairly relentless presence in this country."

She also states "People are very curious - which is a really good thing but this is quite a departure, so I hope they like it. Making this record has given me a lot of emotional strength, and has allowed me the opportunity to share some of the things that have played an important part in my personal growth over the past few years. I have laid it all out there for the world to see - and I guess to judge. However overall, it's a very positive and intimate record and I think people will identify with it."

She said, of working with producers/songwriters Rodgers and Vettese; "I have to wait until I get into the studio with the producers for the sounds to really happen. That's when all the magic starts. Nile and Peter were such encouraging producers to work with and they were able to come up with exactly what I was after. I was very excited to be working with Nile, given his incredible pedigree and Peter has to be one of the funniest and most talented men on the planet. It was important to be surrounded by positive people; but at the same time, I didn't want to be around anyone who was hiding anything from me. I think that we achieved the perfect balance." The album also explores a new electronic sound for Arena, which is evident on "Soul Mate #9", "Symphony of Life" and "Woman". She stated "It was fun to bop again, to move again. Bringing all those infectious beats into the mix - the ones that you can't help but dance to - was really important."

Chart performance
The album debuted on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart on 19 November 2001 at number seven and was certified gold by ARIA. The album fell out of the top twenty in its second week and spent only four weeks in the top fifty and twelve weeks in the top one hundred. In France, despite debuting and peaking at number forty-seven, the album spent a total of forty-four weeks in the top one hundred and fifty and was eventually certified gold by the SNEP. The album was less successful in Switzerland, where it debuted at number seventy-four and peaked at number sixty-seven spending just three weeks in the top one hundred.

Personnel

 * Tina Arena – vocals
 * Richard Bailey – photography
 * Ian Dench – guitar
 * John Fortis – bass guitar
 * Erik Godal – keyboard, programming
 * Simon Hale – conductor, string arrangements
 * Richard Hilton – keyboard, shaker, electric sitar, programming, mixing, engineer
 * Paul Manners – bass, guitar, percussion, vocals, mixing, engineer
 * Nile Rodgers – guitar, electric sitar
 * Sylver Logan Sharp – background vocals
 * Sacha Skarbek – strings, keyboard
 * Peter-John Vettese – keyboard, background vocals, programming, string arrangements

title: Just Me (Tina Arena album)


text: Talk:Just Me

title: Talk:Just Me


text:
Amillennialism

Amillennialism or amillenarism is a chillegoristic eschatological position in Christianity which holds that there will be no millennial reign of the righteous on Earth. This view contrasts with both postmillennial and, especially, with premillennial interpretations of Revelation 20 and various other prophetic and eschatological passages of the Bible.

Revelation 20:1-6 describes a vision in which, "for a thousand years," Satan is bound "so that he might not deceive the nations any longer," and "the souls of those who had been beheaded for the testimony of Jesus and for the word of God, and those who had not worshiped the beast or its image and had not received its mark ... came to life and reigned with Christ for a thousand years." Amillennialists interpret the "thousand years" symbolically to refer either to a temporary bliss of souls in heaven before the general resurrection, or to the infinite bliss of the righteous after the general resurrection, in the eternal state.

Amilennialists reject the view that Jesus Christ will physically reign on the Earth for exactly one thousand years. Rather, they interpret the "thousand years" mentioned in Revelation 20 as a symbolic number, not as a literal duration of time. Amillennialists hold that the millennium has already begun and is simultaneous with the current church age. Amillennialism holds that while Christ's reign during the millennium is spiritual in nature, at the end of the church age, Christ will return in final judgment and establish a permanent reign in the "new heaven and new Earth."

Many proponents dislike the term "amillennialism" because it emphasizes their differences with premillennialism rather than their beliefs about the millennium. "Amillennial" was actually coined in a pejorative way by those who hold premillennial views. Some proponents also prefer alternate names such as nunc-millennialism (that is, now-millennialism) or realized millennialism, although these other names have achieved only limited acceptance and usage.

Variations
There are two main variations of amillennianism, perfect amillenarism (the first resurrection has already happened) and imperfect amillenarism (the first resurrection will happen simultaneously with the second one). The common denominator for all amillenaristic views is the denial of the Kingdom of the righteous on Earth before the general resurrection.

Perfect amillenarism

 * Marcion (c. 85 – 160) taught that only souls will resurrect, rejecting the bodily resurrection. He followed the teachings of Simon Magus (1st century) and Cerdo (1st–2nd centuries) [See. St. Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies, 1, 27; St. Epiphanius of Cyprus, Panarion. Against the Marcionites, Heresies 22 and 42].
 * Origen (c. 185 – 254) further developed the amillenarism of Marcion in his teaching about the reign of the saints in heaven while rejecting the idea of the Kingdom of the righteous coming down to the Earth [On the First Principles, book 2, chapter 11; Against Celsus, book 2, chapter 5]. This teaching was later supported by Gaius of Rome (died c. 217) [See Eusebius], St. Dionysius of Alexandria (died 265) [See Eusebius], and Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 263 – 340) [Church History, volume 3, chapter 28; volume 7, chapters 24-25].
 * Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772) taught about the reign of saints in heaven but denied the bodily resurrection [The Open Apocalypse, chapter 20].
 * A.P. Lopukhin's Explanatory Bible (1904–1913) argues that the first resurrection refers to the state of the righteous souls reigning in heaven, that is, "they can be guides and helpers to the Christians who are still fighting the good fight of faith on the earth. The souls find in this a new source of joy and blessing."
 * Joseph Sickenberger (20th century) interprets the first resurrection as the ascension of the souls of martyrs into heaven. The Millennium is for him "a symbolic number".
 * Charles Homer Giblin and Tadros Malaty (20th century) see the Millennium as the life of saints in heaven.
 * Daniil Sysoev (1974–2009) taught that the first resurrection is the life and reign of the righteous souls in heaven [Conversations on the Apocalypse, chapter 20].

Imperfect amillenarism

 * According to Epiphanius of Salamis, writing between 374 and 377, the gnostic Cerinthus (1st–2nd centuries) believed that Jesus Christ "ha[d] not yet risen but will rise when the general resurrection of the dead takes place." [See Epiphanius of Salamis, Panarion, 8 and 28, §6]. Thus, Cerinthus—whom Epiphanius charged with heresey—allegedly denied a distinct first resurrection. At the same time, he is said to have held that "Jesus suffered and rose from the dead, but Christ, who had descended upon Him, went up to heaven without suffering. And the one who came down from heaven in the form of a dove is Christ, but Jesus is not Christ." [ibid., §1; St. Irenaeus of Lyons, Against Heresies, book 1, chapter 26].
 * Ephrem the Syrian (c. 306 – 373) believed that the first resurrection would occur simultaneously with the second and both would constitute "one resurrection". The Millennium signifies "the immensity of eternal life" [Discourse 96. On repentance].
 * Theodoret of Cyrrhus (386–457) expressed similar views on the Millennium to those of Ephrem's. [A Brief Exposition of Divine Dogmas, chapter 21].

Teaching
Amillennialism rejects the idea of a future millennium in which Christ will reign on Earth prior to the eternal state beginning, but holds:
 * that Jesus is presently reigning from heaven, seated at the right hand of God the Father;
 * that Jesus also is and will remain with the church until the end of the world, as he promised at the Ascension;
 * that the millennium began with the resurrection of Jesus, the first resurrection (Colossians 1:18 [Jesus Christ] is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead; that in all things he might have the preeminence; Revelation 20:4-6 [the millennium] is the first resurrection);
 * that at Pentecost (or days earlier, at the Ascension of Jesus), the millennium began, citing Acts 2:16-21, wherein Peter quotes Joel 2:28-32 on the coming of the kingdom, to explain what is happening; and
 * that, therefore the Church and its spread of the gospel is Christ's Kingdom and forever will be.

Amillennialists also cite scripture passages that they believe to indicate that the kingdom of God is not a physical realm. Several verses cited by amillennialists in this context are:
 * , where Jesus cites his driving out of demons as evidence that the kingdom of God had come upon them;
 * , where Jesus warns that the coming of the kingdom of God can not be observed, and that it is among them; and
 * , where Paul speaks of the kingdom of God being in terms of the Christians' actions.

Because amillennialists believe that the millennium is simultaneous with the present age, they also believe that the binding of Satan in Revelation 20, which occurs at the beginning of the millennium, has already occurred; in their view, he has been prevented from "deceiv[ing] the nations" by the spread of the gospel. Nonetheless, they maintain that good and evil will remain mixed in strength throughout history and even in the church, according to the amillennial understanding of the Parable of the Wheat and Tares.

Amillennialism is sometimes associated with Idealism, as both schools teach a symbolic interpretation of many of the prophecies of the Bible and especially of the Book of Revelation. However, many amillennialists do believe in the literal fulfillment of Biblical prophecies; they simply disagree with Millennialists about how or when these prophecies will be fulfilled.

Early church
Few early Christians wrote about this aspect of eschatology during the first century of Christianity, but most of the available writings from the period reflect a millenarianist perspective (sometimes referred to as chiliasm). Bishop Papias of Hierapolis (A.D. 70–155) speaks in favor of a pre-millennial position in volume three of his five volume work. Aristion and the elder John echoed his sentiments, as did other first-hand disciples and secondary followers. Though most writings of the time tend to favor a millennial perspective, the amillennial position may have also been present in this early period, as suggested in the Epistle of Barnabas, and it would become the ascendant view during the next two centuries. Church fathers of the third century who rejected the millennium included Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c.  215), Origen (184/185 – 253/254), and Cyprian (c.  200 – 258). Justin Martyr (died 165), who had chiliastic tendencies in his theology, mentions differing views in his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, chapter 80: "'I and many others are of this opinion [premillennialism], and [believe] that such will take place, as you assuredly are aware; but, on the other hand, I signified to you that many who belong to the pure and pious faith, and are true Christians, think otherwise.'"

Certain amillennialists, such as Albertus Pieters, understand Pseudo-Barnabas to be amillennial, though many understand it instead to be premillennial. In the 2nd century, the Alogi (those who rejected all of John's writings) were amillennial, as was Caius in the first quarter of the 3rd century. With the influence of Neo-Platonism and dualism, Clement of Alexandria and Origen denied premillennialism. Likewise, Dionysius of Alexandria (died 264) argued that Revelation was not written by John and could not be interpreted literally; he was amillennial.

Origen's idealizing tendency to consider only the spiritual as real (which was fundamental to his entire system) led him to combat the "rude" or "crude" Chiliasm of a physical and sensual beyond.

Premillennialism appeared in the available writings of the early church, but it was evident that both views existed side by side. The premillennial beliefs of the early church fathers, however, are quite different from the dominant form of modern-day premillennialism, namely dispensational premillennialism."It is the conclusion of this thesis that Dr. Ryrie's statement [that the early church fathers held dispensationalist views] is historically invalid within the chronological framework of this thesis. The reasons for this conclusion are as follows: (1) the writers/writings surveyed did not generally adopt a consistently applied literal interpretation; (2) they did not generally distinguish between the Church and Israel; (3) there is no evidence that they generally held to a dispensational view of revealed history; (4) although Papias and Justin Martyr did believe in a Millennial kingdom, the 1,000 years is the only basic similarity with the modern system (in fact, they and dispensational pre-millennialism radically differ on the basis of the Millennium); (5) they had no concept of imminency or of a pre-tribulational Rapture of the Church; (6) in general, their eschatological chronology is not synonymous with that of the modern system. Indeed, this thesis would conclude that the eschatological beliefs of the period studied would be generally inimical to those of the modern system (perhaps, seminal amillennialism, and not nascent dispensational premillennialism ought to be seen in the eschatology of the period)."

Medieval and Reformation periods
Amillennialism gained ground after Christianity became a legal religion. It was systematized by Augustine of Hippo in the 4th century, and this systematization carried amillennialism over as the dominant eschatology of the Medieval and Reformation periods. Augustine was originally a premillennialist, but he retracted that view, claiming the doctrine was carnal.

Amillennialism was the dominant view of the Protestant Reformers. The Lutheran Church formally rejected chiliasm in The Augsburg Confession—"Art. XVII., and condemned the Anabaptists (historically, most Anabaptist groups were amillennial) and others 'who now scatter Jewish opinions that, before the resurrection of the dead, the godly shall occupy the kingdom of the world, the wicked being everywhere suppressed.'" Likewise, the Swiss Reformer Heinrich Bullinger wrote up the Second Helvetic Confession, which asserts, "We also reject the Jewish dream of a millennium, or golden age on earth, before the last judgment." John Calvin wrote in Institutes of the Christian Religion that chiliasm is a "fiction" that is "too childish either to need or to be worth a refutation." He interpreted the thousand-year period of Revelation 20 symbolically, applying it to the "various disturbances that awaited the church, while still toiling on earth."

Modern times
The Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches have long held amillennial positions, as has the Roman Catholic Church, which generally embraces an Augustinian eschatology and which has deemed that premillennialism "cannot safely be taught." Amillennialism is also common among Protestant denominations such as the Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, Methodist, and many Messianic Jews. Amillennialism represents the historical position of the Amish, Old Order Mennonite, and Conservative Mennonites (though among the more modern groups premillennialism has made inroads). Amillennialism is common among groups arising from the 19th century American Restoration Movement such as the Churches of Christ, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and Christian Churches and Churches of Christ. Amillennialism also has a following amongst Baptist denominations such as The Association of Grace Baptist Churches in England. Partial preterism is sometimes a component of amillennial hermeneutics. Amillennialism declined in Protestant circles with the rise of Postmillennialism and the resurgence of Premillennialism in the 18th and 19th centuries, but amillennialism has regained prominence in the West after World War II.

title: Amillennialism


text:
Muskogean languages

Muskogean (also Muskhogean, Muskogee) is a Native American language family spoken in different areas of the Southeastern United States. Though the debate concerning their interrelationships is ongoing, the Muskogean languages are generally divided into two branches, Eastern Muskogean and Western Muskogean. Typologically, Muskogean languages are agglutinative. One documented language, Apalachee, is extinct and the remaining languages are critically endangered.

Family division
The Muskogean family consists of six languages that are still spoken: Alabama, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee (previously referred to as Creek), Koasati, and Mikasuki, as well as the now-extinct Apalachee, Houma, and Hitchiti (the last is generally considered a dialect of Mikasuki). "Seminole" is listed as one of the Muskogean languages in Hardy's list, but it is generally considered a dialect of Muscogee rather than a separate language, as she comments.

The major subdivisions of the family have long been controversial, but the following lower-level groups are universally accepted: Choctaw–Chickasaw, Alabama–Koasati, Hitchiti–Mikasuki, and Muscogee. Because Apalachee is extinct, its precise relationship to the other languages is uncertain; Mary Haas and Pamela Munro both classify it with the Alabama–Koasati group.

Haas's classification
For connections among these groupings, the traditional classification is that of Mary Haas and her students, such as Karen Booker, in which "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw) is seen as one major branch, and "Eastern Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati, Hitchiti-Mikasuki, and Muscogee) as another. Within Eastern Muskogean, Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki are generally thought to be more closely related to each other than to Muscogee. That classification is reflected in the list below:

 * Muskogean
 * Western Muskogean
 * Chickasaw
 * Choctaw (also called Chahta, Chacato)
 * Eastern Muskogean
 * Muscogee (also called Muskogee, Maskoke, Mvskoke, Seminole, and previously referred to as Creek)
 * Hitchiti-Mikasuki (also called Miccosukee)
 * Apalachee–Alabama–Koasati
 * Apalachee
 * Alabama (also called Alibamu)
 * Koasati (also called Coushatta)

Munro's classification
A more recent and controversial classification has been proposed by Pamela Munro. In her classification, the languages are divided into a "Southern Muskogean" branch (Choctaw-Chickasaw, Alabama-Koasati, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki) and a "Northern Muskogean" one (Muscogee). Southern Muskogean is the subdivided into Hitchiti-Mikasuki and a "Southwestern Muskogean" branch containing Alabama-Koasati and "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw). The classification is reflected in the list below:

 * Muskogean
 * Northern Muskogean
 * Muscogee
 * Southern Muskogean
 * Hitchiti-Mikasuki
 * Southwestern Muskogean
 * Apalachee
 * Alabama–Koasati
 * Alabama
 * Koasati
 * Western Muskogean
 * Chickasaw
 * Choctaw

Kimball's classification
A third proposed classification is that of Geoffrey Kimball, who envisions a threeway split among the languages, with "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw), "Eastern Muskogean" (Muscogee), and "Central Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki). However, Kimball's classification has not received as much support as either Haas's or Munro's.

Possible Muskogean languages
Several sparsely attested languages have been claimed to be Muskogean languages. George Broadwell suggested that the languages of the Yamasee and Guale were Muskogean. However, William Sturtevant argued that the "Yamasee" and "Guale" data were Muscogee and that the language(s) spoken by the Yamasee and Guale people remain unknown. It is possible that the Yamasee were an amalgamation of several different ethnic groups and did not speak a single language. Chester B. DePratter describes the Yamasee as consisting mainly of speakers of Hitchiti and Guale. The historian Steven Oatis also describes the Yamasee as an ethnically mixed group that included people from Muskogean-speaking regions, such as the early colonial-era native towns of Hitchiti, Coweta, and Cussita.

The Pensacola and Chacato (or Chatot) people are reported to have spoken the same Muskogean language, which may have been closely related to Choctaw.

Sparse evidence indicates that a Muskogean language was spoken by at least some of the people of the paramount chiefdom of Cofitachequi in northeastern South Carolina. If so, that would be the most eastern outpost of Muskogean. The people of Cofitichequi were probably absorbed by nearby Siouan and Iroquoian speakers in the late 17th century.

A vocabulary of the Houma may be another underdocumented Western Muskogean language or a version of Mobilian Jargon. Mobilian Jargon is a pidgin based on Western Muskogean.

Gulf
The best-known connection proposed between Muskogean and other languages is Mary Haas' Gulf hypothesis, in which she conceived of a macrofamily comprising Muskogean and a number of language isolates of the southeastern US: Atakapa, Chitimacha, Tunica, and Natchez. While well-known, the Gulf grouping is now generally rejected by historical linguists. A number of Muskogean scholars continue to believe that Muskogean is related to Natchez.

Nouns
Most family languages display lexical accent on nouns and grammatical case, which distinguishes the nominative from the oblique. Nouns do not obligatorially inflect for gender or number.

Verbs
Muskogean verbs have a complex ablaut system; the verbal stem almost always changes depending on aspect; less commonly, it is affected by tense or modality. In Muskogean linguistics, the different forms are known as "grades".

Verbs mark for first and second person, as well as agent and patient (Choctaw and Chickasaw also mark for dative). Third-persons (he, she, it) have a null-marker.

Plurality of a noun agent is marked by either affixation on the verb or an innately plural verbal stem:

Pluralization via affixation, Choctaw:

ish-impa

2SG.NOM-eat

"you [sg.] eat"

hash-impa

2PL.NOM-eat

"you [pl.] eat"

Innately-numbered verbal stems, Mikasuki:

łiniik

run.SG

"to run (singular)"

palaak

run.PAU

"to run (several)"

mataak

run.PL

"to run (many)"

Vocabulary
Below is a list of basic vocabulary in five Muskogean languages from Broadwell (1992):

Phonology
Proto-Muskogean is reconstructed as having the consonants (given in IPA transcription):

The phonemes reconstructed by Haas as and  show up as  and  (or  ), respectively, in all Muskogean languages; they are therefore reconstructed by some as  and. appears as in all the daughter languages except Muscogee for which it is  initially and  medially. The value of the proto-phoneme conventionally written $\langleθ\rangle$ (or $\langleN\rangle$) is unknown; it appears as in Western Muskogean languages and as  in Eastern Muskogean languages. Haas reconstructed it as a voiceless (that is, ), based partly on presumed cognates in Natchez.

Lexicon
Proto-Muskogean lexical reconstructions by Booker (2005) are as follows.

title: Muskogean languages


text: Talk:USS Oklahoma (BB-37)

title: Talk:USS Oklahoma (BB-37)


text:
Nyanga

Nyanga may mean:

 * Nyanga Province, of Gabon
 * Nyanga River, in Gabon and Congo
 * Nyanga people, an ethnic group from Congo
 * Nyanga, Zimbabwe, a town
 * Nyanga District, Zimbabwe
 * Nyanga National Park in Zimbabwe
 * Nyanga, Western Cape, a township in South Africa
 * Nyanga language (ISO 639/3 code nyj)
 * Nyanga-li language (ISO 639/3 code nyc)

People with the surname

 * Gaspar Yanga (AKA Gaspar Nyanga), leader of a slave revolt in colonial Mexico
 * Yannick Nyanga, French rugby union player

title: Nyanga


text:
Taut foliation

In mathematics, tautness is a rigidity property of foliations. A taut foliation is a codimension 1 foliation of a closed manifold with the property that every leaf meets a transverse circle. By transverse circle, is meant a closed loop that is always transverse to the tangent field of the foliation.

If the foliated manifold has non-empty tangential boundary, then a codimension 1 foliation is taut if every leaf meets a transverse circle or a transverse arc with endpoints on the tangential boundary. Equivalently, by a result of Dennis Sullivan, a codimension 1 foliation is taut if there exists a Riemannian metric that makes each leaf a minimal surface. Furthermore, for compact manifolds the existence, for every leaf $$ L $$, of a transverse circle meeting $$ L $$, implies the existence of a single transverse circle meeting every leaf.

Taut foliations were brought to prominence by the work of William Thurston and David Gabai.

Relation to Reebless foliations
Taut foliations are closely related to the concept of Reebless foliation. A taut foliation cannot have a Reeb component, since the component would act like a "dead-end" from which a transverse curve could never escape; consequently, the boundary torus of the Reeb component has no transverse circle puncturing it. A Reebless foliation can fail to be taut but the only leaves of the foliation with no puncturing transverse circle must be compact, and in particular, homeomorphic to a torus.

Properties
The existence of a taut foliation implies various useful properties about a closed 3-manifold. For example, a closed, orientable 3-manifold, which admits a taut foliation with no sphere leaf, must be irreducible, covered by $$\mathbb R^3$$, and have negatively curved fundamental group.

Rummler–Sullivan theorem
By a theorem of Hansklaus Rummler and Dennis Sullivan, the following conditions are equivalent for transversely orientable codimension one foliations $$\left(M,{\mathcal{F}}\right)$$ of closed, orientable, smooth manifolds M:
 * $$\mathcal{F}$$ is taut;
 * there is a flow transverse to $$\mathcal{F}$$ which preserves some volume form on M;
 * there is a Riemannian metric on M for which the leaves of $$\mathcal{F}$$ are least area surfaces.

title: Taut foliation


text: Category:Athabaskan languages

title: Category:Athabaskan languages


text:
Functional illiteracy

Functional illiteracy consists of reading and writing skills that are inadequate "to manage daily living and employment tasks that require reading skills beyond a basic level". Those who read and write only in a language other than the predominant language of their environs may also be considered functionally illiterate. Functional illiteracy is contrasted with illiteracy in the strict sense, meaning the inability to read or write complete, correctly spelled sentences in any language.

The characteristics of functional illiteracy vary from one culture to another, as some cultures require more advanced reading and writing skills than do others. In languages with phonemic spelling, functional illiteracy might be defined simply as reading too slowly for practical use, an inability to effectively use dictionaries and written manuals, and other factors. Sociological research has demonstrated that countries with lower levels of functional illiteracy among their adult populations tend to be those with the highest levels of scientific literacy among the lower stratum of young people nearing the end of their formal academic studies. This correspondence suggests that the capacity of schools to ensure students attain the functional literacy required to comprehend the basic texts and documents associated with competent citizenship contributes to a society's level of civic literacy.

A reading level that might be sufficient to make a farmer functionally literate in a rural area of a developing country might qualify as functional illiteracy in an urban area of a technologically advanced country. In developed countries, the level of functional literacy of an individual is proportional to income level and inversely proportional to the risk of committing certain kinds of crime. In Russia, where more than 99% of the population is technically literate, only one-third of high school graduates can comprehend the content of scientific and literary texts, according to a 2015 study. The UK government's Department for Education reported in 2006 that 47% of school children left school at age 16 without having achieved a basic level in functional mathematics, and 42% fail to achieve a basic level of functional English. Every year, 100,000 pupils leave school functionally illiterate in the UK. In the United States, according to Business magazine, an estimated 15 million functionally illiterate adults held jobs at the beginning of the 21st century. According to the National Center for Educational Statistics in the United States:
 * About 70% of adults in the U.S. prison system read at or below the fourth-grade level, according to the 2003 National Adult Literacy Survey, noting that a "link between academic failure and delinquency, violence and crime is welded to reading failure."
 * 85% of US juvenile inmates are functionally illiterate
 * 43% of adults at the lowest level of literacy lived below the poverty line, as opposed to 4% of those with the highest levels of literacy.

The National Center for Education Statistics provides more detail. Literacy is broken down into three parameters: prose, document, and quantitative literacy. Each parameter has four levels: below basic, basic, intermediate, and proficient. For prose literacy, for example, a below basic level of literacy means that a person can look at a short piece of text to get a small piece of uncomplicated information, while a person who is below basic in quantitative literacy would be able to do simple addition. In the US, 14% of the adult population is at the "below basic" level for prose literacy; 12% are at the "below basic" level for document literacy, and 22% are at that level for quantitative literacy. Only 13% of the population is proficient in each of these three areas—able to compare viewpoints in two editorials; interpret a table about blood pressure, age, and physical activity; or compute and compare the cost per ounce of food items.

A Literacy at Work study, published by the Northeast Institute in 2001, found that business losses attributed to basic skill deficiencies run into billions of dollars a year due to low productivity, errors, and accidents attributed to functional illiteracy. The American Council of Life Insurers reported that 75% of the Fortune 500 companies provide some level of remedial training for their workers. , 30 million (14% of adults) were unable to perform simple and everyday literacy activities.

UNESCO definition
Illiteracy, as well as functional illiteracy, were defined on the 20th session of UNESCO in 1978 as follows:

title: Functional illiteracy


text: Category:Texas law

title: Category:Texas law