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USS Attala

USS Attala (APA-130) was a Haskell-class attack transport in service with the United States Navy from 1944 to 1946. She was scrapped in 1974.

History
Attala was of the VC2-S-AP5 Victory ship design type was named for Attala County, Mississippi. She was laid down under a Maritime Commission contract (MCV hull 46) on 18 July 1944 at Wilmington, California, by the California Shipbuilding Corporation; launched on 27 September 1944; sponsored by Mrs. Paul Pigott; and simultaneously acquired by the Navy and commissioned on 30 November 1944.

After shakedown training along the west coast, the attack transport departed Seattle, Washington, on 31 January 1945. She paused at Pearl Harbor to embark troops and equipment and then got underway on 9 February, bound for Eniwetok. Attala pushed on to Iwo Jima, where she arrived on 13 March. The ship spent several days there disembarking troops and unloading equipment. On the 18th, Attala moored at Saipan to take on wounded marines for passage back to the United States. She stopped briefly at Pearl Harbor to disembark passengers and then continued on to San Francisco, California.

On 18 April, Attala returned to Pearl Harbor. She then began a week of intensive amphibious training off Maui. Attala embarked replacement personnel, loaded cargo, and got underway on 14 May. She made stops at Saipan and Ulithi before anchoring in Leyte Gulf on 5 June. On that day, she assumed duty as a receiving ship.

Attala left the Philippines on 17 June and made stops at Eniwetok and Pearl Harbor before arriving in San Francisco on 8 July. From 12 until 20 July, Attala was in drydock at a shipyard in Everett, Washington. The ship departed the west coast on 24 July, and on 5 August, reached Eniwetok, where she joined a convoy bound for Okinawa.

On 21 August, Attala dropped anchor off Hagushi beach, Okinawa. Early in September, she took on board troops and equipment slated for occupation duty in Korea. On the 7th, she arrived at Jinsen, Korea, and-after debarking her charges returned to Okinawa.

Attala took on board Marines for transportation to Qingdao, China. She began debarking them there on 21 November. Attala left Chinese waters on the 23rd and began the long journey to the United States. Making only one stop en route at Manila, Philippines, Attala arrived in Los Angeles, California, on 18 December.

After voyage, repairs, and a period of liberty for the crew, Attala resumed operations. On 14 January 1946, she got underway for San Diego, California. The transport transited the Panama Canal on the 23rd and then continued on to Norfolk, Virginia. She anchored off Hampton Roads on 1 February and began the deactivation.

She proceeded to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Portsmouth, Virginia, and on 26 February 1946 Attala was decommissioned. She was transferred to the War Shipping Administration for disposal. Her name was struck from the Navy list on 20 March 1946.

Fate
Attala entered the National Defense Reserve Fleet at James River, Virginia on 3 March 1946. In 1954 Attala was withdrawn from the Reserve Fleet as part of a Repair Program, GAA-No. Atl. & Gulf, and then returned. On 15 March 1974 she was sold to Mr. Isaac Varela, for $727,007, to be scrapped. At 1000 EDT, on 3 April 1974 she was withdrawn from the Reserve Fleet and sent to the breaker's yard.

All that remains of Attala is her brass builder's plate.

Awards
Attala earned one battle star for her World War II service.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: USS Attala


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Tansley

Tansley is a village on the southern edge of the Derbyshire Peak District, two miles east of Matlock.

History
Tansley is recorded in the Domesday Book as Taneslege, and its name comes from the combination of the Old English elements tān and lēah. Lēah has been translated as 'woodland clearing', but the tān element is contested. It may mean 'branch', perhaps used of 'a valley branching off from the main valley'. However, it has also been translated as a masculine Anglo-Saxon personal name, that is otherwise unrecorded. Other suggestions have been 'sprout, shoot', thus translating the name as 'wood or clearing from which shoots were obtained'. Tansley grew during the Industrial Revolution, its main industry being the quarrying of millstone grit (for making mill-stones, now adopted as the symbol of the Peak District National Park). A copious amount of water runs off Tansley moor above the village, eventually running into Bentley Brook, a tributary of the Derwent. Bentley Brook and three of its feeder streams have been dammed in the past to make artificial lakes which provided water to power mills. As well as five mills in Lumsdale Valley there were also three mills in Tansley village, two of which remain having been restored for new uses. Nowadays the surviving lakes are stocked with fish for angling. The water also led to the establishment of Tansley Hydro (later Tansley House residential adult care home, now closed) when spas and hydrotherapy were in fashion and Victorian tourists came to the Matlock area for its Romantic charm. Tansley is now more famous for its many garden centres and plant nurseries, its many small businesses and its large Sunday car-boot market.

Twinning arrangements
Tansley has an informal twinning arrangement with the small town of Babadag in Tulcea County, Romania. The two communities have occasional exchange visits, and more frequent postal and email contact, arranged through an organisation named TABALINK (the Tansley Babadag Association). The aims of TABALINK are:

- to promote friendship and understanding between the people of the village of Tansley, and the wider area of Derbyshire, England; and the people of the town of Babadag and the surrounding area of Tulcea, Eastern Romania.

- to build links between the peoples of the communities concerned in all possible ways - educational, cultural and commercial.

- to stimulate and foster mutual exchanges between individuals, families and societies within the communities.

- to organize social and fund raising events and activities to support the objects of the Association.

Media
The Tansley Village Hall was used in Channel 4's How to Look Good Naked in 2009. Tansley was also used a filming location for Shane Meadows' 2004 film Dead Man's Shoes.

Tansley's communications network includes the Tansley Hotwire, a village e-mail service which distributes news and information to residents, and a website.

In February 2010 Tansley featured in the Sunday Times Property Section as a village that was "alive and kicking", one where community spirit still thrives.

Anglican Church
In 1839 Tansley was part of the parish of Crich. At that time it is recorded in a petition by the churchwardens and other parishioners of the parish of Crich that "the hamlet of Tansley contains a population of upwards of 500 souls and is distant from the Parish Church (of Crich) of four miles and that it is extremely inconvenient for the inhabitants of the said hamlet to attend divine service in the said parish of Crich, and in order to provide some church accommodation and aid for spiritual wants of the people residing therein considerable funds have been raised by voluntary contributions together with other grants to build a chapel".

The church was started in 1839, built of stone quarried locally, and opened 1 year later dedicated to the Holy Trinity.

By the middle of the 1860s, Matlock Bank, just over a mile away, had become popular with visitors coming to take the waters and although Holy Trinity church was large enough for local residents, it was not big enough to cope with additional visitors from Matlock Bank. The church was enlarged in 1870 by adding a North Aisle. New pews replaced the box pews and the altar area was changed. It was recognised that the addition of one aisle “ ..... produced an oddity but it is intended to add a corresponding wing should further accommodation be necessary". In the event, it obviously did not prove to be necessary.

Methodist Church
The Methodist church was built in Church Street in 1829, 11 years before the Anglican church (Holy Trinity).

It replaced the smaller old Chapel, an octagonal building at The Knoll, built in 1811 on the site of a former cockfighting pit.

The present church has been modernised in recent years. It has its own schoolroom behind it.

Village Hall
Tansley Village Hall is located next to Tansley village green. It is a popular venue for clubs, groups, parties and events. It is home to Tansley Film, hosts live comedy and musical shows (including Live & Local), and provides a meeting place for Tansley Ladies Group, Tansley Garden & Countryside Club, Tansley Tuesday Club, Tansley Players (drama group), an art group, yoga, pilates, Zumba, tai chi and pre-school children's cookery classes.

The hall, opened in 1843, was used as a school until 1949.

The hall (as of February 2014) has been substantially renovated since July 2010. It has had a new entrance, with oak door and disabled access, new toilet facilities, a new ground floor roof with a skylight, a new upper floor roof, new windows, internal renovation and redecoration of the main hall, bar area and small meeting room (with kitchen) and new curtains and blinds.

Community Hall
The Community Hall, at the lower end of Church Street, was built in 1887 as the Liberal Club when stones in the front wall were inscribed with the names of eminent men from the parish.

Its ownership was later transferred to the Parish Council, as seen by the inscription "Parish Building" over the entrance. The Parish Council sub-let it in 1906 to the Tansley Institute as a Reading Room, to replace the one within The Church School. The institute also used it as a non-sectarian Adult Sunday School and for Technical Education. Later it was also used for general recreation such as snooker and billiards and a youth club.

Sport
Tansley is home to Tansley Juniors Football Club, a charter standard club who currently have around 10 teams ranging from U7s to Seniors. The club has the first Under-21 football team within the Derbyshire Dales.

The village is the site of the headquarters of the British Orienteering Federation.

title: Tansley


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Riebeckite

Riebeckite is a sodium-rich member of the amphibole group of silicate minerals, chemical formula Na2(Fe2+3Fe3+2)Si8O22(OH)2. It forms a solid solution series with magnesioriebeckite. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system, usually as long prismatic crystals showing a diamond-shaped cross section, but also in fibrous, bladed, acicular, columnar, and radiating forms. Its Mohs hardness is 5.0–6.0, and its specific gravity is 3.0–3.4. Cleavage is perfect, two directions in the shape of a diamond; fracture is uneven, splintery. It is often translucent to nearly opaque.

Name and discovery
Riebeckite was first described in 1888 for an occurrence on Socotra Island, Aden Governorate, Yemen, and named for German explorer Emil Riebeck (1853–1885).

The mineral is also known as crocidolite.

Occurrence
Riebeckite typically forms dark-blue elongated to fibrous crystals in highly alkali granites, syenites, rarely in felsic volcanics, granite pegmatites and schist. It occurs in banded iron formations as the asbestiform variety crocidolite (blue asbestos). It occurs in association with aegirine, nepheline, albite, arfvedsonite in igneous rocks; with tremolite, ferro-actinolite in metamorphic rocks; and with grunerite, magnetite, hematite, stilpnomelane, ankerite, siderite, calcite, chalcedonic quartz in iron formations.

Riebeckite granite
The riebeckite granite known as ailsite, found on the island of Ailsa Craig in western Scotland, is prized for its use in the manufacture of curling stones.

Riebeckite granite was used for the facing stones of the Canton Viaduct from Moyles Quarry (a.k.a. Canton Viaduct Quarry) now part of Borderland State Park in Massachusetts, US. The commonwealth's name is even taken from an Algonquian word for the Great Blue Hill, which got its color from this form of granite.

Crocidolite (fibrous riebeckite)

The fibrous forms of riebeckite are known as crocidolite and are one of the six recognised types of asbestos. Often referred to as blue asbestos, it is considered the most hazardous. The association between blue asbestos and mesothelioma was established by J. C. Wagner, C. A. Sleggs, and P. Marchand by 1960.

Crocidolite asbestos was mined in South Africa, Bolivia, and Wittenoom, Western Australia. Bolivian crocidolite was used in approximately 13 billion Kent Micronite cigarette filters, manufactured from March 1952 until at least May 1956 by the Lorillard Tobacco Company (now part of the R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company). Blue asbestos was also used to similar effect, and hazard, in early gas masks.

title: Riebeckite


text: Category:Pricing

title: Category:Pricing


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Global Challenge

The Global Challenge (not to be confused with Global Challenge Award) was a round the world yacht race run by Challenge Business, the company started by Sir Chay Blyth in 1989. It was held every four years, and took a fleet of one-design steel yachts, crewed by ordinary men and women who have paid to take part, round Cape Horn and through the Southern Ocean where winds can reach 70 kn. The fee for the last race proposed (in 2008) was £28,750. It was unique in that the race took the westabout route around the world against prevailing winds and currents – often referred to as the ‘wrong way’ route.

The route of the race covered a distance of some 29,000 nmi. It changed to accommodate different ports of call, but in 2004/5 started from Portsmouth (UK) and stopped at Buenos Aires (ARG), Wellington (NZ), Sydney (AUS), Cape Town (SA), Boston (USA) and La Rochelle (FRA) before returning again to Portsmouth.

The event claimed the motto “The World’s Toughest Yacht Race” and was the ultimate sailing challenge for amateur sailors. The official charity for the races was Save the Children and the race patron was The Princess Royal.

After failing to secure a title sponsor, the company went into administration on 9 October 2006 placing the future of the race in doubt. The fleet was then put up for sale.

Background
The seeds of the race were sown in Blyth's previous sailing exploits. In 1970/71 he became the first person to sail alone round the world westabout in the yacht British Steel. The practicality of training people who had never sailed before was demonstrated during the 1973/74 Whitbread Around the World race, when Blyth had raced Great Britain II with a crew from the Parachute Regiment. Subsequently, he ran charters for paying crew.

The design philosophy for the identical yachts used on the Global Challenge races was forged by Blyth's longtime associate Andrew Roberts. It was his idea to start from the largest top-action production winch available, which would in turn dictate sail area, displacement and size. He also oversaw the build of the two fleets of steel cutters used in the four races to date to designs by David Thomas and Thanos Condylis (Challenge 67) and Rob Humphreys (Challenge 72).

British Steel Challenge 1992/3
The first race started from Southampton in September 1992 with 10 identical 67 ft boats sailed by a skipper and 13 crew. There were a number of serious rigging screw failures in the Southern Ocean and British Steel II , after the initial success of winning the first leg of the race, was dismasted in mid-Southern Ocean, but managed to motorsail safely to Hobart under jury rig. She was re-rigged in time to rejoin the race for the next leg to Cape Town.

The winner of the first race was John Chittenden and crew in Nuclear Electric. Chittenden went on to win the 2001 Yachtsman of the Year Award.

BT Global Challenge 1996/7
An expanded fleet of 14 Challenge 67 yachts set out from Southampton in driving rain and gales. Again rigging problems struck in the Southern Ocean and Concert  was dismasted. Skipper Chris Tibbs and crew made a jury rig and motorsailed to Wellington, New Zealand. Concert  was re-rigged in time to start leg 3 from Wellington to Sydney and was 2nd on the Sydney to Cape Town leg. Yacht Pause to Remember, skippered by Tom O'Connor, suffered a snapped boom halfway between Sydney and Cape Town. There seemed no choice but to fly their trysail until crewmembers Graham Phelp and Matthew Reeves took on the challenge of trying to repair it by using a cut out section as a splint. Two days later a shortened boom emerged from below decks and was successfully attached to the mast. Three weeks later and having suffered several storms with wind speeds in excess of 50 kn, Pause to Remember sailed into Cape Town, with boom still intact.

This race featured an extra leg to Boston and a crew of disabled men and women took part on “Time & Tide”, the first to sail round the world.

Mike Golding dominated, winning five out of six legs in Group 4 with Andy Hindley winning the remaining leg in Save the Children . Three skippers had graduated from being crew volunteers four years earlier: Andy Hindley; Mark Lodge; and Simon Walker, all of whom appeared in the top five placings. Simon Walker went on to become Managing Director of Challenge Business, helping to organise the 2000/1 and 2004/5 Global Challenges.

BT Global Challenge 2000/1
On 10 September, a new fleet of 72 ft steel cutters made their debut in this race. The winner, Conrad Humphreys and crew on LG Flatron, won four of the seven legs.

For the first time the race was scored on points, with equal points for each leg, though combined elapsed times are shown here for comparison.

* These teams did not finish all legs, a requirement for a position in the overall standings, but their positions are shown without displacing any other team

Kate Middleton, who married Prince William to become the Duchess of Cambridge, worked as corporate crew during the buildup of the 2000/1 race.

Global Challenge 2004/5
The same fleet of 72 ft yachts sailed again in the 2004 race, and the winner was the Australian skipper Andy Forbes and his crew on BG SPIRIT , who won three of the seven legs. Once again, although the overall safety record of the race was very good, medical emergencies did unfold, most notably onboard yachts 'Imagine It. Done.', 'Team Stelmar' (with TWO separate medical evacuations), and 'Save The Children'. In the case of 'Imagine It. Done.', only an extraordinary combined effort of several yachts within the fleet, the doctor onboard (Dr Roche), and the efforts of the Westpac Rescue team saved the life of John Masters. 'Team Stelmar' suffered both their medical evacuations in the Southern Oceans on the BA – Wellington leg, costing them a 2,500 nmi detour and 17 more days at sea, making the leg 9700 nmi instead of 6100 nmi and 52 days at sea. They carried on with 3 crew down crossing the Southern Ocean alone, set the 24-hour record for that leg and finished 11th due to the retirement of 'Imagine It. Done.' Team Stelmar later went on to set the overall 24-hour race record during the penultimate leg of the race between Boston and La Rochelle.

* Retired from leg 2 from Buenos Aires to Wellington (NZ) after a medical emergency on board.

** Stopped racing during leg 2 from Buenos Aires to Wellington (NZ) to render aid after a medical emergency on board to Imagine It. Done.

Specifications of the Challenge 72 one-design
The current 12-strong race fleet of Challenge 72-footers was developed from the Challenge 67s and was specifically designed to be strong, safe and seaworthy in even the worst conditions and to be self-sufficient for long periods at sea, with enough fuel and water to take their crews safely to a distant port. The yachts were also designed to be relatively easy to sail and handled by crews who are not professional. The yachts have a snakepit, an unusual feature that allows anyone working the halyards to 'hunker down' and shelter in strong wind and rain, and, more importantly, from waves washing over the deck. Designed by Rob Humphreys, the identical 72 ft steel ocean racing yachts were built by Devonport Yachts in the UK by a new method using a unique flat-pack yacht assembly kit of precision cut laser steel panels.

title: Global Challenge


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Gouverneur K. Warren

Gouverneur Kemble Warren (January 8, 1830 – August 8, 1882) was an American civil engineer and United States Army general during the American Civil War. He is best remembered for arranging the last-minute defense of Little Round Top during the Battle of Gettysburg and is often referred to as the "Hero of Little Round Top". His subsequent service as a corps commander and his remaining military career were ruined during the Battle of Five Forks, when he was relieved of command of the V Corps by Philip Sheridan, who claimed that Warren had moved too slowly. A post-war court of inquiry found that Sheridan's relief of Warren was unjustified.

Early life
Warren was born in Cold Spring, New York, and named for Gouverneur Kemble, a prominent local Congressman, diplomat, industrialist, and owner of the West Point Foundry. His sister, Emily Warren Roebling, would later play a significant role in building the Brooklyn Bridge. He entered the United States Military Academy across the Hudson River from his hometown at age 16 and graduated second in his class of 44 cadets in 1850. He was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the Corps of Topographical Engineers.

In the Antebellum South, he worked on the Mississippi River, participating in the Pacific Railroad Surveys of possible transcontinental railroad routes, and, in 1857, mapping the Western United States, extensively exploring the vast Nebraska Territory, including Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, part of Montana, and part of Wyoming. He served as the engineer on William S. Harney's Battle of Ash Hollow in the Nebraska Territory in 1855, where he saw his first combat.

One region he surveyed was the Minnesota River Valley, a valley much larger than expected from the low-flow Minnesota River. In some places, the valley is 5 miles (8 km) wide and 250 feet (80 m) deep. Warren first explained the region's hydrology in 1868, attributing the gorge to a massive river that drained Lake Agassiz between 11,700 and 9,400 years ago. The great river was named Glacial River Warren in his honor after his death.

American Civil War
At the start of the war, Warren was a first lieutenant and mathematics instructor at the United States Military Academy. He helped raise a local regiment for service in the U.S. Army and was appointed lieutenant colonel of the 5th New York Infantry Regiment on May 14, 1861. Warren and his regiment saw their first combat at the Battle of Big Bethel in Virginia on June 10, arguably the first major land engagement of the war. He was promoted to colonel and regimental commander on September 10.

In the 1862 Peninsula Campaign, Warren commanded his regiment at the Siege of Yorktown and also assisted the chief topographical engineer of the Army of the Potomac, Brig. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys, by leading reconnaissance missions and drawing detailed maps of appropriate routes for the army in its advance up the Virginia Peninsula. He commanded a small brigade (3rd Brigade, 2nd Division, V Corps) during the Seven Days Battles consisting of his own 5th New York along with the 10th New York. At Gaines Mill, he was bruised in the knee by a shell fragment but remained on the field. He continued to lead the brigade at the Second Battle of Bull Run, suffering heavy casualties in a heroic stand against an overwhelming enemy assault, and at Antietam, where the V Corps was in reserve and saw no combat. Warren was promoted to brigadier general on September 26, 1862, and he and his brigade went to the Battle of Fredericksburg in December, but again were held in reserve and saw no action. When U.S. Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker reorganized the Army of the Potomac in February 1863, he named Warren his chief topographical engineer and then chief engineer. As chief engineer, Warren was commended for his service in the Battle of Chancellorsville.

At the start of the Gettysburg Campaign, as Confederate General Robert E. Lee began his invasion of Pennsylvania, Warren advised Hooker on the routes the Army should take in pursuit. On the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 2, 1863, Warren initiated the defense of Little Round Top, recognizing the importance of the undefended position on the left flank of the U.S. Army and directing, on his initiative, the brigade of Col. Strong Vincent to occupy it just minutes before it was attacked. Warren suffered a minor neck wound during the Confederate assault.

Promoted to major general after Gettysburg (August 8, 1863), Warren commanded the II Corps from August 1863 until March 1864, replacing the wounded Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock, and distinguishing himself at the Battle of Bristoe Station. On March 13, 1865, he was brevetted to major general in the regular army for his actions at Bristoe Station. During the Mine Run Campaign, Warren's corps was ordered to attack Lee's army. Still, he perceived that a trap had been laid and refused the order from army commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade. Although initially angry at Warren, Meade acknowledged that he had been right. Upon Hancock's return from medical leave and the spring 1864 reorganization of the Army of the Potomac, Warren assumed command of the V Corps and led it through the Overland Campaign, the Siege of Petersburg, and the Appomattox Campaign.

During these Virginia campaigns, Warren established a reputation for bringing his engineering traits of deliberation and caution to the role of an infantry corps commander. He won the Battle of Globe Tavern, August 18 to August 20, 1864, cutting the Weldon Railroad, a vital supply route north to Petersburg. He also won a limited success in the Battle of Peebles' Farm in September 1864, carrying a part of the Confederate lines protecting supplies moving to Petersburg on the Boydton Plank Road.

The aggressive Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan, a key subordinate of Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, was dissatisfied with Warren's performance. He was angry at Warren's corps for supposedly obstructing roads after the Battle of the Wilderness and its cautious actions during the Siege of Petersburg. At the beginning of the Appomattox Campaign, Sheridan requested that the VI Corps be assigned to his pursuit of Lee's army. Still, Grant insisted that the V Corps was better positioned. He gave Sheridan written permission to relieve Warren if he felt it was justified "for the good of the service". Grant later wrote in his Personal Memoirs,

At the Battle of Five Forks on April 1, 1865, Sheridan judged that the V Corps had moved too slowly into the attack and criticized Warren fiercely for not being at the front of his columns. Warren had been held up, searching for Samuel W. Crawford's division, which had gone astray in the woods. But overall, he had handled his corps efficiently, and their attack had carried the day at Five Forks, arguably the pivotal battle of the final days. He even led the final charge, which broke the Confederate lines. Nevertheless, Sheridan relieved Warren of command on the spot. Warren asked Sheridan for reconsideration, who retorted, "Reconsider? Hell, I'll never reconsider. Obey the order!" Meade told Warren that he had contemplated his relief for some time, but he relented and later recommended Grant reinstate him as the V Corps commander to ease tensions in the Army. He was assigned to the defenses of Petersburg and then briefly to command of the Department of Mississippi.

Post-war
Humiliated by Sheridan, Warren resigned his commission as major general of volunteers due to his disagreement with suppressing the meeting of the Mississippi legislature "by any means necessary" on May 27, 1865. He reverted to his permanent rank as major in the United States Army Corps of Engineers. He served as an engineer for 17 years, building railroads with assignments along the Mississippi River, achieving the rank of lieutenant colonel in 1879. By all accounts, Warren worked with intensity at great sacrifice to himself and his family. But the career that had shown so much promise at Gettysburg was ruined. He urgently requested a court of inquiry to exonerate him from the stigma of Sheridan's action. Numerous requests were ignored or refused until Ulysses S. Grant retired from the presidency. President Rutherford B. Hayes ordered a court of inquiry that convened in 1879. After hearing testimony from dozens of witnesses over 100 days, including Grant and Sheridan, the court found that Sheridan's relief of Warren had been unjustified. General Winfield Hancock, his former fellow corps commander during the Overland Campaign, initially presided over the court of inquiry held on Governor's Island, New York. Sheridan's accounts did not hold up to facts established by others, reflected ignorance of Warren's movements at Five Forks, and were perceived as reflective of personal animosity. Joshua Chamberlain, the hero of the Little Round Top and former governor of Maine, who commanded a Brigade in Warren's corps, gave strong testimony to support Warren. During his testimony, Grant commented that he never doubted Warren's courage and tactical skill but wanted his orders followed "promptly" and did not want second-guessing that assumed senior leadership had not considered the options, strongly inferring such insubordination led to Warren's relief. His statement was stricken from the record at Grant's request, simultaneously with the objection of Warren's counsel. On November 21, 1881, President Chester Alan Arthur directed that the findings be published; no other action was taken. Unfortunately for Warren, these results were not published until after his death.

In 1867, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.

Warren's last assignment in the Army was as district engineer for Newport, Rhode Island, where he died of complications from diabetes on August 8, 1882. He was buried in the Island Cemetery in Newport in civilian clothes and without military honors at his request. His last words were, "The flag! The flag!"

Legacy
A bronze statue of Warren stands on Little Round Top in Gettysburg National Military Park. It was created by Karl Gerhardt (1853–1940) and dedicated in 1888. Another bronze statue, by Henry Baerer (1837–1908), was erected in the Grand Army Plaza, Brooklyn, New York. It depicts Warren standing in uniform, with field binoculars on a granite pedestal made of stone quarried at Little Round Top.

Reflecting a pattern of naming many Washington, DC streets in newly developed areas in the Capital after Civil War generals, an east–west street in the Northwest quadrant is named Warren Street, NW.

The United States Army Transport USAT Warren was named for Warren.

The G. K. Warren Prize is awarded approximately every four years by the United States National Academy of Sciences. It is funded by a gift from his daughter, Miss Emily B. Warren, in memory of her father.

Mount Warren in California is named in his honor.

title: Gouverneur K. Warren


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Marcus Statius Priscus

Marcus Statius Priscus Licinius Italicus (M. Statius M. f. Cl. Priscus Licinius Italicus) was a Roman senator and general active during the reigns of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Contemporary sources refer to him as Marcus Statius Priscus or simply Statius Priscus. He was consul for the year 159 as the colleague of Plautius Quintillus; Priscus was one of only two homines novi to attain the ordinary consul in the reigns of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.

Life
The cursus honorum of Statius Priscus is preserved in an inscription found in Rome. His career began as an equestrian officer, first as praefectus or commander of the Cohors IV Lingonum, an auxilia nominally one thousand men in strength. Next he was a military tribune in three different legions: Legio III Gallica, Legio X Gemina, and Legio I Adiutrix. It was at this time he received dona militaria, or decorations while fighting in the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136; Anthony Birley believes Priscus was commissioned with the III Gallica when he earned this distinction. His third step in his equestrian career was as praefectus with an ala stationed in Cappadocia. He then advanced from military appointments, and served as procurator of the vicesima hereditatium in Gallia Narbonensis and Aquitania.

At this point Statius Priscus entered the Senate. No details are provided, but we can surmise a few details. One is that this happened under emperor Antoninus Pius. Another was that he owed his advance to the patronage of Quintus Lollius Urbicus, of whom Birley writes, "his influence in the 140s was no doubt considerable." More importantly, instead of being adlected into the Senate at praetorian or even quaestorian rank, he was forced to proceed through the traditional Republican magistracies of quaestor, plebeian tribune, and peregrine praetor. "This reflects the conservatism of the reign of Antoninus Pius," Birley states. "Priscus must have been well over thirty when he entered the senate as a quaestor, and well over fifty when he finally became consul." It was at this point he was admitted into the priesthood of the sacerdoti Titali. Once praetor, Priscus was commissioned legatus legionis or commander of Legio XIV Gemina; Birley suggests this was while Claudius Maximus, a friend of heir apparent Marcus Aurelius governed Pannonia Superior.

Statius Priscus was appointed governor of Dacia between 157 and 158, as attested by a number of surviving military diplomas. Birley notes that Priscus had distinguished himself in Dacia: "he undoubtedly had some military success in Dacia, as a number of inscriptions from that province reveal." His success was recognized upon his return to Rome, with his ordinary consulship. The following year he was made curator alvei Tiberis et cloacarum urbis, the official responsible for maintaining the channels of the Tiber River, as well as the sewers of Rome, but his tenure was brief. Priscus is attested as governor of Moesia Superior by another military diploma dated to February 161, as well as a dedication he erected after the death of Antoninus Pius to the new emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus at Viminacium. The northern frontier of Roman Britain came under threat that required an experienced general, so the new emperors reassigned him there later that year.

He had been in Britain only a few months when a more serious threat presented itself—the war with Parthia. In 162 Vologases IV defeated Marcus Sedatius Severianus in Armenia; Roman Syria was threatened. Priscus was made governor of Cappadocia. His forces, made up of Eastern auxiliaries and several legions transferred from the Rhine and the Danube, quickly crushed the Parthians and destroyed the town of Artaxata. Priscus then installed Sohaemus, who was under the protection of Rome, on the Armenian throne, and rebuilt the city of Valarshapat. The satirist Lucian records how one contemporary historian described "how Priscus the general merely shouted out and 27 of the enemy dropped dead." Birley comments, "It is foolhardy to try to squeeze some truth out of evidence of this kind, but one might perhaps suppose, at least, that Priscus was a man with an aggressive and boisterous style of leadership."

According to Cassius Dio, when Avidius Cassius (the governor of Egypt and Syria) was declared emperor by his legions, it was Priscus who informed Emperor Aurelius. Cassius declared himself emperor at the behest of Aurelius' wife who convinced Cassius and his legions that the emperor had died. Aurelius quickly defeated Cassius and installed Priscus as governor of Syria.

Family
Although no wife is attested for Priscus, Giuseppe Camodeca published the inscription of a statue honoring one Fufidia Clementiana, a clarissima puella, who is described as the granddaughter of Priscus. This implies he had a daughter, who married Lucius Fufidius Pollio, ordinary consul in 166. There is also a Marcus Statius Longinus, governor of Moesia Inferior under the emperor Macrinus, who is possibly Statius Priscus' grandson. If Longinus is his grandson, the existence of a son follows.

title: Marcus Statius Priscus


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GRML

GRML – an acronym for General Reuse Markup Language – is a markup language similar to HTML and XML, using tags to organize data in files and web pages. Data is organized in columns and rows. Tags are used to define forms, images, and hyper-linking. Its syntax, like HTML, is based on a simplified subset of SGML. GRML is not in very wide use as of May 2005.

GRML is a data-oriented format which defines data content rather than data presentation; the file or web browser determines how data is displayed. This is the same goal as HTML's separating CSS from HTML, moving away from  tags, but GRML takes it even further. One of the key aims in creating the format was to separate "views" of the data from "forms" used to manipulate it.

It is also a common result of a typographical error when attempting to type HTML, because HT and GR are adjacent on a Qwerty keyboard.

History

 * 1.0 - January, 2003
 * 1.1 - June, 2003
 * 1.2 - March, 2004
 * 2.0 - September, 2004
 * 2.1 - November, 2004

title: GRML


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Jōnan-ku, Fukuoka

Jōnan-ku (城南区) is one of the seven wards of Fukuoka City, Japan. As of November 1, 2004, it had a population of 128,057 people, making up 9.2% of Fukuoka City, with an area of 16.02 km2. At the time of Fukuoka City's official designation as a City in 1972, the area now known as Jōnan-ku was part of the larger ward of Nishi-ku. On May 1, 1982, Nishi-ku was subdivided into the three smaller wards of Nishi-ku, Sawara-ku and Jōnan-ku.

Located southwest of the downtown area of Tenjin, Jōnan-ku is a primarily residential area. Despite its proximity to downtown Fukuoka, Jōnan-ku has suffered from a lack of transport infrastructure, leading to congested roads and difficult access to the rest of the city. The Nanakuma Line of the Fukuoka Subway opened in 2005, improving traffic flow in the area.

Like most of Fukuoka City, the construction in Jōnan-ku is relatively recent, as the area consisted mostly of fields after World War 2, lacking even paved roads. The result has been a crowded jumble of roads, houses, apartment buildings and businesses, with no real centre to the ward. A few large parks help to create a peaceful atmosphere.

Jōnan-ku is home to Fukuoka University, whose students are everpresent during the school year and help support a growing number of local convenience stores. The St Sulpice Great Seminary of Fukuoka is another notable landmark, having been built in the 1950s and serving to train Japanese Catholic priests from Kyūshū.

Historical sites include Kikuchi Shrine and Yūsentei Park.

title: Jōnan-ku, Fukuoka


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Rainbow party

Rainbow Party may refer to:

 * Green-Rainbow Party, of Massachusetts, a US political party
 * Rainbow (Greece), a regionalist political party in Greece
 * Rainbow Party, a socialist Zambian political party
 * Rainbow party (sexuality), urban legend
 * Rainbow Party (novel), the 2005 Paul Ruditis novel about such parties.

title: Rainbow party


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Harmelen train disaster

The Harmelen train disaster, on 8 January 1962, was the worst railway accident in the history of the Netherlands. Harmelen, in the central Netherlands, is the location of a railway junction where a branch to Amsterdam leaves the Rotterdam to Utrecht line. It is common at high-speed junctions to avoid the use of diamond crossings wherever possible – instead a ladder crossing is employed where trains destined for the branch line cross over to the track normally employed for trains travelling in the opposite direction for a short distance before taking the branch line.

The accident happened 18 months after the Woerden train accident, the derailment of a British furlough train nearby. Previously the Weesp train disaster of 1918 had been the worst railway disaster in the Netherlands.

Collision
Shortly before 9.20 a.m. on Monday, 8 January 1962, a foggy day, a Rotterdam to Amsterdam local-train consisting of electric multiple unit sets 700 and 297 was authorised to carry out this manoeuvre, protected by a red signal to stop trains approaching from Utrecht. The EMU was travelling at approximately 75 km/h (47 mph). Simultaneously, an express train from Leeuwarden to Rotterdam, hauled by electric locomotive 1131, was approaching at 107 km/h (67 mph).

Perhaps because of the foggy weather, the driver of the train from Utrecht missed the warning yellow signal and applied the emergency brake when he saw the red signal protecting the junction, far too late to prevent a near head-on collision between the two trains. Six coaches of the Amsterdam train and three on the express train were destroyed.

Victims
Both trains were heavily packed – 180 occupants in the six-carriage multiple units and circa 900 aboard the 11-carriage express train, made up of seven recent vehicles and five old Mat '24 trailers. Of approximately 1080 people aboard the trains, 93 lost their lives, including the drivers of both trains.

Aftermath
The collision spurred the installation on Dutch railways of the system of automatic train protection known as Automatische treinbeïnvloeding (ATB), which automatically overrides the driver in such a "signal passed at danger" situation.

The junction was later rebuilt as a flying junction in the 1990s.

Memorial
On 8 January 2012 Pieter van Vollenhoven unveiled a memorial for the victims of the disaster, which on that day, had taken place exactly fifty years ago. The organization of the disclosure was owned by the local "Dorpsplatform" Harmelen.

The monument was designed by Taeke Friso de Jong, an artist from Kamerik. The mason was Maurice van Dam from Woerden. The design consists of two stone slabs that are tilted relative to each other and contain the names of the 93 victims. Looking through the two slabs discloses the actual spot where the collision happened. A red stone plinth, bearing a body that represents the victims, is placed in the middle in front of the two slabs. Three names on the slabs were spelled incorrectly; the names are copied from contemporary handwritten police reports. The mistakes have since been corrected.

Similar accidents

 * 1976 Schiedam train accident (South Holland, Netherlands)
 * Beresfield rail disaster (New South Wales, Australia)
 * Violet Town railway disaster (Victoria, Australia)

title: Harmelen train disaster


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Chay Blyth

Sir Charles Blyth (born 14 May 1940), known as Chay Blyth, is a Scottish yachtsman and rower. He was the first person to sail single-handed non-stop westwards around the world (1971), on a 59-foot boat called British Steel.

Early life
Blyth was born in Hawick, Roxburghshire. He joined the British Army's Parachute Regiment when he was 18 and was promoted to Sergeant at the age of 21.

Business career
Blyth founded a company named Challenge Business to organise the 1992/1993 British Steel Challenge in 1989. This event allowed novices to sail around the world in a professionally organised race. After the British Steel Challenge, Global Challenge organized other Round the World yacht races.

The British Steel Challenge was followed by two successive BT Global Challenge races in 1996/97 and 2000/01. However, a downturn in the sponsorship market meant that the 2004/2005 Global Challenge race set off without a title sponsor. In September 2007, Challenge Business went into administration, when Blyth had been unable to find a sponsor for the 2008-09 Global Challenge Race.

While chairman of Challenge Business, Blyth was the mentor for Dee Caffari on her successful bid to be the first woman to sail around the world against the prevailing winds and currents in 2005–2006.

As chairman of Inspiring Performance, Blyth also headed the board of directors of the train operating company First Great Western – Greater Western franchise. He became non-executive chairman of the franchise which was formed to run a new and enlarged service from 1 April 2006. The franchise combines the previous First Great Western, First Great Western Link and Wessex Trains franchises.

Awards and accolades

 * In the 1997 Birthday Honours, Blyth was created a Knight Bachelor for services to sailing.
 * A street has been named after him in his birth town of Hawick, known as "Chay Blyth Place".
 * 3rd Worthing Scout Groups Blyth Cub Pack is named after him.
 * Awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Technology from Plymouth University in 1994.
 * The Chartered Institute of Marketing awarded The Companion of Honour to Sir Chay in 2000 for his services to the Profession of Marketing.

title: Chay Blyth


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Odd Hassel

Odd Hassel (17 May 1897 – 11 May 1981) was a Norwegian physical chemist and Nobel Laureate.

Biography
Hassel was born in Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway. His parents were Ernst Hassel (1848–1905), a gynaecologist, and Mathilde Klaveness (1860–1955). In 1915, he entered the University of Oslo where he studied mathematics, physics and chemistry, and graduated in 1920. Victor Goldschmidt was Hassel's tutor when he began studies in Oslo, while Heinrich Jacob Goldschmidt, Victor's father, was Hassel's thesis advisor. Father and son were important figures in Hassel's life and they remained friends. After taking a year off from studying, he went to Munich, Germany to work in the laboratory of Professor Kasimir Fajans.

His work there led to the detection of absorption indicators. After moving to Berlin, he worked at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, where he began to do research on X-ray crystallography. He furthered his research with a Rockefeller Fellowship, obtained with the help of Fritz Haber. In 1924, he obtained his PhD from Humboldt University of Berlin, before moving to his alma mater, the University of Oslo, where he worked from 1925 through 1964. He became a professor in 1934.

His work was interrupted in October, 1943 when he and other university staff members were arrested by the Nasjonal Samling and handed over to the occupation authorities. He spent time in several detention camps, until he was released in November, 1944.

Work
Hassel originally focused on inorganic chemistry, but beginning in 1930 his work concentrated on problems connected with molecular structure, particularly the structure of cyclohexane and its derivatives. He introduced the Norwegian scientific community to the concepts of the electric dipole moments and electron diffraction. The work for which he is best known established the three-dimensionality of molecular geometry. He focused his research on ring-shaped carbon molecules, which he suspected filled three dimensions instead of two, the common belief of the time. By using the number of bonds between the carbon and hydrogen atoms, Hassel demonstrated the impossibility of the molecules existing on only one plane. This discovery led to him being awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 1969.

Honors
Hassel was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1969, shared with English chemist Derek Barton.

He received the Guldberg-Waage Medal (Guldberg-Waage Medal) from the Norwegian Chemical Society and the Gunnerus Medal from the Royal Norwegian Society of Science and Letters, both in 1964.

Hassel held honorary degrees from the University of Copenhagen (1950) and University of Stockholm (1960). An annual lecture named in his honor is given at the University of Oslo.

He was an honorary Fellow of the Norwegian Chemical Society, Chemical Society of London, Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters and Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

He was made a Knight of the Order of St. Olav in 1960.

Related reading

 * Laylin, James K. (1993) Nobel Laureates in Chemistry, 1901-1992 (Chemical Heritage Foundation) ISBN 9780841226906
 * Laylin, James K. (1993) Nobel Laureates in Chemistry, 1901-1992 (Chemical Heritage Foundation) ISBN 9780841226906

title: Odd Hassel


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Original six frigates of the United States Navy

The United States Congress authorized the original six frigates of the United States Navy with the Naval Act of 1794 on March 27, 1794, at a total cost of $688,888.82 (equivalent to $19,833,259.52 in 2024). These ships were built during the formative years of the United States Navy, on the recommendation of designer Joshua Humphreys for a fleet of frigates powerful enough to engage any frigates of the French or British navies, yet fast enough to evade any ship of the line.

One of these original six, the USS Constitution, is still in commission and is the world's oldest commissioned naval warship still afloat.

Purpose
After the Revolutionary War, a heavily indebted United States disbanded the Continental Navy, and in August 1785, lacking funds for ship repairs, sold its last remaining warship, the USS Alliance (1778). But almost simultaneously troubles began in the Mediterranean when Algiers seized two American merchant ships and held their crews for ransom. Minister to France Thomas Jefferson suggested an American naval force to protect American shipping in the Mediterranean, but his recommendations were initially met with indifference, as were the recommendations of John Jay, who proposed building five 40-gun warships. Shortly afterward, Portugal began blockading Algerian ships from entering the Atlantic Ocean, thus providing temporary protection for American merchant ships.

Piracy against American merchant shipping had not been a problem when under the protection of the British Empire prior to the Revolution, but after the Revolutionary War the "Barbary States" of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis felt they could harass American merchant ships without penalty. Additionally, once the French Revolution started, Britain and France each began interdicting American merchant ships suspected of trading with the other. Lacking a proper navy, the American government could do little to prevent such seizures.

The formation of a naval force had been a topic of debate in the new American republic for years. Opponents argued that building a navy would only lead to calls for a navy department, and the staff to operate it. This would further lead to more appropriations of funds, which would eventually spiral out of control, giving birth to a "self-feeding entity". Those opposed to a navy felt that payment of tribute to the Barbary States and economic sanctions against Britain were a better alternative.

In 1793, Portugal reached a peace agreement with Algeria, ending its blockade of the Mediterranean, thus allowing Algerian ships back into the Atlantic Ocean. By late in the year, eleven American merchant ships had been captured. This, combined with the actions of Britain, finally led President Washington to request Congress to authorize a navy.

On January 2, 1794, by a narrow margin of 46–44, the House of Representatives voted to authorize building a navy and formed a committee to determine the size, cost, and type of ships to be built. Secretary of War Henry Knox submitted proposals to the committee outlining the design and cost of warships. To appease the strong opposition to the upcoming bill, the Federalist Party inserted a clause into the bill that would bring an abrupt halt to the construction of the ships should the United States reach a peace agreement with Algiers.

The bill was presented to the House on March 10 and passed as the Naval Act of 1794 by a margin of 50–39, and without division in the Senate on March 19. President Washington signed the Act on March 27. It provided for acquisition, by purchase or otherwise, of four ships to carry forty-four guns each, and two ships to carry thirty-six guns each. It also provided pay and sustenance for naval officers, sailors and marines, and outlined how each ship should be manned in order to operate them. The Act appropriated $688,888.82 to finance the work.

Design and preparations

With the formation of a Department of the Navy still several years away, responsibility for design and construction fell to the Department of War, headed by Secretary Henry Knox. As early as 1790 Knox had consulted various authorities regarding ship design. Discussions of the designs were carried out in person at meetings in Philadelphia. Little is known about these discussions due to a lack of written correspondence, making determination of the actual designers involved difficult to assemble. Secretary Knox reached out to ship architects and builders in Philadelphia, which was the largest seaport in North America at the time and possibly the largest freshwater port in the world. This meant that many discussions of ship design took place in Knox's office, resulting in few if any records of these discussions being available to historians. Joshua Humphreys is generally credited as the designer of the six frigates, but Revolutionary War ship captains John Foster Williams and John Barry and shipbuilders Josiah Fox and James Hackett also were consulted.

The final design plans submitted to President Washington for approval called for building new frigates rather than purchasing merchant ships and converting them into warships, an option under the Naval Act. The designers realized that the fledgling United States could not match the European states in the number of ships afloat. Nevertheless, this gave the Americans the distinct advantage in that their ship design was not constrained by access to timber nor limited crew. This allowed the designers to plan for enormous ships given their role. They had the ability to overpower other frigates, but were capable of a speed to escape from a ship of the line. The design was unusual for the time, being deep, long on keel and narrow of beam (width); mounting very heavy guns; incorporating a diagonal scantling (rib) scheme aimed at limiting hogging; while giving the ships extremely heavy planking. This gave the hull greater strength than the hulls of other navies' frigates. Knox advised President Washington that the cost of new construction would likely exceed the appropriations of the Naval Act. Despite this, Washington accepted and approved the plans the same day they were submitted, April 15, 1794.

Joshua Humphreys was appointed Master Constructor of the ships. An experienced draftsman, Josiah Fox, was hired into the War Department to put plans to paper. However, Fox disagreed with the large dimensions of the design and, according to Humphreys, attempted to downsize the measurements while producing his drafts. This incensed Humphreys enough that Fox was soon assigned to the mold loft with William Doughty.

After or simultaneously with the creation of the drawings, a builder's half model was assembled from which measurements were taken to create molds of the timbers. In a process known as "molding", the dimensions of the framing pieces were chalked onto the floor of a mold loft where a template was formed using strips of light wood. Once the molds were transported to the timber crews, the templates were used to select the part of a tree that closely matched the template. From there the timber was felled and roughed out close to the required dimensions, then numbered for identification and loaded onto a ship for transport. An additional set of more detailed molds was required for each frigate for the construction crews to follow.

Construction
Secretary Knox suggested to President Washington that six different construction sites be used, one for each ship, rather than building at one particular shipyard. Separate locations enabled the allotted funds to stimulate each local economy, and Washington approved the sites on April 15, 1794. At each site, a civilian naval constructor was hired to direct the work. Navy captains were appointed as superintendents, one for each of the six frigates as follows:

Humphreys wished to use the most durable materials available for construction, primarily white pine, longleaf pine, white oak, and, most importantly, southern live oak. Live oak was used for framing as it was a strong, dense, and long-lasting wood weighing up to 75 lb per cubic foot (1,200 kg/m3) when freshly cut. The live oak tree grows primarily in coastal areas of the United States from Virginia to Texas, with the most suitable timber found in the coastal areas of Georgia near St. Simons. This desire for live oak was the primary cause of delays in the frigates' construction. Appropriated funds from the Naval Act were not available until June 1794. Shipbuilder John T. Morgan was hired by the War Department to procure the live oak and supervise the cutting and crews. Morgan wrote to Humphreys in August reporting that it had hardly ceased raining since his arrival and "the whole country is almost under water". Captain John Barry was sent to check up on progress in early October; he found Morgan and several persons sick with malaria. Timber cutting finally began when the crews arrived on the 22nd. The earliest delivery of timber occurred in Philadelphia on December 18, but another load of live oak destined for New York was lost when its cargo ship sank. Delays continued to plague the timber cutting and delivery operations throughout 1795. By December of that year all six keels had been laid down, though the frigates were still unframed and far from finished.

Construction of the frigates slowly continued until the 1796 announcement of the Treaty of Tripoli, which was witnessed by Algiers. In accordance with the clause in the Naval Act, construction of the frigates was to be discontinued. However, President Washington instead requested instructions from Congress on how to proceed. Several proposals circulated before a final decision was reached allowing Washington to complete two of the 44-gun and one of the 36-gun frigates. The three frigates nearest to completion, United States, Constellation and Constitution, were chosen. Construction of Chesapeake, Congress, and President was halted, and some of their construction materials were sold or placed in storage.

The earlier predictions of Henry Knox regarding costs of the frigates came to a head in early 1797. Of the original appropriation of $688,888.82, only about $24,000 remained. Secretary of War James McHenry requested of Congress an additional $200,000, but only $172,000 was appropriated. The additional funds were enough to finish the three frigates' construction, but did not allow them to be manned and put to sea. United States launched on May 10, Constellation on September 7, and Constitution on October 21. Meanwhile, interference with American shipping by France because of their disagreement over the Jay Treaty prompted Congress to debate authorizing completion and manning of the three frigates. Secretary McHenry reported that an additional $200,000 would be required for this stage of construction, touching off grumbling in Congress over the escalating costs. Nevertheless, on July 1, Congress approved the completion and appropriated the requested funds.

When the next session of Congress convened in November, Secretary McHenry again requested funds to complete the three frigates. Though upset over the escalating costs, Congress approved an additional $115,833, but simultaneously launched an investigation into possible waste or fraud in the frigate program. On March 22, 1798, McHenry turned over a report outlining several main reasons for cost escalations: problems procuring the live oak; the logistics of supplying six separate shipyards; and fires, yellow fever, and bad weather. Additional inquiries prior to McHenry's report revealed that the War Department used substandard bookkeeping practices, and that the authorized funds had to be released by the Treasury Department, resulting in delays, causing waste. These problems led to the formation of the Department of the Navy on April 30.

Simultaneously, relations with France soured even further when President John Adams informed Congress of the XYZ Affair. In response, on May 28, Congress authorized vessels of the United States to capture any armed French vessels lying off the coast of the United States. As Constellation, Constitution and United States were still fitting out, the first U.S. Navy vessel to put to sea for this undeclared Quasi-War was the sloop USS Ganges (1794) with Richard Dale in command. Finally, on July 16, Congress appropriated $600,000 for completion of the remaining three frigates; Congress launched on August 15, 1799, Chesapeake on December 2, and President on April 10, 1800.

Armament

The 44-gun ships sometimes carried over 50 guns, and Constitution was known to carry 24-pounder guns in her main battery instead of the normal 18-pounders most frigates carried.

The Naval Act of 1794 had specified 36-gun frigates in addition to the 44s, but at some point the 36s were re-rated as 38s. Their "ratings" by number of guns were meant only as an approximation.

Ships of this era usually had no permanent battery of guns, as modern navy ships carry. The guns and cannons were designed to be completely portable, and often were exchanged between ships or shore as situations warranted. Each commanding officer generally outfitted armaments to his liking, taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of personnel on board, and planned routes to be sailed. Consequently, the armaments on ships would change many times during their careers, and records of the changes were not generally kept.

Commonly, twelve men and a powder-boy were required to operate each gun. If needed, some men were designated to take stations as boarders, to man the bilge pumps, or to fight fires. Guns were normally manned on the engaged side only; if a ship engaged two opponents, gun crews had to be divided. All of the guns were capable of using several different kinds of projectiles: round shot, chain or bar shot, grape shot, and heated shot. Each gun was mounted on a wooden gun carriage controlled by an arrangement of rope and tackle. The captain ordered the gun crews to either open fire together in a single broadside, or allowed each crew to fire at will as the target came close alongside. The gun captain pulled the lanyard to trip the flintlock which sent a spark into the pan. The ignited powder in the pan sent a flame through the priming tube to set off the powder charge in the gun and hurl its projectile at the enemy.

The marine detachment on board provided the naval infantry that manned the fighting tops, armed with muskets to fire down onto the decks of the enemy ship.

Frigates

The frigates were originally designated by the letters A through F until March 1795, when Secretary of War, Timothy Pickering, prepared a list of ten suggested names for the ships (in addition to those later used, the list also included Defender, Fortitude, Perseverance, Protector, and Liberty). President Washington was responsible for selecting five of the names: Constitution, United States, President, and Congress, each of which represented a principle of the United States Constitution, together with Constellation which derived from the blazon of the Arms of the United States, "13 stars, forming a constellation." The sixth frigate, Chesapeake, remained nameless until 1799, when Secretary of the Navy, Benjamin Stoddert, designated her a namesake of the Chesapeake Bay, ignoring the previous Constitutional naming protocol.

United States
USS United States (1797) was built in Philadelphia, launched on May 10, 1797, and commissioned on July 11, 1797. On October 25, 1812, United States fought and captured the frigate HMS Macedonian. United States was decommissioned on February 24, 1849, and put in reserve at Norfolk, Virginia. In 1861, while still in reserve at Norfolk, the ship was seized and commissioned into the Confederate States Navy, which later scuttled the ship. In 1862, Union forces raised the scuttled ship and retained control until she was broken up in 1865.

Constellation

USS Constellation (1797) was built in Baltimore and launched on September 7, 1797. On February 9, 1799, she fought and captured the French frigate Insurgente. This was the first major victory by an American-designed and -built warship. In February 1800, Constellation fought the French frigate Vengeance. Although Vengeance was not captured or sunk, she was so badly damaged that her captain intentionally grounded the ship to prevent her from sinking. Constellation was struck in 1853 and broken up. During construction of a new USS Constellation (1854) in 1854, it was claimed that it was a "repair" of the original ship (a common dodge of the time for political reasons) leading to uncertainty over which ship was preserved in Baltimore until it was proven in 1999 to be the second Constellation.

Constitution
USS Constitution, rated at 44 guns, launched from Edmund Hartt's shipyard in Boston on October 21, 1797, by naval constructor George Claghorn and Captain Samuel Nicholson. During the Quasi-War she captured the French merchant ship Niger, and was later involved in battling the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War.

She is most well known for her actions during the War of 1812 against Britain, when she captured numerous merchant ships and defeated four British warships: HMS Guerriere (1806), HMS Java (1811), HMS Cyane (1806), and HMS Levant (1813). The battle with the Guerriere earned her the nickname of "Old Ironsides" and public adoration that has repeatedly saved her from scrapping. She continued to actively serve the nation as flagship in the Mediterranean and African squadrons and made a circumnavigation of the world in the 1840s. During the American Civil War she served as a training ship for the United States Naval Academy and carried artwork and industrial displays to the Paris Exposition of 1878. Retired from active service in 1881, she served as a receiving ship until designated a museum ship in 1907. In 1931 she made a three-year, 90-port tour of the nation, and in 1997 after a comprehensive restoration to her 1812 configuration she finally sailed again under her own power for her 200th birthday.

The oldest commissioned warship afloat in the world, Constitution is berthed at the Charlestown Navy Yard in Massachusetts and is used to promote understanding of the Navy's role in war and peace through educational outreach, historic demonstration, and active participation in public events. Constitution is open to visitors year-round, providing tours, with the USS Constitution Museum nearby.

Chesapeake

USS Chesapeake (1799) was built at the Gosport Navy Yard, Virginia, and was launched on December 2, 1799. The Chesapeake was the only one of the six frigates to be disowned by Humphreys due to liberties taken by her Master Constructor Josiah Fox during construction relating to overall dimensions. The frigate that became USS Chesapeake (1799) was originally planned as a 44-gun ship, but when her construction began in 1798 Josiah Fox altered the original design plan, resulting in the ship's re-rating to 36 guns. Fox's reason for making the alteration is not clear, but may be attributed to construction materials that were diverted to complete USS Constellation (1797). Additionally, Fox and Humphreys had earlier disagreed over the design of the six frigates, and Fox may have taken opportunities during construction to make alterations to his own liking. Regardless, the plan for the redesigned frigate was approved by Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert.

When construction finished on Chesapeake, she had the smallest dimensions of all six frigates. A length of 152.8 ft between perpendiculars and 41.3 ft of beam contrasted with the other two 36-gun frigates, USS Congress (1799) and Constellation, which were built to 164 ft in length and 41 ft of beam.

On June 22, 1807, what has become known as the Chesapeake–Leopard affair occurred when the Chesapeake was fired upon by HMS Leopard (1790) for refusing to comply with a demand to permit a search for deserters from the Royal Navy. After several quick broadsides from Leopard, to which the Chesapeake replied with only one gun, the Chesapeake struck her colors. HMS Leopard refused the surrender, searched the Chesapeake, captured four alleged deserters, and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia. Chesapeake was captured on June 1, 1813, by HMS Shannon (1806) shortly after sailing from Boston, Massachusetts. Taken into Royal Navy service, she was later sold, and broken up at Portsmouth, England, in 1820 (with a good deal of her timbers being made into a watermill).

Congress

USS Congress (1799)—rated at 38 guns—was launched on August 15, 1799, from Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, under the command of Captain James Sever. Beginning her maiden voyage on January 6, 1800, she headed for the East Indies, but soon after her masts were destroyed in a gale, forcing her return to port; repairs took six months. She sailed again on July 26 for the West Indies and made uneventful patrols through April 1801.

Under the command of John Rodgers, Congress sailed for the Mediterranean in June 1804 and performed services during the First Barbary War. She assumed blockade duties off Tripoli and participated in the capture of a xebec in October. In July 1805, she helped to blockade Tunisia, and in September of that year carried the Tunisian ambassador back to Washington, D.C. Afterward, she served as a classroom for midshipman training through 1807.

Under the command of Captain John Smith during the War of 1812, she made three extended cruises in company with President and briefly with United States. She was part of a pursuit of a fleet of British merchant ships and assisted President in the attempted capture of HMS Belvidera (1809). On the return voyage, Congress and President captured seven merchant ships. Congress' second cruise began in October 1812, and she pursued HMS Galatea (1810) and captured the merchant ship Argo. Arriving back in Boston on December 31, she assisted in capturing eight additional merchant ships. After repairs, she sailed in company with President on April 30, 1813, and pursued HMS Curlew (1812), which escaped. Setting off on her own, she made a lengthy voyage off the Cape Verde Islands and the coast of Brazil. During this long cruise she captured only four small merchant ships, returning home in late 1813. Because of a lack of materials to repair her, she was placed in reserve for the remainder of the war.

In 1815 she returned to active service for the Second Barbary War under Captain Charles Morris, and in August Congress joined a squadron and began patrol duties, subsequently making appearances off Tripoli and Tunis. Returning to Boston, she decommissioned in December. She patrolled against piracy in the Gulf of Mexico from December 1816 to July 1817 and made a voyage to South America in 1818. Early in 1819 she made a voyage to China, becoming the first U.S. warship to visit that country. In 1822 she served as the flagship of James Biddle, combating piracy in the West Indies. Under Biddle she made a voyage to Spain and Argentina. She began serving as a receiving ship in 1824 and remained on that duty until ordered broken up in 1834.

President

Minor alterations were made to President based on experience gained in constructing the 44-gun ships Constitution and United States. Humphreys instructed President's naval contractor to raise the gun deck by 2 in and move the mainmast 2 ft farther aft. In the case of President, construction was begun at New York in the shipyard of Foreman Cheesman and work on her was discontinued in 1796. Construction resumed in 1798, under Christian Bergh and naval constructor William Doughty.

Rated at 44 guns, USS President (1800) was the last frigate to be completed, launching from New York City on April 10, 1800, with Captain Thomas Truxtun in command. She departed for patrols during the Quasi-War on August 5 and recaptured several American merchant ships. After the peace treaty, she returned to the United States in March 1801.

In May 1801 she sailed under the command of Richard Dale for service in the First Barbary War. She made appearances off Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, capturing a Greek vessel with Tripolitan soldiers aboard and participating in a prisoner exchange. She returned to the United States on April 14, 1802,  then left for a second patrol on the Barbary coast in 1804 under the command of Samuel Barron. In company with Congress, Constellation, and Constitution, President experienced a mostly uneventful tour, assisting in the capture of three vessels, performing blockade duties, and undergoing two changes of commanding officers. She sailed for home on July 13, 1805, carrying with her many sailors released from captivity in Tripoli.

On May 16, 1811, in what became known as the Little Belt affair, President, under the command of Captain John Rodgers, mistakenly identified HMS Little Belt (1807) as the frigate HMS Guerriere (1806) while searching for impressed American sailors taken by the Royal Navy. Though the sequence of events is disputed on both sides, both ships discharged cannon for several minutes before Rodgers determined that Little Belt was a much smaller ship than Guerriere. Little Belt suffered serious damage and thirty-one killed or wounded in the exchange. Rodgers offered assistance to Little Belt's Captain Arthur Bingham, but he declined and sailed off for Halifax, Nova Scotia. The U.S. and Royal Navy investigations each determined the other ship to be responsible for the attack, increasing tensions leading up to the War of 1812.

Still under the command of John Rodgers, President made three extended cruises during the War of 1812 in company with Congress and briefly with United States. President encountered HMS Belvidera (1809) and engaged in a fight from which Belvidera eventually escaped. Pursuing a fleet of merchant ships, President sailed to within a day's journey of the English Channel before returning to Boston, capturing seven merchant ships en route. Her second cruise began with a pursuit of HMS Nymphe (1812) and HMS Galatea (1810), but she failed to overtake either of them. Later prizes were the packet ship Swallow, carrying a large amount of currency, and eight other merchant ships. President returned on December 31. Her third cruise of the war began April 30, 1813, with her pursuit of HMS Curlew (1812), but she once again lost a race to overtake an enemy ship. President spent five months at sea, capturing several merchant ships, but the only highlight was the capture of HMS Highflyer (1813) in late September.

After the ship spent a year blockaded in port, Stephen Decatur assumed command of President. On the evening of January 14, 1815, President headed out of New York harbor but ran aground, suffering some damage to the copper. Unable to return to port, she was forced to head out to sea. Later the next afternoon she fought a battle with HMS Endymion (1797). Decatur attempted to capture Endymion to replace President, but this plan failed because Endymion was smaller and more maneuverable. Decatur surrendered his ship to Endymion only to sail away under the cover of night. Subsequently, HMS Pomone and HMS Tenedos (1812) overtook President, and Decatur surrendered the ship once again to Endymion. President was taken into the Royal Navy as HMS President, but served only a few years before being broken up in 1818.


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Failure cause

Failure causes are defects in design, process, quality, or part application, which are the underlying cause of a failure or which initiate a process which leads to failure. Where failure depends on the user of the product or process, then human error must be considered.

Component failure / failure modes
A part failure mode is the way in which a component failed "functionally" on the component level. Often a part has only a few failure modes. For example, a relay may fail to open or close contacts on demand. The failure mechanism that caused this can be of many different kinds, and often multiple factors play a role at the same time. They include corrosion, welding of contacts due to an abnormal electric current, return spring fatigue failure, unintended command failure, dust accumulation and blockage of mechanism, etc. Seldom only one cause (hazard) can be identified that creates system failures. The real root causes can in theory in most cases be traced back to some kind of human error, e.g. design failure, operational errors, management failures, maintenance induced failures, specification failures, etc.

Failure scenario
A scenario is the complete identified possible sequence and combination of events, failures (failure modes), conditions, system states, leading to an end (failure) system state. It starts from causes (if known) leading to one particular end effect (the system failure condition). A failure scenario is for a system the same as the failure mechanism is for a component. Both result in a failure mode (state) of the system / component.

Rather than the simple description of symptoms that many product users or process participants might use, the term failure scenario / mechanism refers to a rather complete description, including the preconditions under which failure occurs, how the thing was being used, proximate and ultimate/final causes (if known), and any subsidiary or resulting failures that result.

The term is part of the engineering lexicon, especially of engineers working to test and debug products or processes. Carefully observing and describing failure conditions, identifying whether failures are reproducible or transient, and hypothesizing what combination of conditions and sequence of events led to failure is part of the process of fixing design flaws or improving future iterations. The term may be applied to mechanical systems failure.

Mechanical failure
Some types of mechanical failure mechanisms are: excessive deflection, buckling, ductile fracture, brittle fracture, impact, creep, relaxation, thermal shock, wear, corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and various types of fatigue. Each produces a different type of fracture surface, and other indicators near the fracture surface(s). The way the product is loaded, and the loading history are also important factors which determine the outcome. Of critical importance is design geometry because stress concentrations can magnify the applied load locally to very high levels, and from which cracks usually grow.

Over time, as more is understood about a failure, the failure cause evolves from a description of symptoms and outcomes (that is, effects) to a systematic and relatively abstract model of how, when, and why the failure comes about (that is, causes).

The more complex the product or situation, the more necessary a good understanding of its failure cause is to ensuring its proper operation (or repair). Cascading failures, for example, are particularly complex failure causes. Edge cases and corner cases are situations in which complex, unexpected, and difficult-to-debug problems often occur.

Failure by corrosion
Materials can be degraded by their environment by corrosion processes, such as rusting in the case of iron and steel. Such processes can also be affected by load in the mechanisms of stress corrosion cracking and environmental stress cracking.

title: Failure cause


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The Right Nation

The Right Nation (ISBN 1-59420-020-3) is a book published in 2004 which charts the rise of the Republican Party in the United States since Barry Goldwater's defeat in 1964. It was written by two British journalists, John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge. Publishers Weekly described the book as an "engaging study of American conservatism" and a "penetrating analysis."

The book is composed of four parts: And lastly,
 * History, which comprises a discussion of the government careers of the Bush family, a discussion of George W. Bush's psychology, and an outline of the fortunes of the GOP during the second half of the 20th century.
 * Anatomy, which discusses the way in which the Republican Party set about recovering from its near-catastrophic defeat in 1964, the role that think tanks play in the development of policy and political philosophy, particularly the American Enterprise Institute and The Heritage Foundation, and the power of footsoldiers motivated by cultural values in winning elections.
 * Prophecy, which envisages two possible near-futures: why a Republican hegemony is (they argue) approaching, and reasons why this future may not come to pass.
 * Exception discusses the theory of American exceptionalism and what it portends for the fortunes of political philosophies in the U.S.

Micklethwait and Wooldridge were, respectively, the U.S. editor and Washington correspondent for The Economist.

title: The Right Nation