text: Category:Television stations in Oregon

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Television stations in Oregon


text:
Settling Accounts: Return Engagement

Settling Accounts: Return Engagement is the first book of Harry Turtledove's Settling Accounts series of alternate history novels.

An analog of World War II known as the Second Great War is being waged on American soil between the United States and the Confederate States. This series is part of a larger series of novels. For convenience's sake, many Turtledove fans refer to this as the Southern Victory series. It takes the Southern Victory Series Earth from 1941 to 1942.

Plot summary
Following the plebiscites for the United States to return the occupied states of Kentucky and Houston to the Confederacy in early 1941, Confederate President Jake Featherston breaks his solemn vow and re-militarizes them, essentially declaring war against the United States in act if not in word. US President Alfred Emanuel Smith hurries to prepare for war, but his country is sent reeling by Operation Blackbeard, the Confederate attack into Ohio at 3:30 am on June 22, 1941. Soon afterward, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and the rest of the Entente powers announce hostilities against the U.S.

The U.S. under General Abner Dowling and Colonel Irving Morrell fight desperately, but the 1930s-era unwillingness of the U.S. to adequately meet the danger posed by Featherston's remilitarization of the C.S. tells, in the form of armed forces which are woefully unprepared to meet the intense Confederate combined arms attack. By 1942 the Confederate army has reached the shores of Lake Erie and cut the U.S. in two. Meanwhile, the Mormons in Utah are once again rebelling, prompting a swift response from the U.S. Army, but compounding the difficulties for the U.S. just as in the last war. A U.S. counterattack in Virginia bogs down, and the Confederates are preparing a second offensive for the summer of 1942 when Al Smith is killed in a bombing raid on the capital city of Philadelphia when the bunker underneath the Powel House is destroyed and the building itself is severely damaged. A shaken Charles W. La Follette is sworn in as President of a nation fighting for its survival.

Meanwhile, in the Confederacy, the murderous persecution of blacks is escalating towards a full-scale genocide, similar to our timeline's Holocaust. Another hint of things to come is provided when Featherston makes a strategic blunder in rejecting the offer of a physics professor to start research towards producing nuclear weapons, believing that the professor just wants government money to finance an abstruse scientific project – while it is hinted that the U.S. has started a version of the Manhattan Project, located in the state of Washington and overseen by Assistant Secretary of War Franklin D. Roosevelt, who in this world harbors no presidential ambitions.

Reception
Publishers Weekly praised the book in their review, saying that "The insights into racial politics elevate this novel to a status above mere entertainment". SF Site's review was more mixed, saying that the book has "too many major characters, and no wow factor".

title: Settling Accounts: Return Engagement


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CIÉ 101 Class

The Córas Iompair Éireann 101 Class locomotives, numbered B101-B112, were built in 1956 by the Birmingham Railway Carriage and Wagon Company. They were fitted with Sulzer 6LDA28 engines of 960 hp, with four Metropolitan-Vickers MV137 traction motors. They were of A1A-A1A wheel arrangement, weighed 75 tonnes and had a maximum speed of 120 km/h.

History
With their design, size and axle loading, they were intended for mixed traffic duties, hauling both freight and passenger trains. They found regular use primarily on the Waterford-Mallow-Tralee line and also on the Tralee-Newcastle West-Limerick line. Given that they were the first main group of diesel locos used in Ireland, they proved very successful and quickly gained a reputation for comfort and reliability by contrast to the poor cab conditions and suspension rocking of the 113 Class and the interminable breakdowns of the A Class and C Class locomotives. However, during the 1960s many of the secondary lines that they were used on were closed and following the arrival of the 181 Class, the 101s were relegated to goods, permanent way and pilot duties.

The first withdrawal took place in 1969 (B111), and the last in February 1978 (B106). A proposal to re-engine them in the light of similar refurbishments of the Class 001 and Class 201 came to nothing, and the decision was taken to order new locomotives in the form of the 071 Class instead.

After withdrawal, the entire class was lined up together with the two 113 Class locomotives to form a sound barrier around Inchicore Works. Official withdrawal of the class came in April 1984, and the majority were scrapped between December 1986 and March 1987.

Preservation
One locomotive, No. 103 survived and has been preserved by the Irish Traction Group, and is currently in storage at Carrick-on-Suir railway station. It was purchased by the group in 1993 directly from Iarnród Éireann and is awaiting eventual restoration.

Model
A resin OO gauge model kit is available from Studio Scale Models, with etched brass/whitemetal detailing and a selection of decals to cover various liveries.

title: CIÉ 101 Class


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Kildare County F.C.

Kildare County F.C. (Cumann Peile Chontae Chill Dara) was an Irish association football club based in Newbridge, County Kildare. Between 2002–03 and 2009 they played in the League of Ireland First Division. During this time they also entered a team in the League of Ireland U21 Division.

Foundation
Kildare County was formed in 2002 by members of Newbridge Town F.C. in order to enter a team in the League of Ireland First Division. After St Francis withdrew from the First Division just two weeks before the start of the 2001–02 season, the League of Ireland began to look for a replacement club for 2002–03. Twelve clubs, including Newbridge Town, were approached to see if they were interested in joining the First Division. Members of Newbridge Town subsequently decided to form Kildare County as a separate legal entity and applied to join the First Division. The name Kildare County was chosen in an attempt to attract potential sponsors, players and supporters from throughout County Kildare. In February 2002 it was announced that Kildare County would be offered the First Division place ahead of Mullingar Town.

Early seasons
In March 2002 Kildare County appointed Dermot Keely as their first manager and John Gill as his assistant. On 15 June 2002 the club made their official debut in a friendly against Bray Wanderers. The game finished 2–2 with Keith O'Connor and Alan Kelly becoming the first and second players to score for County. On 6 July 2002 Kildare County made their competitive debut against Limerick at Station Road in a First Division Cup game. Philip Gorman and Shey Zellor scored for County as they won 2–0. On 24 August County made their League of Ireland First Division debut at Station Road again against Limerick. This time they lost 3–1 with Philip Gorman scoring the club's first league goal. Dermot Keely remained in charge of County for the 2002–03 season, guiding them to fifth place. In July 2003, midway through the 2003 season, Keely resigned as County manager in order to take charge of Derry City. During their first three seasons in the League of Ireland First Division, Kildare County challenged for promotion to the League of Ireland Premier Division and on each occasion finished just outside the qualifying places for the promotion play-offs. In the 2002–03 First Division Cup they won their regional group and finished as overall runners up, losing 4–0 on aggregate in the final to Finn Harps. They were also quarter-finalists in both the 2003 and 2004 FAI Cups.

Decline
Between 2005 and 2009, Kildare County finished in the bottom half of League of Ireland First Division table every season. In 2008 Kildare County finished bottom of the table and were initially relegated to the A Championship after losing the promotion/relegation play-off to Mervue United. However they subsequently gained a reprieve after Cobh Ramblers were refused a First Division license and were relegated directly from the 2008 Premier Division to the A Championship. In 2009 Kildare County again finished bottom of the table and they subsequently withdrew from the league. The last fixture the club played was against Shelbourne on Saturday, 7 November 2009. In the week before the game the entire club board and the team manager Joe Somerville resigned, leaving the club's players unpaid. The players were owed a total of €21,650 and as a result were reluctant to take to the pitch. However Stephen McGuinness, the general secretary of the PFAI, persuaded the players to participate in the game. Meanwhile, fans had to run the ticket sales and canteen. County lost 5–1 and after fulfilling this last game, it was officially over. County were due to play Salthill Devon in a promotion/relegation play-off but as a result of their resignation this did not happen and Salthill Devon subsequently replaced Kildare County in the 2010 First Division.

U21 Division
In addition to playing in the League of Ireland First Division, Kildare County also entered a team in the League of Ireland U21 Division. In 2006, with a team managed by Thomas Donnelly, they reached the Enda McGuill Cup final, losing 1–0 to Cork City in the final.

League placings
Source:

Notable players

 * League of Ireland XI representative
 * 🇮🇪 Ger O'Brien

 * Republic of Ireland U23 internationals
 * 🇮🇪 Ger O'Brien

 * Republic of Ireland U21 internationals
 * 🇮🇪 Pádraig Amond
 * 🇮🇪 Thomas Morgan
 * 🇮🇪 Richie Purdy

 * Republic of Ireland U17 internationals
 * 🇮🇪 Alan Keely
 * 🇮🇪 Mark Kenny
 * 🇮🇪 Alan McDermott
 * 🇮🇪 Ger Robinson

 * Top goalscorer
 * 🇮🇪 Philip Gorman (27)
 * Most appearances
 * 🇮🇪 Philip Byrne: (124)

Honours

 * First Division Cup
 * Runners up: 2002–03: 1
 * Enda McGuill Cup
 * Runners up: 2006: 1

Source:

title: Kildare County F.C.


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was - kept

S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl
Undeleted following very close vote on VfU. Now listed here. (Note that I am listing as an administrative task - my listing is not an endorsement for deletion. Snowspinner 17:41, Dec 2, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. When the game will be released (though I heard the release was postponed for half a year) someone would create an article anyway. Grue 17:57, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Seems factual. Interesting to some people. Thue | talk 19:18, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Strong delete. Some unreleased games are notable. Not this one. Gamaliel 19:21, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, this game has been discussed on all major gaming sites since it was first announced, I've heard countless rumours about the story and the capabilities of the engine. Pretty notable as far as unreleased games are concerned. (The article as it now stands, however, contains next to nothing in terms of facts and would definitely benefit from a rewrite) -- Ferkelparade π 19:36, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: four lines and three links is not a good ratio, but the reason for deletion is that it's vaporware, and this is an article that is speculation. You can't verify the future game, so it's not appropriate to talk about it in an encyclopedia.  After it's released, people can write about it.  Before it's released, it can only be a section/example at a "upcoming" or "vapo(u)rware" article.  Geogre 19:38, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, as unverifiable (unless someone can demonstrate a way to write an article about a future product that is a) meaningful, b) verifiable, and c) NPOV, i.e. not a reflection of a company's marketing promises). [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 20:02, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Has this game been demoed anywhere yet? Has a reviewer played a beta?  If this is absolutely speculative, i.e. pure vaporware, without any notable history presented, it does not belong. [[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 20:36, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. The restored page is actually not the one, which was originally deleted. :( The original text was much more detailed, but one stupid admin deleted it for being an advert (which it wasn't) and it was quickly replaced by the version you now see (see the history of these sad mishaps at []). The game has been demoed, it is almost complete (to be released in sptring 2005), it has a lot of innovations, excellent graphics, etc. You can read about it in many previews/interviews, etc. on any gaming site. You could read about it in the now lost article too, let's stop this deletion nonsense, so that the decent article can be restored here. Paranoid 21:08, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * When the article was undeleted, the entire history was undeleted. There is no "now lost article." You can view every edit, including the one that was deleted, and so can anyone else. Which revision is the one you think we should be discussing? [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 21:33, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I think he means edits by NrarerN, which aren't available to view. Grue
 * But all the edits by User:NrarerN to this article are available to view. Just in case it isn't clear: an "undelete" restores the entire article history back to its initial, first-ever creation. An undelete does not just roll back to the last deletion, it restores everything. There are no earlier revisions of this article. All revisions of this article are available for view. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 16:52, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * In general, I'd be wary of speculation about unpublished games. But a quick Google search shows over 125,000 references, which does seem to establish adequate notability. Keep. --jpgordon{gab} 21:35, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Under the circumstances, changing to keep. --[[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 22:26, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I say Delete; as with the French revolution, it's much too early to judge whether this game is an influential or significant addition to the field or genre. After it has been out for a few years it should be a trivial matter to recreate the text. Also, if it ever returns, there needs to be a redirect pages from 'Stalker', because no-one in the entire world is ever going to type 'S.T.A.L.K.E.R.' into the search box, in the history of all that will be, ever. - Ashley Pomeroy 21:37, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete as it stands now. If someone could rewrite the article to make it comprehensible, then I would change my vote to keep. DCEdwards1966 21:39, Dec 2, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete unreleased game because of the inherent difficulties with verifiability and NPOV. Rossami (talk) 23:24, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm curious why you say this. NPOV simply means acknowledging all sides of an issue and attributing them responsibly. In the case of an unreleased video game, this is still possible - one cites promotional material, etc, and cites it as promotional material. That's not an NPOV violation. Nor are there verifiability problems. Again, you announce what is reported about the game, and, in some circumstances, what widespread speculation there is on it. Snowspinner 23:50, Dec 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: Pre-release, I believe the article is almost impossible to be NPOV because there is no other side to the issue.  The only facts available are the promotional materials.  Citing the material as promotional solves some of the problem, but we have decided in other areas that promotional materials alone are not sufficient to make a topic encyclopedic.  For example, articles about real products and websites are routinely deleted if the article's sole content boils down to "advertising" or "spam".  Articles about real people are deleted as "vanity" if they are one-sided and promotional and can not be made into balanced articles.  Citing it as a resume is not enough.  I see pre-released games (and pre-released movies, CDs, etc) as the same basic problem.  Wikipedia is not WikiNews.  The project is not always best served by attempting to cover every topic immediately.  As you say, there are always exceptions.  Those exceptions require a judgement call and are appropriate to discuss here.  I have not yet seen evidence to convince me that an exception is appropriate in this case.  Rossami (talk) 17:12, 5 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: The article about an unreleased game is more than just a summary of features, claims of revolutionary AI and a pretty screenshot. There are tons of facts surrounding the development process, which can be independently verified and are both interesting and encyclopedic. For example (all valid for Stalker):
 * inspiration for the game - book, movie - common themes
 * history of development - announcements, conflicts, scandals, publisher found/lost/changed
 * a conference for independent game journalists with a trip to Chernobyl and a meeting with one of the "liquidators"
 * opinions of these journalists
 * leaked alpha, verified facts about the engine
 * involvement of 3rd parties - writers, musicians
 * There is a lot of verifiable and NPOV info that can be included about the game. Paranoid 17:48, 5 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not verifiable, not yet notable. --Improv 03:34, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Weak delete as it presently stands. —[[en:RaD Man|RaD Man (talk)]] 03:46, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Ashley Pomeroy has it right. -- Hoary 06:49, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Weak keep; It's vaporware, but the Google test shows that it's vaporware that has a decent amount of interest invested in it. [[User:Mo0|Mo0 [ talk ] ]] 06:49, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * KeepSnowspinner 07:03, Dec 3, 2004 (UTC)
 * Just so you know, there are actually two articles on this game, Stalker (computer game) and S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl. The first one is named incorrectly and should be redirected. Grue 07:25, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * It's done. Gamaliel 19:35, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Notable game. anthony 警告 18:23, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, but someone with a deep interest in computer games should monitor the game's development. Good, harmless substub for now. - Lucky 6.9 20:52, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete I agree, vapourware should generally not have articles here. Possibly it could go to wikinews? --Regebro 11:59, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Why is it vapourware? It's a game, which was shown (hands-on) to journalists from major gaming sites. It has tons of screenshots and videos produced that everyone (not just journalists) can check at any time, it has a release date in spring 2005 and it was postponed only once (from the end of 2004 to spring 2005). Alpha code of the game was leaked and commercially released by pirates in Russia. It doesn't meet the definition of vapourware any more than Half-Life 2 (which wasn't shown to journalists and which was indefinitely postponed under very suspicious circumstances), which had an article a year in advance or more. Paranoid 12:42, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * It hasn't been release it's as of yet vapourware. --Regebro 12:20, 5 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * False. I suggest you read the vaporware article. Stalker doesn't "fail to emerge", it's a real game that is almost finished and will be released in about 5 months. Not all future products are vaporware, in fact, only a small minority is. Paranoid 15:13, 5 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Future products. Please, everyone who voted "delete" because it's a future product, put Doom (movie) on the VfD too and vote to delete it. And of course, put Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith here too. Then do the same for New Horizons NASA project. And repeat for every existing Wikipedia article about a future product or project that is still in early stages. Paranoid 15:19, 5 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment 1: I reformatted your comment because the transclusion doesn't always handle subheadings well.  Comment 2:  By long tradition, we take these nominations on a case-by-case basis.  The fact that those articles have not been deleted is not a valid argument that this particlar article should be kept.  However, if those articles are nominated, I will promise to be consistent.  Rossami (talk) 17:12, 5 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * The fact that those articles have reached a state when they are large, informative and sufficiently good not to be listed on VfD is an indication that the article for Stalker can reach the same state before the game is released (if it's finally left alone by deletionists and is allowed to grow). I am just saying that articles about future products can be good and so, the fact that a product is unreleased is not by itself sufficient reason to delete the article. Paranoid 17:48, 5 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.


text: Category:Mass media in Oregon

title: Category:Mass media in Oregon


text:
Nanoparticle

A nanoparticle or ultrafine particle is a particle of matter 1 to 100 nanometres (nm) in diameter. The term is sometimes used for larger particles, up to 500 nm, or fibers and tubes that are less than 100 nm in only two directions. At the lowest range, metal particles smaller than 1 nm are usually called atom clusters instead.

Nanoparticles are distinguished from microparticles (1-1000 μm), "fine particles" (sized between 100 and 2500 nm), and "coarse particles" (ranging from 2500 to 10,000 nm), because their smaller size drives very different physical or chemical properties, like colloidal properties and ultrafast optical effects or electric properties.

Being more subject to the Brownian motion, they usually do not sediment, like colloidal particles that conversely are usually understood to range from 1 to 1000 nm.

Being much smaller than the wavelengths of visible light (400-700 nm), nanoparticles cannot be seen with ordinary optical microscopes, requiring the use of electron microscopes or microscopes with laser. For the same reason, dispersions of nanoparticles in transparent media can be transparent, whereas suspensions of larger particles usually scatter some or all visible light incident on them. Nanoparticles also easily pass through common filters, such as common ceramic candles, so that separation from liquids requires special nanofiltration techniques.

The properties of nanoparticles often differ markedly from those of larger particles of the same substance. Since the typical diameter of an atom is between 0.15 and 0.6 nm, a large fraction of the nanoparticle's material lies within a few atomic diameters of its surface. Therefore, the properties of that surface layer may dominate over those of the bulk material. This effect is particularly strong for nanoparticles dispersed in a medium of different composition since the interactions between the two materials at their interface also becomes significant. Nanoparticles occur widely in nature and are objects of study in many sciences such as chemistry, physics, geology, and biology. Being at the transition between bulk materials and atomic or molecular structures, they often exhibit phenomena that are not observed at either scale. They are an important component of atmospheric pollution, and key ingredients in many industrialized products such as paints, plastics, metals, ceramics, and magnetic products. The production of nanoparticles with specific properties is a branch of nanotechnology.

In general, the small size of nanoparticles leads to a lower concentration of point defects compared to their bulk counterparts, but they do support a variety of dislocations that can be visualized using high-resolution electron microscopes. However, nanoparticles exhibit different dislocation mechanics, which, together with their unique surface structures, results in mechanical properties that are different from the bulk material.

Non-spherical nanoparticles (e.g., prisms, cubes, rods etc.) exhibit shape-dependent and size-dependent (both chemical and physical) properties (anisotropy). Non-spherical nanoparticles of gold (Au), silver (Ag), and platinum (Pt) due to their fascinating optical properties are finding diverse applications. Non-spherical geometries of nanoprisms give rise to high effective cross-sections and deeper colors of the colloidal solutions. The possibility of shifting the resonance wavelengths by tuning the particle geometry allows using them in the fields of molecular labeling, biomolecular assays, trace metal detection, or nanotechnical applications. Anisotropic nanoparticles display a specific absorption behavior and stochastic particle orientation under unpolarized light, showing a distinct resonance mode for each excitable axis.

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
In its 2012 proposed terminology for biologically related polymers, the IUPAC defined a nanoparticle as "a particle of any shape with dimensions in the 1 × 10−9 and 1 × 10−7 m range". This definition evolved from one given by IUPAC in 1997.

In another 2012 publication, the IUPAC extends the term to include tubes and fibers with only two dimensions below 100 nm.

International Standards Organization (ISO)
According to the International Standards Organization (ISO) technical specification 80004, a nanoparticle is an object with all three external dimensions in the nanoscale, whose longest and shortest axes do not differ significantly, with a significant difference typically being a factor of at least 3.

Common usage
"Nanoscale" is usually understood to be the range from 1 to 100 nm because the novel properties that differentiate particles from the bulk material typically develop at that range of sizes.

For some properties, like transparency or turbidity, ultrafiltration, stable dispersion, etc., substantial changes characteristic of nanoparticles are observed for particles as large as 500 nm. Therefore, the term is sometimes extended to that size range.

Related concepts
Nanoclusters are agglomerates of nanoparticles with at least one dimension between 1 and 10 nanometers and a narrow size distribution. Nanopowders are agglomerates of ultrafine particles, nanoparticles, or nanoclusters. Nanometer-sized single crystals, or single-domain ultrafine particles, are often referred to as nanocrystals.

The terms colloid and nanoparticle are not interchangeable. A colloid is a mixture which has particles of one phase dispersed or suspended within an other phase. The term applies only if the particles are larger than atomic dimensions but small enough to exhibit Brownian motion, with the critical size range (or particle diameter) typically ranging from nanometers (10−9 m) to micrometers (10−6 m). Colloids can contain particles too large to be nanoparticles, and nanoparticles can exist in non-colloidal form, for examples as a powder or in a solid matrix.

Natural occurrence
Nanoparticles are naturally produced by many cosmological, geological, meteorological, and biological processes. A significant fraction (by number, if not by mass) of interplanetary dust, that is still falling on the Earth at the rate of thousands of tons per year, is in the nanoparticle range; and the same is true of atmospheric dust particles. Many viruses have diameters in the nanoparticle range.

Pre-industrial technology
Nanoparticles were used by artisans since prehistory, albeit without knowledge of their nature. They were used by glassmakers and potters in Classical Antiquity, as exemplified by the Roman Lycurgus cup of dichroic glass (4th century CE) and the lusterware pottery of Mesopotamia (9th century CE). The latter is characterized by silver and copper nanoparticles dispersed in the glassy glaze.

19th century
Michael Faraday provided the first description, in scientific terms, of the optical properties of nanometer-scale metals in his classic 1857 paper. In a subsequent paper, the author (Turner) points out that: "It is well known that when thin leaves of gold or silver are mounted upon glass and heated to a temperature that is well below a red heat (~500 °C), a remarkable change of properties takes place, whereby the continuity of the metallic film is destroyed. The result is that white light is now freely transmitted, reflection is correspondingly diminished, while the electrical resistivity is enormously increased."

20th century
During the 1970s and 80s, when the first thorough fundamental studies with nanoparticles were underway in the United States by Granqvist and Buhrman and Japan within an ERATO Project, researchers used the term ultrafine particles. However, during the 1990s, before the National Nanotechnology Initiative was launched in the United States, the term nanoparticle had become more common, for example, see the same senior author's paper 20 years later addressing the same issue, lognormal distribution of sizes.

Morphology and structure
Nanoparticles occur in a great variety of shapes, which have been given many informal names such as nanospheres, nanorods, nanochains, decahedral nanoparticles, nanostars, nanoflowers, nanoreefs, nanowhiskers, nanofibers, and nanoboxes.

The shapes of nanoparticles may be determined by the intrinsic crystal habit of the material, or by the influence of the environment around their creation, such as the inhibition of crystal growth on certain faces by coating additives, the shape of emulsion droplets and micelles in the precursor preparation, or the shape of pores in a surrounding solid matrix. Some applications of nanoparticles may require specific shapes, as well as specific sizes or size ranges.

Amorphous particles typically adopt a spherical shape (due to their microstructural isotropy).

The study of fine particles is called micromeritics.

Variations
Semi-solid and soft nanoparticles have been produced. A prototype nanoparticle of semi-solid nature is the liposome. Various types of liposome nanoparticles are currently used clinically as delivery systems for anticancer drugs and vaccines.

The breakdown of biopolymers into their nanoscale building blocks is considered a potential route to produce nanoparticles with enhanced biocompatibility and biodegradability. The most common example is the production of nanocellulose from wood pulp. Other examples are nanolignin, nanochitin, or nanostarches.

Nanoparticles with one half hydrophilic and the other half hydrophobic are termed Janus particles and are particularly effective for stabilizing emulsions. They can self-assemble at water/oil interfaces and act as pickering stabilizers.

Hydrogel nanoparticles made of N-isopropylacrylamide hydrogel core shell can be dyed with affinity baits, internally. These affinity baits allow the nanoparticles to isolate and remove undesirable proteins while enhancing the target analytes.

Impact of nucleation
Nucleation lays the foundation for the nanoparticle synthesis. Initial nuclei play a vital role on the size and shape of the nanoparticles that will ultimately form by acting as templating nuclei for the nanoparticle itself. Long-term stability is also determined by the initial nucleation procedures. Homogeneous nucleation occurs when nuclei form uniformly throughout the parent phase and is less common. Heterogeneous nucleation, however, forms on areas such as container surfaces, impurities, and other defects. Crystals may form simultaneously if nucleation is fast, creating a more monodisperse product. However, slow nucleation rates can cause formation of a polydisperse population of crystals with various sizes. Controlling nucleation allows for the control of size, dispersity, and phase of nanoparticles.

The process of nucleation and growth within nanoparticles can be described by nucleation, Ostwald ripening or the two-step mechanism-autocatalysis model.

Nucleation
The original theory from 1927 of nucleation in nanoparticle formation was Classical Nucleation Theory (CNT). It was believed that the changes in particle size could be described by burst nucleation alone. In 1950, Viktor LaMer used CNT as the nucleation basis for his model of nanoparticle growth. There are three portions to the LaMer model: 1. Rapid increase in the concentration of free monomers in solution, 2. fast nucleation of the monomer characterized by explosive growth of particles, 3. Growth of particles controlled by diffusion of the monomer. This model describes that the growth on the nucleus is spontaneous but limited by diffusion of the precursor to the nuclei surface. The LaMer model has not been able to explain the kinetics of nucleation in any modern system.

Ostwald ripening
Ostwald ripening is a process in which large particles grow at the expense of the smaller particles as a result of dissolution of small particles and deposition of the dissolved molecules on the surfaces of the larger particles. It occurs because smaller particles have a higher surface energy than larger particles. This process is typically undesirable in nanoparticle synthesis as it negatively impacts the functionality of nanoparticles.

Two-step mechanism – autocatalysis model
In 1997, Finke and Watzky proposed a new kinetic model for the nucleation and growth of nanoparticles. This 2-step model suggested that constant slow nucleation (occurring far from supersaturation) is followed by autocatalytic growth where dispersity of nanoparticles is largely determined. This F-W (Finke-Watzky) 2-step model provides a firmer mechanistic basis for the design of nanoparticles with a focus on size, shape, and dispersity control. The model was later expanded to a 3-step and two 4-step models between 2004-2008. Here, an additional step was included to account for small particle aggregation, where two smaller particles could aggregate to form a larger particle. Next, a fourth step (another autocatalytic step) was added to account for a small particle agglomerating with a larger particle. Finally in 2014, an alternative fourth step was considered that accounted for a atomistic surface growth on a large particle.

Measuring the rate of nucleation
As of 2014, the classical nucleation theory explained that the nucleation rate will correspond to the driving force. One method for measuring the nucleation rate is through the induction time method. This process uses the stochastic nature of nucleation and determines the rate of nucleation by analysis of the time between constant supersaturation and when crystals are first detected. Another method includes the probability distribution model, analogous to the methods used to study supercooled liquids, where the probability of finding at least one nucleus at a given time is derived.

As of 2019, the early stages of nucleation and the rates associated with nucleation were modelled through multiscale computational modeling. This included exploration into an improved kinetic rate equation model and density function studies using the phase-field crystal model.

Properties
The properties of a material in nanoparticle form are unusually different from those of the bulk one even when divided into micrometer-size particles. Many of them arise from spatial confinement of sub-atomic particles (i.e. electrons, protons, photons) and electric fields around these particles. The large surface to volume ratio is also significant factor at this scale.

Controlling properties
The initial nucleation stages of the synthesis process heavily influence the properties of a nanoparticle. Nucleation, for example, is vital to the size of the nanoparticle. A critical radius must be met in the initial stages of solid formation, or the particles will redissolve into the liquid phase. The final shape of a nanoparticle is also controlled by nucleation. Possible final morphologies created by nucleation can include spherical, cubic, needle-like, worm-like, and more particles. Nucleation can be controlled predominately by time and temperature as well as the supersaturation of the liquid phase and the environment of the synthesis overall.

Large surface-area-to-volume ratio

Bulk materials (>100 nm in size) are expected to have constant physical properties (such as thermal and electrical conductivity, stiffness, density, and viscosity) regardless of their size, for nanoparticles, however, this is different: the volume of the surface layer (a few atomic diameters-wide) becomes a significant fraction of the particle's volume; whereas that fraction is insignificant for particles with a diameter of one micrometer or more. In other words, the surface area/volume ratio impacts certain properties of the nanoparticles more prominently than in bulk particles.

Interfacial layer
For nanoparticles dispersed in a medium of different composition, the interfacial layer — formed by ions and molecules from the medium that are within a few atomic diameters of the surface of each particle — can mask or change its chemical and physical properties. Indeed, that layer can be considered an integral part of each nanoparticle.

Solvent affinity
Suspensions of nanoparticles are possible since the interaction of the particle surface with the solvent is strong enough to overcome density differences, which otherwise usually result in a material either sinking or floating in a liquid.

Coatings
Nanoparticles often develop or receive coatings of other substances, distinct from both the particle's material and of the surrounding medium. Even when only a single molecule thick, these coatings can radically change the particles' properties, such as and chemical reactivity, catalytic activity, and stability in suspension.

Diffusion across the surface
The high surface area of a material in nanoparticle form allows heat, molecules, and ions to diffuse into or out of the particles at very large rates. The small particle diameter, on the other hand, allows the whole material to reach homogeneous equilibrium with respect to diffusion in a very short time. Thus many processes that depend on diffusion, such as sintering can take place at lower temperatures and over shorter time scales inducing catalysis.

Ferromagnetic and ferroelectric effects
The small size of nanoparticles affects their magnetic and electric properties. The ferromagnetic materials in the micrometer range is a good example: widely used in magnetic recording media, for the stability of their magnetization state, those particles smaller than 10 nm are unstable and can change their state (flip) as the result of thermal energy at ordinary temperatures, thus making them unsuitable for that application.

Mechanical properties
The reduced vacancy concentration in nanocrystals can negatively affect the motion of dislocations, since dislocation climb requires vacancy migration. In addition, there exists a very high internal pressure due to the surface stress present in small nanoparticles with high radii of curvature. This causes a lattice strain that is inversely proportional to the size of the particle, also well known to impede dislocation motion, in the same way as it does in the work hardening of materials. For example, gold nanoparticles are significantly harder than the bulk material. Furthermore, the high surface-to-volume ratio in nanoparticles makes dislocations more likely to interact with the particle surface. In particular, this affects the nature of the dislocation source and allows the dislocations to escape the particle before they can multiply, reducing the dislocation density and thus the extent of plastic deformation.

There are unique challenges associated with the measurement of mechanical properties on the nanoscale, as conventional means such as the universal testing machine cannot be employed. As a result, new techniques such as nanoindentation have been developed that complement existing electron microscope and scanning probe methods. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) can be used to perform nanoindentation to measure hardness, elastic modulus, and adhesion between nanoparticle and substrate. The particle deformation can be measured by the deflection of the cantilever tip over the sample. The resulting force-displacement curves can be used to calculate elastic modulus. However, it is unclear whether particle size and indentation depth affect the measured elastic modulus of nanoparticles by AFM.

Adhesion and friction forces are important considerations in nanofabrication, lubrication, device design, colloidal stabilization, and drug delivery. The capillary force is the main contributor to the adhesive force under ambient conditions. The adhesion and friction force can be obtained from the cantilever deflection if the AFM tip is regarded as a nanoparticle. However, this method is limited by tip material and geometric shape. The colloidal probe technique overcomes these issues by attaching a nanoparticle to the AFM tip, allowing control oversize, shape, and material. While the colloidal probe technique is an effective method for measuring adhesion force, it remains difficult to attach a single nanoparticle smaller than 1 micron onto the AFM force sensor.

Another technique is in situ TEM, which provides real-time, high resolution imaging of nanostructure response to a stimulus. For example, an in situ force probe holder in TEM was used to compress twinned nanoparticles and characterize yield strength. In general, the measurement of the mechanical properties of nanoparticles is influenced by many factors including uniform dispersion of nanoparticles, precise application of load, minimum particle deformation, calibration, and calculation model.

Like bulk materials, the properties of nanoparticles are materials dependent. For spherical polymer nanoparticles, glass transition temperature and crystallinity may affect deformation and change the elastic modulus when compared to the bulk material. However, size-dependent behavior of elastic moduli could not be generalized across polymers. As for crystalline metal nanoparticles, dislocations were found to influence the mechanical properties of nanoparticles, contradicting the conventional view that dislocations are absent in crystalline nanoparticles.

Melting point depression
A material may have lower melting point in nanoparticle form than in the bulk form. For example, 2.5 nm gold nanoparticles melt at about 300 °C, whereas bulk gold melts at 1064 °C.

Quantum mechanics effects
Quantum mechanics effects become noticeable for nanoscale objects. They include quantum confinement in semiconductor particles, localized surface plasmons in some metal particles, and superparamagnetism in magnetic materials. Quantum dots are nanoparticles of semiconducting material that are small enough (typically sub 10 nm or less) to have quantized electronic energy levels.

Quantum effects are responsible for the deep-red to black color of gold or silicon nanopowders and nanoparticle suspensions. Absorption of solar radiation is much higher in materials composed of nanoparticles than in thin films of continuous sheets of material. In both solar PV and solar thermal applications, by controlling the size, shape, and material of the particles, it is possible to control solar absorption.

Core-shell nanoparticles can support simultaneously both electric and magnetic resonances, demonstrating entirely new properties when compared with bare metallic nanoparticles if the resonances are properly engineered. The formation of the core-shell structure from two different metals enables an energy exchange between the core and the shell, typically found in upconverting nanoparticles and downconverting nanoparticles, and causes a shift in the emission wavelength spectrum.

By introducing a dielectric layer, plasmonic core (metal)-shell (dielectric) nanoparticles enhance light absorption by increasing scattering. Recently, the metal core-dielectric shell nanoparticle has demonstrated a zero backward scattering with enhanced forward scattering on a silicon substrate when surface plasmon is located in front of a solar cell.

Regular packing
Nanoparticles of sufficiently uniform size may spontaneously settle into regular arrangements, forming a colloidal crystal. These arrangements may exhibit original physical properties, such as observed in photonic crystals.

Production
Artificial nanoparticles can be created from any solid or liquid material, including metals, dielectrics, and semiconductors. They may be internally homogeneous or heterogenous, e.g. with a core–shell structure.

There are several methods for creating nanoparticles, including gas condensation, attrition, chemical precipitation, ion implantation, pyrolysis, hydrothermal synthesis, and biosynthesis.

Mechanical
Friable macro- or micro-scale solid particles can be ground in a ball mill, a planetary ball mill, or other size-reducing mechanism until enough of them are in the nanoscale size range. The resulting powder can be air classified to extract the nanoparticles.

Breakdown of biopolymers
Biopolymers like cellulose, lignin, chitin, or starch may be broken down into their individual nanoscale building blocks, obtaining anisotropic fiber- or needle-like nanoparticles. The biopolymers are disintegrated mechanically in combination with chemical oxidation or enzymatic treatment to promote breakup, or hydrolysed using acid.

Pyrolysis
Another method to create nanoparticles is to turn a suitable precursor substance, such as a gas (e.g. methane) or aerosol, into solid particles by combustion or pyrolysis. This is a generalization of the burning of hydrocarbons or other organic vapors to generate soot.

Traditional pyrolysis often results in aggregates and agglomerates rather than single primary particles. This inconvenience can be avoided by ultrasonic nozzle spray pyrolysis, in which the precursor liquid is forced through an orifice at high pressure.

Condensation from plasma
Nanoparticles of pure metals, oxides, carbides, and nitrides, can be created by vaporizing a solid precursor with a thermal plasma and then condensing the vapor by expansion or quenching in a suitable gas or liquid. The plasma can be produced by dc jet, electric arc, or radio frequency (RF) induction. The thermal plasma can reach temperatures of 10.000 K and can thus also synthesize nanopowders with very high boiling points. Metal wires can be vaporized by the exploding wire method.

In RF induction plasma torches, energy coupling to the plasma is accomplished through the electromagnetic field generated by the induction coil. The plasma gas does not come in contact with electrodes, thus eliminating possible sources of contamination and allowing the operation of such plasma torches with a wide range of gases including inert, reducing, oxidizing, and other corrosive atmospheres. The working frequency is typically between 200 kHz and 40 MHz. Laboratory units run at power levels in the order of 30–50 kW, whereas the large-scale industrial units have been tested at power levels up to 1 MW. As the residence time of the injected feed droplets in the plasma is very short, it is important that the droplet sizes are small enough in order to obtain complete evaporation.

Inert gas condensation
Inert-gas condensation is frequently used to produce metallic nanoparticles. The metal is evaporated in a vacuum chamber containing a reduced atmosphere of an inert gas. Condensation of the supersaturated metal vapor results in creation of nanometer-size particles, which can be entrained in the inert gas stream and deposited on a substrate or studied in situ. Early studies were based on thermal evaporation. Using magnetron sputtering to create the metal vapor allows to achieve higher yields. The method can easily be generalized to alloy nanoparticles by choosing appropriate metallic targets. The use of sequential growth schemes, where the particles travel through a second metallic vapor, results in growth of core-shell (CS) structures.

Radiolysis method
Nanoparticles can also be formed using radiation chemistry. Radiolysis from gamma rays can create strongly active free radicals in solution. This relatively simple technique uses a minimum number of chemicals. These including water, a soluble metallic salt, a radical scavenger (often a secondary alcohol), and a surfactant (organic capping agent). High gamma doses on the order of 104 gray are required. In this process, reducing radicals will drop metallic ions down to the zero-valence state. A scavenger chemical will preferentially interact with oxidizing radicals to prevent the re-oxidation of the metal. Once in the zero-valence state, metal atoms begin to coalesce into particles. A chemical surfactant surrounds the particle during formation and regulates its growth. In sufficient concentrations, the surfactant molecules stay attached to the particle. This prevents it from dissociating or forming clusters with other particles. Formation of nanoparticles using the radiolysis method allows for tailoring of particle size and shape by adjusting precursor concentrations and gamma dose.

Wet chemistry
Nanoparticles of certain materials can be created by "wet" chemical processes, in which solutions of suitable compounds are mixed or otherwise treated to form an insoluble precipitate of the desired material. The size of the particles of the latter is adjusted by choosing the concentration of the reagents and the temperature of the solutions, and through the addition of suitable inert agents that affect the viscosity and diffusion rate of the liquid. With different parameters, the same general process may yield other nanoscale structures of the same material, such as aerogels and other porous networks.

The nanoparticles formed by this method are then separated from the solvent and soluble byproducts of the reaction by a combination of evaporation, sedimentation, centrifugation, washing, and filtration. Alternatively, if the particles are meant to be deposited on the surface of some solid substrate, the starting solutions can be by coated on that surface by dipping or spin-coating, and the reaction can be carried out in place.

Electroless deposition provides a unique opportunity for growing nanoparticles onto surface without the need for costly spin coating, electrodeposition, or physical vapor deposition. Electroless deposition processes can form colloid suspensions catalytic metal or metal oxide deposition. The suspension of nanoparticles that result from this process is an example of colloid. Typical instances of this method are the production of metal oxide or hydroxide nanoparticles by hydrolysis of metal alkoxides and chlorides.

Besides being cheap and convenient, the wet chemical approach allows fine control of the particle's chemical composition. Even small quantities of dopants, such as organic dyes and rare earth metals, can be introduced in the reagent solutions end up uniformly dispersed in the final product.

Ion implantation
Ion implantation may be used to treat the surfaces of dielectric materials such as sapphire and silica to make composites with near-surface dispersions of metal or oxide nanoparticles.

Functionalization
Many properties of nanoparticles, notably stability, solubility, and chemical or biological activity, can be radically altered by coating them with various substances — a process called functionalization. Functionalized nanomaterial-based catalysts can be used for catalysis of many known organic reactions.

For example, suspensions of graphene particles can be stabilized by functionalization with gallic acid groups.

For biological applications, the surface coating should be polar to give high aqueous solubility and prevent nanoparticle aggregation. In serum or on the cell surface, highly charged coatings promote non-specific binding, whereas polyethylene glycol linked to terminal hydroxyl or methoxy groups repel non-specific interactions. By the immobilization of thiol groups on the surface of nanoparticles or by coating them with thiomers high (muco)adhesive and cellular uptake enhancing properties can be introduced.

Nanoparticles can be linked to biological molecules that can act as address tags, directing them to specific sites within the body specific organelles within the cell, or causing them to follow specifically the movement of individual protein or RNA molecules in living cells. Common address tags are monoclonal antibodies, aptamers, streptavidin, or peptides. These targeting agents should ideally be covalently linked to the nanoparticle and should be present in a controlled number per nanoparticle. Multivalent nanoparticles, bearing multiple targeting groups, can cluster receptors, which can activate cellular signaling pathways, and give stronger anchoring. Monovalent nanoparticles, bearing a single binding site,  avoid clustering and so are preferable for tracking the behavior of individual proteins.

It has been shown that catalytic activity and sintering rates of a functionalized nanoparticle catalyst is correlated to nanoparticles' number density

Coatings that mimic those of red blood cells can help nanoparticles evade the immune system.

Uniformity requirements
The chemical processing and synthesis of high-performance technological components for the private, industrial, and military sectors requires the use of high-purity ceramics (oxide ceramics, such as aluminium oxide or copper(II) oxide), polymers, glass-ceramics, and composite materials, as metal carbides (SiC), nitrides (Aluminum nitrides, Silicon nitride), metals (Al, Cu), non-metals (graphite, carbon nanotubes), and layered (Al + aluminium carbonate, Cu + C). In condensed bodies formed from fine powders, the irregular particle sizes and shapes in a typical powder often lead to non-uniform packing morphologies that result in packing density variations in the powder compact.

Uncontrolled agglomeration of powders due to attractive van der Waals forces can also give rise to microstructural heterogeneity. Differential stresses that develop as a result of non-uniform drying shrinkage are directly related to the rate at which the solvent can be removed, and thus highly dependent upon the distribution of porosity. Such stresses have been associated with a plastic-to-brittle transition in consolidated bodies, and can yield to crack propagation in the unfired body if not relieved.

In addition, any fluctuations in packing density in the compact as it is prepared for the kiln are often amplified during the sintering process, yielding inhomogeneous densification. Some pores and other structural defects associated with density variations have been shown to play a detrimental role in the sintering process by growing and thus limiting end-point densities. Differential stresses arising from inhomogeneous densification have also been shown to result in the propagation of internal cracks, thus becoming the strength-controlling flaws.

Inert gas evaporation and inert gas deposition are free many of these defects due to the distillation (cf. purification) nature of the process and having enough time to form single crystal particles, however even their non-aggreated deposits have lognormal size distribution, which is typical with nanoparticles. The reason why modern gas evaporation techniques can produce a relatively narrow size distribution is that aggregation can be avoided. However, even in this case, random residence times in the growth zone, due to the combination of drift and diffusion, result in a size distribution appearing lognormal.

It would, therefore, appear desirable to process a material in such a way that it is physically uniform with regard to the distribution of components and porosity, rather than using particle size distributions that will maximize the green density. The containment of a uniformly dispersed assembly of strongly interacting particles in suspension requires total control over interparticle forces. Monodisperse nanoparticles and colloids provide this potential.

Characterization
Nanoparticles have different analytical requirements than conventional chemicals, for which chemical composition and concentration are sufficient metrics. Nanoparticles have other physical properties that must be measured for a complete description, such as size, shape, surface properties, crystallinity, and dispersion state. Additionally, sampling and laboratory procedures can perturb their dispersion state or bias the distribution of other properties. In environmental contexts, an additional challenge is that many methods cannot detect low concentrations of nanoparticles that may still have an adverse effect. For some applications, nanoparticles may be characterized in complex matrices such as water, soil, food, polymers, inks, complex mixtures of organic liquids such as in cosmetics, or blood.

There are several overall categories of methods used to characterize nanoparticles. Microscopy methods generate images of individual nanoparticles to characterize their shape, size, and location. Electron microscopy and scanning probe microscopy are the dominant methods. Because nanoparticles have a size below the diffraction limit of visible light, conventional optical microscopy is not useful. Electron microscopes can be coupled to spectroscopic methods that can perform elemental analysis. Microscopy methods are destructive and can be prone to undesirable artifacts from sample preparation, or from probe tip geometry in the case of scanning probe microscopy. Additionally, microscopy is based on single-particle measurements, meaning that large numbers of individual particles must be characterized to estimate their bulk properties.

Spectroscopy, which measures the particles' interaction with electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength, is useful for some classes of nanoparticles to characterize concentration, size, and shape. X-ray, ultraviolet–visible, infrared, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can be used with nanoparticles. Light-scattering methods using laser light, X-rays, or neutron scattering are used to determine particle size, with each method suitable for different size ranges and particle compositions. Some miscellaneous methods are electrophoresis for surface charge, the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller method for surface area, and X-ray diffraction for crystal structure, as well as mass spectrometry for particle mass, and particle counters for particle number. Chromatography, centrifugation, and filtration techniques can be used to separate nanoparticles by size or other physical properties before or during characterization.

Health and safety
Nanoparticles present possible dangers, both medically and environmentally. Most of these are due to the high surface to volume ratio, which can make the particles very reactive or catalytic. They are also thought to aggregate on phospholipid bilayers and pass through cell membranes in organisms, and their interactions with biological systems are relatively unknown. However, it is unlikely the particles would enter the cell nucleus, Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum or other internal cellular components due to the particle size and intercellular agglomeration. A recent study looking at the effects of ZnO nanoparticles on human immune cells has found varying levels of susceptibility to cytotoxicity. There are concerns that pharmaceutical companies, seeking regulatory approval for nano-reformulations of existing medicines, are relying on safety data produced during clinical studies of the earlier, pre-reformulation version of the medicine. This could result in regulatory bodies, such as the FDA, missing new side effects that are specific to the nano-reformulation. However considerable research has demonstrated that zinc nanoparticles are not absorbed into the bloodstream in vivo.

Concern has also been raised over the health effects of respirable nanoparticles from certain combustion processes. Preclinical investigations have demonstrated that some inhaled or injected noble metal nano-architectures avoid persistence in organisms. As of 2013 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency was investigating the safety of the following nanoparticles:
 * Carbon nanotubes: Carbon materials have a wide range of uses, ranging from composites for use in vehicles and sports equipment to integrated circuits for electronic components. The interactions between nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and natural organic matter strongly influence both their aggregation and deposition, which strongly affects their transport, transformation, and exposure in aquatic environments. In past research, carbon nanotubes exhibited some toxicological impacts that will be evaluated in various environmental settings in current EPA chemical safety research. EPA research will provide data, models, test methods, and best practices to discover the acute health effects of carbon nanotubes and identify methods to predict them.
 * Cerium oxide: Nanoscale cerium oxide is used in electronics, biomedical supplies, energy, and fuel additives. Many applications of engineered cerium oxide nanoparticles naturally disperse themselves into the environment, which increases the risk of exposure. There is ongoing exposure to new diesel emissions using fuel additives containing CeO2 nanoparticles, and the environmental and public health impacts of this new technology are unknown. EPA's chemical safety research is assessing the environmental, ecological, and health implications of nanotechnology-enabled diesel fuel additives.
 * Titanium dioxide: Nano titanium dioxide is currently used in many products. Depending on the type of particle, it may be found in sunscreens, cosmetics, and paints and coatings. It is also being investigated for use in removing contaminants from drinking water.
 * Nano Silver: Nano Silver is being incorporated into textiles, clothing, food packaging, and other materials to eliminate bacteria. EPA and the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission are studying certain products to see whether they transfer nano-size silver particles in real-world scenarios. EPA is researching this topic to better understand how much nano-silver children come in contact with in their environments.
 * Iron: While nano-scale iron is being investigated for many uses, including "smart fluids" for uses such as optics polishing and as a better-absorbed iron nutrient supplement, one of its more prominent current uses is to remove contamination from groundwater. This use, supported by EPA research, is being piloted at a number of sites across the United States.

Regulation
As of 2016, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency had conditionally registered, for a period of four years, only two nanomaterial pesticides as ingredients. The EPA differentiates nanoscale ingredients from non-nanoscale forms of the ingredient, but there is little scientific data about potential variation in toxicity. Testing protocols still need to be developed.

Applications
As the most prevalent morphology of nanomaterials used in consumer products, nanoparticles have an enormous range of potential and actual applications. Table below summarizes the most common nanoparticles used in various product types available on the global markets.

Scientific research on nanoparticles is intense as they have many potential applications in pre-clinical and clinical medicine, physics,   optics,   and electronics. The U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative offers government funding focused on nanoparticle research. The use of nanoparticles in laser dye-doped poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) laser gain media was demonstrated in 2003 and it has been shown to improve conversion efficiencies and to decrease laser beam divergence. Researchers attribute the reduction in beam divergence to improved dn/dT characteristics of the organic-inorganic dye-doped nanocomposite. The optimum composition reported by these researchers is 30% w/w of SiO2 (~ 12 nm) in dye-doped PMMA. Nanoparticles are being investigated as potential drug delivery system. Drugs, growth factors or other biomolecules can be conjugated to nano particles to aid targeted delivery. This nanoparticle-assisted delivery allows for spatial and temporal controls of the loaded drugs to achieve the most desirable biological outcome. Nanoparticles are also studied for possible applications as dietary supplements for delivery of biologically active substances, for example mineral elements.

Polymer reinforcement
Clay nanoparticles, when incorporated into polymer matrices, increase reinforcement, leading to stronger plastics, verifiable by a higher glass transition temperature and other mechanical property tests. These nanoparticles are hard, and impart their properties to the polymer (plastic). Nanoparticles have also been attached to textile fibers in order to create smart and functional clothing.

Liquid properties tuner
The inclusion of nanoparticles in a solid or liquid medium can substantially change its mechanical properties, such as elasticity, plasticity, viscosity, compressibility.

Photocatalysis
Being smaller than the wavelengths of visible light, nanoparticles can be dispersed in transparent media without affecting its transparency at those wavelengths. This property is exploited in many applications, such as photocatalysis.

Road paving
Asphalt modification through nanoparticles can be considered as an interesting low-cost technique in asphalt pavement engineering providing novel perspectives in making asphalt materials more durable.

Biomedical
Nanoscale particles are used in biomedical applications as drug carriers or imaging contrast agents in microscopy. Anisotropic nanoparticles are a good candidate in biomolecular detection. Moreover, nanoparticles for nucleic acid delivery offer an unprecedented opportunity to overcome some drawbacks related to the delivery, owing to their tunability with diverse physico-chemical properties, they can readily be functionalized with any type of biomolecules/moieties for selective targeting.

Sunscreens
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles imparts what is known as the self-cleaning effect, which lend useful water-repellant and antibacterial properties to paints and other products. Zinc oxide nanoparticles have been found to have superior UV blocking properties and are widely used in the preparation of sunscreen lotions, being completely photostable though toxic.

title: Nanoparticle


text:
Candelabra primula

The name candelabra primula or candelabra primrose refers to species and cultivars of Primula section Proliferae (formerly Candelabra), originating mainly in the far east. They are characterised by whorls of flowers formed in circles at intervals around strong vertical stems, in many brilliant colours, flowering over a long period from Spring to Summer. They are popular ornamental subjects for moist, heavy, neutral or acidic soil. They associate well with other plants, such as rhododendrons, which enjoy similar conditions.

 * Primula aurantiaca
 * Primula bulleyana (including Primula beesiana)
 * Primula burmanica
 * Primula chungensis
 * Primula cockburniana
 * Primula cooperi
 * Primula japonica
 * Primula mallophylla
 * Primula melanodonta
 * Primula miyabeana
 * Primula poissonii
 * Primula polonensis
 * Primula prenantha
 * Primula prolifera (including Primula helodoxa)
 * Primula pulverulenta
 * Primula secundiflora
 * Primula serratifolia
 * Primula stenodonta
 * Primula wilsonii

title: Candelabra primula


text:
Giorgio Basta

Giorgio Basta, Count of Huszt, Gjergj Basta or Gheorghe Basta (1550 – 1607) was an Italian general, diplomat, and writer of Arbëreshë Albanian origin, employed by the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II to command Habsburg forces in the Long War of 1593–1606. He was later sent to administer Transylvania as an Imperial vassal and to restore Catholicism as the dominant religion in the region.

On his orders, his ally Michael the Brave, who ruled Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia, was assassinated on 9 August 1601, a few days after the common victory at the Battle of Guruslău, for trying to turn against Rudolf II. For this, he is often depicted as disloyal and violent by Romanian and Hungarian historians. Basta was also the author of books on the art of military leadership.

Biography
Basta was born to an Arbëreshë Albanian family. He is claimed to be born in La Rocca, modern day Roccaforzata, a village in Salento, Italy, however historical sources claim he was born in Ulpiano nel Monferrato. He was the son of Demetrius Basta, an Albanian Epirote who had fled the Ottoman conquest of the region to Italy, where he served the Spanish Empire. His father fought in the Piedmont countryside in the middle 1500s, and then in Flanders as commander of a cavalry regiment under the Duke of Alba. Very young, Basta became a soldier, and eventually got promoted to the rank of officer in a detachment commanded by Demetrio. Then after his father died, Basta served in a cavalry company run by his oldest brother Niccolò. In 1589, he married Anne de Liedekerke de Gavre, with whom he had 5 children: Charles, Georges, Demetrius, Ferdinand and Madeleine.

He began his military career in Flanders, where the young officer impressed Don John of Austria, and gained the governorship of Nivelles. In 1577 he joined the forces of Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma in Flanders. He led his army mainly on the French front during the War of the Three Henrys and the Catholic League. In 1584, Basta gained his first major victory when his troops were blocking communications between Malines and Antwerp. Similarly during the siege of Brussels which ended with a capitulation of the besiegers in March 1585, Basta led the blockade of the city. During the end of the year, the commander led the cavalry of the expeditionary body which at Charles de Mansfeld's orders.... When the Catholics, in 1589, marched to retake Paris, it was the cavalry led by Basta who rescued the back of the Spanish army from the sudden attack of Henry of Navarre.

He returned to France in 1591, and partook in the siege of Rouen with the rank of Commander General of the cavalry. He however was almost killed by Sir Roger Williams, who sliced his neck in personal combat. In February 1592 he separated Navarre from his greater army and the prince fled capture by his forces. He was tasked with ensuring communications between Rouen and the Netherlands, which was massively threatened by the French army, and then protecting the retreat of the Spaniards after the injury of Alexander Farnese in Caudebec.

In 1596, after the death of the Duke of Parma, Basta followed the fate of many Italian princes, and had to abandon the Spanish. He then went to the service of Emperor Rudolf II, on the recommendation of Philip II. Rudolph II named Basta general of his light cavalry and made him knight of the Order of the Golden Spur on February 16, 1598. He served as general master in the army of Archbishop Mattia, later deputy governor of Upper Hungary, and finally the commander of the armies of Hungary and Transylvania. Ambrogio Merodio in his Istoria Tarantina, calls him the "terror of Ottoman armies".

For more than a decade, Basta fought against Hungarians, Transylvanians, Vlachs, and Tatars, gaining much fame as one as the best generals of the Empire. In 1597 he was released, together with General Schwarzenberg, from Pápa, which was conquered three years earlier by the Turks. In 1597, while he was deputy governor of Hungary, he recaptured the city of Huszt, which had rebelled against the Empire.

At the Battle of Mirăslău, Michael the Brave was defeated by Basta, forcing Michael to appeal to the Emperor Rudolf II to mediate the dispute with Basta.

Under his command, his ally Michael the Brave, the former ruler of Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia, was assassinated at Keresztesmező camp,  near Aranyosgyéres (now Câmpia Turzii, Câmpia Turzii), because Basta considered him a liability. The event happened on 9 August 1601, only days after a joint victory in Battle of Guruslău. Following the murder of Michael and his victory over Báthory, Basta became military commander of Transylvania, but his cruelty led to public discontent. Under his leadership, iniquities and murders multiplied throughout Transylvania. During this brief period, Basta tried to uproot Protestantism. Following Papal and Imperial policy, Calvinist Hungarians and Székelys, Orthodox Wallachians and Serbs, and Lutheran Saxons were subject to any kind of abuse. Following years of warfare and his ruthless regime, famine and plague appeared in Transylvania. At that time Rudolf II decided to recall him from command, leading to Basta's departure from Transylvania and put him in charge to fight against the Ottomans of West Hungary(1604). He successfully defended Esztergom with his 10,000 mercenaries against 80,000 Ottomans.

After Bocskai's uprisen army chased away Belgiojoso, Rudolph sent Basta from West-Hungary to the Partium to suppress the uprising. In November 1604 Basta twice defeated forces led by Stephen Bocskai (see also: Bocskai Uprising). Bocskai at the end cut his supplies and he had to withdraw in winter to Eperjes where he got trapped. After some months Rudolph called him back to defend at first the mine towns (e.g. Besztercebánya) in Upper-Hungary, Moravia and Austria against Bocskai's looting armies.

In July 1605 he did not get enough money to keep up enough mercenaries to defend Visegrád, Esztergom and Érsekújvár against the Ottomans and was defeated by Lalla Mehmed. The Military Committee didn't supply him enough money but Rudolph II made him a Czech baron to compensate. The court became tired of the war and they started pushing aside Basta after the Treaty of Vienna and Treaty of Zsitvatorok, and even didn't want to pay him their debt. He claimed 380,000 Thaler debt from the court (80 000 wages of mercenaries came from his own pocket). His last 4 years he did not get his payment and was not even invited to the Military Committee.

After his experiences of warfare in Eastern Europe he went to Prague. On April 17, 1606, Pope Paul V pronounced an interdict against the Republic of Venice. On February 26, 1607, Basta was named lieutenant general of the Holy Church. The Venetian interdict having been canceled on April 21, 1607, Basta will never take command effectively.

Basta died in Prague on November 20, 1607.

Basta wrote several military manuals, the best known of which are his Il maestro di campo generale...(Venice 1606), and his posthumous work Il governo della cavalleria leggiera (Venice 1612). Both were translated into German and into French.

Contributions and military Style

Basta was born into a period of transition from the tradition sword and shield to the gun. And cavalry switched from the Gendarme to lighter and armed cavalrymen, which valued quick cavalry charges. Due to influence from his father, he was a very strict observer of the rules, and the laws of a militia. When he worked for Alexander, Duke of Parma he was responsible for the renewal and restructuring of the cavalry weapon. However, during his early years, Basta experimented with his personal method of "mobile sculptures", which were small and numerous groups of cavalrymen who pushed in the forefront of the army, so as to create a complete "crown" in continuous movement; The method assured the army of sudden destructive capability and gave fruit in the French countryside.

The government of light cavalry is doubtless the most important work of Basta, as it represents the first organic regulation of light cavalry in Europe. Basta's theories led to the cavalry being released from its close ties with infantry, according to previous military tactics. To a degree, Basta's work is also largely anticipatory of further developments, especially in the concept of light cavalry being "the pupil of the armies" and in the reiterated need for a constant coordination of cavalry movements with those of other weapons : Theories, which influenced Raimondo Montecuccoli. Interesting remarks are made by Basta regarding the choice of cavalry officers to be performed not according to the nobility titles, but on a more meritocratic internship through the various degrees of the militia. He wants the captain to have absolute authority over all officers, "but always with the advice of the commissioner"; For the lieutenant requires a mature age, which can guarantee "credit and authority on the soldiers"; Young people must be standard bearers, for the pursuit and adventurous spirit. Those carrying the banner must "have in their heads the guidance of all the others." Particular care is given by Basta to the question of the armament of soldiers. The Blunderbuss should be equipped with an arbutus to carry with shoulder strap and a short sword, which allows to hit the tip, more timely and more effectively, according to the dictation of the Italian school, rather than cutting. Among the Blunderbuss, who must be young and robust in shape, Basta values particularly Flemish to be best, not Italians, who prefer military in infantry.

The main quality of the lancers' wards must be, according to Basta, "velocity and collision velocity, i.e. velocity joint mass"; The gun armor is, besides the spear, a short sword for tip and picks that "can greatly benefit in retreat." On the "rules of residence", Basta illustrates the rules already dictated by Alessandro Farnese: the commissioner. It has to carry out topographic surveys and deal with all the logistical problems with the help of a "forier major", also providing the surveillance system for the equinox. Another important chapter is the one devoted to remote viewing, which Basta underlines as one of the main tasks of the cavalry. In this part, he sets out with great precision the various procedures to be followed to surprise a large army of enemies. Especially of personal experiences in the Netherlands and France, although he attributes the merit of introducing this use of cavalry to the Duke of Alba. Finally, Basta deals with the tactical organization of light cavalry in combat, recommending the crescent moon, rather than the manipulative ones, in lines, in chessboard, in columns.

title: Giorgio Basta


text: Category:Oregon culture

title: Category:Oregon culture


text:
Kilkenny City A.F.C.

Kilkenny City Association Football Club was an Irish football club. The club played in the First Division of the League of Ireland until 18 January 2008 when they announced that they resigned their position in the league citing "lack of finance, poor results and paltry attendances".

The club hails from Kilkenny and used Buckley Park as their home pitch. Buckley Park has hosted many International under age soccer games. Kilkenny City will be entering the under 20 division this season which run co-currently with the schoolboy season (August to May).

History
In 1966 a group of Leaving Certificate students made the most of having a free class at the local Christian Brothers school. They debated the pros and cons, devised a plan and, finally, resolved to start a football club. The club was originally known as EMFA, becoming Kilkenny City in 1989. Jim Rhatigan was appointed as the club's secretary a position he still holds and since then he has become closely associated with football in Kilkenny. EM stood for Emmett Street and FA for Fatima Place where Jim Rhatigan grew up.

Initially EMFA competed in the U18 Kilkenny and District Youth League under the management of Donie Butler. Donie Butler served as Commercial Manager of the FAI during the Jack Charlton years. The club was unable to afford a new set of jerseys and so agreed to play in an all white strip. The logic being that all the players had at least one white T-shirt or shirt they could wear. The club's colours changed to claret and blue before changing again to black and amber, coinciding with the renaming of the club.

EMFA graduated from junior football in 1971–72 season. Jim Rhatigan became their manager and the club remained in junior football until 1984. During this period the club purchased 5.7 acre of land from a local farmer by the name of Mick Murphy, owner of the adjacent Tennypark House, for £16,000 punts. They had previously played their home games at the Freshford Road grounds, St. James Park. The ground was originally called Tennypark and was later named Buckley Park in honour of Marty Buckley. A bid of One million was made for the club's grounds in the late eighties but was rejected in the favour of football.

In 1984 the club won the Junior league and cup remaining undefeated throughout the entire season. It was decided that he club should apply for admission to the then League of Ireland (now the Airtricity League). In their maiden season Kilkenny City then known as EMFA, (from 1985 to 1989) finished tenth in the First Division. Their first League of Ireland game was played on 8 October 1985 at home to Derry City and ended in a 1–1 draw.

EMFA won their first honour in 1987, winning the League of Ireland First Division Shield defeating Finn Harps 4–2 in Oriel Park. The club changed its name to Kilkenny City in 1989. Under Joe McGrath they reached the FAI Cup semi-final in 1991, before suffering defeat to Shamrock Rovers.

In the 1996–97 season Kilkenny City won the First Division title with 11 points to spare over their nearest rivals Drogheda United thus gaining promotion to the Premier Division. Their stay in the premier was short however as they finished in eleventh the following season and were relegated back to the First Division.

In the 1999–2000 season Kilkenny city finished third and beat Waterford United in a promotion-relegation playoff returning to the Premier. However, Kilkenny city were unable to extend their stay in the top flight beyond a single season managing only a single league victory throughout the whole season. General manager Jim Rhatigan wrote "Mud, Sweat and Jeers" a semi autobiographical account of the founding of the club.

The club celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2006. The anniversary was celebrated with a memorial mass at Father Fiachra's Church presided over by Father Willie Purcell and complete with a gospel choir. Dave Bassett, former Wimbledon manager was guest of honour with former Northern Ireland international, Gerry Taggart also attending the club's anniversary banquet at the Lyrath Estate Hotel.

2005 was notable for Kilkenny City by the arrival of Pat Scully. It was a season of two halves for the Black Cats. Their record before June read – played 15, won 1, drew 4 and lost 10. They sat on the bottom of the table with just 7 points out of a possible 45. The squad was bolstered in key areas with a handful of summer transfers including David Cassidy from Derby County. The new signings turned things around and immediately went on a run of six victories in a row culminating with the 5–0 destruction of Dundalk at Dundalk's home patch. Their record post-June finally read – played 21, won 14, drew 4 and lost only 3. Scully and his signings had quite miraculously taken Kilkenny from bottom of the table about halfway through the season to fourth by the end of the season.

Scully's success attracted the attention of Shamrock Rovers. The lure of the big club was too much to turn down and Kilkenny had lost their manager by the beginning of the next season. Scully took the cream of the talent with him including David Cassidy, Tadhg Purcell and Aidan Price to Rovers leaving Kilkenny's squad looking very bare.

Scully's successor Adrian Fitzpatrick was sacked in October 2006. Gary Coad took over as caretaker manager until the end of the 2006 season.

The club appointed Brendan Rea as their new manager in preparation for the 2007 season until July when he resigned. Tommy Gaynor then took over as manager. Subsequently, Tommy Gaynor parted company with the club leaving Under 21 Manager Noel Byrne as the last ever caretaker/ manager. On 10 November 2007 Kilkenny City played their last League of Ireland game losing 3–1 at home to Finn Harps.

In January 2008 Kilkenny City resigned from the League of Ireland.

In 2011 the "Bring Back Kilkenny City AFC Foundation" was formed. Launched by a group of die hard Kilkenny City fans, they faced immediate competition from Carlow's proposed move to Buckley Park for the 2012 season. There is also a campaign to save Buckley Park as a sporting venue

Notable former players

 * 🇮🇪 Synan Braddish
 * 🇮🇪 James Scott
 * 🇮🇪 Tommy Gaynor
 * 🇮🇪 John Coleman
 * 🇮🇪 Michael Reddy
 * 🇮🇪 Tadhg Purcell
 * 🇮🇪 Michael Walsh
 * Paul McAreavey
 * 🇮🇪 Colin Falvey
 * 🏴 Tony Hall

Notable former managers

 * Jim Rhatigan: 1985–1989
 * Eamonn Gregg: 1989–1990
 * Joe McGrath : 1990–1991, 2000–2001
 * Noel Synnott: 1991–1992
 * Kieron Maher : (Caretaker)
 * John Clery: 1992–1993
 * John Cleary: 1993–1994
 * Paddy Gallacher: 1994–1995
 * Jimmy Donnelly : (Caretaker)
 * Alfie Hale: 1995–1999
 * Pat Byrne: 1999–2000
 * Paul Power : (Caretaker)
 * Billy Walsh: 2001–2003
 * Tommy Lynch: 2003
 * Ger Bickerstaffe: 2004
 * Pat Scully: 2005
 * Adrian Fitzpatrick: 2006
 * Gary Coad (Caretaker)
 * Brendan Rea: Jan–July 2007
 * Tommy Gaynor: July–Sept 2007
 * Noel Byrne: (Caretaker)

Honours

 * League of Ireland First Division: 1
 * 1996–97
 * League of Ireland First Division Shield: 1
 * 1986–87

Competition history
League
 * Played 603
 * Won 146
 * Draw 150
 * Lost 281
 * Goals For 636
 * Goals Against 899
 * Points 539

All final positions are in Division 1 unless otherwise stated.

 * As EMFA (1985–1990)
 * 1985–86: 10th
 * 1986–87: 9th
 * 1987–88: 10th
 * 1988–89: 9th
 * As Kilkenny City
 * 1989–90: 4th
 * 1990–91: 7th
 * 1991–92: 8th
 * 1992–93: 9th
 * 1993–94: 8th
 * 1994–95: 10th
 * 1995–96: 7th
 * 1996–97: 1st
 * 1997–98: 11th (Premier Div)
 * 1998–99: 5th
 * 1999–00: 3rd
 * 2000–01: 12th (Premier Div)
 * 2001–02: 5th
 * 2002–03: 12th
 * 2004: 10th
 * 2005: 4th
 * 2006: 10th
 * 2007: 10th
 * FAI Cup
 * 1990–91: Semi Final (lost to Shamrock Rovers 1–0,losing finalist that year).
 * 1996–97: Round 1 (lost to Bohemians 1–2 in replay at Dalymount Park)
 * 1997–98: Round 1 (lost to UCD 0–4)
 * 1998–99: Quarter Finals (Kilkenny City were forced to forfeit the replay to Finn Harps, the losing finalists that year, after drawing the first game 2–2 as they had only eleven fit players, that include's two goalkeepers)
 * 1999–00: Quarter Finals (lost to Bray Wanderers 0–2)
 * 2000–01: Quarter Finals (lost to Bohemian 2–7, winners that year)
 * 2001–02: Round 3 (lost to Dundalk 2–3, the eventual winners)
 * 2002–03: Quarter Finals (lost to Shamrock Rovers 0–1, the losing finalists that year)
 * 2003: Round 2 (lost to Limerick 1–2)
 * 2004: Round 3 (lost to Waterford United 2–7, the losing finalists that year)
 * 2005: Round 2 (lost to Finn Harps 0–1)
 * 2006: Round 2 (lost to UCD 0–2)
 * 2007: Round 3 {Lost to Cork City 5–1, the eventual winners}

Attendances
Record Attendance: 6,500 (FAI Cup Semi-final v Shamrock Rovers 28 April 1991)
 * 2004: Average: 200 Highest: 400
 * 2005: Average: 185 Highest: 400
 * 2006: Average: 118 Highest: 278 (v Dundalk)

title: Kilkenny City A.F.C.


text:
The Skin of Our Teeth

The Skin of Our Teeth is a play by Thornton Wilder that won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. It opened on October 15, 1942, at the Shubert Theatre in New Haven, Connecticut, before moving to the Plymouth Theatre on Broadway on November 18, 1942. It was produced by Michael Myerberg and directed by Elia Kazan with costumes by Mary Percy Schenck. The play is a three-part allegory about the life of mankind, centering on the Antrobus family of the fictional town of Excelsior, New Jersey. The epic comedy-drama is noted as among the most heterodox of classic American comedies — it broke nearly every established theatrical convention.

The phrase used as the title comes from the King James Bible, Job 19:20: "My bone cleaveth to my skin and to my flesh, and I am escaped with the skin of my teeth."

Overview
The main characters of the play are George and Maggie Antrobus (from άνθρωπος (anthropos), "human" or "person"), their two children, Henry and Gladys, and Sabina, who appears as the family's maid in the first and third acts, and as a beauty queen temptress in the second act. The play's action takes place in a modern setting, but is full of anachronisms reaching back to prehistoric times. The characters' roles as archetypes are emphasized by their identification with Biblical and classical personalities:

The name Lilly Sabina is a reference to the myth of Lilith and to the historical rape of the Sabine women, identifications made relatively explicit in the play's text. Henry Antrobus's name was changed from "Cain", following his murder of his brother Abel, mirroring the biblical story in which Adam's son murders his brother after God favors Abel over Cain by gifts. This implies that George Antrobus is Adam and Maggie Antrobus Eve, supported when George composes a song for his wife Maggie in honor of their anniversary: "Happy w'dding ann'vers'ry dear Eva."

The murder of Abel is an underlying theme in the play. Mr. Antrobus pays far more attention to his "perfect" third child Gladys than he does Henry. As this treatment of Henry continues, Henry's anger progresses throughout the play, reaching its climax in the third act.

While the Antrobus family remains constant throughout the play, the three acts do not form a continuous narrative. The first act takes place during an impending ice age; in the second act the family circumstances have changed as George becomes president of the Fraternal Order of Mammals (apparent references to Sodom and Gomorrah but also to the Roaring Twenties), while the end of the world approaches a second time; the third act opens with Maggie and Gladys emerging from a bunker at the end of a seven-year-long war.

An additional layer of stylistic complexity is added by the occasional interruption of the recitative narrative scene by actors directly addressing the audience: In the first scene, the actress playing Sabina reveals her misgivings to the audience about the play; in the second act she refuses to recite her lines and instead talks to the spectators, causing a woman in the audience to run from the theater sobbing; and in the third act, the actor playing Mr. Antrobus interrupts to announce that several actors have taken ill, asking the audience to indulge them while the "stage manager" of the play conducts a rehearsal with the replacements.

Act I
Act one is an amalgam of early 20th century New Jersey and the dawn of the Ice Age. The father is inventing things such as the lever, the wheel, the alphabet, and multiplication tables. The family and the entire northeastern U.S. face extinction by a wall of ice moving southward from Canada. The story is introduced by a narrator and further expanded by the family maid, Sabina. There are unsettling parallels between the members of the Antrobus family and various characters from the Bible. In addition, time is compressed and scrambled to such an extent that the refugees who arrive at the Antrobus house seeking food and fire include the Old Testament prophet Moses, the ancient Greek poet Homer, and women who are identified as Muses.

Act II
Act II takes place on the Boardwalk at Atlantic City, New Jersey, where the Antrobuses are present for George's swearing-in as president of the Ancient and Honorable Order of Mammals, Subdivision Humans. Sabina is present, also, in the guise of a scheming beauty queen, who tries to steal George's affection from his wife and family. The conventioneers are rowdy and party furiously, but there is an undercurrent of foreboding as a fortune teller warns of an impending storm. The weather soon transforms from summery sunshine to hurricane to deluge. Gladys and George each attempt their individual rebellions, and are brought back into line by the family. The act ends with the family members reconciled and, paralleling the Biblical story of Noah's Ark, directing pairs of animals to safety on a large boat where they survive the storm and the end of the world.

Act III
The final act takes place in the ruins of the Antrobuses' former home. A devastating war has occurred; Maggie and Gladys have survived by hiding in a cellar. When they come out of the cellar we see that Gladys has a baby. Sabina joins them, "dressed as a Napoleonic camp-follower". George has been away at the front lines leading an army. Henry also fought, on the opposite side, and returns as a general. The family members discuss the ability of the human race to rebuild and continue after continually destroying itself. The question is raised: "Is there any accomplishment or attribute of the human race of enough value that its civilization should be rebuilt?"

The stage manager interrupts the play-within-the-play to explain that several members of their company can't perform their parts, possibly due to food poisoning (as the actress playing Sabina saw blue mold on the lemon meringue pie at dinner). The stage manager drafts a janitor, a dresser, and other non-actors to fill their parts, which involve quoting philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle to mark the passing of time within the play.

The alternate history action ends where it began, with Sabina dusting the living room and worrying about George's arrival from the office. Her final act is to address the audience and turn over the responsibility of continuing the action, or life, to them.

Influences and criticism
Similarities between the play and James Joyce's novel Finnegans Wake (1939) have been noted — such as a family that represents the totality of humanity, cyclical storytelling, and copious Biblical allusions. One such comparison was published in the Saturday Review during the play's run on Broadway. Norman Cousins, editor of the Review, printed a short article by Joseph Campbell and Henry Morton Robinson titled "The Skin of Whose Teeth? The Strange Case of Mr. Wilder's New Play and Finnegans Wake" in the issue for December 19, 1942, with a second part in the February 13, 1943, issue.

In Campbell's book Pathways to Bliss, Campbell recalls his reaction to the similarities he noted between Wilder's play and Joyce's novel: "[W]hen I went to see Thornton Wilder's The Skin of Our Teeth, which was the big Broadway hit at the time...all I heard was Finnegans Wake. [...] I phoned Robinson, and I said, 'Good God, here's Wilder making tons of money and a lot of fame on this thing, and it's simply Finnegans Wake.' Joyce had just died, and his family was destitute. So I said, 'I think we should write a letter to the New York Times.'"

Campbell claimed to have compared Finnegans Wake and the book form of The Skin of Our Teeth and found "nearly two hundred and fifty analogues—characters, themes, and finally a four-line, word-for-word quote."

The fact is that Wilder was one of Finnegans Wake ' s early champions — Wilder wrote to Gertrude Stein and Alice Toklas in August 1939, a few months after the book's publication, that "One of my absorptions [...] has been James Joyce's new novel, digging out its buried keys and resolving that unbroken chain of erudite puzzles."

Campbell and Robinson's reviews-cum-denunciations created a huge uproar at the time. The New Yorker magazine's Wolcott Gibbs satirized Campbell and Robinson's accusations in a December 26, 1942, piece called "Finnegan's Teeth."

Notable productions
The original production starred Tallulah Bankhead, Fredric March, Florence Eldridge, and Montgomery Clift. Bankhead won a Variety Award for Best Actress and the New York Drama Critics Award for Best Actress of the Year for her role as Sabina. When she left the production in March 1943, she was replaced by Miriam Hopkins. Hopkins was in turn replaced by Gladys George. For two performances, while George was ill, Lizabeth Scott, who had been Bankhead's understudy, was called in to play the role. Scott then played the role for the production's run in Boston. Originally billed in New York as "Elizabeth Scott", she dropped the "E" before taking the part in Boston, and it became her breakthrough role.

Following a pre-London tryout tour of the UK, the play had its London premiere at the Phoenix Theatre on 16 May 1945, where it ran for 77 performances, closing 21 July 1945. It re-opened in London at the Piccadilly Theatre on 11 September 1946, running there for a further 109 performances, until 14 December. Directed by Laurence Olivier, Sabina was played by Vivien Leigh, with Cecil Parker as George Antrobus (George Devine at the Piccadilly). The Oliviers also included the production on their Old Vic tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1948. Leigh revived the role in a 1959 television production filmed live by Granada Television, also starring George Devine as Mr. Antrobus and Ruth Dunning as Mrs. Antrobus.

The play was revived on Broadway in 1955, premiering at the ANTA Theatre. It was staged by the Edinburgh Gateway Company in 1961.

In 1983, American Playhouse, on PBS, aired a production that was produced at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego. It starred Blair Brown, Harold Gould, Sada Thompson, Rue McClanahan and Jeffrey Combs, and was directed by Jack O'Brien.

New York City's Public Theater presented a production as part of its 1998 summer Shakespeare in the Park festival at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park. That production starred Kristen Johnston, John Goodman and Frances Conroy. It was directed by Irene Lewis.

In 2017, Theatre for a New Audience performed The Skin of Our Teeth directed by Arin Arbus. It won the 2017 Obie Award for Directing and Performance by Kecia Lewis.

A Broadway revival of the play directed by Lileana Blain-Cruz premiered at the Vivian Beaumont Theater in previews on April 1, 2022, and officially on April 25. It was subsequently nominated for six Tony Awards including Best Direction, Best Lead Actress, Best Costume Design, Best Lighting Design, Best Sound Design, and Best Set Design.

title: The Skin of Our Teeth


text:
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Album cover for Leo Sayer by Leo Sayer

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