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Bukharan Jews

Bukharan Jews (Bukharian: יהודיאני בוכארא/яҳудиёни Бухоро, Yahudiyoni Bukhoro; יְהוּדֵי־בּוּכָרָה, Yehudey Bukhara), in modern times called Bukharian Jews (Bukharian: יהודי בוכרה/яҳудиёни бухорӣ, Yahudiyoni Bukhorī; יְהוּדִים־בּוּכָרִים, Yehudim Bukharim), are the Mizrahi Jewish sub-group of Central Asia that historically spoke Bukharian, a Judeo-Tajik dialect of the Tajik language, in turn a variety of the Persian language. Their name comes from the former Central Asian Emirate of Bukhara (now primarily Uzbekistan), which once had a sizable Jewish population. Bukharan Jews are of Persian-Jewish ancestry, though they are considered one of the oldest ethno-religious groups of Central Asia and over the centuries developed their own distinct culture.

Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the great majority have immigrated to Israel or the United States while others have immigrated to Europe or Australia.

Name and language
The Bukharan Jews originally called themselves Bnei Israel, which relates specifically to the Israelites of Assyrian captivity. The term Bukharan was coined by European travellers who visited Central Asia around the 16th century. Since most of the Jewish community at the time lived under the Emirate of Bukhara, they came to be known as Bukharan Jews. The name by which the community called itself is "Bnei Isro'il".

Bukharan Jews used Bukharian or Bukhori, a Jewish dialect of the Tajik language (in turn a variety of Farsi) with linguistic elements of Hebrew, to communicate among themselves. This language was used for all cultural and educational life among the Jews. It was used widely until Central Asia was "Russified" by the Soviet Union and the dissemination of "religious" information was halted. The elderly Bukharian generation used Bukhori as their primary language but largely speak Russian (sometimes with a slight Bukharian accent). The younger generation use Russian as their primary language, but often do understand or speak Bukharian.

The first primary written account of Jews in Central Asia dates to the beginning of the 4th century CE. It is recalled in the Talmud by Rabbi Shmuel bar Bisna, a member of the Talmudic academy in Pumbeditha, who traveled to Margiana (present-day Merv in Turkmenistan). The presence of Jewish communities in Merv is also proven by Jewish writings on ossuaries from the 5th and 6th centuries, uncovered between 1954 and 1956.

History
Some Bukharan Jews relate their own ancestry to exiles from the tribes of Naphtali and Issachar during the Assyrian captivity, basing this assumption on a reading of "Habor" at II Kings 17:6 as a reference to Bukhara. Nevertheless, more widespread Bukharan Jewish tradition associates their establishment in the country with the emigration of Persian Jews, fleeing the persecutions of King Peroz I (458–485 CE). In the opinion of some scholars, Jews settled in Central Asia in the sixth century, but it is certain that during the eighth to ninth centuries they lived in Central Asian cities such as Balkh, Khwarezm, and Merv. At that time, and until approximately the sixteenth century, Bukharan Jews formed a group continuous with Jews of Iran and Afghanistan.

Throughout the years, Jews from other Eastern countries such as Iraq, Iran, Yemen, Syria, and Morocco migrated into Central Asia (by way of the Silk Road).

Under Sunni Muslim rule
At the beginning of the 16th century, Central Asia was controlled by Sunni Uzbeks. The town of Bukhara became a center of Jewish life in Central Asia in the 16th century, having also absorbed many Jews between the Persians and the local Sunni rulers.

Bukharan Jews lived under the status of Dhimmi, and experienced persecution from the Muslim majority. They were forced to wear a yellow patch along with a special hat called a Tilpak to identify them as Jews, and had their belts made of rope, while the leather belts were reserved for Muslims. Jewish homes also had to be marked as "Jewish" with a dirty cloth nailed to their front doors, and their stores and homes had to be lower than Muslim ones. In court cases, any evidence from a Jew was inadmissible involving a Muslim. They were also forbidden to ride horses and donkeys and had to transport themselves by foot. Lastly, when paying their annual Jizya tax, the Jewish men would be ritually slapped in the face by Muslim authorities. Despite these prohibitions and humiliations, the Jews were able to achieve financial success primarily as merchants and established lucrative trade businesses.

Towards the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century, the Jewish quarter, Mahalla, was established in the town of Bukhara. The Jews were forbidden to reside outside its boundaries.

During the 18th century, Bukharan Jews continued to face considerable discrimination and persecution. Jewish centers were closed down, and the Muslims of the region forced conversion of over one-third of Bukharan Jews, under a threat of torture and agonizing execution. These Jews who forcibly converted were known as Chala's, an Uzbek term meaning "neither this nor that." On top of this, isolation from the rest of the Jewish world reached a point where the Jews of Bukhara began to lack knowledge and practice of their Jewish religion.

By the middle of the 18th century, practically all Bukharan Jews lived in the Bukharan Emirate. In the early 1860s, Arminius Vambery, a Hungarian-Jewish traveler visited the emirate disguised as a Sunni dervish, writing in his journals that the Jews of Bukhara "live in utmost oppression, being despised by everyone."

Rabbi Yosef Maimon
In 1793, a missionary kabbalist named Rabbi Yosef Maimon, who was a Sephardic Jew originally from Tetuan, Morocco, travelled to Bukhara to collect/solicit money from Jewish patrons. Upon arriving and his first days of meeting the Bukharan Jews, he stated in his writings:

"'As I arrived in Bukhara in 1793, I found my co-religionists in a state of utter ignorance. Only a few of them could read. I found serious deviations in Jewish observance. The local community did not have leaders who could competently govern their people. In addition, there weren't enough religious literature, the community owned only two copies of the Holy Scripture, and even then, they only had the first three books of the Pentateuch'."

Prior to Maimon's arrival, the native Jews of Bukhara followed the Persian religious tradition. Maimon staunchly demanded that the native Jews of Bukhara adopt Sephardic traditions. Many of the native Jews were opposed to this and the community split into two factions. The followers of the Maimon clan eventually won the struggle for religious authority over the native Bukharans, and Bukharan Jewry forcefully switched to Sephardi customs. The supporters of the Maimon clan, in the conflict, credit Maimon with causing a revival of Jewish practice among Bukharan Jews which they claim was in danger of dying out. However, there is evidence that there were Torah scholars present upon his arrival to Bukhara, but because they followed the Persian rite their practices were aggressively rejected as incorrect by Maimon.

Maimon's great-grandson Shimon Hakham continued his great-grandfather's work as a Rabbi, and in 1870 opened the Talmid Hakham yeshiva in Bukhara, where religious law was promoted. At that time Bukharan Jews were getting only a general education, which mostly consisted of religious laws, reading, writing and some math. Even though they studied Torah, many Bukharan Jews did not speak fluent Hebrew. Only a few books were written in Persian and many of them were old and incomplete. Hakham decided to change this situation by translating religious books into Bukhori. But since there was no printing in Bukhara at that time, he went to Jerusalem to print his books.

Under Tsarist Russia rule
In 1865, Russian colonial troops took over Tashkent, and established the Russian Turkestan region, as part of their expanding empire. The emir of Bukhara, 'Abd al-Ahad Khan and his successor Sayyid Mir Muhammad Alim Khan blamed their defeat against the Russians on the Jews, and attempted to punish them, causing a migration of Jews from Bukhara to Samarkand, Tashkent, Fergana, Dushanbe, and other Turkistan cities. Unlike the Jews of Eastern Europe, Tsarist Russia was largely favorable towards the Bukharan Jews living there, due to years of close trade relations between Russian and Jewish merchants. Dubbed the "Golden Age" for Bukharan Jews, from 1876 to 1916 they were no longer restricted in their autonomy and had the same rights as their Muslim neighbors. Dozens of Bukharan Jews held prestigious jobs in medicine, law, and government, and many of them prospered. Many Bukharan Jews became successful and well-respected actors, artists, dancers, musicians, singers, film producers, and sportsmen. Several Bukharan entertainers became artists of merit and gained the title "People's Artist of Uzbekistan", "People's Artist of Tajikistan", and even (in the Soviet era) "People's Artist of the Soviet Union". Jews succeeded in the world of sport also, with several Bukharan Jews in Uzbekistan becoming renowned boxers and winning many medals for the country.

Hibbat Zion and immigrating into Ottoman Palestine

Beginning from 1872, Bukharan Jews began to move into the region of Ottoman Palestine, motivated by religious convictions and the desire to return to their ancestral homeland. The land on which they settled in Jerusalem was named the Bukharan Quarter (Sh'hunat HaBucharim) and still exists today. In 1890, seven members of the Bukharan Jewish community formed the Hovevei Zion Association of the Jewish communities of Bukhara, Samarkand and Tashkent. In 1891, the association bought land and drew up a charter stating that the new quarter would be built in the style of Europe's major cities. Architect Conrad Schick was employed to design the neighborhood. The streets were three times wider than even major thoroughfares in Jerusalem at the time, and spacious mansions were built with large courtyards. The homes were designed with neo-Gothic windows, European tiled roofs, neo-Moorish arches and Italian marble. Facades were decorated with Jewish motifs such as the Star of David and Hebrew inscriptions.

Rabbi Shimon Hakham and Rabbi Shlomo Moussaieff were some of the organizers of the quarter where Bukharan homes, synagogues, schools, libraries, and a bath house were established.

The Bukharim neighborhood was one of the most affluent sections of the city, populated by Bukharan Jewish merchants and religious scholars supported primarily by various trading activities such as cotton, gemstones, and tea from Central Asia. After World War I and the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, however, the neighborhood fell into decline as overseas sources of income were cut off and residents were left with just their homes in Jerusalem, forcing them to subdivide and rent out rooms to bring in income. From being lauded as one of the most beautiful neighborhoods of Jerusalem, Bukharim earned the opposite sobriquet, of being one of the poorest neighborhoods of Jerusalem. In the 1920's and 1930's the neighborhood also became one of the centers of the Zionist movement with many of its leaders and philosophers living there.

Between 1953-1963, Rabbi Bernard M. Casper was working as Dean for Student Affairs at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and during this period he became deeply concerned about the impoverished Quarter. After his appointment as Chief Rabbi in South Africa he set up a special fund for the Quarter's improvement and this was tied with Prime Minister Menachem Begin's urban revitalization program, Project Renewal. Johannesburg was twinned with the Bukharan Quarter, and Johannesburg Jewry raised enormous funds for its rehabilitation. Frustrated by the lack of progress, Casper traveled to Jerusalem in 1981 to resolve the hurdles. He consulted with community organizer Moshe Kahan and suggested that they present the dormant agencies with concrete evidence of what could be done. Using a private discretionary fund, he initiated development of several pilot projects, among them a free loan fund, a dental clinic and a hearing center whose successes spurred the municipality back on track.

The quarter borders Tel Arza on the west, the Shmuel HaNavi neighborhood on the north, Arzei HaBira on the east, and Geula on the south. Today, most of the residents are Haredi Jews.

Under Soviet Union rule
By the late 19th century, much of the Bukharan Jewish population began to favor a Bolshevik takeover, with the perception that the Soviets would continue to be tolerant of the Jews. This new political view led to more animosity from the Muslims, with several riots breaking out against Jews from 1918 to 1920. Following the Soviet capture of Bukhara and the creation of the Soviet Social Republics of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, synagogues were destroyed or closed down, and were replaced by Soviet institutions. Consequently many Bukharan Jews fled to the West. The route they undertook went through Afghanistan, as the neighboring country had many possibilities to the west.

Soviet doctrines, ideology and nationalities policy had a large impact on the everyday life, culture and identity of the Bukharan Jews. The remaining community attempted to preserve their traditions while displaying loyalty to the new government. Stalin's decision to end Lenin's New Economic Policy and initiate the First five-year plan in the late 1920s resulted in a drastic deterioration of living conditions for the Bukharan Jews. By the time Soviet authorities established their hold over the borders in Central Asia in the mid 1930s, many tens of thousands of households from Central Asia had crossed the border into Iran and Afghanistan, amongst them some 4,000 Bukharan Jews who were heading towards Mandatory Palestine.

During this time, both Jews and Muslims suffered from the anti-religious policies the Soviets imposed on Central Asia,  which aimed to break the power of their religious institutions and eventually replace religious belief with atheism. World War II and the Holocaust brought many Ashkenazi Jewish refugees from the European regions of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe through Uzbekistan, though Ashkenazi Jews and Bukharan Jews interacted very little, and intermarriage between the two was practically non-existent. After the creation of the state of Israel in 1948, antisemitism intensified amongst the Muslim majority. The same year began the "Black Years of Soviet Jewry," where suppression of the Jewish religion resumed after briefly stopping due to World War II. After Joseph Stalin's attempt to turn the newly founded state of Israel into a dependent country failed, an anti-Israel, antizionist, and antisemitic campaign launched against Soviet Jews. In 1950 thirteen religious Bukharan Jews in Samarkand were arrested and sentenced to 25 years. Similar arrests happened to prominent Bukharan Jews in Kattakurgan and Bukhara, on charges of "Zionist propagation." Even those who uttered the traditional phrase said by Jews on the Passover holiday, "Next Year in Jerusalem" were subject to arrests.

By the Six-Day Arab–Israeli War of 1967, the relationship between Jews and Muslims had reached another breaking point, with the war leading to a rise in Jewish patriotism as Bukharan Jews and others carried out demonstrations as refuseniks. Bukharan Jews who had put efforts into creating a Bukharan Jewish Soviet culture and national identity were charged during Stalin's Great Purge, or, as part of the Soviet Union's nationalities policies and nation building campaigns, were forced to assimilate into the larger Soviet Uzbek or Soviet Tajik national identities.

In the late 1980s to the mid 1990s, following the collapse of the Soviet Union, almost all of the remaining Bukharan Jews left Central Asia for the United States, Israel, Europe, or Australia in the last mass emigration of Bukharan Jews from their resident lands. In 1990, there were riots against the Jewish population of Andijan and nearby areas. This led to most Jews in the Fergana Valley immigrating to Israel or the United States.

After 1991
With the disintegration of the Soviet Union and foundation of the independent Republic of Uzbekistan in 1991, some feared growth of nationalistic policies in the country. The resurgence of Islamic fundamentalism in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan (such as the Fergana massacre and the 1990 Dushanbe riots) prompted an increase in the level of emigration of Jews (both Bukharan and Ashkenazi). Before the collapse of the USSR, there were 50,000 Bukharan Jews in Central Asia.

Tajikistan
In early 2006, the still active Dushanbe Synagogue in Tajikistan as well as the city's mikveh (ritual bath), kosher butcher, and Jewish schools were demolished by the government (without compensation to the community) to make room for the new Palace of Nations. After an international outcry, the government of Tajikistan announced a reversal of its decision and publicly claimed that it would permit the synagogue to be rebuilt on its current site. However, in mid-2008, the government of Tajikistan destroyed the whole synagogue and started construction of the Palace of Nations. The Dushanbe synagogue was Tajikistan's only synagogue and the community were therefore left without a center or a place to pray. As a result, the majority of Bukharan Jews from Tajikistan living in Israel and the United States have very negative views towards the Tajik government and many have cut off all ties they had with the country. In 2009, the Tajik government reestablished the synagogue in a different location for the small Jewish community.

On January 15, 2021, the last Jew of Tajikistan, Jura Abaev, died.

United States
The largest amount of Bukharan Jews in the U.S. is in New York City. In Forest Hills, Queens, 108th Street, often referred to as "Bukharan Broadway" or "Bukharian Broadway", is filled with Bukharan restaurants and gift shops. Furthermore, Forest Hills is nicknamed "Bukharlem" due to the majority of the population being Bukharan. They have formed a tight-knit enclave in this area that was once primarily inhabited by Ashkenazi Jews. Congregation Tifereth Israel in Corona, Queens, a synagogue founded in the early 1900s by Ashkenazi Jews, became Bukharan in the 1990s. Kew Gardens, Queens, also has a very large population of Bukharan Jews. Although Bukharan Jews in Queens remain insular in some ways (living in close proximity to each other, owning and patronizing clusters of stores, and attending their own synagogue rather than other synagogues in the area), they have connections with non-Bukharans in the area. In December 1999, the First Congress of the Bukharian Jews of the United States and Canada convened in Queens. In 2007, Bukharan-American Jews initiated lobbying efforts on behalf of their community. Zoya Maksumova, president of the Bukharan women's organization "Esther Hamalka" said "This event represents a huge leap forward for our community. Now, for the first time, Americans will know who we are." Senator Joseph Lieberman intoned, "God said to Abraham, 'You'll be an eternal people'… and now we see that the State of Israel lives, and this historic [Bukharan] community, which was cut off from the Jewish world for centuries in Central Asia and suffered oppression during the Soviet Union, is alive and well in America. God has kept his promise to the Jewish people."

Dress codes
Bukharan Jews had their own dress code, similar to but also different from other cultures (mainly Turco-Mongol) living in Central Asia, which they were wore as their daily attire until the country was "Russified" by the Soviet Union. Today, the traditional kaftan (Jomah-ҷома-ג'אמה in Bukhori and Tajik) is worn during weddings and Bar Mitzvah's.

Bukharan Jews also have a unique kippah, a full head-sized covering with rich patterns and lively colors embroidered. In present times, this kippah can sometimes be seen being worn by liberal-leaning and Reform Jews.

Music
The Bukharan Jews have a distinct musical tradition called shashmaqam, which is an ensemble of stringed instruments, infused with Central Asian rhythms, and a considerable klezmer influence as well as Muslim melodies, and even Spanish chords. The main instrument is the dayereh. Shashmaqam music "reflect[s] the mix of Hassidic vocals, Indian and Islamic instrumentals and Sufi-inspired texts and lyrical melodies."

Ensemble Shashmaqam was one of the first New York-based ensembles created to showcase the music and dance of Bukharan Jews. The Ensemble was created in 1983 by Shumiel Kuyenov, a dayereh player from Queens.

Weddings and marriage traditions
Bukharan Jews celebrated their weddings in several stages leading up to the wedding ceremony. When a match between a couple was accepted, an engagement (Shirini-Khori) took place in the house of the bride. Following this, the Rabbi congratulated the father of the bride on the engagement and distributed sugar to those present. Other sweets were distributed towards relatives, notifying them that the engagement had taken place. After engagement, the meeting between parents of the groom and bride was carried out in the house of the bride, where refreshments and gifts from the groom were sent. Further celebrations lasted a week in the house of the groom, where relatives of the groom brought gifts to the bride.

Before the wedding, a unique practice that was done was a Kosh-Chinon ceremony, a local custom practiced by both Jews and Muslims in Central Asia, which involved all the female guests of the wedding to pluck the bride's eyebrows and the strands of hair above her lip, as well as the sides of the bride's face being cleaned of their dark wisps. Girls in Central Asia were taught they must not manicure their facial hair until they got married. The smooth, clean face served as a mark of womanhood. This ceremony was done a few days before the wedding, and after the bride had immersed herself in the Mikveh.

The wedding itself followed the same traditions as a standard Jewish wedding, including the signing of the Ketubah, the Chuppah, and the Kiddish. A few small differences were the Chuppah being a prayer shawl that was held by members of the family, unlike it being hung on four poles as is widely practiced today in Jewish weddings. Furthermore, as the bride and groom would take their positions in the prayer shawl, those assembled raised their hands overhead and stretched their fingers open during the ceremony. Meanwhile the mothers of the bride and groom stitched their needles through the fabric of their children's clothing.

Cuisine

The cooking of Bukharan Jews forms a distinct cuisine within Uzbekistan, other parts of Central and even Southeast Asia, subject to the restrictions of Jewish dietary laws.

"The Bukharians' Jewish identity was always preserved in the kitchen. 'Even though we were in exile from Jerusalem, we observed kashruth,' said Isak Masturov, another owner of Cheburechnaya. 'We could not go to restaurants, so we had to learn to cook for our own community.'"

Authentic Bukharan Jewish dishes include:

 * Osh palov – a Bukharan Jewish version of palov for weekdays, includes both beef and chicken.
 * Bakhsh – "green palov", rice with meat or chicken and green herbs (coriander, parsley, dill), exists in two varieties; bakhshi khaltagi cooked Jewish-style in a small bag immersed in a pot with boiling water or soup and bakhshi degi cooked like regular palov in a cauldron; bakhshi khaltagi is precooked and therefore can be served on Shabbat.
 * Oshi sabo (also osh savo or osovoh), a "meal in a pot" slowly cooked overnight and eaten hot for Shabbat lunch. Oshi sabo is made with meat, rice, vegetables, and fruit added for a unique sweet and sour taste. By virtue of its culinary function (a hot Shabbat meal in Jewish homes) and ingredients (rice, meat, vegetables cooked together overnight), oshi sabo is a Bukharan version of cholent or hamin.
 * Khalta savo – food cooked in a bag (usually rice and meat, possibly with the addition of dried fruit).
 * Yakhni – a dish consisting of two kinds of boiled meat (beef and chicken), brought whole to the table and sliced before serving with a little broth and a garnish of boiled vegetables; a main course for Friday night dinner.
 * Kov roghan – fried pieces of chicken with fried potatoes piled on top.
 * Serkaniz (Sirkoniz) – garlic rice dish, another variation of palov.
 * Oshi piyozi – stuffed onion.
 * Shulah – a Bukharan-style risotto.
 * Boyjon – eggplant puree mixed only with salt and garlic, the traditional starter for the Friday-night meal in Bukharan Jewish homes.
 * Slotah Bukhori – a salad made with tomato, cucumber, green onion, cilantro, salt, pepper, and lemon juice. Some also put in lettuce and chili pepper.
 * Samsa - pastries filled with spiced meat or vegetables, are baked in a unique, hollowed out tandoor oven, and greatly resemble the preparation and shape of Indian samosas.
 * Noni Toki – a crispy flat bread that is baked on the back of a wok. This method creates a bowl-shaped bread.
 * Fried fish with garlic sauce (for Friday night dinner): "Every Bukharian Sabbath ... is greeted with a dish of fried fish covered with a pounded sauce of garlic and cilantro". In the Bukharan dialect, the dish is called mai birion or in full mai birion ovi sir, where mai birion is fried fish and ovi sir is garlic sauce (literally "garlic water"). Bread is sometimes fried and then dipped in the remaining garlic water and is called noni-sir.
 * Chakchak, a popular sweet made from unleavened dough cut and rolled into hazelnut-sized balls, which are then deep-fried in oil. Optionally, hazelnuts or dried fruit (e.g. apricots and raisins) are added to the mixture. The fried balls are stacked in a mound in a special mold and drenched with hot honey.

Genetics
A 2013 genetic study of multiple Jewish groups, including Bukharan Jews, found that Bukharan Jews clustered closely with Jewish communities from the Middle East and the Caucasus such as Iranian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, Kurdish Jews and Iraqi Jews, and did not cluster with their neighbours.

Israel

 * Yisrael Aharoni, Israeli chef and restaurateur
 * Mordekhai Batchaev, poet and radio broadcaster
 * Yoni Ben-Menachem, Israeli journalist; General Director of Israel Broadcasting Authority
 * Amnon Cohen, Israeli politician and member of the Knesset for Shas
 * Guy Haimov, professional football player
 * Shimon Hakham, Bukharan-Israeli rabbi, writer, one of the founders of the Bukharan Quarter
 * Robert Ilatov, Israeli politician and member of the Knesset for Yisrael Beiteinu
 * Avi Issacharoff, Israeli journalist and creator of the series Fauda
 * Lev Leviev, billionaire businessman, investor, philanthropist, president of the World Congress of Bukharian Jews
 * Nitzan Kaikov, Israeli songwriter and music producer
 * Rinat Matatov, Israeli actress
 * Moshe Mishaelof, professional football player
 * Shlomo Moussaieff, co-founder of the Bukharan Quarter in Jerusalem
 * Shlomo Moussaieff, Israeli millionaire businessman
 * Dorrit Moussaieff, former First Lady of Iceland
 * Rafael Pinhasi, Israeli politician and member of the Knesset for Shas
 * Albert Pinhasov, Israeli researcher, is the Rector of Ariel University
 * Eson Kandov, singer and Honored People's Artist of the USSR
 * Gideon Sa'ar, Israeli politician who served as a member of Knesset for New Hope
 * Esther Roth-Shahamorov, Israeli track and field athlete
 * Yulia Shamalov-Berkovich, Israeli politician who served as a member of the Knesset for Kadima from 2009–2013
 * Idan Yaniv, Israeli singer, "2007 Israeli Artist of the Year"
 * Benjamin Yusupov, Israeli classical composer, conductor and pianist

United States

 * Jacob Arabov, proprietor of Jacob & Co.
 * Michael Aronov, American actor and playwright, Tony Award winner
 * Boris Kandov, president of the Bukharian Jewish Congress of the US and Canada
 * Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson, author
 * Jacob Nasirov, Bukharan-American rabbi from Afghanistan (member of the Bukharian Rabbinical Counsel)
 * Rus Yusupov, Bukharan-American Internet entrepreneur; co-founder of Vine
 * Iosef Yusupov, designer

United Kingdom

 * Yvonne Green (née Mammon), poet and translator
 * Anthony Yadgaroff, British businessman, Jewish community leader

Other

 * Alexandre Reza, Jeweler known for his diverse and rare collection of precious gemstones
 * Ari Babakhanov, musician from Uzbekistan
 * Rena Galibova, Soviet actress, "People's Artist of Tajikistan" (an awarded title, alluding to national prominence)
 * Meirkhaim Gavrielov, journalist murdered in Tajikistan in 1998
 * Barno Itzhakova, vocalist, famous for her rendition of traditional Shashmaqom songs in Tajik and Uzbek
 * Malika Kalontarova, dancer, "People's Artist of Soviet Union" (Queen of Eastern Dance)
 * Fatima Kuinova, Soviet singer, "Merited Artist of the Soviet Union"
 * Ilyas Malayev, musician and poet from Uzbekistan, "Honoured Artist of Uzbekistan"
 * Shoista Mullodzhanova, Shashmakon singer, "People's Artist of Tajikistan" (Queen of Shashmakom music)
 * Gavriel Mullokandov, popular Shashmakom artist, "People's Artist of Uzbekistan"
 * Suleiman Yudakov, Soviet composer and musician, "People's Artist of the Uzbek SSR"

title: Bukharan Jews


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Repin

Repin (Ре́пин; masculine) or Repina (Ре́пина; feminine) is a Russian last name. It is derived from the sobriquet репа and may refer to the following people:
 * Ilya Repin (1844–1930), Russian painter
 * Nikolay Repin (b. 1932), Soviet painter
 * Vadim Repin (b. 1971), Russian violinist

Archaeology

 * The Repin culture, the first phase (or, depending on the author, the forerunner) of the Pit Grave/Ochre Grave/Yamnaya culture.

Other uses

 * Řepín, a village and municipality of the Czech Republic.
 * 2468 Repin, a Main-belt Asteroid named after Ilya Repin.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Repin


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Ayacucho Declaration

On December 9, 1974, the sesquicentennial celebration of the Battle of Ayacucho, the site of Simón Bolívar's final victory over Spain, eight Hispanic American nations stated their intention to consider arms limitations. Representatives from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela jointly declared the need to "create conditions which permit effective limitation of armaments and put an end to their acquisition for offensive military purposes, in order to dedicate all possible resources to economic development."

By 1975 the declaration's signers had reached a consensus on prohibiting a range of weapons and equipment, including nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons; ballistic missiles; aircraft carriers; cruisers; and nuclear submarines. Colombia also remained adamant in opposing the introduction of strategic missiles into the region—a move favored by neighboring Venezuela—as well as all models of bomber aircraft.

In September 1980, Colombia joined with three of the declaration's original signers plus Costa Rica in agreeing upon the Charter of Conduct, which reaffirmed support for the peaceful resolution of conflicts and for the principles of the 1974 declaration.

title: Ayacucho Declaration


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Robert Ray (Australian politician)

Robert Francis Ray (born 8 April 1947) is an Australian former politician who was a Labor Party senator from 1981 to 2008, representing the state of Victoria.

Early life
Ray was born in Melbourne, Victoria, and educated at Monash University, Melbourne, where he graduated in arts and education. He worked as a teacher in government schools and as a taxi-driver before entering politics.

Political career
A leading member of the right-wing faction of the ALP, Ray defeated a left-wing senator, Jean Melzer, in a ballot for a place on the party's Senate ticket. This caused great bitterness in the Socialist Left faction. He was elected to the Senate at the October 1980 election, taking his seat on 1 July 1981.

In the Hawke Labor government Ray was Minister for Home Affairs 1987–88, Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs 1988–90 (with a seat in the Cabinet), and Minister for Defence 1990–96. In this portfolio he strongly supported Hawke's decision to send Australian forces to support the United Nations in the Gulf War, despite bitter opposition from the left.

After the defeat of the Keating government in 1996 election, Ray did not seek election to the Opposition Shadow Ministry, but remained a powerful figure in the Labor Party, acting as a key factional supporter of Opposition Leader Kim Beazley 1996–2001. His influence diminished when Mark Latham became Leader in 2003. He did not stand for re-election at the 2007 election, which meant that his Senate term was due to expire on 30 June 2008. He formally resigned from Parliament on 5 May 2008, having spent two more days in the Senate as a member of government than as a member of the Opposition. The casual vacancy was filled by Jacinta Collins.

title: Robert Ray (Australian politician)


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Enniskerry

Enniskerry (historically Annaskerry, from ) is a village in County Wicklow, Ireland. The population was 2,008 at the 2022 census.

Location
The village is situated on the Glencullen River in the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains in the east of the island, just 5 minutes south of the Dublin border and some 24 km south of Dublin city centre. The R117 road, colloquially known as "The Twenty-One Bends" connects the town to the main N11 road to Dublin. The 185 Go-Ahead Ireland route connects the village hourly to Bray, the nearest large town. The 44 Dublin Bus route connects the village with Dublin city centre.

History
Enniskerry is a planned estate village dating from the 1840s, with the original buildings designed in a neo-Tudor style.

The Protestant population of the village attended church in the grounds of the Powerscourt Demesne until 1859. Mervyn Wingfield, 7th Viscount Powerscourt built a new church, Saint Patrick's, in the village which was completed two years later, in 1861. This coincided with an extensive renovation programme that also established the Italian gardens at Powerscourt. The Viscount Powerscourt claimed the old church following the disestablishment of the Church of Ireland by the Irish Church Act 1869. The consequences were that only those with a right to be buried next to the old church within the Demesne could claim these rights thereafter.

Powerscourt Estate, comprising a large house and gardens today occupying 47 acre, is located near the town and is a popular visitor attraction. The extensive formal gardens form the grounds of an 18th-century Palladian house, designed by Richard Cassels, which was destroyed by fire in 1974, and lay as a shell until extensive restorations were carried out in 1996. Powerscourt Waterfall in the grounds of the estate, at 121 metres, is the highest waterfall in Ireland.

Film
In 1944, Enniskerry was the setting for some scenes of Laurence Olivier's film adaptation of Henry V.

Johnny Nobody (released in 1961) was partly filmed in Enniskerry.

Scenes from a number of other films, including P.S I Love You (2007) Into the West (1992) and Leap Year (2010) were also shot locally.

Scenes for the 2022 Disney film Disenchanted were shot in Enniskerry.

Television
From 1996 to 2001, along with Avoca, County Wicklow, it played host to the television series Ballykissangel. On 16 March 2009, Meredith Vieira and Al Roker broadcast live in Enniskerry for NBC's Today Show.

Transport
The Bray and Enniskerry Railway was proposed in the 19th century, to link the town to Bray. Some initial work was carried out, including building a bridge to carry the railway over Dublin Corporation's Vartry watermain. Wicklow County Council recently removed much of the railway embankment in road widening, but left the bridge, which is directly opposite the ornate bridge carrying the watermain over the Cookstown River, a tributary of the River Dargle. The plan ran into financial difficulties, and the rails were lifted and sold off. The 44 Bus to DCU via Dundrum and St. Stephen's Green now has a terminus in Enniskerry (operated by Dublin Bus), whilst the 185 Bus to Bray goes through the village (operated by Go-Ahead Ireland).

Sports
There are two soccer clubs located in the village; Enniskerry Football Club and Enniskerry Youth Club.

Enniskerry Football Club was founded in the early 1970s as Enniskerry Schoolboys Football Club. The club, which now fields teams of boys and girls, is based in the Bog Meadow. Enniskerry FC participates in the Metropolitan Girls League with all-girls teams, the Wicklow Schoolboys/Girls Soccer League for their all-boys teams and the Athletic Union League for the men's team.

Enniskerry Youth Club have several teams playing at adult and youth level.

There is also a Gaelic football club in the village.

Religion
Strong ecumenical links have been forged over the years between the Roman Catholic parish of St Mary and the Church of Ireland parish of St Patrick, Powerscourt, both in the village of Enniskerry. For Volkstrauertag 2022, the Roman Catholic priest Bernard Kennedy led his congregation in "an Ecumenical prayer for peace with interfaith elements", joining Lutheran, Catholic and Jewish communities in Enniskerry. Other clergymen have previously spoken out about the strong ties that exist between Christian communities in the area.

People

 * Chris de Burgh, singer and songwriter
 * Ina Boyle, 20th century composer, was born locally
 * Rosanna Davison, former Miss World.
 * Rick Savage, bassist with Def Leppard, lived in the town.
 * Daniel Whelan, American Football player for the Green Bay Packers

title: Enniskerry


text:
Rarities, B-Sides and Other Stuff

Rarities, B-Sides & Other Stuff is a 1996 album by Sarah McLachlan.

It is a compilation of tracks that McLachlan recorded for film soundtracks, remixes of her own songs, covers of songs by other artists, live recordings, and material that she recorded in collaboration with various artists.

Guest musicians appearing on the album include Deni Bonet, Jocelyne Lanois, Bill Dillon, Luke Doucet, Manufacture and Camille Henderson; remixers include Anthony Valcic, Gary Stokes and Rabbit in the Moon.

The song "Full of Grace" later reappeared as the ninth track on McLachlan's next album, Surfacing. The extended remix of "Vox" first appeared on the 1989 release of her debut album, Touch. The live version of "Drawn to the Rhythm" first appeared on McLachlan's 1992 album ''Sarah McLachlan Live.

title: Rarities, B-Sides and Other Stuff


text:
User talk:Cimon Avaro/ArtConsc mediation

Mediationpage
This is the mediation page for Artificial consciousness. Please sign in below; to indicate cognisance of this page.

 * Cimon 09:13, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC)
 * User:80.3.32.9 9:46 9/12/04
 * Paul Beardsell 09:47, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Matt Stan 13:09, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Tkorrovi 14:38, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I would like to go further to arbitration, concerning trolling by Paul Beardsell, and Matthew Stannard. Tkorrovi 18:26, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Nothing? Paul Beardsell 11:45, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, considering how things are going so far, I see no possibility to ultimately omit arbitration, no matter how much I would like to do that. Though I shall prepare it carefully, based on other cases and precedence, I'm not very optimistic concerning the results, taking into consideration a more than lukewarm perception of your persistent personal attacks during a long period of time, and I was trying to be so patient bearing it, that I already look like a massochist for some. But in spite of all that, as I said, there is likely no other alternatives either. Well and then I certainly do it, no matter how much I dislike it, or how well I would succeed in doing it, that's all irrelevant when there is a matter with no other alternatives. Well and then, I go further if necessary. Fortunately I have endlessly lot of time. Tkorrovi 19:30, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * In revolutionary times, those who accord themselves, with an extraordinary arrogance, the facile credit for having enflamed anarchy in their contemporaries fail to recognise that what appears to be a sad triumph is in fact due to a spontaneous disposition, determined by the social situation as a whole. (Auguste Comte - Philosophie Positive, Leçon 48) Matt Stan 12:48, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes that's right, considering you. Considering me, you and Paul don't allow me to have a dignity of a simple human. Tkorrovi 15:12, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I note that Tkorrovi is now allowing the typically constructive and interesting edits by 80.*.*.* to stand despite his repeated assertions that 80.*.*.* is someone's sock puppet. I like the direction the article is taking. If it is the "trolling" (and, of course, the word is misused by him) which has made him sit back and think again then the outcome is positive. Edit boldly, 80.*.*.*. Come back, SlimVirgin. Paul Beardsell 09:19, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * This was the most impudent. I never wanted to prevent editing by anybody. Because of the danger of your trolling, I almost cannot edit the article at all, whenever I do, the trolling begins again. Tkorrovi 15:02, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

'''Material from here moved to Talk:Artificial_consciousness Matt Stan 20:18, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Sorry but, who recently said on Cimon Avaro talk page, that he is a black hat thinker? Tkorrovi 15:31, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * De Bono's point about the black hat thinker (itself derived from the Vatican's institution of the devil's advocate) is that it is more constructive to criticise in a ritualised context by indicating in advance that one is playing devil's advocate (or putting on the black hat). That's not to say that the person playing that role can't also provide praise where praise is due. Matt Stan 14:49, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I thought about physics, the system developed by me for example has many similarities for example with the implicate order of David Bohm, and this seems to be not just a coincidence. And this is true also concerning other systems, potentially capable of implementing AC. Also, considering the suggestions that neuron works based on quantum effects, there may even be a practical connection, if we for example consider using quantum computer. But the problem is, that there are yet no good published theories about the connection between AC and physics, and nothing like that has been proved anyhow. So at present, it is at the best just a speculation. This is why I preferred not to mention that in the article, it's better to explain AC, which is much better determined, has its sources in the papers, and is something which at least can be in some extent properly explained. Not even to talk about original research, it's better not to connect it with the theories of universe or such, which at present are not more than speculations, the whole thing may look like a doubtful speculation then, and the article cannot anyhow be considered anything serious then. People can read about all the philosophy there is, and make the connections themselves, the way they like. We may provide some links though. Please consider. Concerning style, it's not so good, just an inevitable consequence of editing by different editors in the condition of trolling. Tkorrovi 15:02, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

New
As a preparation for arbitration, I archived the article, archives, and history of both the article and its discussion, at http://adsproject.sourceforge.net/acw.zip to prevent deleting comments from the history.

As you look at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Artificial_consciousness/Archive_2 I asked Paul to apologize. I remember previously there was a comment when I asked it first time, and there was an offense by Paul before that. But now all that is deleted, deleted from the history, not just a talk page, and it gives an impression like I asked an apology for nothing. The history has been tampered with, don't know by who or how it could happen though.

So for any occasion for whatever reason the parts of the history to be lost from now on, the whole discussion is archived now in addition to the archives on discussion pages. Tkorrovi 18:41, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * TKorrovi, the history will be found by pressing the "history" button. Nothing has been lost.  But, for the avoidance of doubt, no archiving of the AC article or its talk pages has ever been done by me.  And, if there is anyone left who is interested, please do follow the link in the above posting.  Thanks.  Paul Beardsell 06:01, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Remind us, Tkorrovi, what did you ask me to apologise for? Paul Beardsell 21:46, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't remember, I don't want to remember the bad things, I want to remember the good things. But now it was only as much important, that I found it necessary to archice the discussion and history, just as a precaution. But if one wants to see an offense by Paul Beardsell, now they will follow. Tkorrovi 22:07, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * You remind me of this. Paul Beardsell 05:53, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I rather look like this. Tkorrovi 19:46, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * You conform disconcertingly to type. Excellent haircut, by the way.  Paul Beardsell 09:35, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes I don't look like a movie actor, I'm also not one, concerning how do I look like there is nothing I can do to please you more. Tkorrovi 17:27, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Sysops, please consider banning Paul Beardsell, as "no personal attacks" is an official policy of Wikipedia. I already once reported him in "vandalism in progress", he was then put in the category "Non- or minor vandals" though (btw, the sentence that they there so much talk about, is removed today by me). Tkorrovi 15:23, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Nothing removed today by you, according to the log. Have you been drinking?  Paul Beardsell 21:12, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * No, I don't drink at all, but thanks for another insult. And stop mocking my English, I said it is removed (a passive verb in the singular third person indicative mood), today, which means that today it is in the state of being removed, and I removed it. Are you still unable to understand? Tkorrovi 21:18, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The inclusion of the word "today" introduced an unnecessary ambiguity. So, on what day did you remove the sentence, if it were not "today"?  Paul Beardsell 06:25, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes you are right that it added an unnecessary ambiguity, this has often been your style as well. I removed that sentence when I tried to satisfy your NPOV requirements. You had to check that, as removing this sentence was one of your requirements. But you apparently did not notice removing that sentence, and did not check whether your requirements were met, when immediately after I removed the NPOV label, you added NPOV label again. Tkorrovi 14:51, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Is this mediation?
Hey, is this what was meant by "mediation"? Paul Beardsell 05:53, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * No, I think it's almost a kind of steganography. We are dealing with someone about whom we can known in advance (in line with the claimably dubious notion about a conscious entity necessarily having the ability to predict) that he will predictbly misunderstand and react negatively to any assertion made by you, regardless of context, claiming that he is not being treated as a human. In order for mediation to be successful, a mediator - probably not Paul or myself - needs to get involved to defuse this situation. Otherwise I fear that this will just become another of those enormous archives, of which there are now many (and stuff can't be deleted out of wikipedia without the intervention of a developer, incidentally) characterised by a Tower of Babel-like inane, though it has to be said, at times, highly entertaining, chatter. Paul, why don't you take your own advice posted elsewhere and not take any notice of Tkorrovi, i.e. just don't respond, just let him have the last word, and focus on the content of the articles? Matt Stan 15:34, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

In the cartoon that is what the chatting pedestrians should do too. Easy to say, more difficult to do. Paul Beardsell 16:05, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes it's difficult sometimes. When you started the article, for a long time everything is peaceful, and then comes someone called Paul Beardsell, wants to delete the whole article, and refuses to discuss. If we did discuss then, we did avoid many conflicts, and the result was certainly not worse than it is today. Tkorrovi 15:55, 18 Dec 2004 (UTC)

What this page is for
Please, continue discussion about the topic itself on the article's talk page. Thanks. Paul Beardsell 11:43, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
Ernest M. Skinner

Ernest Martin Skinner (January 15, 1866 – November 26/27, 1960) was an American pipe organ builder. His electro-pneumatic switching systems advanced the technology of organ building in the first part of the 20th century.

Biography
Skinner was born in Clarion, Pennsylvania, to touring concert singers Washington and Alice Skinner. His father organized a music company in Taunton, Massachusetts and sang in a quartet in Taunton's Unitarian Church. It was at this church that Skinner encountered his first organ. Skinner attended rehearsals, the performances of Gilbert and Sullivan, and operettas which stimulated his interest in music. He got a job as a bellows pumper at fifteen cents per hour in Taunton's Baptist church where he had his first experiences repairing and constructing organs.

When he was a teenager, the family moved to West Somerville, Massachusetts, where he attended high school for six months. In his autobiography, he stated that the reason for leaving his schooling was his inability to understand Latin, but Dorothy Holden in her biography: "The Life and Work of Ernest M. Skinner" attributes it to the fact that the family fortune had declined and Skinner had to help support them.

He became a "shop boy" for George H. Ryder, a small organ builder located in Reading, Massachusetts. After four years he was fired, which led to his employment at the shop of preeminent Boston organ builder George Hutchings, following Ryder's foreman, Horace Marden, and voicer, William H. Dolbeer. At Hutchings he worked first as a tuner, rising to the post of factory superintendent during his twelve years with the firm.

In 1893 in Bethel, Maine, he married Bethel native Mabel Hastings.

The 1897 Hutchings organ at the Basilica and Shrine of Our Lady of Perpetual Help in Boston drew national attention and acclaim for Hutchings, though he did not mention his young factory superintendent, Ernest Skinner, by name.

Skinner made the first of two public trips to England, crossing the Atlantic on a cattle steamer in 1898. Skinner was introduced to the work of Henry Willis, the London builder whose high-pressure chorus reeds and tuba 'organ stop' set the benchmark for much of the 20th century. Skinner was given access to the large Willis organ at St George's Hall, Liverpool, and met privately with Willis, who tutored him in voicing practices and techniques not yet known in the United States. Skinner then visited France where he met Louis Vierne, the blind organist at Notre-Dame in Paris. Upon his return to Boston, Skinner made his first pedal trombone modeled after the work of Willis for the 1900 Hutchings organ installed at Boston Music Hall. The first documented instance of the Pitman windchest, as developed by Skinner, appeared in the 1899 Hutchings-Votey organ installed at the Flatbush Reformed Dutch Church in Brooklyn, New York, although some sources mention origins in Hutchings organs as early as 1893.

In 1901, Skinner decided to strike out on his own. In 1902, he entered into a partnership to form the Skinner & Cole Company with another former Hutchings-Votey employee. By 1904 the partnership had dissolved, and the Ernest M. Skinner & Company purchased the Skinner and Cole assets.

Organ development and design
Skinner was one of the first organ builders to try to establish a systematic method for providing fixed dimensions in his organ consoles. Prior to this, each organ builder might use different dimensions on their consoles, causing problems with adapting to different layouts and positions of keyboards and pedalboards of different instruments, even by the same builder. Skinner worked to develop a set of universal distances between the various keyboards, determining the ideal placement of the pedal board, at a specific distance from the Great manual, as well as the placement of the various expression shoes and other mechanical devices, that have significantly contributed to the standard American Guild of Organists (AGO) Console Measurements, in use in the United States since 1930.

Skinner consoles had fully adjustable combination pistons and combination actions, decades before other American firms adopted similar devices. Access to pre-sets, to store and recall combination controls, on Skinner instruments, was located on numbered rows of buttons located between the keyboards.

Skinner is credited with the advancement of electro-pneumatic action, which controls the mechanical operation of the instruments. These huge (frequently several tons) and highly sophisticated devices were built of wood, leather, and metal organ parts. They used low-voltage DC current and low-pressure pressurized air to control and direct the switching and control commands. These actions allowed the pipework of the instrument to be located in any part of a building, while the console could be located hundreds of feet away, and allowing a single organist to have control over every aspect of the instrument.

Skinner developed numerous automatic playing mechanisms, which enabled an unskilled individual to operate a large pipe organ in a manner similar to a player piano. This was a lifelong interest of Skinner, and he frequently worked in secret. The Toledo Museum of Art contains a fully restored Skinner instrument that uses a Skinner player action. In 1916, Skinner created and patented the Orchestrator player-relay mechanism.

The first of Skinner's new stops, the Erzähler, appeared in 1904, and was soon joined by other tonal colors which Skinner worked on between 1908 and 1924, including the flügel horn, and heckelphone. In addition to his orchestral color reeds, Skinner developed numerous string and hybrid flue stops, many with matching celestes. Among these were the Salicional/Voix Celeste and Dulciana/Unda Maris present in the Swell and Choir divisions of many American organs of the era, as well as his Flauto Dolce/Flute Celeste, his Dulcet (a pair of very narrow scaled string ranks tuned with a fast beat to heighten the intensity), a pair of inverted-flare gambas found in the solo divisions of many of his larger organs that allowed a rich, 'cello-like timbre for solo lines in the tenor range, the Kleine Erzähler, a softer, brighter version of his earlier Erzähler (which mimics the effect of string players playing very softly), as well as his Pedal Violones at 32' and 16' pitches which he defined as "subtle, soft string stops". Skinner is known for his imitative french horn stop, which is the only sonic creation that he patented.

His earliest designs, built in of his workshop in South Boston, were for George Foster Peabody and for the Great Hall of City College in New York.

Ernest M. Skinner & Company built large organs for Old South Church in Boston, Cathedral of St. John the Divine (op. 150, 1906); Saint Luke's Episcopal Church, Evanston, Illinois (op. 327, 1922); Sage Chapel at Cornell University (op. 175, 1909); Carnegie Music Hall, Pittsburgh (op. 180, 1910); Appleton Chapel, Harvard (op. 197, 1912); Saint Thomas Episcopal Church, New York (op. 205, 1913); Finney Chapel, Oberlin College (op. 230, 1914), Kirkpatrick Chapel at Rutgers College (Op. 255, 1916), and the Brick Presbyterian Church, New York (op. 280, 1917).

In 1919, the Ernest M. Skinner & Company was reorganized with Arthur H. Marks (the former general manager and vice-president of the Goodrich Rubber Company) as the president and Skinner as vice-president of the newly organized Skinner Organ Company. This allowed Skinner to focus on technical and artistic aspects, while others would manage the commercial aspects of the company. In 1924, at the behest of Marks and William Zeuch, another principal at the factory, Skinner made his second trip to England, this time meeting with Henry Willis III, the grandson of Henry Willis (Sr.), and spending time in France with Marcel Dupré learning about mutation stops and chorus work of the French Romantic organ.

Declining success and sale of the Skinner Organ Company
The Skinner Organ Company built hundreds of pipe organs for customers all across the United States. The relationship between Skinner and the business managers of his company was rarely good, but by 1927 friction had built between Marks and Skinner. At the suggestion of English organ builder Henry Willis III, George Donald Harrison joined the Skinner staff as assistant general manager in 1927. Initially, this was accepted positively by Skinner, and collaborations between Skinner and Harrison resulted in four Landmark Organs in the late 1920s. The first was built in 1928 for the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, then two additional large organs, one for the Chapel at Princeton University, then another for Rockefeller Memorial Chapel at the University of Chicago. The final instrument was the rebuilding and expansion of the Newberry Memorial Organ, which is located in Woolsey Hall at Yale University. The Woolsey Hall organ is the largest instrument to bear the Skinner nameplate, and remains virtually unaltered. It is widely considered to be one of the finest "symphonic organs" in the world.

With the onset of the Great Depression and coincident improvements in the recording and playback of electronically amplified music in larger public spaces, orders for pipe organs fell. The Skinner Company was forced to lay off workers and scale back production. The world of organ music and performance in the early 1930s had also begun to change. The orchestral style of instrument, which was the Skinner Company's specialty, had been falling from favor among many younger organists, who were looking for a more classical organ sound. Harrison, who had been working on the development of this new tonal direction for the company, was becoming more frequently requested as the designer and finisher of the limited number of available projects, while Skinner found himself being requested less. Many organists did maintain their loyalty to Skinner and insisted on his involvement.

The 1932 merger of the Aeolian Organ Company with the Skinner Company and the resulting change of the company name to Aeolian-Skinner, resulted in increasing tension between Skinner, Harrison, and Marks, as Skinner saw his technical and artistic influence at the company beginning to be diminished by the ascension of Harrison.

On July 14, 1933, Skinner was formally stripped of his titles and authority within the company by the Board of Directors of the Aeolian-Skinner Company, following his attempts to circumvent Harrison and influence the terms of the contract for the organ at Grace Cathedral in San Francisco.

The final instrument which was personally designed and finished by Skinner, though built by the Aeolian-Skinner factory, is the large organ at the Chapel of Girard College in Philadelphia (Opus 872 - 1933). It is installed in a spacious and highly resonant dedicated chamber, located above the ceiling, and 100 ft above the floor of the 2,000+ seat chapel. Speaking down through a large ceiling grill and into the resonant acoustics of the chapel, even the softest voices of the instrument are clearly heard throughout the room.

As pressure increased within the Aeolian-Skinner Company, Skinner began to plan the formation of a new organ company with his son, Richmond Hastings Skinner, which he planned to call the Ernest M. Skinner and Son Organ Company, with intention to compete with the Aeolian-Skinner Company. Marks was able to persuade Skinner (with the help of Skinner's wife Mabel and his son Richmond) to instead enter into a five-year contract with the Skinner Organ Company that provided Skinner with an annual salary of $5,000 in exchange for the continued use of his name, but required that Mr. Skinner and his newly purchased interest in the Methuen Organ Company would not compete with Aeolian-Skinner in the construction of new organs, but rather "confine his work..." in the Methuen shop "...to the rebuilding of older pipe organs."

In January 1936, Skinner sold his interest in the Skinner Organ Company to purchase the property now known as Methuen Memorial Music Hall in Methuen, Massachusetts, including the adjacent organ factory. Both had been built by Edward Francis Searles to house and maintain the very large organ which was originally built for the Boston Music Hall in 1863. In the following years Skinner presented public performances of both choral and organ works with featured performers including Marcel Dupré and E. Power Biggs.

Later years
In 1936, Skinner, and his son Richmond Hastings Skinner, were awarded the contract for what would be his final instrument, for the Washington National Cathedral. The instrument was dedicated in the fall of 1938, to wide national acclaim.

World War II and the resulting materials shortages and related financial troubles forced the company to file for bankruptcy on October 1, 1941. The Methuen Organ Shop burned to the ground on June 17, 1943; the adjacent Music Hall and its organ were saved.

In January of 1947, Skinner joined the Schantz Organ Company in Orrville, Ohio.

In 1949, then in his eighties and almost completely deaf, Skinner retired from organ building completely. He then began writing the book The Composition of the Organ, which remained unpublished in his lifetime, and was completed and published by his son in 1980.

Skinner was always a prolific writer, with his letters penned to the editors of The Diapason and The American Organist appearing in those publications from the 1940s onward, wherein he worked to defend his tonal ideals, and attempted to regain lost territory on the American musical landscape. As early as the mid-1930s, Skinner saw many of his instruments rebuilt or modified beyond recognition, while others were simply removed and thrown out wholesale, in the name of "musical progress." Even three of the "Landmark Organs" mentioned in the previous section were subject to this trend, with modifications to the University of Chicago organ being carried out only a few years after its completion.

Not every organist felt obliged to follow the dictates of the "organ reform movement" and any discussion of Skinner would be incomplete without mentioning his extensive, informative and influential writings on the organ and its music, published in books and national journals over most of his career.

Following the death of his wife Mabel in 1951, Skinner entered a downward spiral from which he never recovered. The tonal revision of his earlier organs at St. John the Divine (op. 150, 1911), St. Thomas (op. 205, 1913) and his final large organ built for the National Cathedral all fell subject to this trend by the mid-1950s, further complicating his emotional state as he saw his life's work and ideals gradually becoming extinct. Fortunately, in recent decades there has been a resurgence of interest in restoring E. M. Skinner's instruments to their original condition. In many cases in which Skinner's pipework was replaced with more generic or baroque sounds, the Skinner pipework was put in storage, thus making it easier for the eventual rebuilding of his instruments to be restored back to their original tonal designs and sound.

In 1956 he was living in Dorchester, MA. The final years of Mr. Skinner's life found him living in relative obscurity in California.

Skinner died during the night of November 26–27, 1960, at the age of 94, at the family home. He is buried in Bethel, Maine, in his wife's family plot.

Bibliography/suggested reading

 * The Life and Work of Ernest M. Skinner — Dorothy Holden published by The Organ Historical Society, 1985
 * Stop, Open and Reed published by The Organ Historical Society, 1997
 * All the Stops: The Glorious Pipe Organ and Its American Masters — Craig R. Whitney published by PublicAffairs a member of the Perseus Books Group
 * The American Classic Organ: A History in Letters — Charles Callahan published by The Organ Historical Society, 1990
 * The Modern Organ-- Ernest M. Skinner published by the H.W. Gray Co., 1917
 * The Composition of the Organ, an organ building primer written by Skinner, originally planned for release in 1951, but completed by his son Richmond and released in 1981.

List of important E. M. Skinner organs

 * Old Cabell Hall, University of Virginia. Charlottesville, VA. 1906, Opus 127. (oldest surviving E.M. Skinner Organ in original condition)
 * Trinity Cathedral (Episcopal) Cleveland, OH. 1907, Opus 140. Removed in 1997, pipework dispersed to several builders. New instrument created in 2021 by the Muller Pipe Organ Company, combining Aeolian-Skinner Opus 1188 (originally built for St. Paul's Episcopal Church, Richmond VA) and Skinner Opus 245 (originally built for Church of the Transfiguration, Cleveland OH)
 * Harvard Divinity School, Andover Chapel, Cambridge, MA. 1911, Opus 184
 * Williams College, Grace Hall, Williamstown, MA. 1911, Opus 195. Remaining pipework moved to Dunwoody United Methodist Church in Dunwoody, GA in 2019 and combined with another instrument
 * St. Thomas Episcopal Church, New York City (Manhattan) 1913, Opus 205. Rebuilt by Aeolian-Skinner in 1955, replaced by new instrument (Dobson) in 2018
 * Oberlin College, Finney Chapel, Oberlin OH. 1921, Opus 230. Rebuilt by Aeolian-Skinner in 1955, replaced by new instrument (Fisk) in 2001
 * Church of our Father, Universalist (today: First Unitarian Universalist Church) Detroit, MI. 1925, Opus 232
 * Municipal Auditorium, Portland, OR. 1916, Opus 265. Moved to Alpenrose Dairy Opera House, Portland, OR in 1971
 * Grove Park Inn Hotel, Asheville, NC. 1919, Opus 295. Moved to First Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, MD in 1929, destroyed 1961
 * Civic Auditorium, St. Paul, MN. 1921, Opus 308. Moved to Old South Church, Boston, MA in 1985.
 * Second Congregational Church (today: The United Congregational Church), Holyoke, MA. 1920, Opus 322
 * St. Luke's Episcopal Church, Evanston, IL. 1922 Opus 327
 * Public Auditorium, Cleveland, OH. 1922 Opus 328
 * Cleveland Museum of Art, Garden Court, Cleveland, OH. 1922 Opus 333. Rebuilt by Holtkamp in 1933 and 1946, moved to Museum's new Gartner Auditorium in 1971
 * Trinity Church Wall Street, New York City (Manhattan). 1923, Opus 408. Rebuilt by Aeolian-Skinner in 1970, removed in 2003, will be replaced by new instrument (Glatter-Götz/Rosales) in 2023.
 * St. John's Episcopal Cathedral Los Angeles, CA. 1924, Opus 446
 * California Palace of the Legion of Honor, San Francisco, CA. 1924, Opus 455
 * Jefferson Avenue Presbyterian Church, Detroit, MI. 1924, Opus 475.
 * Trinity Episcopal Church, San Francisco CA. 1924, Opus 477.
 * Hollywood High School, Los Angeles, CA. 1924, Opus 481
 * Temple Emanu-El, San Francisco, CA. 1924, Opus 497
 * University Auditorium, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 1924, Opus 501. Rebuilt by Aeolian-Skinner in 1965 and by Möller in 1980 and 1992
 * St. Ann's and the Holy Trinity Church, New York City (Brooklyn). 1925, Opus 524
 * Detroit Masonic Temple, Scottish Rite Cathedral (today: Cathedral Theatre) Detroit, MI. 1925, Opus 529
 * Trinity Episcopal Church, Gallery Organ, Boston, MA 1926, Opus 574
 * Stambaugh Auditorium, Youngstown, OH. 1926, Opus 582
 * Toledo Museum of Art, Toledo, OH. 1926, Opus 603
 * Rockefeller Chapel, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL. 1927, Opus 634
 * Masonic Temple, Dayton, OH. 1926, Opus 624
 * St. Bartholomew's Episcopal Church, New York City (Manhattan). 1927, Opus 651. Used pipework from previous church building, expanded in 1927 and 1930, rebuilt by Aeolian-Skinner in 1937 (West Gallery) and 1953 (Chancel)
 * Immanuel Presbyterian Church, Los Angeles, CA. 1927, Opus 676
 * Woolsey Hall, Yale University, New Haven, CT. 1928, Opus 722. Made extensive use of pipework from preceding Hutchings-Votey Organ (1902)
 * Our Lady, Queen of the Most Holy Rosary Cathedral, Toledo, OH. 1930, Opus 820
 * Church of the Immaculate Conception, Philadelphia, PA. 1927, Opus 660. Removed in 1987 and relocated to Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal
 * Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, OH. 1929, Opus 749
 * Old First Presbyterian Church, Columbus, OH. 1929, Opus 773
 * Severance Hall, Cleveland, OH. 1929, Opus 816
 * First Presbyterian Church, Passaic, NJ. 1930; transferred in 2013 to Saalkirche in Ingelheim, Germany, Opus 823
 * Brown Memorial Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, MD. 1930, Opus 839
 * First Congregational Church, Los Angeles, CA. 1931, Opus 856.
 * Girard College Chapel, Philadelphia, PA. 1931, Opus 872
 * Washington National Cathedral, Washington, DC. 1938, Opus 510 (built by the E.M. Skinner&Son firm, this instrument replaced the two-manual Aeolian-Skinner Opus 883 from 1932. Rebuilt by Aeolian-Skinner in 1957, 1962 and 1964, further rebuilding by other firms in 1975 and 1988)
 * Calvary Presbyterian Church, Newburgh, NY. 1937, Opus 512 (built by the E.M. Skinner&Son firm. This instrument was removed, completely restored, and reinstalled by Foley Baker, Inc. in 2023.) The organ and its restoration was featured as the cover article of The American Organist, February 2023 issue.

title: Ernest M. Skinner


text: Category:Politics of Fiji

title: Category:Politics of Fiji


text:
Saint Andrew's Junior College

St. Andrew's Junior College (SAJC) is a junior college in Singapore, offering two-year pre-university courses leading up to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE Advanced Level examination. It is an Anglican mission school, part of St. Andrew's School. It is affiliated to schools under the Anglican Diocese of Singapore, as well as Kuo Chuan Presbyterian Secondary School and Presbyterian High School.

History
St. Andrew's Junior College (SAJC) has its origins in St. Andrew's School, which was founded in 1862 by the Anglican Diocese of Singapore. SAJC is an aided mission school which was started as a vision of faith when the Anglican Church took up the challenge of building a junior college in line with national educational developments in the 1970s. The Lutheran and Presbyterian Churches also joined in the building project. SAJC had its origins as pre-university classes began in 1969 as part of Saint Andrew's Secondary School. In 1978, the college was formally established with its own campus at Telok Blangah, where it remained for 28 years.

At the former campus at Malan Road, the junior college had an air conditioned hall. Initially tutorial rooms were not air-conditioned. Indeed, some tutorial rooms only had 3 walls, with the fourth side fully opened to a common corridor linking the row of rooms. Later, tutorial rooms were air conditioned. As air conditioning in halls and tutorial rooms was not funded by the Ministry of Education in Singapore, it had to be paid for by funds raised by alumni and the college.

The college campus then had a bitumen track and bleachers at the opposite side to the main building. The campus also housed the old Chapel of the Resurrection, which has since relocated to St. Andrew's Village.

It moved to Potong Pasir to form part of St Andrew's Village on 15 December 2005. The campus is now located at the former Secondary School site at 5 Sorby Adams Drive, Singapore 357691 (previously as 55 Potong Pasir Avenue 1). St Andrew's Village was officially opened by the then Minister for Education Tharman Shanmugaratnam on 26th Aug 2006. A sheltered pedestrian bridge, named Jacob Ballas Bridge, connects the college to the secondary and junior schools across the Kallang River.

Affiliations
Saint Andrew's Junior College is affiliated to the Anglican Diocese of Singapore, as well as all institutions affiliated to the Anglican Diocese of Singapore.

These institutions include Saint Andrew's Junior School, Saint Andrew's Secondary School, Anglican High School, Christ Church Secondary School, Kuo Chuan Presbyterian Secondary School, Presbyterian High School, Saint Hilda's Secondary School and Saint Margaret's Secondary School.

The college is part of and affiliated to other organisations in The Saints' Family.

Identity and Culture
Students at the college are called "Saints".

Motto
All the Saint Andrew's Schools shares the same motto, "Up and On", as well as the school colours of blue and white.

Crest
The former crest of Saint Andrew's Junior College distincted itself from that of SASS and SAJS. It bore the saltire and had "SAJC" in white letters on a red circle in the middle of the cross instead of the tiger head and crossed keys of the other schools. The crest was changed in 1993 to that of SASS to forge a united Saint Andrew's identity.

Houses and Classes
There are five houses in SAJC, whose names matches that of SAJS and SASS. They are Romanis, Gomes, Hose, LoyFatt, Venn, all named after founding members of St. Andrew's School. Students in the Faculty of Arts belong to the house Romanis, while students in the Faculty of Science are split among the other houses. Classes, known as Civic Groups (CG) in the college, are named by the year the students came into the school, the faculty (A for Arts, S for Science) and a number. An example is "16S04" –  meaning, the class started in 2016, is in the Faculty of Science and is the 4th class in the faculty.

Anthem
The College Anthem differs from that of SAJS and SASS. It is unique in that the key shifted from G-major to F-major midway and back to G-major at the end. Also, the words 'Up Boys' is changed to 'Up Saints', as the college is co-ed. The music was written by J.J. de Souza and the lyrics by Pauline Koe. The College Hymn then was O God, Our Help in Ages Past. The anthem and hymn were changed in 1993 to that of SASS to forge a united Saint Andrew's identity.

Uniform
Male students wear a white short-sleeved shirt and navy blue long pants, along with a navy blue tie with yellow and white stripes and bearing the school crest. Female students wear a white short-sleeved shirt and navy blue skirt of which the hemline should be no higher than 5 cm from the middle of the knee cap as well as the back of the knee.

The formal attire changes the white shirt or blouse to a long-sleeved one, and the pants or skirts to a white one. Students donning this uniform will wear black court shoes.

The PE attire consists of a white FBT-branded dry-fit shirt with the school crest sewn on the chest. The college divides students into 5 Houses – Venn (black), Loy Fatt (yellow), Hose (blue), Gomes (red) and Romanis (green). Students purchase a shirt with their house colours at the side torso area. The shirt follows the previous shirt designs with the word, "SAINTS", printed on the back of the shirt. The previous shirt was cotton based and house colours were dyed on the sleeves of the shirts instead. The shorts are navy blue shorts with the college initials sewn at the bottom-right of the shorts. The school tie, which was worn by all students, was solid navy blue with one red and one white diagonal stripe across it toward the bottom.

Christian Culture
The school comes under the purview of Anglican Diocese of Singapore, believing that students do not enrol into the school by chance. This serving as a reminder to both students and staff alike that each Saint has a divine purpose and plan set by God. The school also has daily scripture readings and morning prayers conducted by teachers and students. There is also Chapel held fortnightly led by associates from the Chapel of the Resurrection. Once a year, the school also observes Passion Week, finishing off with Life Concert, a charismatic worship concert held on school grounds which also serves as an evangelical outreach to non-Christian students.

Campus
The college is located at the Potong Pasir Campus, on the west bank of Kallang River. This campus is linked to the Woodsville Campus on the east bank (where SAJS and SASS is) via the Jacob Ballas Bridge, forming the 13.5 ha St. Andrew's Village. Together, the three schools form St. Andrew's School.

The college has a 1000-seater two-storey Cultural Centre, an indoor sports hall, rooftop tennis courts, a 400m synthetic track as well as a synthetic football/rugby field. An Olympic-sized swimming pool is also located in the village.

In 2012, a 12-storey hostel was added to the village, named St Andrew's Hall. The Hall is under the management of the Board of Governors of St Andrew's Junior College (SAJC) and it is also a member of the Anglican Diocese of Singapore.

Academic Information
Saint Andrew's Junior College offers both arts and science streams that leads to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE Advanced Level examination.

Subjects offered by SAJC:

Co-Curricular Activities
Besides attaining academic success, students of Saint Andrew's Junior College also excel in co-curricular activities. Many College sports place in the top 4 positions at national championship competitions. Performing arts groups also achieve certificates of distinction at the Singapore Youth Festival Competitions, and hold public performances which are well received. In addition, the students make an indelible impact serving members of the communities, both locally and overseas.

Notable alumni

 * Michael Palmer – former Member of Parliament for Punggol East Single Member Constituency and Speaker for Parliament.
 * Kishore Mahbubani – former President of the UN Security Council and incumbent Dean of the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy.
 * Stefanie Sun – Singaporean singer
 * JJ Lin – Singaporean singer
 * Hong Jun Yang – Singaporean singer
 * Annette Lee - Actress, Writer, Singer-Songwriter
 * Jasmine Sokko – Singaporean electronic music singer-songwriter and producer

title: Saint Andrew's Junior College


text:
Saint Andrew's Secondary School

Saint Andrew's Secondary School is a government-aided Anglican all-boys' secondary school in Potong Pasir, Singapore. Established in the 19th century, it still operates along traditional British lines and offers a four- or five-year programme, leading to the Singapore-Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level or Singapore-Cambridge GCE Normal Level examinations.

History
The school was founded in 1862 by Reverend Edward Sherman Venn. In May 1872, after the Colonial Chaplain, Canon J. A. Beccles, applied to the government for financial aid, Saint Andrew's School became a grant-in-aid institution. The growing school moved from Upper Hokkien Street to Victoria Street and then in 1875 to a four-acre site along Stamford Road.

By the 1920s, the school's enrolment had reached 800 boys. In the 1930s, a system of prefects was instituted, and the school became known for its excellence in boxing and rugby in this period.

A new, larger campus was opened in Woodsville in 1940. More buildings were added in the 1950s, housing both the primary school and secondary school sections.

In 1986, the secondary school moved from Woodsville to a site in Potong Pasir across the Kallang River after the Woodsville buildings were deemed inadequate for the running of both the primary and secondary classes. In mid-2003, the school moved temporarily to the old Victoria School building at Kallang Bahru before returning to new buildings opposite Saint Andrew's Junior School in 2005 as part of the Saint Andrew's Village project, which brings together in one complex the Junior, Secondary and Junior College campuses.

Meanwhile, the old school buildings have been conserved and strengthened for re-use as a church, winning an Honourable Mention in the UNESCO Heritage Awards in 2007.

The Saint Andrew's Village has the first artificial rugby pitch in Singapore, shared between the secondary school and the primary school. It opened in January 2008 at a cost of S$1 million and provides an all-weather surface.

Academics
In 2008, Saint Andrew's was one of eight schools in Singapore to begin offering three new subjects at the Singapore-Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level: Creative 3D Animation, Fundamentals of Electronics, and Introduction to Enterprise Development.

In 2009, Saint Andrew's gained an Academic Value-Added Sustained Achievement Award from the Ministry of Education.

In 2010, the school was commended for including the Saint Andrew's River Programme in its science curriculum. Students investigated the impact on the Kallang River ecosystem and water quality of the building of the Marina Barrage and the enclosure of the Marina Basin.

From 2011, Saint Andrew's offers enhanced enrichment courses for upper secondary students taking the Singapore-Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level examinations in art.

In 2011, the school won the Special Lee Hsien Loong Award for Innovations in Normal Course.

Sporting achievements
Saint Andrew's is one of the traditional "Big Three" rugby schools in Singapore, along with Raffles Institution and Anglo-Chinese School (Independent). The school has won a total of 157 national school titles for rugby since the late 1960s (based on available records). It has also held the Kiwi Cup from 1945 to 2013 inclusive. It has been awarded niche status in rugby by the Ministry of Education.

The school is also strong in hockey. The B Division Hockey Team emerged champions of the B Division Competitions in 2005, 2008 and 2018, as well as the C Division Hockey Team who emerged champions in 2010, 2012 and a recent win over Raffles Institution gave them another national title in 2014. The B Division Hockey Team also recently emerge as champions in the 2016 B Division Hockey Competitions after edging their opponents, Sengkang Secondary, in the finals with a score of 2-0. In cricket, Saint Andrew's was under-17 champions in 1996, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2002 and 2003.

School culture
Despite being an Anglican school, it is not a requirement for students to be Christian. Saint Andrew's has a house system comprising five houses: Gomes, Hose, Loyfatt, Romanis and Venn. The school regards its system of prefects as an important element in maintaining an ethos of service and high standards of conduct.

School uniform
All students wear white short-sleeved shirts bearing the school badge. Lower secondary boys (Secondary 1 and 2) wear dark blue short trousers with white socks; Bermuda shorts are not permitted. Upper secondary boys (Secondary 3 onwards) wear dark blue long pants, although Secondary 3 students have been allowed to do so only since the 1990s. The prefects in upper secondary wear white long pants.

Discipline
Saint Andrew's maintains strict rules for behaviour inside and outside the school. There is a new system of demerit points, used in combination with the school's long-standing policy of corporal punishment in the form of caning on the palm of the hand or on the buttocks over clothing.

After a series of bullying cases attracted attention in 2003, the school stated that the situation at Saint Andrew's was no worse than at any other school, adding that bullies receive a stern warning; recalcitrant offenders or those who injure others are caned and ultimately expelled. A Saint Andrew's student caught bringing pornography to school would be caned either in public or in class, depending on the seriousness of the case.

For cases where the offence has a victim or where there is conflict to be resolved, a system of Restorative Practices is in place. "In the process of resolving the conflict, the offenders are asked to suggest the appropriate consequences for their action, which may include any form of punishment. However, any students who fail to cooperate with the teacher will be dealt with differently."

Notable alumni

 * J. B. Jeyaretnam, opposition politician
 * Kishore Mahbubani, academic and former diplomat
 * David Saul Marshall, first Chief Minister of Singapore
 * Eddie Teo, Chairman of the Council of Presidential Advisers; Former Permanent Secretary to the Prime Minister's Office
 * Benjamin Sheares: Singapore's second President
 * Fong Chong Pik (also known as "The Plen"): former leader of the Malayan Communist Party
 * Kenneth Jeyaretnam: Opposition politician. Secretary-general of the Reform Party of Singapore. Son of the late J.B. Jeyaretnam.
 * Paul Tambyah: Opposition politician. Chairman of the Singapore Democratic Party.
 * S. Iswaran: Former minister for transport
 * Michael Palmer: former speaker of Parliament
 * Joseph Grimberg: Singapore's Senior Counsel
 * Harry Elias: Singaporean lawyer, founder of Harry Elias and partners
 * Koh Boon Hwee: chairman – Yeo Hup Seng Group, chairman – DBS Group, chairman – Singapore Airlines, director – Temasek Holdings
 * Brandon Wade: American internet entrepreneur, Founder of Seeking.com
 * Jacob Ballas: Stockbroker; Inaugural chairman of the Malayan Stock Exchange, from 1962 to 1964, and later the Malaysia and Singapore Stock Exchange from 1964 to 1967; Founder of Singapore's then largest stockbrokers J.Ballas & Co.
 * Frank Benjamin; Businessman; Founder of fashion retail and brand management company F J Benjamin in 1959. In 1975, he opened Singapore's first single-brand store, Lanvin, in the Grand Hyatt hotel.

 * Koh Buck Song: writer, journalist, author of Brand Singapore, business consultant, deputy chairman of Censorship Review Committee 2009–10.
 * Woffles Wu: plastic surgeon, present head of the St Andrew's Alumni Association
 * Cherian George: Writer, journalist, author of numerous works, such as and ; Professor of Media Studies at Hong Kong Baptist University

 * Nickson Fong: First Singaporean to receive an Academy Award. CEO and co-founder, Egg Story Creative Production Pte Ltd. FX technical director and shot development technical director of The Matrix and its sequels.
 * Rex Goh: Musician. Former guitarist in Air Supply.

 * U.K. Shyam: Former holder of Singapore's national 100 m sprint record at 10.37s. Singapore's national team.
 * Indra Sahdan Daud: Singapore national football player
 * Wilfred Skinner: former Singapore international football goalkeeper and field hockey centre-half.

Faculty

 * Francis Thomas, former politician and educator
 * Elizabeth Choy: War heroine, Obtained the Order of British Empire
 * Devan Nair: Third President of Singapore, MP and trade unionist

Affiliated schools

 * St Andrew's Junior College
 * St. Andrew's Junior School

title: Saint Andrew's Secondary School