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B&O Railroad Museum

The B&O Railroad Museum is a museum and historic railway station exhibiting historic railroad equipment in Baltimore, Maryland. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) company originally opened the museum on July 4, 1953, with the name of the Baltimore & Ohio Transportation Museum. It has been called one of the most significant collections of railroad treasures in the world and has the largest collection of 19th-century locomotives in the U.S. The museum is located in the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's old Mount Clare Station and adjacent roundhouse, and retains 40 acres of the B&O's sprawling Mount Clare Shops site, which is where, in 1829, the B&O began America's first railroad and is the oldest railroad manufacturing complex in the United States.

Mount Clare is considered to be a birthplace of American railroading, as the site of the first regular railroad passenger service in the U.S., beginning on May 22, 1830. It was also to this site that the first telegraph message, "What hath God wrought?" was sent on May 24, 1844, from Washington, D.C., using Samuel Morse's electric telegraph.

The museum houses collections of 19th- and 20th-century artifacts related to America's railroads. The collection includes 250 pieces of railroad rolling stock, 15,000 artifacts, 5,000 cuft of archival material, four significant 19th-century buildings, including the historic roundhouse, and a mile of track, considered the most historic mile of railroad track in the United States. Train rides are offered on the mile of track on Wednesday through Sunday from April through December and on weekends in January. In 2002, the museum had 160,000 visitors annually.

The museum also features an outdoor G-scale layout, two indoor HO scale model, and a wooden model train for children to climb on. From Thanksgiving through the New Year, local model railroad groups set up large layouts on the roundhouse floor and in select locations on the grounds of the museum. A museum store offers toys, books, DVDs, and other railroad-related items.

The museum and station were designated as a U.S. National Historic Landmark in 1961. In 2008, the museum won three awards in Nickelodeon's Parents' Picks Awards in the categories of Best Museum for Little Kids, Best Indoor Playspace for Little Kids, and Best Indoor Playspace for Big Kids. Television and film actor Michael Gross is the museum's "celebrity spokesman".

The museum definitively documented 24 Freedom Seekers that used the B&O Railroad on their journeys on the Underground Railroad – 8 of which traveled through the museum's historic site of Mount Clare. In 2021, the museum's Mount Clare Station building was designated as a National Park Service Underground Railroad Network to Freedom site.

The museum also hosts an annual Day Out with Thomas event every year, complete with the train's excursion including a non-powered Thomas the Tank Engine replica.

History
The inaugural horse-drawn B&O train traveled the 13 mi of the newly completed track from Mount Clare to Ellicott Mills (now Ellicott City, Maryland), on May 22, 1830, the first regular railroad passenger service in the U.S. The existing Mount Clare station brick structure was constructed in 1851. The adjacent roundhouse designed by Ephraim Francis Baldwin was built in 1884 to service the B&O's passenger cars.

For much of its history, the B&O had been collecting locomotives and other artifacts from its history for public relations purposes. This collection was stored in various places until the railroad decided to centralize it in a permanent home. The car shop of the Mt. Clare Shops was chosen, and the new museum opened on July 4, 1953.

The museum ended up outliving its parent B&O Railroad, and was kept intact by both the Chessie System and CSX Corporation. In 1990, CSX deeded the property and collection to the newly formed, not-for-profit museum organization governed by an independent board of directors and provided it with a $5 million endowment. In 1999, the museum became affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution. In the early morning of February 17, 2003, heavy snow from the Presidents' Day Storm collapsed half of the roof of the museum's roundhouse. Although the structure's central support columns remained standing, the supporting iron struts and ties of the destroyed roofing sections failed under the snow load. The museum suffered heavy damage not only to the roundhouse itself but also to the collection within the roundhouse. Some of the items were damaged beyond repair. Reporting on the devastation the following day, The Baltimore Sun said, "...hours after the collapse, columns of mangled steel stuck out from the roundhouse ... Locomotives and passenger cars in the museum's collection, some dating from the 1830s, could be seen covered with snow and debris." The roundhouse, with a newly repaired roof, reopened to the public on November 13, 2004, and the damaged locomotives and cars were surrounded by a plexiglass barrier. As of September 2015, all damaged exhibits have been restored to their original appearance.

After the roof collapse, subsequent fundraising and restoration allowed the museum to upgrade many of its facilities. In 2005 the museum opened a new service facility west of the roundhouse for restoration of historical equipment and maintenance of active equipment.

Collection
The B&O Railroad Museum possesses the oldest and most comprehensive American railroad collections in the world. Dating from the beginning of American railroading, the collection contains locomotives and rolling stock, historic buildings, railroading artifacts, and an extensive archives and research library that documents the impact of American railroading and the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad on American economics, culture, and history.

The collection is being made available through an online searchable database.

Notable rolling stock
The museum's rolling stock collection include both originals and replicas, some of which were built by the B&O for its centennial "Fair of the Iron Horse" in 1927. Collection highlights include:

 * Baltimore and Ohio 4-4-0 #25 William Mason built in 1856, used in The Great Locomotive Chase, and later in Wild Wild West. Operated until October 2014, retired from service due to thin crown sheet work begins earlier.
 * Baltimore & Ohio 0-4-0 "Tom Thumb" 1927 replica. Had been refurbished by the Strasburg Rail Road and restored to operating condition for 2004 "Fair of the Iron Horse." Only operated a handful of times, at most, after refurbishment. On display in the roundhouse, in non-operational condition. In need of Federally mandated boiler inspection to operate again. Last operated circa Christmas 2013.
 * Baltimore & Ohio 0-4-0 #8 "John Hancock" built in 1836.
 * Baltimore & Ohio 4-2-0 #13 "Lafayette" 1927 replica. In the past, it was occasionally fired up and operated by the museum for demonstration purposes, currently on display in the roundhouse, in non-operational condition. In need of federally mandated boiler inspection to operate again. Last operated circa October 2015
 * Cumberland Valley 2-2-2T #13 "Pioneer" built in 1851. On loan.
 * Baltimore & Ohio 4-6-0 #305: (Built in 1869 at Mt. Clare, Mother Hubbard design based on Ross Winans' design. Previously #217.)
 * Baltimore & Ohio 4-6-0 #147 "Thatcher Perkins" built in 1863.
 * Baltimore & Ohio 0-8-0 #57 "Memnon" built in 1848.
 * Baltimore and Ohio 2-8-0 #545 A.J. Cromwell built in 1888.
 * Baltimore and Ohio 2-6-0 #600 "J. C. Davis" built at Mt. Clare in 1875, which won first prize at the 1876 Centennial Exposition.
 * St. Elizabeth's Hospital 0-4-0T #4: one of the last Porter steam locomotives built, built in 1950 for use at St. Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington DC. Later ran at Ft. Eustis then in storage at Cass Scenic Railroad. Arrived at B&O Museum in 1980s. Restored to operating condition in 2002 and re-restored in 2005 after suffering damage in a roof collapse. Out of Service for a 1,472-day inspection, last operated circa Fall 2015. Coal burner.
 * Clinchfield Railroad 4-6-0 #1 built in 1882. The engine was used for excursions from 1968 until 1979 + 1980 Clean ups.
 * Baltimore and Ohio 0-4-0 "Grasshopper", built in 1832 by Phineas Davis and Israel Gartner, one of the oldest surviving American locomotives
 * Baltimore and Ohio 4-6-2 #5300 "President Washington" built in 1927.
 * Baltimore and Ohio 2-8-2 #4500, USRA Light Mikado and the world's first USRA locomotive, built in 1918.
 * Chesapeake and Ohio 4-6-0 #377 built in 1902.
 * Chesapeake and Ohio 4-6-4 #490: The last surviving C&O "Streamlined" Hudson built in 1926 (Streamlined 1946).
 * Chesapeake and Ohio 2-8-4 #2705 built in 1943.
 * Chesapeake and Ohio 2-6-6-6 #1604: One of two surviving "Allegheny"-class locomotives built in 1941.
 * American Freedom Train 4-8-4 #1 (Reading #2101) built in 1945. One of three steam engines used on American Freedom Train of 1975–1976. Used on Chessie System Steam Specials in 1977–1978.
 * Greenbrier, Cheat and Elk River Shay #1 built in 1905.
 * Central Railroad of New Jersey 4-4-2 #592 built in 1901, one of five surviving Camelback type locomotives.
 * Potomac Electric Company (PEPCO) Fireless 0-4-0 #43
 * Pere Marquette SW1 #11 built in 1942. Operational.
 * Central Railroad of New Jersey #1000: first commercially successful diesel built in 1925.
 * Baltimore & Ohio EA #51: first streamlined diesel built in 1937. Recently completed cosmetic restoration.
 * Baltimore & Ohio RDC #1961 built in 1956. Operational.
 * Western Maryland BL2 #81 built in 1948 and Slug #138T built in 1941.
 * Baltimore & Ohio GP30 #6944 built in 1962. Operational.
 * Baltimore & Ohio GP40 #3684 built in 1966.
 * Baltimore & Ohio GP9 #6607. built in 1956. Operational.
 * Western Maryland RS3 #195 built in 1953
 * Baltimore & Annapolis 70 tonner #50 built in 1950
 * Baltimore & Ohio (Octoraro) S1 #3
 * Canton Railroad Baldwin VO-1000 #32 built in 1944
 * Baltimore & Ohio GP7 #6405 built in 1953. Operational.
 * Chessie System GP38 #3802 built in 1967. Chosen by Trains Magazine as "All American Diesel". Operational.
 * Baltimore & Ohio #10 (electric)
 * Pennsylvania Railroad #4876: GG1 electric, not currently on display in the museum itself. This locomotive crashed into Washington D.C.'s Union Station in 1953 in the 1953 Federal Express train wreck.
 * MARC F7A APCU #7100: built in 1951, rebuilt in 1981. Used as a cab car and for supplying HEP.
 * Maryland and Pennsylvania Railroad ("Ma & Pa") inspection car and Railway post office car
 * Forty and Eights "Merci" boxcar. One of 49 French boxcars gifted to the US in 1949.
 * B&O Royal Blue Line 1890s-era coach
 * Chessie System GP15T 1507. Built in 1982 and was just recently acquired. To be restored.
 * Conrail SW7 8905. Built in 1950.

Exhibitions
The B&O Railroad Museum has over nine public acres of historic buildings and grounds with exhibitions and collection items on display. Some highlighted exhibitions include:

 * The Roundhouse: The First Century of Railroading
 * The First American Locomotives: The Fair of the Iron Horse
 * Civil War: The War Came by Train
 * North Car Shop: 20th Century American Railroading
 * Bank of America Model Train Gallery
 * Smithsonian Model Train Collection
 * Dining on the B&O: The China Collection
 * Cool Runnings on the Railroad: The American Refrigeration Car
 * About Time: The Standardization of Time

title: B&O Railroad Museum


text:
Alun Evans

Alun William Evans (born 30 April 1949) is an English former footballer who made his name as a centre forward in the Liverpool side rebuilt by Bill Shankly at the start of the 1970s. He was born in Kidderminster, Worcestershire.

Career
Evans began his professional career with Wolverhampton Wanderers, breaking into the first team in the 1967/68 season. He had already appeared for the club on their summer success in winning the United Soccer Association under the guise of the Los Angeles Wolves in Summer 1967.

He only had one full season in Wolves' first team as he swiftly joined Liverpool in September 1968 for £100,000, making him Britain's most expensive teenager. He had caught the eye of manager Bill Shankly after he outran and out-thought Liverpool captain Ron Yeats in a match in 1968. Although only 19, and despite Shankly's known desire to introduce new players gradually to the team, Evans was put straight into the side and stayed there until the end of the season.

He made his debut on 21 September 1968 in a league match against Leicester City at Anfield, scoring in a 4–0 win. Evans went on to feature in 33 league games, scoring seven goals as Liverpool finished runners-up to Leeds.

After an unimpressive 1969–70 campaign, he fared better the next season, scoring frequently in the opening games but suffered from injury and ill-luck which forced him out of the team, including facial scarring after being attacked with broken glass in a nightclub.

He returned to the fray near the end, and bagged a hat-trick during this season in a European Fairs Cup fourth round 1st leg tie at home to German giants Bayern Munich in a 3–0 win that ultimately saw them through 4–1 on aggregate. He also scored a magnificent equaliser against Merseyside rivals Everton as Liverpool came from behind to win their FA Cup semi-final at Old Trafford. However, Evans played disappointingly in the final and was substituted midway through the second half. Liverpool eventually lost 2–1 to Arsenal after extra time.

His Anfield career did not last much longer, as the signing of Kevin Keegan pushed him aside, and he managed only a handful of appearances in 1971–72. After 111 first team appearances, he departed for Second Division, newly promoted, Aston Villa for £72,000 on 20 June 1972; Evans could have joined the Villa Park club straight from school as he impressed during a trial in 1964, however, he had decided to sign for Midland rivals Wolves.

He remained at Villa Park for just two-and-a-half seasons, before being allowed to leave for fellow Midlanders Walsall for £30,000 on 14 December 1975, after 71 games and 17 goals. Ironically, 5 months after Evans departed, Villa gained the promotion back to the big time they yearned for, finishing runner-up to Manchester United by 3 points. Following two full seasons at Walsall, which included scoring a goal that knocked Leicester out of the F.A. Cup and won 'Goal of the Month' on Match of the Day, the striker ended his career abroad playing in both the US and Australia (with South Melbourne FC, Morwell Falcons and Sandringham City SC).

Honours
Liverpool
 * FA Cup runner-up: 1970–71

Aston Villa
 * Football League Cup: 1974–75

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Alun Evans


text:
Ecumenopolis

Ecumenopolis (lit. 'world city'; ) is the hypothetical concept of a planetwide city.

Description
The word was invented in 1967 by the Greek city planner Constantinos Apostolou Doxiadis to represent the idea that, in the future, urban areas and megalopolises would eventually fuse, and there would be a single continuous worldwide city as a progression from the current urbanization, population growth, transport and human networks. According to Doxiadis, it was the fifteenth level of ekistic units and the most significant one as the uppermost echelon of the classification. The term "Ecumenopolis" comes from two Greek words, "oikoumenē" which means "inhabited world," and "polis," which means "city." This concept was already current in science fiction in 1942, with Trantor in Isaac Asimov's Foundation series. When made public, Doxiadis' idea of ecumenopolis seemed "close to science fiction", but today is "surprisingly pertinent" according to geography researchers Pavle Stamenovic, Dunja Predic and Davor Eres, especially as a consequence of globalization.

Doxiadis also created a scenario based on the traditions and trends of urban development of his time, predicting at first a European eperopolis ("continent city") which would be based on the area between London, Paris, Rhine-Ruhr and Amsterdam. In 2008, Time magazine coined Nylonkong to link New York City, London, and Hong Kong as the eperopolis of the Americas, Euro-Africa and Asia-Pacific respectively.

In popular culture
Before the term had been created, the concept had been previously discussed. The American religious leader Thomas Lake Harris (1823–1906) mentioned city-planets in his verses, and science fiction author Isaac Asimov used the city-planet Trantor as the setting of some of his Foundation novels.

In science fiction, the ecumenopolis has become a frequent topic and popularized in 1999 by the fictional city planet Coruscant in the Star Wars franchise, which is the capital of the Galactic Republic (later Empire) and home to the Jedi Order. In addition to Coruscant, Star Wars: The Force Awakens features the planet Hosnian Prime, the capital world of the New Republic. Star Wars Legends also features Nar Shaddaa, a moon ecumenopolis known for being almost entirely ruled by crime lords, and Taris, a former ecumenopolis wiped out in the course of a devastating civil war, eventually becoming a vast swampland of ruins.

In Dune, the Harkonnens' home world of Giedi Prime is a heavily polluted ecumenopolis infamous for its gladiator arenas.

The concept is depicted in the video game Stellaris, where players are given the option of transforming planets into ecumenopolises, which provides a great deal of housing and space for industrial production through the construction of arcologies, at the cost of making the planet's natural resources inaccessible.

The video game Star Citizen currently features an ecumenopolis called ArcCorp which is owned by a fictional in-game company of the same name. As of March 2024, its current implementation in the game is a de facto ecumenopolis. However, as development continues, it is expected to feature oceans and small parts of undeveloped land.

A central setting in the tabletop wargame Warhammer 40,000 is a portrayal of Earth in the far future, where it is known as "Holy Terra" and is described as having been transformed into a vast, Gothic-style ecumenopolis sometime during the 30th millennium AD after its establishment as the "Throneworld", or capital, of an interstellar superpower known as the Imperium of Man.

In Magic: the Gathering, the plane of Ravnica is an ecumenopolis.

DC Comics continuity features Darkseid's extra-dimensional home planet of Apokolips, often depicted as a hellish world covered entirely in industrial sprawl to feed Darkseid's brutal empire.

The manga and film of Blame! by Tsutomu Nihei is set in a far future in which Earth has become the ruins of planet-covering city, which is suggested to be so large that it has consumed most of the Solar System as well, it may also be along the lines of a hollow-world or dyson shell. Some of his other works also take place in this same setting.

title: Ecumenopolis


text:
BXN

BXN may refer to:
 * Bauxite and Northern Railway, a Class III railroad operating in the United States state of Arkansas
 * Burduna language of Australia, SIL International language code BXN
 * Bodrum-Imsik Airport, Akarca, Turkey, IATA airport code BXN

title: BXN


text: User talk:66.218.11.204

title: User talk:66.218.11.204


text:
Talk:Sacrarium

not so sure about this, or else I'd make the change, but isn't the plural of Sacrarium, Sacraria? Orelstrigo 20:02, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sacrarium


text:
Talk:Mark Steel

Fair use rationale for Image:Mark Steel.jpg
Image:Mark Steel.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 05:05, 6 June 2007 (UTC)

SWP
I understand he has left...--82.23.50.146 (talk) 22:54, 17 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Is there a source? The article says he left in 2008: this anon contribution is dated Nov 2007. Only source I can find is report by Derek Wall of a Green Left (UK) fringe meeting in Feb 08 and confirmed by another person at the meeting on the Harry's Place comments thread. BobFromBrockley (talk) 10:03, 19 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Well, I was there as well, and he did say he'd left, and from what I can gather off the internet, he may have left earlier (after his 'disillusionment with SWP' article, but it's unclear. Gordon (talk) 11:57, 19 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I can also confirm that I heard him say he had left. --Charliewbrown (talk) 13:43, 19 February 2008 (UTC)
 * He also left in late 2007 not 2008. --Charliewbrown (talk) 13:44, 19 February 2008 (UTC)

I have just finished reading his new book "What's Going On?" and in it he discusses leaving the SWP and even refers to making the phone call to his bank to cancel his subs- I am at work and don't have the full reference details with me, but if I get time later will add this. Rednotdead (talk) 12:42, 5 August 2008 (UTC)

Cricket course
Match, surely? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.39.139.101 (talk) 05:59, 16 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Definitely course in this instance. The kind of course where you go to practice playing. Nev1 (talk) 00:21, 6 August 2008 (UTC)

Wife and kids
As there are conflicting edits, could we get it straight whether Steel is a husband and parent or not? For a more knowledgeable and relaxed Wikipedia- Nemesis646 (talk) 17:37, 10 January 2009 (UTC)
 * I dunno what the truth is and I have no idea why the two anonymous editors believed opposing things.--EchetusXe (talk) 21:31, 10 January 2009 (UTC)
 * He has at least one child a boy, he said so on the news quiz last year.I forgot how old he is. --sprungl (talk) 12:34, 11 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Dunno if hes married though.--EchetusXe (talk) 13:01, 11 January 2009 (UTC)
 * I don't know exactly how many but he does have a wife and several children, I saw them having lunch at the Science Museum Cafe.86.21.86.218 (talk) 01:35, 13 September 2009 (UTC)

Respect Renewal
It's been widely reported that Mark Steel left SWP, but is he now a supporter/member of Respect Renewal? Mark Steel's official website links to Respect Renewal, suggesting some kind of support. — Gareth Hughes (talk) 21:39, 14 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Yeah he supports them but I think he realizes they are heading the same way as the SWP.--EchetusXe (talk) 22:48, 14 June 2009 (UTC)

Reference to Blair Peach
Just passing by this article, I noticed a reference to the "then contested killing of Blair Peach". The phrasing jarred a bit: it didn't specify who contested it, and in what way. I've removed 'then contested' and left it as a simple statement of fact. - Coldwind487 (talk) 06:42, 25 March 2014 (UTC)

Birth father
Is there any reason the article doesn't mention his father's name, professional gambler Joe Dwek,?Gymnophoria (talk) 16:38, 20 February 2017 (UTC)

My guess is that Mark maybe didn't mention his father's name in his material while his father was still alive, and many of the article references date back to that time. However, Mark discussed his father by name at length on BBC Radio 4, 9 December 2017, so I have just added Dwek's name and some of what Mark said about Dwek. 81.187.1.83 (talk) 22:51, 9 December 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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Semi-protected edit request on 10 February 2021
Addition to Acheivements / Early Life In 1966 Mark Steel invented Pickled Onions, which have inexplicably become a staple part of the mythological "Ploughmans Lunch". HAG4R969 (talk) 00:11, 10 February 2021 (UTC)
 * ❌. Needs a reliable source, see WP:V TwoTwoHello (talk) 00:47, 10 February 2021 (UTC)
 * For other editors' information, this edit request (and the recent spate of vandalism to this article) stems from a thread on Mark Steel's Twitter account concerning Wikipedia's article about him. Turner Street (talk) 14:48, 10 February 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mark Steel


text:
William Appleman Williams

William Appleman Williams (June 12, 1921 – March 5, 1990) was one of the 20th century's most prominent revisionist historians of American diplomacy. He achieved the height of his influence while on the faculty of the department of history at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and is considered to be the foremost member of the "Wisconsin School" of diplomatic history.

Early life and education
Williams was born and raised in the small town of Atlantic, Iowa. He attended Kemper Military School in Boonville, Missouri, then earned a degree in engineering at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis. He graduated and was commissioned an ensign in 1945. After serving in the South Pacific as an executive officer aboard a Landing Ship Medium, he was stationed in Corpus Christi, Texas, where he made plans to become an aviator like his father. His father had been in the Army Air Corps until he died in a plane crash in 1929.

A wartime back injury caused enormous pain and ended his chances at becoming a naval aviator after the war. He requested a medical discharge from the navy in 1946 and moved to University of Wisconsin–Madison to begin graduate studies in 1947. He earned a master's degree and a PhD there and came under the influence of the Beardian historians, especially Fred Harvey Harrington, Merle Curti, and Howard K. Beale. After teaching at various other colleges, he returned to Madison in 1957 to teach in the history department.

Career
Williams completed his M.S. in 1948 and his Ph.D. in 1950. Subsequent additional research led to his first book, an expansion and revision of his doctoral thesis, published as American-Russian Relations, 1781-1947 (1952). In the meantime, Williams pursued a series of appointments. His first, to Washington and Jefferson College, came in 1950. The following academic year (1951–52) Williams taught at Ohio State University, but (according to Williams) he had a faculty dispute with Woody Hayes (in his first year as football coach and, like Williams, a former naval officer) over low grades for a football player that Williams would not change, the incident apparently leading to his needing to find another appointment.

In the fall of 1952, Williams took up a tenure-track appointment to the University of Oregon where he would remain for five years (with a year in Madison, Wisconsin, again on a Ford Fellowship from 1955 to 1956). When Fred Harvey Harrington became the chair of the history department at the University of Wisconsin in 1957, he arranged for an unusual direct appointment of Williams as his replacement in teaching U.S. foreign relations. Williams accepted the tenure-track appointment and returned to Wisconsin in the fall of 1957 and remained there until 1968.

The Tragedy of American Diplomacy
Graduate students found his challenges to the established historiography quite compelling and flocked to the university to study with him, regardless of their fields. The same year that his most influential book, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy was published, Williams's students who were members of the campus's Socialist Club, began publication of Studies on the Left, a manifesto of the emerging New Left in the United States. Like Williams, its articles offered a critique of the dominant liberalism, but after it moved to offices to New York in 1963, the club reflected less of his thinking and gradually declined and expired.

Williams departed from the mainstream of U.S. historiography in the 1950s. Whereas many U.S. historians wrote the story of the United States in terms of the expansion and spread of freedom, Williams argued that the U.S. had also expanded as an empire. Williams's "central conception of American diplomacy", one critic has written, is that it was shaped "by the effort of American leaders to evade the domestic dilemmas of race and class through an escapist movement: they used world politics, he feels, to preserve a capitalist frontier safe for America's market and investment expansion". In this regard, Williams's understanding of American history owes a considerable debt to Frederick Jackson Turner and the first generation of American progressive historians. Because his history of American diplomacy pivots on John Hay's Open Door Notes to China–at around the same time as the closing of the internal American frontier–Williams's larger argument is sometimes referred to as the "Open Door thesis". In The Tragedy of American Diplomacy, Williams described the Open Door Policy as "America's version of the liberal policy of informal empire or free trade imperialism."

Williams maintained that the United States was more responsible for the Cold War than the Soviet Union. Williams argued that American politicians, fearful of a loss of markets in Europe, had exaggerated the threat of world domination from the Soviet Union. Amid much criticism, Williams made no moral distinction between the foreign policy of Joseph Stalin in Eastern Europe and the foreign policy of the United States in Latin America, Africa, or Asia. In the context of the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956, he went out of his way in an expanded second edition of The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (1962) to strongly criticize the behavior of the Soviet Union, but he noted the Kennedy Administration's Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba as a parallel behavior. The difference in domestic policy between Stalin's Soviet Union and American democracy, he argued, made the U.S. embrace of empire all the more "tragic."

Williams' The Tragedy of American Diplomacy is often described as one of the most influential books written on American foreign policy. Bradford Perkins, a traditionalist diplomatic historian emeritus at the University of Michigan, said this in a twenty-five-year retrospective on Tragedy: "The influence of William Appleman Williams's The Tragedy of American Diplomacy... is beyond challenge". Tragedy brought Williams to the attention of not only academics but also American policymakers. Adolf A. Berle, a former member of FDR's Brain Trust, was quite impressed with Williams after reading Tragedy and meeting him in person in Madison asked if he would be his "personal first assistant" in the new position Berle had taken in the Kennedy Administration as the head of an interdepartmental task force on Latin America. Williams turned down the offer to serve in the Kennedy Administration and later claimed that he was glad he had because of Kennedy's sponsorship of the Bay of Pigs invasion.

Williams' historical success is consequent of his revisionist school of thought. His unorthodox ideology has become more recognised and celebrated since the book 'The Tragedy of American Diplomacy'. According to a review by Richard A. Melanson, focusing particularly on Williams' historiography, "his influence on a generation of American diplomatic historians has remained strong."

Critic of Vietnam War
Williams inspired a generation of historians to re-think the Cold War and was a critic of the Vietnam War. These included Gar Alperovitz, Lloyd Gardner, Patrick J. Hearden, Gabriel Kolko, Walter LaFeber, and Thomas J. McCormick, who, along with Williams, argued that the Vietnam War was neither democratizing nor liberating, but was an attempt to spread American dominance. He later edited a book of readings together with Gardner, LaFeber, and McCormick (who had taken his place at UW–Madison when Williams left to teach in Oregon) called America in Vietnam: A Documentary History in 1989.

During the 1960s, Williams' work became very popular among the New Left and Williams has been called "the favorite historian of the Middle American New Left". However, the Wisconsin School and the New Left were distinct, with the latter more radical in outlook. Indeed Williams left the University of Wisconsin in the late 1960s in part because he disliked the militant direction that student protests were taking there.

Oregon years
Also tiring of the grind of teaching graduate students, Williams moved to Oregon in 1968 to, in the words of his biographer, Paul Buhle, "teach undergraduates, live by the ocean, and live in a diversified community of 'ordinary' Americans". While teaching at Oregon State University, Williams "called for a return to the Articles of Confederation and a radical decentralization of political and economic power". "Not only did he see the U.S. under the Articles as relatively anti-imperial, he also believed that the strong localism made possible under the Articles was the only form of governance suitable to real Americans living real lives".

Williams served as president of the Organization of American Historians in 1980. He retired from Oregon State University in 1988, and died in Newport, Oregon, in 1990. Always a bit eccentric and not a little idiosyncratic, Williams gave his interpretation of the nation's past a moralistic tone, finding soul mates in conservatives like John Quincy Adams and Herbert Hoover. He always distrusted cosmopolitanism and championed small communities, while distrusting intellectuals who sneered at the unwashed masses. For all his radicalism, he never outgrew the kind of populist approach that he believed was an important part of the American heritage. In this sense he fit in well with his Wisconsin colleagues, William B. Hesseltine and Merrill Jensen, all of whom added to what has been called the "Wisconsin school" of historical interpretation.

Criticism
To some degree, Williams's economic interpretation of American diplomacy has been criticized on the same grounds as Charles A. Beard's larger economic analysis of American history. In 1974, for instance, N. Gordon Levin Jr., compared Williams to Beard and argued that the Open Door model "is inadequate because it insists on forcing all political-moral and strategic motivations" for American foreign policy into "the Procrustean confines" of relentless economic expansion. Williams' response was that he was merely re-stating what American intellectual and political leaders said at the time.

Another serious critique of Williams's work was offered by Robert W. Tucker in 1971, followed by Robert James Maddox and J. A. Thompson in 1973, and by Howard Schonberger in 1975. Tucker's arguments challenged those of Williams by arguing that United States foreign policy had been generally passive, rather than aggressive, before 1939. Tucker's arguments were elaborated and expanded later by other scholars. Maddox in The New Left and the Origins of the Cold War criticized Williams, Lloyd Gardner, and other revisionist scholars for alleged pervasive misuse of historical source documents and for a general lack of objectivity. Williams and the others published detailed rebuttals in the New York Times Book Review in 1973.

In 1986, Arthur Schlesinger Jr., whom Williams always distrusted for his closeness to power brokers, criticized him from a liberal perspective in The Cycles of American History. In the 1950s, Schlesinger had accused Williams of "communist" influence, because of Williams's critique of U.S. policy toward the Soviet Union in American-Russian Relations and the Monthly Review article "Second Look at Mr. X", a response to George F. Kennan's Foreign Affairs article "The Sources of Soviet Conduct", published under the moniker Mr. X in 1947.

More recently, Marc-William Palen and Mary Speck have called into question the application of the Open Door for the American Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as during this period the United States subscribed to closed door protectionist policies at home and abroad.

Williams' works and overall school of thought is evaluated and critiqued in Andrew J. Bacevich's Journal Article. Bacevich brought into discussion the Vietnam anti-war movement coupled with the emergence of the 'New Left' which surprisingly disappointed Williams, insinuating that the consequences made by the American people were unavoidable issues for the future. Denouncing the applauded historian, Bacevich suggests Williams' "greatness was confined to a specific sphere." Evidently, Bacevich reviews Williams' political conscious and philosophical attributes as less celebrated.

Revival
Some of Williams' ideas about the imperial nature of American foreign policy have been revived by Andrew Bacevich, who uses them as a starting point for his own critique of U.S. policies since the end of the Cold War in American Empire.

The anniversary of the publication of Tragedy in 2009 occasioned a number of retrospectives and analyses of the longer-term impact of Williams' work, and such reconsideration inevitably identified the enormous impact of his work on the field and drew parallels between Williams' work and the state of U.S. foreign relations in the years after the attacks of September 11, 2001. The second edition of Michael Hogan's edited collection of essays on postwar American foreign policy, now coedited with Frank Costigliola, noted that "Williams' work remains influential well into the twenty-first century".

In 2001, Justus D. Doenecke wrote a review, evaluating Williams' work, implying that the "crux of Williams's foreign policy" is within his thesis that the United States had become engaged in an "economic expansion and the creation of an informal empire." This idea of an 'American Empire' is also talked about in J.A. Thompson's 'William Appleman Williams and the 'American Empire'. ' Thompson echoes this school of thought, claiming that Williams' line of argument toward American Foreign Policy "has always been an expansionist, imperialist power."

Books

 * American-Russian Relations, 1781–1947, 1952
 * America and the Middle East: Open Door Imperialism or Enlightened Leadership?, 1958
 * The Tragedy of American Diplomacy, 1959
 * The Contours of American History, 1961
 * The United States, Cuba, and Castro: An Essay on the Dynamics of Revolution and the Dissolution of Empire, 1962
 * The Great Evasion: An Essay on the Contemporary Relevance of Karl Marx and on the Wisdom of Admitting the Heretic Into the Dialogue About America's Future, 1964
 * The Roots of the Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society, 1969
 * Some Presidents: Wilson to Nixon, 1972
 * History as a Way of Learning, 1973
 * America Confronts a Revolutionary World: 1776–1976, 1976
 * Americans in a Changing World: A History of the United States in the Twentieth Century, 1978
 * Empire as a Way of Life: An Essay on the Causes and Character of America's Present Predicament, Along With a Few Thoughts About an Alternative, 1980

Selected articles

 * "The Legend of Isolationism in the 1920s," Science and Society, vol. 18, no. 1 (Winter 1954), pp. 1–20. In JSTOR.

title: William Appleman Williams


text: User talk:207.63.9.2

title: User talk:207.63.9.2


text:
Júlio Medaglia

Júlio Medaglia (born 1938) is a Brazilian composer, arranger, and conductor. Born in São Paulo, he studied theory and conducting with Hans-Joachim Koellreutter. He continued his studies at the Musikhochschule in Freiburg, Germany, and privately with Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and Sir John Barbirolli, with whom he worked as assistant conductor.

After his return to Brazil in 1966, he established a solid reputation as a conductor, eventually working with all the major orchestras in the country, in addition to launching his career as arranger and composer of music for film and theater. In 1970, he worked with conductor Günther Schuller in the U.S., and returned for another period of study in Germany, during which he produced several arrangements of Brazilian popular music and composed more than 100 scores for German television movies.

Returning to Brazil in 1974, since then he has worked with several musical and cultural institutions in the country, in addition to contributing the soundtrack for hundreds of Brazilian movies, plays, and television programs. Among the institutions that he has directed are the Teatro Municipal in Rio de Janeiro, the Orquestra Sinfônica do Teatro Municipal in Brasília, and the Festival de Inverno de Campos do Jordão in São Paulo.

He was the artistic adviser for the Rede Globo, the largest TV network in Brazil, and is the founder and director of the Amazonas Filarmônica, the resident orchestra at the Teatro Amazonas in Manaus.

He also made the orchestration of Festivals of the MPB of Rede Record.

He wrote his "Belle Epoque en Sud-America", a Suite for Wind Quintet for the Bläserquintett of the Berlin Philharmonic, who have recorded the work and play it on tour. The piece consists of El Porsche Negro, a Tango; Traumreise nach Attersee, subtitled Vals Paulista; and Requinta Maluca, a Chorinho.

title: Júlio Medaglia


text:
Lake Victoria ferries

Lake Victoria ferries are motor ships (earlier examples were steamboats) for ferry services carrying freight and/or vehicles and/or passengers between Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya on Lake Victoria.

Operating ferries on Lake Victoria are mostly Ro-Pax ferries for the simultaneous transport of passengers, vehicles and goods. Some other ferries are dedicated train ferries, Ro-Ro ferries and cargo ships, as well as catamarans for passenger transport.

For most of the 20th century, Lake Victoria ferries were international ferries operating clockwise or counterclockwise around Lake Victoria. In the 21st century, ferries are mostly operating domestically within the borders of Kenya, Uganda or Tanzania and between mainland ports and Lake Victoria islands.

Ports and port infrastructure
The main ports on the lake are in Kisumu in Kenya; Mwanza, Musoma, Bukoba in Tanzania; Entebbe, Port Bell and Jinja in Uganda. Many smaller Lake Victoria ports are also in use, the number of ports served by ferries in Tanzania alone reaches 30.

The four ports of Kisumu, Port Bell, Musoma and Mwanza allow dedicated train ferries to dock at railway ferry wharves with jetties for direct rail track access to the ferries. The track gauge for the transported railway wagons is. In 2018, two of the railway wharves, at Port Bell and Mwanza, were in use. The train ferries connect the Uganda Railway at Port Bell with the Tanzanian Central Line at Mwanza. The Central Line is linked to the Tanzanian Indian Ocean port of Dar es Salaam to transport freight to and from world markets. The rail jetties at Kisumu and Musoma connect to railyards in the port areas, but these are rarely used as there are no operational railways in their hinterlands. Typical journey times were 13 hours between Port Bell and Kisumu, and 19 hours between Port Bell and Mwanza.

The most important Lake Victoria port is Mwanza not only because of the port infrastructure, rail and road access to the Indian Ocean but also because of major facilities for ferry operation, service and construction. Dedicated dry docks for ferry repairs exist in or near Mwanza, Kisumu and Port Bell, but only those in Mwanza are consistently used. Much industry in the region has moved to Mwanza.

Ferries History
The first ferry on Lake Victoria started operation in 1900s during the British colonial era, from the port of Kisumu. The original steamboats were later replaced by motor ships, some of which still operate on the lake. Almost all ferries (trains, cargo, passenger) in operation at the end of the 20th century were decades old. In 2018, most of them were still in operation. Newer 21st century-built ferries made up the majority of all ferries on Lake Victoria as of 2018. The number of ferries known to be in commercial operation in 2018 was about thirty in Tanzania, five in Uganda, and six in Kenya.

The largest ferries for the transport of cargo on Lake Victoria are the train ferries MV Umoja, MV Uhuru, MV Kaawa and MV Pemba engaged in international services between Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. Each of them is able to transport 1180 tonnes of goods or 22 long rail waggons in four lanes (four tracks). In 2018, Umoja and Kaawa were in use between Port Bell and Mwanza, but the two ferries Pemba and Uhuru were suspended. The largest passenger ship on Lake Victoria is MV Victoria, which can transport up to 1200 passengers. These five vessels are between 30-60 years old and state-owned.

New Ro-Pax and Ro-Ro multipurpose ferries have continued to come into operation in recent years, built and assembled in Mwanza in Tanzania. These ferries have increased in size and capacity over the years, with the newest additions coming close to the older large train ferries. Two new Tanzanian state-owned Ro-Pax ferries, Misungwi (2016) and Mwanza (2018), can each transport up to 1000 passengers including up to 36 cars or up to 250 tonnes of cargo. The largest privately-owned ferry on Lake Victoria is a new Tanzanian Ro-Pax ferry from 2016, the Nyehunge II with a transport capacity of 284 tonnes of goods or 40 cars and 500 passengers.

Apart from the motor vessels listed below, two steam ships more than 100 years old are reported to be still present on Lake Victoria in 2018, both in private hands: SS Nyanza and SS Rusinga, though Nyanza is suspended from operation in 2018.

The 20th century ferries have almost entirely been designed and built outside Africa, mostly in the UK and Germany but were assembled at Lake Victoria from pre-assembled parts. Most of the ferries delivered to several operators around Lake Victoria in the 21st century however have been designed and built in Tanzania through construction firms with dockyards and floating dry docks located at Mwanza port. Most new ro-ro ferries on Lake Victoria have been built by local Songoro Marine Transport Ltd, a company with construction services in Mwanza. Outside Mwanza, a new Kenyan company based in Kisumu, Globology Ltd, is planning to build and to operate up to 15 passenger-only catamaran passenger ferries until 2020.

Uganda Railway steamers
The original ships serving the Uganda Railway were built in the United Kingdom as "knock down" ships; that is, they were bolted together, all the parts marked with numbers, disassembled into thousands of parts, transported in kit form by sea to Mombasa and by railway to Kisumu and reassembled.

SS William Mackinnon was built for the Imperial British East Africa Company in 1890 by Bow, McLachlan and Company at Paisley in Scotland but not launched at Kisumu until 1900. In the First World War, she was armed as a gunboat. In 1929, she was withdrawn from service, taken into deep water and scuttled.

The sister ships SS Winifred and SS Sybil were built by Bow, McLachlan & Co in 1901. Winifred was launched on the lake in 1902 followed by Sybil in 1903. In the First World War East African Campaign, they were armed as gunboats. In 1914, Sybil was beached after striking a rock but she was refloated in 1915 and refitted and returned to service in 1916. In 1924, Sybil was converted into a lighter. Winifred was purposely sunk in 1936 to form a breakwater off Luamba Island. Her remains were scrapped in 1954. In the 1950s, Sybil sank at her moorings but she was raised, restored as a passenger and cargo vessel, and in 1956 re-entered service. In 1967, Sybil was purposely sunk at Kisumu to form a breakwater.

SS Clement Hill was built by Bow, McLachlan & Co in 1905. She served on the lake from 1907 to 1935. In 1936 she was purposely sunk at Bukakata to form a breakwater.

SS Nyanza is a cargo steamer built by Bow, McLachlan & Co in 1907. She was reported to be laid up as of 2007.

SS Kavirondo is a tugboat built by Bow, McLachlan & Co in 1912 and launched at Kisumu in 1913. During the First World War, she served as a gunboat. In about 1984, she was laid up at Kisumu and later was used as an accommodation vessel. She later sank alongside, but in 2005 was raised. Her purchasers intended to lengthen and re-engine her for use as a tanker.

The sister ships SS Rusinga and SS Usoga were built by Bow, McLachlan & Co in 1913 and launched on the lake in 1914 and 1915, respectively. They were troop ships during the First World War East African Campaign and passed into civilian service after the Armistice. EAR&H withdrew Rusinga for scrap in 1966, but she passed into private ownership and in 2005 was still in service. Usoga was laid up in 1975, sank at her moorings at Kisumu in the 1990s, and as of 2006 her remains were still there.

SS Buganda and SS Buvuma were steamers built by Bow, McLachlan & Co in 1925. In the 1980s, Buvuma was laid up and sank at her jetty. Buganda later became additional accommodation at the Mwanza's Hotel Tilapia, where she remains.

East African Railways and Harbours motor vessels
RMS Victoria was built in 1959 by Yarrow Shipbuilders at Scotstoun and reassembled for the East African Railways and Harbours Corporation (EAR&H) ship at Kisumu in 1961. When the ship was commissioned, Queen Elizabeth II granted her the "Royal Mail Ship" designation: the only EAR&H ship to receive this distinction. However, since Kenya's independence from the UK, she has operated as MV Victoria.

The train ferries MV Umoja and MV Uhuru are sister ships built by Yarrow in 1965. Kenya operated Uhuru, but she has been suspended from service since 2007.

By 1970, the East African Railways and Harbours Corporation operated regular sailings clockwise around the lake from Kisumu, using rail ferries that carried rail wagons loaded directly from rail tracks extended on the jetties at Kisumu, Port Bell and Mwanza. The rail network linked to the Indian Ocean ports of Mombasa and Dar es Salaam which allowed countries of the African interior such as Uganda and Rwanda to transport freight to and from world markets. Typical journey times were 13 hours between Port Bell in Uganda and Kisumu in Kenya, and 19 hours between Port Bell and Mwanza in Tanzania.

In 1977 EARH was dissolved and its assets divided between Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. Uhuru was transferred to the new Kenya Railways Corporation (KRC) and Umoja and Victoria to the new Tanzania Railways Corporation (TRC). In 1978, the new Uganda Railways Corporation (URC) purchased three train ferries from Belgium, MV Pemba, MV Kaawa and MV Kabalega. However their production was interrupted by the war between Uganda and Tanzania that broke out in October 1978 and ended in April 1979. The ferries were assembled after the war at Port Bell and launched in 1983. TRC's Marine Division introduced the ferry MV Bukoba in about 1979 and the passenger and cargo ship MV Serengeti in 1988.

In 1997, the Marine Division of TRC became a separate company, the Marine Services Company Limited, whose fleet includes Serengeti, Umoja, and Victoria.

21st century vessels and operations
Early in the 21st century, new Lake Victoria ro-ro ferries were constructed at Mwanza port in Tanzania, in particular through the family-owned and local Songoro Marine Transport Ltd in Tanzania. This added some dynamics to the ferry services sector on Lake Victoria and allowed several private companies to own and/or to operate new ferries, for example the Nyehunge ferries by Mohammed Seif, the owner of Nyehunge IT Support Ltd. In 2005, Tanzania founded a new state-owned enterprise, Tanzania Electrical, Mechanical and Electronics Services Agency (TEMESA), which received more than a dozen new and locally built and state-owned ro-ro ferries on Lake Victoria to operate them.

Also in 2005, the private Rift Valley Railways Consortium (RVR) was selected by the two parastatal railway corporations in Kenya (KRC) and Uganda (URC) to operate their joint railway network from 2006 on. RVR also took over the three remaining Lake Victoria train ferries of Uganda and Kenya (Kabalega sank in 2005), Pemba, Uhuru and Kaawa. RVR suspended Pemba and Kaawa from service indefinitely and also stopped Uhuru from all operations in 2007 after the railway branch line of the Uganda Railway between Kisumu and Nakuru dropped out of operations due to an aging railway infrastructure. The Lake Victoria railheads in Port Bell, Jinja and Kisumu, then also operated by RVR, went out of operation. The remaining Tanzanian train ferry, MV Umoja could only serve Tanzanian rail jetties and became almost suspended as well and was used for special purposes only. Except from the Tanzanian ferry business, which started to flourish due to the new ferries built and put into operation, the Ugandan and Kenyan ferry business on Lake Victoria appeared to be dilapidated.

In May 2008, the Daily Monitor stated that it expected the Ugandan government to announce in that year's budget speech a government allocation of USh 14 billion to buy a new train ferry to replace Kabalega. However, in September 2009, the Uganda Radio Network said the Ugandan government was unlikely to replace Kabalega soon. Instead, the Minister of Works proposed to improve port facilities at Jinja and Port Bell and let private operators run railway car floats with greater capacity than the ferries. The minister stated that Kaawa and Pemba would be reconditioned and returned to service and that private businesses had expressed an interest in raising Kabalega and restoring her to use as a private concession. In October 2009, the Ugandan government reiterated that it would recondition the Pemba and Kaawa and return them to service in 2010 and 2011 respectively. However, except words, no activities followed the announcements.

In 2010, new international passenger ferry services based on catamarans were to be launched. A US based company, Earthwise Ventures, announced that it would bring a fleet of fast ferries to Lake Victoria to connect major ports on the lake. Later on, the private Earthwise Ferries Ltd with branches in Tanzania and Uganda started to operate the first catamaran passenger ferry on Lake Victoria in 2012, the MV Amani at Port Bell in Uganda, followed by a sister ship in 2018, the Bluebird at Mwanza port in Tanzania. Also in 2010, a Scottish investor, Malcolm Ormiston, founded Globology Ltd in Kisumu, Kenya to build and to operate smaller catamaran passenger ferries to operate on Lake Victoria in Kenya and in Uganda under the brand name Waterbus East Africa. A first small and locally built catamaran, Captain Dan went into operation in 2010. In 2017, Globology intended to start to build 3-5 catamaran passenger ferries per year each with a capacity to transport 120 passengers.

As of April 2013, only Tanzania Railways' Central Line was operating freight rail services from Mwanza to Tabora, Dodoma and Dar es Salaam and therefore connecting the Lake Victoria freight services with the world market.

In 2017, the contract with RVR was cancelled in both Kenya and Uganda due to financial irregularities, both KRC and URC restarted the operations on their respective railway networks. URC also restarted the services at the railhead in Port Bell, the train ferry Kaawa was repaired and refurbished and put back into operation. In a similar manner, the train ferry Umoja on the Tanzanian side was repaired and refurbished. In June 2018, the EastAfrican reported that 1180-tonne Umoja began regular service again between Mwanza and Port Bell, plying the route 26 times every month. It is also expected that Kaawa, registered in Uganda, will join Umoja on the route. The Dar es Salaam to Kampala route costs US$65 per tonne, compared to US$90 per tonne on the Mombasa to Kampala route, as of June 2018. The Citizen (Tanzania), reported similar information.

Incidents and accidents

 * On 21 May 1996, MV Bukoba sank 30 nmi off Mwanza. She was carrying many more passengers than the 430 passengers she was certificated for, and 894 people were killed.
 * In the early hours of 8 May 2005, Kabalega and Kaawa collided almost head-on. Kaawa damaged her bow and Kabalega suffered damage to her bow and flooding in two of her buoyancy tanks. Kaawa managed to return to port, but a few hours after the collision, Kabalega sank about 8 nmi southeast of the Ssese Islands. After the collision MV Pemba was also suspended from service.
 * On 28 April 2006, MV Nyamageni capsized. She was a cargo and passenger ferry owned by the Dynamic Cotton Ginnery of Mwanza in Tanzania. She was carrying more than forty passengers, 28 of whom were feared dead.
 * In February 2013, fire broke out on the MV Victoria whilst docked at Mwanza Port. It is believed that it was due to the welding works going on in one of the lower deck rooms and sparks of fire then passed on to the adjacent storage compartment. The situation was under control within two hours. The Surface and Marine Transport Regulatory Authority (SUMATRA) blamed the management for professional negligence.
 * On 10 October 2014, MV Victoria experienced an engine failure midway on its journey from Bukoba to Mwanza.
 * On 20 September 2018, at least 228 people died when the overloaded motor ferry MV Nyerere, carrying "close to 270 passengers", capsized on Lake Victoria between Ukerewe Island and Ukara Island, Tanzania, 50 m from the pier on Ukara Island. About 41 people were rescued, with 32 sustaining critical injuries.

title: Lake Victoria ferries


text:
Ukrainian karbovanets

The karbovanets or karbovanet (карбованець, plural: карбованці, karbovantsi for 2–4, or карбованців, karbovantsiv for 5 or more), also known as kupon (купон, plural: купони, kupony) or coupon, has been a distinct unit of currency in Ukraine during three separate periods of the 20th century. It is also a predecessor currency of today's Ukrainian hryvnia.

The karbovanets was subdivided into one hundred kopiykas, but no denominations in kopiykas have ever been issued.

In the ISO 4217 standard, the official name is spelled as karbovanet, while English version of the National Bank of Ukraine's website refers to it as karbovanets.

Ukrainian Central Rada (1917–1918)
In March 1917 in Kyiv, some political parties formed the Central Rada which proclaimed on 20 November 1917, the foundation of the Ukrainian People's Republic.

And by just December 19 of the same year, a temporary law about the issue of state banknotes by the UPR was adopted. According to this law: "Banknotes must be issued in karbovanets" (Карбованець). Each karbovanets contains 17.424 parts of pure gold and is divided into two hryvnias Гривня or 200 shahs (Шаг).

The etymology of the name "karbovanets" is debatable: by one supposition it originated in Ukraine from the ancient primitive way to carve (karbuvaty, Карбувати) numbers of calculations on a rod, and by another supposition – from the carving (incision) on a rim of a metal rouble.

On 5 January 1918, the first Ukrainian banknote with a value of 100 karbovanets was issued. There is an interesting detail: the trident depicted on the banknote was proclaimed as a National Emblem of the UPR only on 25 February 1918. On all issued banknotes was stated only one series – "AД" and only one number – 185. Combined with the use of ordinary paper (without watermarks) for printing of this banknote, this led to the appearance of a great number of counterfeit bank-notes in circulation.

On 20 September 1918, the Central Rada proclaimed the issue of banknotes of the State Treasure in denominations of 5, 10, 25, and 50 karbovanets, to be valid until 1 March 1924. On 6 April, the population of Kyiv first saw 25-karbovanets banknotes, and 50 karbovanets banknotes later appeared, but 5- and 10-karbovanets banknotes were not released. Primarily this series of banknotes was issued without designation of series and number. In subsequent issues, the series indicated the place of printing: AK (Kyiv) and AO (Odesa).

After the occupation of Odesa by military units of Denikin's Army in spring 1919, the printing house of Odesa continued printing bank-notes of 50 karbovanets. The Ukrainian Government was indignant and proclaimed money issued by the Denikinists to be false (series AO, numbers 210 and above).

In 1920, the Government of Ukraine printed some dozens of millions of banknotes for temporary use of Revolutionary Committee in the Western Ukraine. This issue of series AO had numbers from 236 to 250.

The next release by the Central Rada (Parliament of Ukraine) was issued on 19 April 1918 and included denominations of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 shahs. The term "shah" is borrowed by the Central Rada from the ancient name of small coins (change) from as long ago as the 16th century. Shahs were printed in Kyiv in sheets of 100, perforated in order to simplify tearing off separate banknotes. "Shahs" were in circulation until March 1919 when they were abolished by the Soviets. There are many existing banknotes of this value.

Ukrainian State Government (1918)
The Congress of Free Hubb'andmen on 29 April 1918 (with the great support of Austrian-German occupants), elected tsarist general P.P. Skoropadsky as Hetman of Ukraine. He proclaimed the overthrow of the Central Rada Government and the foundation of the Ukrainian State.

In Skoropadsky's time, the so-called "paper hryvnias" were introduced in commerce. They were ordered by the Central Rada from Germany.

On 5 August 1918, the first bank-note which appeared in commerce was the 3.6% state-bond with the name "Bank-note of the State Treasure". State-bonds were printed with eight coupons, four coupons on each side. Primarily they were to be issued for the purpose of internal loans. But the general lack of circulating banknotes led to state-bonds and even separate coupons being used as paper money.

On 17 October 1918, the Hetman's government received from Germany another supply of bank-notes with values of 2, 10, and 100 hryvnias, as ordered by the Central Rada. A bit later, bank-notes of 1000 and 2000 hrivnas were received. They were needed by Hetman's Government due to exaggerated inflation in Ukraine. They bore the abbreviation of the Ukrainian State(УД, Українська Держава), an official name of Ukraine in the Hetman's time.

These hryvnias were issued on 17 October 1918, 59 days before the Hetman's overthrow.

Ukrainian Directorate (1918–1920)
The defeat of Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I resulted also in the break-up of Ukraine's occupation regime (Hetman Skoropadsky's government). On the night of 14 November 1918 in Bila Tserkva, the Government of the Ukrainian Directorate was formed with V. K. Vynnychenko, S. V. Petlyura and others at its head. Within a month, military forces of the Directorate occupied Kyiv. On 16 January 1919, the Government of the Directorate declared war on Soviet Russia. This action required issuing enormous sums of money.

In Kyiv, the Directorate used reserves of bank-notes which were issued previously by the Central Rada's governments.

The military campaign of the Directorate turned out to be unsuccessful, and the offensive of the Red Army forced the Directorate to leave Kyiv and to settle for some time in Vinnytsia (5 February 1919). There the Directorate used 3.6% State bonds for their purchasing power. Under the pressure of Soviet forces, the Directorate retreated still farther to Ternopil, and then Stanislav (now Ivano-Frankivsk) by the end of February 1919. Beginning in March 1919, one of the most unsuccessful series of bank-notes (5 hryvnias) was issued. Compiled from different elements of earlier Ukrainian banknotes, 5-hryvnia bank-notes were hastily printed on grey paper and contained an error in their text: гривна instead of гривень. Some bank-notes with such misprints entered circulation. The next bastion for the embattled Directorate was Kamanets-Podilsk, where it held out for almost a year and issued a few more bank-notes.

First, in August 1919, banknotes were printed with the value of 100, 250, and 1000 karbovanets. For printing of these bank-notes, they used clichés (slugs of type) that had been prepared by the Hetman's government.

One of the best bank-notes among all Ukrainian paper-money is a bank-note of 1000 karbovanets. This bank-note was issued in Kyiv and entered circulation on 13 November 1918. Printing was continued by the Directorate government in October 1919 at Kamyanets'-Podilsk, and in 1920 at Warsaw. The last issue is unknown.

A bit later, lower denomination notes – 10 karbovanets (August 1919) and 25 karbovanets (October 1919) were put into use. The design of the 10 karbovanets (tank-note) was prepared in Hetman's period and their obverse had the large letters УД which designated the Ukrainian state (Українська Держава).

The last bank-notes of the Directorate were prepared in Austria. The series contained bank-notes of 50 and 1000 hryvnias. But they were never issued (only some specimen copies are known). On November 20, 1920, the Directorial Government was disbanded by S.V. Petlyura's edict and its provision of currency ended.

Ukrainian SSR (1919–1920)
At the beginning of 1919 in Kharkiv, the pro-Soviet government was formed. It represented Soviet Russia in its war against the Ukrainian Directorate. By Lenin's direction Russia financed the pro-Soviet government. However, a period of unprecedented inflation was triggered by the Civil War and resulted in a sharp deficit of circulating money, especially petty bank-notes.

The People's Commissar of Finance of the USSR, with the mutual consent of the RSFSR government, decided to use the 10 karbovanets bank-notes of the Directorate. This note's cliché and artwork (without series and numbers) were captured by the Red Army on 5 February 1919. during the takeover of Kyiv from the Petlyurian troops. The Soviet bank-note differed from the Directorate's in paper, ink, water-marks, and the location of their series and numbers.

One more bank-note of 50 karbovanets with Soviet symbolics was printed. On 1 June 1919, the Ukraine united with the Soviet governments of Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Belarus in a common revolutionary front, and only one monetary unit was legitimized – the ruble of the USSR. The necessity of printing separate bank-notes was gone, and the 50-karbovanets bank-note is known only by some specimen copies.

Second karbovanets (1942–1945)
During the Nazi occupation of Ukraine in World War II, the German occupying government (Reichskommissariat Ukraine) issued banknotes denominated in karbovanets (karbowanez in German). The karbovanets replaced the Soviet ruble at par and was in circulation between 1942 and 1945. It was pegged to the Reichsmark at a rate of 10 karbovantsiv = 1 Reichsmark.

Third karbovanets (1992–1996)
In November 1990, with the collapse of the Soviet command economy, the Ukrainian SSR introduced one-time coupons, which were distributed to Ukrainian residents. The coupons were needed in addition to rubles in order to buy groceries and living essentials. On 10 January 1992, the karbovanets replaced rubles at par, with the ISO 4217 code being.

The karbovanets, which suffered from hyperinflation, was replaced by the hryvnia in 1996, at a rate of 100,000 karbovantsiv to 1 hryvnia. The hryvnia was introduced in 1996, and from 2 September until 16 September both the karbovanets and hryvnia were in circulation. After that, the use of the karbovanets as a national currency was discontinued.

First karbovanets
In 1917, the Central Rada of the Ukrainian People's Republic introduced 100 karbovantsiv notes. These were followed in 1918 by State Treasury notes for 25 and 50 karbovantsiv. That year also saw the issue of postage stamp currency denominated in shah and various bonds, together with state credit notes in denominations of 2, 10, 100, 500, 1,000 and 2,000 hryven. The Directorate issued notes for 100, 250 and 100 karbovanets in 1918, followed by 10 and 25 karbovanets in 1919. State notes for 5, 50 and 1,000 hryven were issued in 1920. 1 karbovanets was worth 2 hryvni or 200 shah.

Second karbovanets
Banknotes were introduced in June 1942 in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 karbovanets. The banknotes were in dark colour, carrying nearly all inscriptions in German, and a warning in both German and Ukrainian stating "falsification of banknotes is punished by imprisoning". The obverse of the notes all featured a portrait, including children, a peasant, a miner, a seaman and a chemist. The Nazi Reichsadler also appeared.

Third karbovanets
In 1991, notes were introduced in denominations of 1, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 karbovanets (also called kupons or coupons). All 1991 banknotes were of the same design, picturing Lybid from the monument of the founders of Kyiv on the obverse, and the Sophia Cathedral on reverse. The banknotes did not carry individual serial numbers or signatures. In 1992, banknotes for 100, 200, 500, 1,000 karbovanets were issued, which carried serial numbers and were better protected to counterfeiting.

In 1993, banknotes for 2000 and 5000 karbovanets were issued. Having similar designs as the 1992 banknotes, they were the first to carry the Coat of arms of Ukraine. In the same year, notes for 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, 100,000 karbovanets were also introduced into circulation, which were bigger in size and pictured the Volodymyr Monument on the obverse and the Kyiv Opera on the reverse. Subsequently, banknotes for 200,000 and 500,000 karbovanets were introduced in 1994, followed by the 1,000,000 karbovanets banknote in 1995, which pictured the Taras Shevchenko Monument in Kyiv.

title: Ukrainian karbovanets


text:
Fairmont State University

Fairmont State University is a public university in Fairmont, West Virginia.

History
Fairmont State University’s roots reach back to the formation of public education in the state of West Virginia. The first private normal school in West Virginia was established to train teachers in Fairmont in 1865 by John N. Boyd, the school’s first principal. It was known as the West Virginia Normal School at Fairmont.

On February 27, 1867, it was purchased by the State from the Regency of the West Virginia Normal School (formed as a joint stock company in 1866) and became a branch of the State Normal School of Marshall College. Construction began on a brick building on the northwest corner of Adams and Quincy streets later that year.

From 1867 to 1892 the school was known variously as Fairmont Normal School, the Fairmont Branch of the West Virginia Normal School, the Branch of the West Virginia Normal School at Fairmont, a branch of the West Virginia State Normal School of Marshall College, but most commonly as Fairmont State Normal School (FSNS). By 1892 the designation of "branch" had fallen into disuse by FSNS.

In 1893, the school moved into a new building at Second Street and Fairmont Avenue and, in 1917, to its current location in the building now known as Hardway Hall, in honor of former president Wendell G. Hardway, which sits on a hill overlooking Locust Avenue.

Hardway Hall, originally known as Fairmont Normal School Administration Building, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994.

In 1923, Fairmont State Normal School first offered a four-year bachelor's degree program in education, making the school a college. It was renamed Fairmont State Teachers College in 1931 and Fairmont State College in 1943. On April 7, 2004, Governor Bob Wise signed legislation changing its name to Fairmont State University.

Fairmont State offers more than 80 baccalaureate degrees in business, computer science, education, engineering and technology, fine arts, liberal arts, national security and intelligence, political science, mathematics, and nursing and allied health administration with graduate programs in architecture, education, teaching, business, and criminal justice.

Community and technical college
In 1974, a community college component was founded. This became independently accredited as Fairmont State Community and Technical College in 2003. In 2006, Fairmont State was given direction by the State of West Virginia to split with the community and technical college, which then became known as Pierpont Community and Technical College. While both institutions still operate on the Fairmont campus, since 2008, they are recognized as independent institutions and offer completely separate degree programs; Pierpont focuses more on technical associate's programs, while Fairmont State's main focus is on baccalaureate degrees and master's programs.

After a March 2021 Memorandum of Understanding, the two schools will become independent of one another whereby Pierpont has transitioned off of the Fairmont campus.

Athletics
Fairmont State's athletic teams, known as the Falcons (alternately as Fighting Falcons, or Lady Falcons for women's teams), compete in the Mountain East Conference (MEC) in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division II and field teams in 17 sports including football, men's and women's basketball, wrestling, women's soccer, women's volleyball, men's and women's golf, acrobatics and tumbling, baseball, softball, men's and women's swimming, men's and women's tennis, and men's and women's cross country.

The Fighting Falcons football team finished the 2016 season with a 10–2 record, clinching an NCAA playoff berth. In 2017, they finished the season 8–3 and 2nd in the MEC.

In 2017, the men's basketball team was ranked #3 in the final NABC Coaches Poll. In post-season play, the Falcons captured the NCAA Atlantic Region title and earned the top seed in the NCAA Elite Eight tournament eventually losing to Northwest Missouri State in the tournament final on March 25, 2017 by a score of 71–61.

Traditions
The Victory Bell

In 1940, the Letterman's Association (now the Fairmont State Athletic Association) presented the college with a "Victory Bell" from a Monongahela oil barge. Nicknamed "Old Boaz" – in honor of Boaz Fleming, the founding father of Fairmont – students would ring the bell after athletic team victories.

During World War II, the Victory Bell was declared silent and was not rung again until Victory in Europe Day (V-E Day) on May 8, 1945. It was rung for that victory and for the Americans still fighting in the South Pacific.

The exact date is unknown (likely the late 1960s), the tradition shifted from ringing to painting the bell by various fraternities, sororities, and other campus organizations – its clapper and handle removed.

Originally located adjacent to Hardway Hall, the bell now stands in front of the Education Building.

Honor societies

 * Alpha Phi Sigma (Criminal Justice)
 * Alpha Psi Omega (Dramatics) founded at the college in 1925 by professor Paul F. Opp.
 * Beta Beta Beta (Biology)
 * Epsilon Pi Tau (Technology)
 * Family & Consumer Science Honor Society
 * Kappa Delta Pi (Education)
 * Kappa Kappa Psi (Band)
 * Kappa Pi (Art)
 * Nursing Honorary
 * Phi Alpha Theta (History)
 * Phi Theta Kappa
 * Pi Gamma Mu (Social Science)
 * Pi Sigma Alpha (Political Science)
 * Psi Chi (Psychology)
 * Sigma Alpha Iota (Music)
 * Sigma Tau Delta (English)
 * Society for Collegiate Journalists

Social organizations

 * Inter-Panhellenic Council
 * Inter-Fraternity Council
 * Non-Panhellenic Council
 * Women’s Panhellenic Council
 * Dutch Simmons Appreciation Club
 * Student Graphics Organization
 * Alpha Eta Rho
 * Alpha Phi Alpha
 * Alpha Sigma Tau
 * Delta Xi Omicron (local)
 * Delta Zeta
 * Omega Psi Phi
 * Sigma Sigma Sigma
 * Sigma Pi
 * Sigma Omega Beta (local)
 * Phi Sigma Phi
 * Tau Beta Iota (local)
 * Tau Kappa Epsilon
 * Zeta Phi Beta (chartered April 13, 2018)
 * Student Accountant Society
 * Model United Nations
 * Model Arab League
 * Young Democrats
 * College Republicans

The National Security Lab
The Open Source Intelligence Exchange (OSIX) organization was created in 2012 and serves as Fairmont State's applied research lab under the National Security and Intelligence program. OSIX uses open source and social media intelligence to determine real-world active threats, including for such events as the 2010 Presidential visit to West Virginia by then-President Obama. Professor David Abruzzino, who came to Fairmont State after retiring from work with the CIA, was the OSIX program director and faculty mentor from 2010 until 2017. Dr. Todd Clark, who formerly worked for the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), is the current director of OSIX. Students who work in the OSIX lab utilize open source and social media intelligence tools to monitor potential and active threats and have worked with agencies like the CIA, FBI, Department of Defense, and Department of State, as well as local and state departments and agencies in West Virginia.

Notable alumni

 * Perry Baker, current U.S. international rugby sevens player and two-time World Rugby Sevens Player of the Year
 * Wendell R. Beitzel, member of Maryland House of Delegates
 * George C. Edwards, member of Maryland State Senate
 * Leroy Loggins, an American professional basketball player in Australia
 * Herbert Morrison, radio reporter whose voice is heard in the footage of the Hindenburg Disaster
 * Ira E. Robinson, West Virginia politician and judge, first chairman of the Federal Radio Commission
 * Bill Stewart, former head football coach at West Virginia University
 * Luke Gallows, American pro wrestler for WWE
 * Charles Sheedy - Member of the West Virginia House of Delegates

Notable faculty

 * Ruth Ann Musick, noted folklorist and author

title: Fairmont State University


text: User talk:169.151.1.214

title: User talk:169.151.1.214


text:
Talk:Fifth Column (band)

Other Fifth Column bands
ShortTony and other users who are interested in other bands named Fifth Column - feel free to create your own pages, it's easy. For instance, if you create a page for the San Francisco Fifth Column band, simply use brackets to differentiate them from the other band, like this: Fifth Column (San Francisco band). Now all you need to do is click on the link to create the page.Intheshadows (talk) 22:17, 11 October 2018 (UTC)

Untitled
Not the original or sole use of the term. Should be disambiguated. Lee M 20:11, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Re: Links
This page does not link to any other pages because it was recently moved from Fifth Column to Fifth Column (Band). Previously it had over 50 links. I have written to User:LCpl, who is the person who moved this page in an attempt to distinguish between the band and the military manouver (Fifth column), and who can hopefully rectify this matter. The military manouver was already distinguishable by virtue of the 'c' in column not being capitalized, so hopefully the Fifth Column band page will be restored to its former state.

Intheshadows 16:35, 15 October 2006 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:FifthColumn.jpg
Image:FifthColumn.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 21:47, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

POV
The article has only three inline references. It is difficult to determine how accurate or how neutral this article is without any sources to verify all this information. Mansheimer (talk) 06:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fifth Column (band)


text:
Talk:Flag of North Brabant

 * Previous deletion debate

title: Talk:Flag of North Brabant


text:
Glass float

Glass floats were once used by fishermen in many parts of the world to keep their fishing nets, as well as longlines or droplines, afloat.

Large groups of fishnets strung together, sometimes 50 mi long, were set adrift in the ocean and supported near the surface by hollow glass balls or cylinders containing air to give them buoyancy. These glass floats are no longer used by fishermen, but many of them are still afloat in the world's oceans, primarily the Pacific. They have become a popular collectors' item for beachcombers and decorators. Replicas are now manufactured.

History
Norway, around 1840, was the first country to produce and use glass fishing floats. Many of them can still be found in local boathouses. Christopher Faye, a Norwegian merchant from Bergen, is credited with their invention. The glass float was developed through cooperation with one of the owners of the Hadeland Glassverk in Norway, Chr. Berg.

The earliest mention of these "modern" glass fishing floats is in the production registry for Hadelands Glassverk in 1842. The registry shows that this was a new type of production.

The earliest evidence of glass floats being used by fishermen comes from Norway in 1844 where glass floats were on gill nets in the great cod fisheries in Lofoten. By the 1940s, glass had replaced wood or cork throughout much of Europe, Russia, North America, and Japan. Japan started using the glass floats as early as 1910. Today, most of the remaining glass floats originated in Japan because it had a large deep sea fishing industry which made extensive use of the floats; some made by Taiwan, Korea and China. In Japanese, the floats are variably known as buoy balls (浮き玉) or glass balls (ビン玉).

Glass floats have since been replaced by aluminum, plastic, or Styrofoam.

Manufacturing
The earliest floats, including most Japanese glass fishing floats, were handmade by a glassblower. Recycled glass, especially old sake bottles in Japan, was typically used and air bubbles/imperfections in the glass are a result of the rapid recycling process. After being blown, floats were removed from the blowpipe and sealed with a 'button' of melted glass before being placed in a cooling oven. [This sealing button is sometimes mistakenly identified as a pontil mark. However, no pontil (or punty) was used in the process of blowing glass floats.] While floats were still hot and soft, marks were often embossed on or near the sealing button to identify the float for trademark. These marks sometimes included kanji symbols.

A later manufacturing method used wooden molds to speed up the float-making process. Glass floats were blown into a mold to more easily achieve a uniform size and shape. Seams on the outside of floats are a result of this process. Sometimes knife markings where the wooden molds were carved are also visible on the surface of the glass.

Dispersion
Today most of the glass floats remaining in the ocean are stuck in a circular pattern of ocean currents in the North Pacific. Off the east coast of Taiwan, the Kuroshio Current starts as a northern branch of the western-flowing North Equatorial Current. It flows past Japan and meets the arctic waters of the Oyashio Current. At this junction, the North Pacific Current (or Drift) is formed which travels east across the Pacific before slowing down in the Gulf of Alaska. As it turns south, the California Current pushes the water into the North Equatorial Current once again, and the cycle continues. Although the number of glass floats is decreasing steadily, many floats are still drifting on these ocean currents. Occasionally storms or certain tidal conditions will break some floats from this circular pattern and bring them ashore. They most often end up on the beaches of the Western United States - especially Alaska, Washington, or Oregon - Taiwan, or Canada. However, many floats have been found on beaches and along coral reefs on Pacific islands, most notably the windward side of Guam. It is estimated that floats must be a minimum of 7-10 years old before washing up on beaches in Alaska. Most floats that wash up, however, would have been afloat for 10 years. A small number of floats are also trapped in the Arctic ice pack where there is movement over the North Pole and into the Atlantic Ocean.

Appearance
Once a float lands on a beach, it may roll in the surf and become etched by sand. Many glass floats show distinctive wear patterns from the corrosive forces of sand, sun, and salt water. When old netting breaks off of a float, its pattern often remains on the surface of the glass where the glass was protected under the netting. Other floats have small amounts of water trapped inside of them. This water apparently enters the floats through microscopic imperfections in the glass while the floats are suspended in Arctic ice or held under water by netting.

To accommodate different fishing styles and nets, the Japanese experimented with many different sizes and shapes of floats, ranging from 2 to 20 in in diameter. Most were rough spheres, but some were cylindrical or "rolling pin" shaped.

Most floats are shades of green because that is the color of glass from recycled sake bottles. However, clear, amber, aquamarine, amethyst, blue and other colors were also produced. The most prized and rare color is a red or cranberry hue. These were expensive to make because gold was used to produce the color. Other brilliant tones such as emerald green, cobalt blue, purple, yellow and orange were primarily made in the 1920s and 30s. The majority of the colored floats available for sale today are replicas.

Resources

 * Beachcombing for Japanese Glass Floats by Amos L. Wood (Binford & Mort, 4th ed., 1985; ISBN 0-8323-0437-9)
 * Glass Ball, A comprehensive Guide for Oriental Glass Fishing Floats found on Pacific Beaches by Walt Pich (First Edition 2004; ISBN 0-9657108-1-5)
 * Beachcombers Guide to the Northwest, Glass Balls & Other Littoral Treasures, California to Alaska by Walt Pich (First Edition 1997; ISBN 0-9657108-0-7)
 * Beachcombing the Pacific by Amos L. Wood (Schiffer, 1987; ISBN 0-88740-097-3)
 * I'd Rather be Beachcombing by Bert and Margie Webber (Webb Research Group, 1991; ISBN 0-936738-20-0)

title: Glass float


text:
Talk:Matewan

POV
POV text moved here:
 * Somewhat of a hallmark in films about labor history, but never widely renowned. Lee M 20:15, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Good point. However, the critics will speak about this! Best-  Luigibob (talk) 10:10, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

change: gun thugs to strike breakers
I won't disagree with anyone who challenges "gun thugs" as POV.

However, replacing gun thugs with "strike breakers" is not a perfect fit, in my view. Gun thugs are indeed strike breakers, but replacement workers who may never pick up a gun are more frequently described as strike breakers. Therefore, the POV term "gun thugs" has a very clear meaning, but using "strike breakers" as a replacement confuses the issue. Richard Myers (talk) 08:24, 25 August 2011 (UTC)

Silly me.

After seeing Wikipedia's "administrator" Orangemike substitute "guncarrying" (one word) for "armed" I should not have attempted to explain my objection to the use of the term "gun thug" to a dedicated member of the IWW, or anyone else. HOUNDDAWG (talk) 12:35, 7 December 2011 (UTC)

A belated afterthought: There were no "unarmed strike breakers" in the film if one discounts the already labeled "scabs". (They were there primarily to work and earn money and for whom breaking the strike would have been incidental. In fact, the longer the strike lasted the longer the replacement workers-who were more frequently described as "scabs" rather than "strike breakers" would have work. The one unrecognized "agent provocateur" has already been labeled so there's no reason to confuse his character with the strike breakers, and there's no reason to refer to either by different sobriquets on the Wikipedia page.)

Neither of the aforementioned could be reasonably confused with the armed Baldwin-Felts agents I referred to as "strike breakers". Therefore, it would be difficult to "confuse the issue" of armed strike breakers with non existent people. No one was carrying a Bible, handing out leaflets or otherwise peacefully resisting the unionization or the "commie, Red, pinko takeover" of the WVA mines.

There were no "incidental unarmed strike breakers" not already accounted for (and pigeon-holed as "scabs"- in the interest of balance shouldn't pro union miners have been referred to as "mob extortionists" or worse?) in the film. And no characters (with the possible exception-and it's a stretch-of the pastor who criticized godless Bolsheviks from the pulpit) whose arguable "primary purpose" was to break the strike through peaceful means.

Also, because the striking miners, their women and the hill people in sympathy with them were also armed, reserving the term "gun thugs" for "paid anti union agents" could best be described as a knee jerk, politically correct response. I mean, "everybody knows that armed, out of work miners, presumably with pro-organized labor angels perched on their shoulders couldn't possibly be thugs, right?" — Preceding unsigned comment added by HOUNDDAWG (talk • contribs) 11:01, 11 December 2013 (UTC)

Battle was not the strike
The so-called Battle of Matewan was not "a coal miners' strike", but the assassination of the private detectives who had just evicted mine company workers from their rented homes.Royalcourtier (talk) 02:42, 19 October 2014 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Matewan