text:
Celtic rock

Celtic rock is a genre of folk rock, as well as a form of Celtic fusion which incorporates Celtic music, instrumentation and themes into a rock music context. It has been prolific since the early 1970s and can be seen as a key foundation of the development of successful mainstream Celtic bands and popular musical performers, as well as creating important derivatives through further fusions. It has played a major role in the maintenance and definition of regional and national identities and in fostering a pan-Celtic culture. It has also helped to communicate those cultures to external audiences.

Definition
The style of music is the hybrid of traditional Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh and Breton musical forms with rock music. This has been achieved by the playing of traditional music, particularly ballads, jigs and reels with rock instrumentation; by the addition of traditional Celtic instruments, including the Celtic harp, tin whistle, uilleann pipes (or Irish Bagpipes), fiddle, bodhrán, accordion, concertina, melodeon, and bagpipes (highland) to conventional rock formats; by the use of lyrics in Celtic languages and by the use of traditional rhythms and cadences in otherwise conventional rock music. Just as the validity of the term Celtic in general and as a musical label is disputed, the term Celtic rock cannot be taken to mean there was a unified Celtic musical culture between the Celtic nations. However, the term has remained useful as a means of describing the spread, adaptation and further development of the musical form in different but related contexts.

Ireland
It was in Ireland that Celtic rock was first clearly evident as musicians attempted to apply the use of traditional and electric music to their own cultural context. By the end of the 1960s Ireland already had perhaps the most flourishing folk music tradition and a growing blues and pop scene, which provided a basis for Irish rock. Perhaps the most successful product of this scene was the band Thin Lizzy. Formed in 1969 their first two albums were recognisably influenced by traditional Irish music and their first hit single "Whisky in the Jar" in 1972, was a rock version of a traditional Irish song. From this point they began to move towards the hard rock that allowed them to gain a series of hit singles and albums, but retained some occasional elements of Celtic rock on later albums such as Jailbreak (1976).

Formed in 1970, Horslips were the first Irish group to have the terms 'Celtic rock' applied to them, and produced work that included traditional Irish/Celtic music and instrumentation, Celtic themes and imagery, and concept albums based on Irish mythology in a way that entered the territory of progressive rock all powered by a hard rock sound. Horslips are considered important in the history of Irish rock as they were the first major band to enjoy success without having to leave their native country and can be seen as providing a template for Celtic rock in Ireland and elsewhere. These developments ran in parallel with the burgeoning folk revival in Ireland that included groups such as Planxty and the Bothy Band. It was from this tradition that Clannad, whose first album was released in 1973, adopted electric instruments and a more 'new age' sound at the beginning of the 1980s. Moving Hearts, formed in 1981 by former Planxty members Christy Moore and Donal Lunny, followed the pattern set by Horslips in combining Irish traditional music with rock, and also added elements of jazz to their sound.

Scotland
There were already strong links between Irish and Scottish music by the 1960s, with Irish bands like the Chieftains touring and outselling the native artists in Scotland. The adoption of folk rock produced groups including the JSD Band and Spencer's Feat. Out of the wreckage of the latter in 1974, was formed probably the most successful band in this genre, combining Irish and Scottish personnel to form Five Hand Reel. Two of the most successful groups of the 1980s emerged from the dance band circuit in Scotland. From 1978, when they began to release original albums, Runrig produced highly polished Scottish folk rock, including the first commercially successful album with the all Gaelic Play Gaelic in 1978. From the 1980s Capercaillie combined Scottish folk music, electric instruments and haunting vocals to considerable success. Scottish Band The Waterboys became a well known Celtic Rock band during the 80s with the release of albums such as This Is The Sea and Fisherman's Blues. They also incorporated folk elements into their music. One of Scotland's most commercially successful and fondly-remembered rock acts, Big Country, also incorporated the influence of traditional Scottish music into their songs. While bagpipes had become an essential element in Scottish folk bands they were much rarer in folk rock outfits, but were successfully integrated into their sound by Wolfstone from 1989, who focused on a combination of highland music and rock.

Brittany
The region of Brittany also made a major contribution to Celtic rock. The Breton cultural revival of the 1960s was exemplified by Alan Stivell who became the leading proponent of the Breton harp and other instruments from about 1960, he then adopted elements of Irish, Welsh and Scottish traditional music in an attempt to create a pan-Celtic folk music, which had considerable impact elsewhere, particularly in Wales and Cornwall. From 1972 he began to play folk rock with a band including guitarists Dan Ar Braz and Gabriel Yacoub. Yacoub went on to form Malicorne in 1974 one of the most successful folk rock bands in France. After an extensive career that included a stint playing as part of Fairport Convention in 1976, Ar Braz formed the pan-Celtic band Heritage des Celtes, who managed to achieve mainstream success in France in the 1990s. Probably the best known and most enduring folk rock band in France were Tri Yann formed in 1971 and still recording and performing today.

Wales
By the end of the 1960s Wales had produced some important individuals and bands that emerged as major British or international artists, this included power pop outfit Badfinger, psychedelic rockers Elastic Band and proto-heavy metal trio Budgie. But although folk groupings formed in the early 1970s, including Y Tebot Piws, Ac Eraill, and Mynediad am Ddim, it was not until 1973 that the first significant Welsh language rock band Edward H Dafis, originally a belated rock n' roll outfit, caused a sensation by electrifying and attempting to use rock instrumentation while retaining Welsh language lyrics. As a result, for one generation listening to Welsh language rock music could now become a statement of national identity. This opened the door for a new rock culture but inevitably most Welsh language acts were unable to break through into the Anglophone dominated music industry.

Cornwall and the Isle of Man
Whereas other Celtic nations already had existing folk music cultures before the end of the 1960s this was less true in Cornwall and the Isle of Man, which were also relatively small in population and more integrated into English culture and (in the case of Cornwall) the British State. As a result, there was relatively little impact from the initial wave of folk electrification in the 1970s. However, the pan-Celtic movement, with its musical and cultural festivals helped foster some reflections in Cornwall where a few bands from the 1980s onwards utilised the traditions of Cornish music with rock, including Moondragon and its successor Lordryk. More recently the bands Sacred Turf, Skwardya and Krena, have been performing in the Cornish language.

Celtic punk
Ireland proved particularly fertile ground for punk bands in the mid-1970s, including Stiff Little Fingers, The Undertones, The Radiators From Space, The Boomtown Rats and The Virgin Prunes. Scotland also produced its fair share with acts including The Skids and The Rezillos. As with folk rock in England, the advent of punk and other musical trends undermined the folk element of Celtic rock, but in the early 1980s London based Irish band The Pogues created the subgenre Celtic punk by combining structural elements of folk music with a punk attitude and delivery. The Pogues' style of punked-up Irish music spawned and influenced a number of Celtic punk bands, including fellow London-Irish band Neck, Nyah Fearties from Scotland, Australia's Roaring Jack and Norway's Greenland Whalefishers.

Diaspora Celtic rock
One by-product of the Celtic Diaspora was the existence of large communities across the world that looked for their cultural roots and identity to their origins in the Celtic nations. While it seems young musicians from these communities usually chose between their folk culture and mainstream forms of music such as rock or pop, after the advent of Celtic punk relatively large numbers of bands began to emerge styling themselves as Celtic rock. This is particularly noticeable in the US and Canada, where there are large communities descended from Irish and Scottish immigrants. From the United States this includes the Irish bands Flogging Molly, The Tossers, Dropkick Murphys, The Young Dubliners, LeperKhanz, Black 47, The Killdares, The Drovers and Jackdaw, and for Scottish bands Prydein, Seven Nations and Flatfoot 56. From Canada are bands like The Mahones, Enter the Haggis, Great Big Sea, The Real Mckenzies and Spirit of the West. These groups were naturally influenced by American forms of music, some containing members with no Celtic ancestry and commonly singing in English. A band in England is the BibleCode Sundays.

Celtic metal
Like Celtic rock in the 1970s, Celtic metal resulted from the application of a development in English music, when in the 1990s thrash metal band Skyclad added violins, and with them jigs and folk voicings, to their music on the album The Wayward Sons of Mother Earth (1990). This inspired the Dublin based band Cruachan to mix traditional Irish music with black metal and to create the subgenre of Celtic metal. They were soon followed by bands such as Primordial and Waylander. Like Celtic punk, Celtic metal replicates the fusing the Celtic folk tradition with contemporary forms of music.

Influence
Whereas in England folk rock, after initial mainstream recognition, subsided into the status of a sub-cultural soundtrack, in many Celtic communities and nations it has remained at the forefront of musical production. The initial wave of Celtic rock in Ireland, although ultimately feeding into Anglo-American dominated progressive rock and hard rock provided a basis for Irish bands that would enjoy international success, including the Pogues and U2: one making use of the tradition of Celtic music in a new context and the other eschewing it for a distinctive but mainstream sound. Similar circumstances can be seen in Scotland albeit with a delay in time while Celtic rock culture developed, before bands like Runrig could achieve international recognition. Widely acknowledged as one of the outstanding voices in Celtic/rock is Brian McCombe (born Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom) of The Brian McCombe Band, a pan Celtic group based in Brittany.

In other Celtic communities, and particularly where Celtic speakers or descendants are a minority, the function of Celtic rock has been less to create mainstream success, than to bolster cultural identity. A consequence of this has been the reinforcement of pan-Celtic culture and of particular national or regional identities between those with a shared heritage, but who are widely dispersed. However, perhaps the most significant consequence of Celtic rock has simply been as a general spur to immense musical and cultural creativity.

Celtic rock has also influenced musicians from countries and regions without Celtic communities, with some of them, like the Balkans, spawning their own Celtic rock scenes, which contributed to the interest for Celtic music and culture in local public. The pioneers of Celtic rock on the Yugoslav rock scene were the pub/garage rock band Roze Poze in the mid-1980s. In the 1990s, bands like Orthodox Celts from Serbia and Belfast Food from Croatia popularized Celtic rock further, influencing a number of younger acts, like Irish Stew of Sindidun.

title: Celtic rock


text:
Under-Secretary of State for War

The position of Under-Secretary of State for War was a British government position, first applied to Evan Nepean (appointed in 1794). In 1801 the offices for War and the Colonies were merged and the post became that of Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. The position was re-instated in 1854 and remained until 1947, when it was combined with that of Financial Secretary to the War Office. In 1964 the War Office, Admiralty and Air Ministry were merged to form the Ministry of Defence, and the post was abolished.

Parliamentary Under-Secretaries of State for War, 1794–1801
See Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies for the period 1801-1854.

Parliamentary Under-Secretaries of State for War, 1854–1947
In April 1947 the office was combined with that of Financial Secretary to the War Office.

Parliamentary Under-Secretaries of State for War and Financial Secretary to the War Office, 1947–1964
Office reorganised 1 April 1964

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Under-Secretary of State for War


text:
Pecos

Pecos may refer to:

Places

 * Pecos River, rises near Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States
 * Pecos, Texas, a city in Reeves County, Texas, United States
 * Pecos County, Texas, named for the Pecos River
 * Pecos Spring, a spring
 * Pecos, New Mexico, a village, United States
 * Pecos National Historical Park, a National Historical Park in the U.S. state of New Mexico
 * Trans-Pecos, a region of Texas, United States

Ships

 * USS Pecos, the name of two ships of the United States Navy
 * USNS Pecos (T-AO-197), a U.S. Navy fleet replenishment oiler in service since 1989

Other uses

 * Pecos Bill, a mythical American cowboy
 * Pecos Classification, a division of all known Ancient Pueblo Peoples culture into chronological phases
 * Pecos League, an independent professional baseball league headquartered in Houston
 * Oryx/Pecos, a proprietary operating system developed by Bell Labs beginning in 1978, consisting of a kernel (Oryx) and the associated processes running on top of it (Pecos)

Pecos Smith
Character in:
 * The Gun Packer, 1919 silent western
 * hero of the Zane Grey novel West of the Pecos and its film adaptations:
 * West of the Pecos, 1934 film
 * West of the Pecos, 1945 film
 * The Chinese Paymaster, 1967 novel

title: Pecos


text:
Alm

Alm and ALM most commonly refer to:
 * Alms, i.e. donations.
 * Alm (surname), a Swedish surname
 * Alm (pasture), a managed Alpine grazing or hay-producing area
 * All Lives Matter, a slogan associated with criticism of the Black Lives Matter movement
 * Asset and liability management, the practice of managing financial risks

Alm or ALM may also refer to:

Businesses and organizations

 * ALM (company), an American business news media company
 * ALM Antillean Airlines, a defunct Curaçaoan airline
 * Alm. Brand, a Danish financial services group
 * Arab Liberation Movement, a former Syrian political party
 * LIFE Church UK, a British Christian megachurch, previously known as Abundant Life Ministries
 * Union Grand-Duc Adolphe, a music organization in Luxembourg, previously known as Allgemeiner Luxemburger Musikverein

Places

 * Alm (river), a river in Upper Austria, Austria
 * Alm, a stream in the municipality of Altena, North Brabant, Netherlands

Science and technology

 * Almandine, a garnet mineral
 * Additive layer manufacturing, a type of 3D-printing
 * Application lifecycle management, the product lifecycle management of computer programs
 * Arabic letter mark, a writing direction Unicode control character
 * Article-level metrics, which measure the usage and impact of individual scholarly articles

Sports

 * AG2R La Mondiale, a bicycle racing team, UCI code
 * Bielefelder Alm, a stadium in Bielefeld, Germany
 * A-League Men, a top-level professional football league in Australia

Transportation

 * Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi Railroad, a shortline railroad owned by Genesee & Wyoming
 * Alamein railway station, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, station code ALM
 * Alamogordo–White Sands Regional Airport, Alamogordo, New Mexico, US, IATA airport code ALM
 * Alnmouth railway station, Northumberland, England, United Kingdom, station code ALM

Other uses

 * ʾAlif Lām Mīm, the opening letters of six surahs of the Quran
 * Alm, one of the two protagonists of Fire Emblem Gaiden and its remake, Fire Emblem Echoes: Shadows of Valentia
 * Artium Liberalium Magister, the Latin name for a Master of Arts in Liberal Studies

title: Alm


text: Category:New England cuisine

title: Category:New England cuisine


text: File:Cx crows new.jpg

title: File:Cx crows new.jpg


text:
Canker

A plant canker is a small area of dead tissue, which grows slowly, often over years. Some cankers are of only minor consequence, but others are ultimately lethal and therefore can have major economic implications for agriculture and horticulture. Their causes include a wide range of organisms as fungi, bacteria, mycoplasmas and viruses. The majority of canker-causing organisms are bound to a unique host species or genus, but a few will attack other plants. Weather (via frost or windstorm damage) and animal damage can also cause stress to the plant resulting in cankers. Other causes of cankers is pruning when the bark is wet or using un-sterilized tools.

Although fungicides or bactericides can treat some cankers, often the only available treatment is to destroy the infected plant to contain the disease.

Examples

 * Apple canker, caused by the fungus Neonectria galligena
 * Ash bacterial canker, now understood to be caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas savastanoi, rather than Pseudomonas syringae. After DNA-relatedness studies Pseudomonas savastanoi has been instated as a new species.
 * Butternut canker, caused by the fungus Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum
 * Bleeding canker of horse chestnut, caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv. aesculi
 * Citrus canker, caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis
 * Cypress canker, caused by the fungus Seiridium cardinale
 * Foamy bark canker of oaks in California, caused by the fungus Geosmithia putterillii
 * Dogwood anthracnose, caused by the fungus Discula destructiva
 * Grape canker, caused by the fungus Eutypa lata
 * Honey locust canker, caused by the fungus Thyronectria austro-americana
 * Larch canker, caused by the fungus Lachnellula willkommii
 * Mulberry canker, caused by the fungus Gibberella baccata
 * Oak canker, caused by the fungus Diplodia quercina
 * Pine pitch canker, caused by the fungus Fusarium circinatum
 * Plane anthracnose, caused by the fungus Apiognomonia veneta
 * Poplar canker, caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas populi
 * Rapeseed stem canker, caused by the blackleg fungus Leptosphaeria maculans
 * Rose cankers, caused by the fungus Leptosphaeria coniothyrium and Cryptosporella umbrina
 * Scleroderris canker, caused by the fungus Gremmeniella abietina
 * Southwest canker, caused by environmental conditions (frost damage and sun-scalding)
 * Strawberry anthracnose, caused by the fungus species complexes Colletotrichum acutatum and C. gloeosporioides (incl. C. fragariae)
 * Tomato anthracnose, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum coccodes
 * Willow anthracnose, caused by the fungus Marssonina salicicola

title: Canker


text:
Old Slab

Old Slab is a design of residential blocks used in Hong Kong public housing estates. The buildings of this type consist of one or more elongated rectangular blocks, joining end by end. As of 2018 there were 257 of these structures in the city.

title: Old Slab


text:
Gottschalk Eduard Guhrauer

Gottschalk Eduard Guhrauer (15 May 1809 – 5 January 1854) was a German philologist and biographer. He is known principally for his 1842 biography of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and his completion (1853) of Theodor Wilhelm Danzel's biography of Lessing, G. E. Lessing, sein Leben und seine Werke (1850–53, 2 volumes).

He was born in Bojanowo (then in Grand Duchy of Warsaw, now in Poland) and died in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland).

He studied philology and philosophy in Breslau and Berlin. Under the influence of the English missionary William Ayerst, Guhrauer converted from Judaism to Christianity in 1835. He traveled to Hanover in 1836 and Paris in 1838 to research Leibniz's biography and works. After his return to Germany, he worked as a librarian at the University of Breslau, where he became a professor in 1843. Guhrauer also wrote on Jean Bodin, Joachim Jungius, the Kurmainz (Electorate of Mainz), and the Latin poem Vaticinium Lehninense.

works

 * Mémoire sur le Projet de Leibnitz Relatif à l'Expedition d'Egypte Proposé à Louis XIV en 1672, Paris, 1839.
 * Kur-Mainz in der Epoche von 1672, Hamburg, 1839 - Kurmainz in the era of 1672.
 * Lessings Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts, Kritisch und Philosophisch Erörtert ib. 1841 - Lessing's Education of Mankind, critically and philosophically explained.
 * Das Heptaplomeres des Jean Bodin, ib. 1841 - The heptaplomeres of Jean Bodin.
 * G. W. v. Leibniz, eine Biographie, Breslau, 1842, supplement 1846. - Leibniz, a biography.
 * Joachim Jungius und Sein Zeitalter, Stuttgart, 1850. - Jungius and his era.
 * Die Weissagung von Lehnin. Eine Monographie, Breslau, 1850.

In addition, he edited Leibniz's Deutsche Schriften (2 volumes: 1838–40), and Goethe's Briefwechsel mit Knebel (Goethe's correspondence with Karl Ludwig von Knebel, 1851).

title: Gottschalk Eduard Guhrauer


text:
Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies

The Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies was a junior Ministerial post in the United Kingdom government, subordinate to the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies.

In 1801 the offices of Under-Secretary of State for War and Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies were merged to create the new office. They were separated again in 1854.

Under-Secretaries of State for War and the Colonies, 1801-1854
Separate posts of Under-Secretary of State for War and Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies re-established 1854


text:
Pennsylvania Railroad class K5

The Pennsylvania Railroad's class K5 were experimental 4-6-2 "Pacific" types, built in 1929 to see if a larger Pacific than the standard K4s was worthwhile. Two prototypes were built, #5698 at the PRR's own Altoona Works, and #5699 by the Baldwin Locomotive Works. Although classified identically, the two locomotives differed in many aspects, as detailed below. They were both fitted with a much fatter boiler than the K4s, but dimensionally similar to those of the I1s 2-10-0 "Decapods". Most other dimensions were enlarged over the K4s as well; the exceptions being the 70 ft2 grate area and the 80 in drivers.

In comparison:

The K5's factor of adhesion was much worse than the K4s'. This is because the K5 was more powerful than the K4s but with little more weight on drivers (and thus adhesion). Factors of adhesion below 4 are often considered undesirable for steam locomotives, and the K5 design did prove to be rather less sure-footed because of it. For this reason, 4-8-2 "Mountain" and 4-8-4 "Northern" designs with more drivers (and thus a greater allowable weight on drivers within the same axle load limit) were generally considered preferable for locomotives as powerful as the K5.

Both K5 locomotives were given a 130-P-75 tender carrying 12,475 USgal of water and 22 ST of coal. Surprisingly for such large locomotives built at such a late date, both were equipped for hand firing. Both were fitted with Worthington-pattern feedwater heaters, power reverse, unflanged main drivers, and both used nickel steel boiler shells. As built, both carried their bell on the smokebox front, hung below the headlight; this arrangement was common on other roads but at the time unique on the PRR.

Altoona-built #5698
K5 #5698 was built at the PRR's Juniata Works (Juniata 4205 / 1929) in 1929, but having a works plate Altoona Works 4205 / 1929. This according to late Mr Ivan W. Saunders, Pittsburgh, Pa. A one-piece cast steel locomotive bed was used; this produced the locomotive frame, cylinders, and smokebox saddle as one giant steel casting. This casting was produced by Commonwealth Steel's Granite City, Illinois plant. This cast locomotive bed design was a successful trial, and was repeated on 1930s order for 100 M1a class 4-8-2 "Mountains", as was the Worthington feedwater heater with mixing chamber behind the stack.

K5 #5698 used conventional Walschaerts valve gear and piston valves, and developed a starting tractive effort of 54675 lbf.

During the New York World’s Fair of 1939-40, K5 5698 was displayed along with several other PRR locomotives at the fair. In 1941, following the fair, 5698 was modified with a smokebox extension and a different feedwater heater within.

5698 was again modified by 1948 with a new (one-piece) smoke box, new cylinders with outside steam pipes, and “modern” front end.

Baldwin-built #5699
In contrast, Baldwin-built #5699 (Baldwin 60660 / 1928) used a conventional, fabricated locomotive frame, longer smokebox with the feedwater mixing chamber in front of the stack and the generator mounted on the right side (below the stack), and separate cylinder plus half-saddle castings. The innovation trialled on #5699 was its use of Caprotti valve gear, a poppet valve gear invented in Italy. The greater efficiencies of this gear gave the locomotive a higher tractive effort of 58092 lbf.

Although efficient, the Caprotti gear proved less reliable than the regular Walschaerts valve gear and required more frequent, more skilled maintenance, and in 1937 it was replaced by Walschaerts gear driving regular piston valves, making the two locomotives (except for frames) functionally identical.

Service life
The two locomotives were originally assigned to haul Philadelphia to Pittsburgh through trains. After the electrification reached Harrisburg, they were reassigned to the twisting Harrisburg–Baltimore route. Finally, they were reassigned to Pittsburgh–Crestline trains.

Both were updated after World War 2 with the standard front-end "beauty treatment" given to most K4s locomotives: a sheet-steel drop coupler pilot, higher-mounted headlight, and turbo-generator mounted on the smokebox front for easier access. They lost their unique bell placement at this time for a location equally unique for the PRR: under the generator-service platform on the front of the smokebox.

Conclusion
Like many experimental locomotives, the K5 was only a qualified success. Both locomotives performed well enough to be kept in service, but they did not perform so outstandingly as to persuade the PRR to build more. They proved that building a larger Pacific than the K4s was not worthwhile; the reduced factor of adhesion limited the locomotives' ability to put their greater power to full use. A larger locomotive with eight driving wheels was needed.

This route was eventually taken, although in striking form with the T1 4-4-4-4 duplex locomotive, but the Great Depression and the huge cost of electrification meant that PRR steam locomotive development effectively ceased after the K5 and M1a. The electrical department became the thrust of PRR locomotive policy, and the displaced steam locomotives from electrified territory gave the PRR a surplus of locomotives, giving little incentive to develop more.

The cast steel locomotive bed and Worthington feedwater heater both proved themselves, and they became a feature of most PRR steam locomotives built after the K5, and indeed those on many other railroads.

Both locomotives were scrapped.

title: Pennsylvania Railroad class K5


text: User talk:205.213.44.1

title: User talk:205.213.44.1


text:
Collingridge dilemma

The Collingridge dilemma is a methodological quandary in which efforts to influence or control the further development of technology face a double-bind problem: The idea was coined by David Collingridge at the University of Aston Technology Policy Unit in his 1980 book The Social Control of Technology. The dilemma is a basic point of reference in technology assessment debates.
 * An information problem: impacts cannot be easily predicted until the technology is extensively developed and widely used.
 * A power problem: control or change is difficult when the technology has become entrenched.

Background
In "This Explains Everything," edited by John Brockman, technology critic Evgeny Morozov explains Collingridge's idea by quoting Collingridge himself: "When change is easy, the need for it cannot be foreseen; when the need for change is apparent, change has become expensive, difficult, and time-consuming."

In "The Pacing Problem, the Collingridge Dilemma & Technological Determinism" by Adam Thierer, a senior research fellow at the Mercatus Center at George Mason University, the Collingridge dilemma is related to the "pacing problem" in technology regulation. The "pacing problem" refers to the notion that technological innovation is increasingly outpacing the ability of laws and regulations to keep up, first explained in Larry Downes' 2009 book The Laws of Disruption, in which he states that "technology changes exponentially, but social, economic, and legal systems change incrementally". In Thierer's essay, he tries to correlate these two concepts by saying that "the 'Collingridge dilemma' is simply a restatement of the pacing problem but with greater stress on the social drivers behind the pacing problem and an implicit solution to 'the problem' in the form of preemptive control of new technologies while they are still young and more manageable."

One solution to Collingridge dilemma is the "Precautionary Principle." Adam Thierer defines it as the belief that new innovations should not be embraced "until their developers can prove that they will not cause any harm to individuals, groups, specific entities, cultural norms, or various existing laws, norms, or traditions". If they fail to do so, this innovation should be "prohibited, curtailed, modified, junked, or ignored". This definition has been criticized by Kevin Kelly who believe such a principle is ill-defined and is biased against anything new because it drastically elevates the threshold for anything innovative. According to the American philosopher Max More, the Precautionary Principle "is very good for one thing — stopping technological progress...not because it leads in bad directions, but because it leads in no direction at all." But the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development defines the precautionary principle as ""Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation." So rather than conceived as imposing no change until proof of safety is produced, this definition of the precautionary principle is meant to legitimate protective measures, attempting to avoid the desire of a technology's advocates to delay legislation until irrefutable evidence of harm can be produced.

Collingridge's solution was not exactly the precautionary principle but rather the application of "Intelligent Trial and Error," a process by which decision making power remains decentralized, changes are manageable, technologies and infrastructures are designed to be flexible, and the overall process is oriented towards learning quickly while keeping the potential costs as low as possible. Collingridge advocated ensuring that innovation occurs more incrementally so as to better match the pace of human learning and avoiding technologies whose design was antithetical to an Intelligent Trial and Error process.

Current context
The Collingridge Dilemma applies well to a world where Artificial Intelligence and Cloud are gaining ground and developers are consuming new technology at a rapid pace. Governing AI, Cloud or other similar exponential technology without slowing the pace of development of the technology is a big challenge, governments and organizations now face.

title: Collingridge dilemma


text:
Category:Welsh novelists

 * Novelists from Wales, who write in Welsh, English, or any other language.

title: Category:Welsh novelists


text:
Talk:Nicolas Sarkozy

Prince of Andorra removed from the introduction
I totally agree that he was ex officio coprince of andorra. But
 * Andorra is a micro state of 80 000 person at the South of the Country that requires no actual political decisions from the President (in fact some of them do not even accomplish their customary official visit there)
 * this is only one of a slew of other ex officio titles that all French Presidents have
 * this is already mentionned at the bottom of the page (along with some of these titles) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Sarkozy#Offices_and_titles
 * this isn't mentioned the intros of the other French presidents (fr or eng) so this introduces an inconsistency.

So my take on it is that, this fact, while totally true, is neither specific to Sarkozy nor important enough to be mentioned in the intro :) GLange2011 (talk) 23 February 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree, mention of the Andorra connection belongs in the article on the French presidency, more than it does on those of each individual office holder, and even there it doesn't IMO belong in the lead. --DoubleGrazing (talk) 08:29, 23 February 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree with GLange2011. --Cheep (talk) 12:49, 23 February 2021 (UTC)

 * For the record, the title does appear in the leads for François Hollande and Emmanuel Macron. I tend to disagree, anyway, because even if it is in name only, the French president is one of the co-heads of state of Andorra. Despite the fact that it only has a population 80,000 people, it is a sovereign nation. We identify Macron as the present co-head of state in the infobox at Andorra. ‡ Єl Cid of Valencia  talk  15:29, 23 February 2021 (UTC)

 * You are correct ‡ Єl Cid of Valencia, it does appear in the lead of some other French Presidents. And you are totally correct that Andorra is a sovereign nation. And it weights on the balance.

 * However:
 * - in the info box, the link "other offices held" does lead to "other mandates", where Andorra does appear. I totally agree that it could be a problem if Andorra were linked to Sarkozy without Sarkozy being linked to Andorra. But IMO it's not the case [edit 16:32]
 * - in my own appreciation, I don't think it weighs enough to make it "one of the most important points of [an] article" on Sarkozy (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Elements)

 * - as DoubleGrazing said it much more eloquently than me, as it is ex officio, "it rather belongs in the article on the French presidency" GLange2011 (talk) 16:24, 23 February 2021 (UTC)

 * I stand by my original arguments, as I think this is different from typical 'symbolic' posts as he is considered one of the heads of state of Andorra. However, since this discussion is not getting much attention, feel free to remove the title for now, not withstanding future discussions. Thanks for the congenial discussion. Cheers ‡ Єl Cid of Valencia  talk  14:03, 24 February 2021 (UTC)
 * Seeing as it does appear in the leads of other articles of French presidents, and because it is an official role as the head of state of a sovereign nation, I believe it is significant enough to go in the lead. -- Willthacheerleader18 (talk) 17:38, 29 March 2021 (UTC)

 * There are 2 arguments there, both totally valid.
 * 1 consistency. It is totally true that it appears in several President's pages in the English language. It is however mentioned in none of the French language pages. So... well, I don't know...
 * 2 content of the lead/ 1st line of the lead. Is being the head of a state automatically important enough to be mentioned explicitly in the lead? Even if it is part of being a French president? Even if it is a microstate of 80000 p. and it occupies 0 to 3 hours of their total 5 years mandate? I would say no, but that's my own appreciation.

 * However if we take the page of the Queen of England, for whom the problem would be much worse, the 1st line of the lead only reads "Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; born 21 April 1926)[a] is Queen of the United Kingdom and 15 other Commonwealth realms.[b]". The rest is either in the other paragraphs of the lead, in the text, and on a separate page (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_titles_and_honours_of_Elizabeth_II)
 * Maybe, as a middle ground, we could move it further down the lead? After all the style guide says "However, try to not overload the first sentence by describing everything notable about the subject; instead, spread relevant information over the lead section." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#First_sentence"
 * (BTW I'm glad we're having this discussion, this is interesting and I've read a lot about Elizabeth II's titles now :) GLange2011 (talk) 10:48, 23 April 2021 (UTC)

Sarkozy and 13 co-defendants have been convicted for the Bygmalion scandal
Please include it in the article. I apologize for not using additional sources at first.2601:447:4000:220:5EB:69E8:5A8B:EAF7 (talk) 21:16, 11 February 2022 (UTC)

Should the first sentence say Sarkozy is a convicted felon ?
I see that the first sentence of the article says that Sarkozy is a convicted felon. However according to french law, corruption isn't a felony. It's a "délit", which is a less serious thing than a "crime".
 * nb Comment left unsigned by NeverSeenAgain

 * USER:NeverSeenAgain 'Convicted felon' is a US term/concept and neither French law, nor the BBC source use the term. BBC specifies his crime. Additionally, it is nonsense to imply that his criminality is more notable than his political life - the corruption charge only makes sense as an abuse of his political power.I've amended, to put the conviction after mention of his presidency but further rephrasing might be apt.Pincrete (talk) 06:40, 1 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Why not use a translation of the end of the introduction of the French version of this page :
 * "In 2023, in the Sarkozy-Azibert case, he was sentenced on appeal to three years' imprisonment for corruption and influence peddling. In 2024, in the Bygmalion case, he was sentenced on appeal to one year in prison for illegal financing of his 2012 election campaign. In the Sarkozy-Gaddafi case, he is accused of taking bribes from the former Libyan dictator in exchange for illegal financing of his election campaign."
 * There is also the Bettencourt affair, the Élysée polls affair and the Reso-Garantia affair, but it may be too much to mention them all in the introduction. Eleventh1 (talk) 08:55, 1 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nicolas Sarkozy


text:
Crows (candy)

Crows are a licorice candy identical in shape and texture to Dots. Their mascot is a crow with a top hat and cane.

History
Crows were invented in the 1890s by confectioners Henrique Cataldi and Joseph Maison. The Black Crows trademark was registered in 1911. There is an urban legend that Crows were to be called "Black Rose", but the printer misheard the name as "Black Crows" and printed wrappers with the wrong name on them. This myth has been debunked.

In 1972, Tootsie Roll Industries acquired the Crows brand by purchasing the Mason Division of the Candy Corporation of America.

title: Crows (candy)


text:
Tenterhook

Tenterhooks or tenter hooks are hooked nails in a device called a tenter. Tenters were wooden frames which were used as far back as the 14th century in the process of making woollen cloth. They are now superseded by stenter pins.

The phrase "on tenterhooks" has become a metaphor for nervous anticipation.

Cloth-making
After a piece of cloth was woven, it still contained oil and dirt from the fleece. A craftsman called a fuller (also called a tucker or wa(u)lker, in Scots, from the word 'Walker', as used in most of the UK mainland), cleaned the woollen cloth in a fulling mill, and then had to dry it carefully, to prevent the woollen fabric from shrinking. To prevent this shrinkage, the fuller would place the wet cloth on a large wooden frame, called a tenter, and leave it to dry outdoors. The lengths of wet cloth were stretched on the tenter using tenterhooks (hooked nails whose long shank was driven into the wood) all around the perimeter of the frame to which the cloth's edges (selvedges) were fixed, so that as it dried the cloth would retain its shape and size.

There were tentergrounds (or tenter-fields), large open spaces full of tenters, wherever cloth was made, and as a result the word "tenter" is found in place names throughout the United Kingdom and its empire, for example several streets in Spitalfields, London and Tenterfield House in Haddington, East Lothian, Scotland, which in turn gave its name to Tenterfield in New South Wales, Australia.

The word tenter is still used today to refer to production line machinery employed to stretch polyester films and similar fabrics. The spelling stenter is also found.

Metaphor
By the mid-18th century, the phrase on tenterhooks came to mean being in a state of tension, uneasiness, anxiety, or suspense, i.e., figuratively stretched like the cloth on the tenter.

John Ford's 1633 play Broken Heart contains the lines: "There is no faith in woman. Passion, O, be contain'd! My very heart-strings Are on the tenters."

In 1690 the periodical The General History of Europe used the term in the modern sense: "The mischief is, they will not meet again these two years, so that all business must hang upon the tenterhooks till then."

In 1826, English periodical Monthly magazine or British register of literature, sciences, and the belles-lettres contained the line "I hope (though the wish is a cruel one) that my fair readers, if any such readers have deigned to follow me thus far, are on tenterhooks to know to whom the prize was adjudged." In a letter to his wife the same year, American educator Francis Wayland (waiting for his promised appointment as President of Brown University) wrote "I was never so much on tenter hooks before."

The misuse of tender hooks instead of tenter hooks is one of the most common mistakes in the English language according to a survey in 2017.

title: Tenterhook


text:
Kate Thornton

Kate Thornton (born 7 February 1973) is an English journalist and broadcaster, best known as the first presenter of The X Factor (2004–2006) and for presenting daytime shows including Loose Women (2009–2011) and This Morning (2009–2012). In 2010, she co-presented the first series of 71 Degrees North alongside Gethin Jones.

Journalism
In 1995, at 21 she became the youngest editor of pop magazine Smash Hits. She left a year later, having been unable to prevent a further slide in sales of the magazine. In 1997, she became a Features Editor at the Sunday Times, a post she held until 2001, and also a contributing Editor for magazine Marie Claire, in which position she continued until 2003.

Television
Whilst undertaking these new editorial roles, Thornton began a second career in television. In February 1997, Thornton was given her first TV presenting job, on the ITV current affairs programme Straight Up. She was tasked with putting together a photo tribute with music for Princess Diana on the day of her death. In an interview in March 2011, Thornton said: "...because it was a Sunday, the music library was shut and the only thing I had in my car, the only piece of music that was appropriate was "Candle in the Wind" from Elton John's greatest hits." Colleagues attributed the subsequent airplay and then the re-recording of the song to this event. Thornton is quoted as having been doubtful initially, but later having come to accept the possibility: "I never dared to assume for one minute that I was the link. But Nick Knowles (co-presenter on the show) has convinced me that whatever came as a result of it was all down to me."

Thornton was the first presenter of the UK series of The X Factor. She presented three series of the show from 2004 until 2006 before being replaced by Dermot O'Leary. Thornton later anchored ITV's daytime series Loose Women, in rotation with Andrea McLean. She presented 233 episodes of the show from 2009. She, and fellow Loose Woman Zoë Tyler, were replaced in 2011 by Carol Vorderman and Sally Lindsay.

Thornton was a regular stand-in presenter on This Morning and in 2010, she co-presented the first series of 71 Degrees North alongside Gethin Jones. Neither returned for the second series. In 2010, she narrated The Nation's Favourite Abba Song. Thornton also presented A Night with Will Young in 2011. She guest presented six episodes of Lorraine in 2012.

Thornton also presented Gravity Games for BBC Two, Women: The Naked Truth Honest for Channel 4 and Breasts Uncupped for Sky1.

She currently hosts The Royal Beat - a topical royal chat show - on True Royalty TV, which is available via Amazon Prime and Apple TV. According to the blurb on the official website: “Every episode goes behind the headlines to bring to viewers fresh, detailed insight into the biggest royal stories from the UK and around the world.”

Radio
Thornton has presented a number of programmes for BBC Radio 2 since 2002. Along with presenting, Thornton was also the writer of the radio documentary From Band to Brand in 2004, and the creator of the radio series Line of Enquiry, inviting an audience to put questions to a number of celebrities, which began in 2007.

From 10 March until 28 April 2013, Thornton presented The Boots Feel Good Forum, a radio show dedicated to health and fitness, which aired on Real Radio and Smooth Radio.

In 2014, Thornton presented Paper Cuts, a radio series for BBC Radio 2. The show ran for four series and Thornton would chat to celebrities about the headlines they had been involved in. The first guest was Craig Revel Horwood.

She joined Greatest Hits Radio on 26 February 2022, where she broadcasts every Saturday and Sunday.

Other work
Thornton launched cashback site TBSeen in January 2016, along with TV presenters Myleene Klass, Amanda Byram and Denise Van Outen, celebrity chef Lisa Faulkner, actresses Tamzin Outhwaite, Julie Graham and singers Heidi Range and the band All Saints, Nicole Appleton, Natalie Appleton, Mel Blatt and Shaznay Lewis. TBSeen entered administration in September 2018.

Thornton hosted the live Strictly Come Dancing tour in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2012 and 2013.

In 2019 Kate launched "White Wine Question Time", a podcast that sees her sit down with a celebrity guest each week to ask them three thought provoking questions over three glasses of wine. The podcast first aired in January 2019 with guests Heidi Range, Lisa Faulkner and Angela Griffin. There are currently over 300 episodes in the back catalogue featuring the likes of HRH Princess Eugenie, actress Hannah Waddingham, award winning singer Raye and a host of household names.

During the UK's COVID-19 lockdown in 2020, she also created and hosted "Up Close And Socially Distant", a video series for Yahoo!, where she talked over video call to famous celebrities, front line workers and those leading initiatives to help serve the community during lockdown. The show ran for nine weeks and won a Silver Lovie award.

Personal life
Thornton began dating DJ Darren Emerson in 2004. The couple became engaged in 2007. She gave birth in 2008. The relationship with Emerson ended in 2011.

In January 2012, Thornton said that after leaving Loose Women she had enrolled at college to study counselling because her television career had "hit the kerb".

Filmography

 * Television
 * Radio

title: Kate Thornton


text:
Raido

*Raidō "ride, journey" is the reconstructed Proto-Germanic name of the r- rune of the Elder Futhark. The name is attested for the same rune in all three rune poems, Old Norwegian Ræið Icelandic Reið, Anglo-Saxon Rad, as well as for the corresponding letter of the Gothic alphabet 𐍂 r, called raida. The shape of the rune may be directly derived from Latin R.

title: Raido


text:
1936 in rail transport

January events

 * January 1 –
 * Hebikubo Station (蛇窪駅), in Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan, is renamed to Togoshi-kōen Station (戸越公園駅).
 * Société des Chemins de fer vicinaux du Mayumbe, the company that built and operated the Mayumbe line beginning in 1898, is merged with the Office des Transports Coloniaux (OTRACO).
 * January 13 – Première of British documentary film Night Mail made by the GPO Film Unit.
 * January 29 – The Sørland Line in Norway takes electric traction into use between Kongsberg and Hjuksebø.

March events

 * March 20 – The 1936 flood ends train service on the Maine Central Railroad Rangeley branch north of Rumford, Maine.
 * March 25 – The 200 in mirror blank for the Palomar observatory begins its cross-country trip aboard a special railroad car.

May events

 * May 7 – The Bratsberg Line in Norway takes electric traction into use.
 * May 11 – Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft's BR 05 class locomotive number 05 002 sets the world's speed record for steam locomotives at 200.4 km/h (124.5 mph) on a run between Hamburg and Berlin.
 * May 12 – The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway inaugurates the all-diesel powered Super Chief passenger train between Chicago, Illinois, and Los Angeles, California.
 * May 15 – The first City of Los Angeles passenger train makes its debut, using the streamliner trainset M-10002, running from Chicago, Illinois, to Los Angeles, California, on the Chicago and North Western Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad.
 * May 17 – Illinois Central’s streamliner Green Diamond makes its debut, running between Chicago, Illinois and St. Louis, Missouri.
 * May 20 – The first diesel locomotive rolls out of EMC’s LaGrange plant in McCook, Illinois: a 100-ton, 600 hp switcher built for the Santa Fe Railroad.
 * May – Union Pacific Railroad takes delivery of the first of the M-10003-6 streamliner power cars.

June events

 * June 14 – The M-10004 streamliner trainset enters service on the City of San Francisco passenger train.
 * June 18 – The first City of Denver passenger train makes its debut running from Chicago, Illinois, to Denver, Colorado, on the Chicago and North Western Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad.

July events

 * July 15 – The New York Central introduces the Mercury passenger train between Detroit, Michigan, and Cleveland, Ohio.

August events

 * August 1 – The New Haven Railroad tests a new streamliner: a two-car Besler steam motor train.

September events

 * September 13 – Last regular passenger trains operate on Ashover Light Railway, the last steam-worked public passenger services on a narrow gauge railway in England.
 * September 18 – Canadian Pacific Railway 4-4-4 number 3003 pulls a newly designed lightweight passenger train at 112.5 mph (181 km/h) near Saint-Télesphore, Quebec, Canada.

October events

 * October – Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad inaugurates the Sam Houston Zephyr passenger train.
 * October 23 – One of the new ten-car Denver Zephyr trainsets makes a special run nonstop from Chicago to Denver, breaking the 1934 speed record of the Pioneer Zephyr between the two cities.

November events

 * November 8 – Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad inaugurates the Denver Zephyr passenger train.

December events

 * December 9 – The Østfold Line in Norway takes electric traction into use between Oslo East Station and Ljan.
 * December 18 – The Twin Cities Zephyr, an articulated trainset, is placed into service between Chicago, Illinois, and Minneapolis-St. Paul.
 * December 20 – Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad inaugurates the Ozark State Zephyr passenger train.

Unknown date events

 * Illinois Central's Illinois Central 121 trainset is built by Pullman-Standard.
 * Bruce Church, T. R. Merrill, Gene Harden and Ken Nutting form the Growers Ice Company to ship bulk carloads of lettuce by rail from Salinas, California
 * Southern Railway (Great Britain) signs exclusive 10-year contract with English Electric for the supply of traction equipment for its electric multiple units. This will be twice renewed and 5,500 EE507 traction motors will be supplied under it.

Births

 * January 12 – William McAlpine, British businessman and railway enthusiast (died 2018).

June deaths

 * June 8 – Alfred de Glehn, English-born French designer of steam locomotives (born 1848).

November deaths

 * November 9 – Henry Clay Hall, American commissioner for Interstate Commerce Commission beginning in 1914, chairman of same 1917-1928 (born 1860).
 * November 22 – Oris Paxton Van Sweringen, American financier who, with his brother Mantis, controlled the Nickel Plate Road and other eastern United States railroads (born 1879).

title: 1936 in rail transport


text:
User talk:Jocadiz

Hi!, this is a test

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. I've removed the links you added here to Example.ogg and Example.jpg since they show up when checking for vandalism and keeping them here would make it harder to find which edits are vandalism and which are tests. You might like to start by reading the tutorial and introducing yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask at the help desk or on my talk page. Angela. 02:46, Jan 28, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jocadiz


text:
Salix herbacea

Salix herbacea, the dwarf willow, least willow or snowbed willow, is a species of tiny creeping willow (family Salicaceae) adapted to survive in harsh arctic and subarctic environments. Distributed widely in alpine and arctic environments around the North Atlantic Ocean, it is one of the smallest woody plants.

Distribution
Salix herbacea is adapted to survive in harsh environments, and has a wide distribution on both sides of the North Atlantic, in arctic northwest Asia, northern Europe, Greenland, and eastern Canada, and further south on high mountains, south to the Pyrenees, the northern Apennines, the Alps and the Rila in Europe, and the northern Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States. It grows in tundra and rocky moorland, usually at over 1500 m elevation in the south of its range but down to sea level in the Arctic.

Description
The dwarf willow is one of the smallest woody plants in the world. It typically grows to only 1 – in height, with spreading prostrate branches, reddish brown and very sparsely hairy at first, growing just underground forming open mats. The leaves are deciduous, rounded, crenate to toothed and shiny green with paler undersides, 0.3–2 cm long and broad. Like other willows, it is dioecious, with male and female catkins on separate plants. As a result, the plant's appearance varies; the female catkins are red-coloured when ripe, while the male catkins are yellow-coloured. In colder biomes with habitat fragmentation, geographic isolation, and heterogeneous availability of resources, the dwarf willow often exhibits clonal propagation of genets in which ramets are physiologically integrated and thereby share resources. Some genets of the dwarf willow in the Northern Apennines in Italy are at least 2000 years old.

title: Salix herbacea


text:
Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs

The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs is a vacant junior position in the British government, subordinate to both the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and since 1945 also to the Minister of State for Foreign Affairs. The post is based at the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, which was created by the merger of the Foreign Office, where the position was initially based, with the Commonwealth Office in 1968 and the Department for International Development in 2020. Notable holders of the office include Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville, John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley, Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon, George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, and Anthony Eden.


text:
Islam in Afghanistan

Islam in Afghanistan began to be practiced after the Arab Islamic conquest of Afghanistan from the 7th to the 10th centuries, with the last holdouts to conversion submitting in the late 19th century. It was generally accepted by local communities as a replacement of Zoroastrianism and Buddhism, local tribes began converting to the new religion. Islam is the official state religion of Afghanistan, with approximately 99.7% of the Afghan population being Muslim. Roughly 85% practice Sunni Islam, while around 10% are Shias. Most Shias belong to the Twelver branch and only a smaller number follow Ismailism.

After the Islamic conquest of Persia was completed, the Muslim Arabs then began to move towards the lands east of Persia and in 652 captured Herat. By the end of the 10th century CE the Turkic Ghaznavids subdued Kabul Shahi kings.

History

During the 7th century, the Rashidun Caliphate Arabs entered the territory that is now Afghanistan after defeating the Sassanian Persians in Nihawand. After this colossal defeat, the last Sassanid emperor, Yazdegerd III, fled eastward deep into Central Asia. In pursuing Yazdegerd, the Arabs entered the area from northeastern Iran via Herat, where they stationed a large portion of their army before advancing toward northern Afghanistan.

Many of the inhabitants of northern Afghanistan accepted Islam through Umayyad missionary efforts, particularly under the reign of Caliph Hisham and Umar ibn AbdulAziz. In the south, Abdur Rahman bin Samara made incursions into Zabulistan which was ruled by the Zunbils.

During the reign of Al-Mu'tasim and his successors, Islam was generally practiced by most inhabitants of the region, and after Abbasid decline, under Ya'qub-i Laith Saffari, Islam was the predominant religion of Kabul and other major cities of Afghanistan. The father of Abu Hanifa, Thabit bin Zuta, was born in the territory that is now Afghanistan. He emigrated to Kufa (in Iraq), where Hanifa was born. Later, the Samanids propagated Sunni Islam deep into Central Asia, and the first complete translation of the Qur'an into Persian was made in the 9th century. Since then, Islam has dominated the country's religious landscape. Islamic leaders have entered the political sphere at various times of crisis but rarely exercised secular authority for long.

The remnants of a Shahi presence in Peshawar were expelled by Mahmud of Ghazni in 998 and 1030. The Ghaznavids were replaced by the Ghurid dynasty who expanded the already powerful Islamic empire. The Friday Mosque of Herat is one of the oldest mosques in the country, believed to have been first built under the Ghurids in the 12th century. During this period, known as the Islamic Golden Age, Afghanistan became the second major center of learning in the Muslim world after Baghdad.

After the Mongol invasion and destruction, the Timurids rebuilt the area and once again made it a center of Islamic learning. Shia Islam made its way to southern Afghanistan during the Safavid rule in the 16th century. Until Mir Wais Hotak liberated the Afghans in 1709, the Kandahar region of Afghanistan was often a battleground between the Shia Safavids and the Sunni Mughals.

Conquest by Abdur Rahman Khan

The first systematic employment of Islam as an instrument of state-building was initiated by King Abdur Rahman Khan (1880–1901) during his drive toward centralization. He decreed that all laws must comply with Islamic law and thus elevated the Shariah over customary laws embodied in the Pashtunwali. The ulama were enlisted to legitimize and sanction his state efforts as well as his central authority. This enhanced the religious community on the one hand, but as they were increasingly inducted into the bureaucracy as servants of the state, the religious leadership was ultimately weakened. Many economic privileges enjoyed by religious personalities and institutions were restructured within the framework of the state; the propagation of learning, once the sole prerogative of the ulama, was closely supervised; and the Amir became the supreme arbiter of justice.

Abdur Rahman Khan's successors continued and expanded his policies as they increased the momentum of secularization. Islam remained central to interactions, but the religious establishment remained essentially non-political, functioning as a moral rather than a political influence. Nevertheless, Islam asserted itself in times of national crisis. Moreover, when the religious leadership considered themselves severely threatened, charismatic religious personalities periodically employed Islam to rally disparate groups in opposition to the state. They rose up on several occasions against King Amanullah Shah (1919–1929), for example, in protest against reforms they believed to be western intrusions inimical to Islam.

Subsequent rulers, mindful of traditional attitudes antithetical to secularization, were careful to underline the compatibility of Islam with modernization. Even so, and despite its pivotal position within the society, which continued to draw no distinction between religion and state, the role of religion in state affairs continued to decline.

The 1931 Constitution made Hanafi Shariah the state religion, while the 1964 Constitution simply prescribed that the state should conduct its religious ritual according to the Hanafi school. The 1977 Constitution declared Islam the religion of Afghanistan, but made no mention that the state ritual should be Hanafi. The Penal Code of 1976 and the Civil Code of 1977, covering the entire field of social justice, represent major attempts to cope with elements of secular law based on, but superseded by, other systems. Courts, for instance, were enjoined to consider cases first according to secular law, resorting to Shariah in areas secular law did not cover. By 1978, the government of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) openly expressed its aversion to the religious establishment. Nonetheless, Islamic rhetoric was still utilized by PDPA politicians throughout its existence, with Hafizullah Amin declaring that the PDPA was based upon Islamic principles. The largely secular PDPA rule precipitated the fledgling Islamist Movement into a national revolt; Islam moved from its passive stance on the periphery to play an active role.

Politicized Islam in Afghanistan represents a break from Afghan traditions. The Islamist Movement originated in 1958 among faculties of Kabul University, particularly in the Faculty of Islamic Law, which had been founded in 1952 with the stated purpose of raising the quality of religious teaching to accommodate modern science and technology. The founders were largely professors influenced by the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, a party formed in the 1930s that was dedicated to Islamic revivalism and social, economic, and political equity. Their objective is to come to terms with the modern world through the development of a political ideology based on Islam. The Afghan leaders, while indebted to many of these concepts, did not forge strong ties to similar movements in other countries.

The liberalization of government attitudes following the passage of the 1964 Constitution ushered in a period of intense activism among students at Kabul University. Professors and their students set up the Muslim Youth Organization (Sazmani Jawanani Musulman) in the mid-1960s at the same time that the leftists were also forming many parties. Initially communist students outnumbered the Muslim students, but by 1970 the Muslim Youth had gained a majority in student elections. Their membership was recruited from university faculties and from secondary schools in several cities such as Mazari Sharif and Herat. Some of these professors and students became the leaders of the Mujahideen rebels in the 1980s.

Radicalization and NATO presence
The 1979 Soviet invasion in support of a communist government triggered a major intervention of religion into Afghan political conflict, and Islam united the multiethnic political opposition. With the takeover of government by the PDPA in April 1978, Islam had already become central to uniting the opposition against the communist ideology of the new rulers. As a politico-religious system, Islam is well-suited to the needs of a diverse, unorganized, often mutually antagonistic citizenry wishing to forge a united front against a common enemy, and war permitted various groups within the mujahideen to put into effect competing concepts of organization.

The Soviet invasion and the Iranian Revolution not only led national uprisings but also the importation of foreign radical Muslims to Afghanistan. The mujahideen leaders were charismatic figures with dyadic ties to followers. In many cases military and political leaders replaced the tribal leadership; at times the religious leadership was strengthened; often the religious combined with the political leadership. Followers selected their local leaders on the basis of personal choice and precedence among regions, sects, ethnic groups or tribes, but the major leaders rose to prominence through their ties to outsiders who controlled the resources of money and arms.

With the support of foreign aid, the mujahideen were ultimately successful in their jihad to drive out the Soviet forces, but not in their attempts to construct a political alternative to govern Afghanistan after their victory. Throughout the war, the mujahideen were never fully able to replace traditional structures with a modern political system based on Islam. Most mujahideen commanders either used traditional patterns of power, becoming the new khans, or sought to adapt modern political structures to the traditional society. In time the prominent leaders accumulated wealth and power and, in contrast to the past, wealth became a determining factor in the delineation of power at all levels.

With the departure of foreign troops and the long sought demise of Kabul's leftist government, The Islamic State of Afghanistan finally came into being in April 1992. This represented a distinct break with Afghan history, for religious specialists had never before exercised state power. But the new government failed to establish its legitimacy and, as much of its financial support dissipated, local and middle range commanders and their militia not only fought among themselves but resorted to a host of unacceptable practices in their protracted scrambles for power and profit. Throughout the nation the populace suffered from harassment, extortion, kidnapping, burglary, hijacking and acts dishonoring women. Drug trafficking increased alarmingly; nowhere were the highways safe. The mujahideen had forfeited the trust they once enjoyed.

In the fall of 1994 a group called the Taliban came forth vowing to cleanse the nation of warlords and criminals. Their intention was to create a "pure" Islamic government subject to their own strict interpretations of the Shariah. Many Pakistani politicians supported the Taliban, including Sami ul Haq who is regarded as the Father of the Taliban. A number of its leaders were one-time mujahideen members, but the bulk of their forces were young Afghan refugees trained in Pakistani madrassas (religious schools), especially those run by the Jamiat-e Ulema-e Islam Pakistan, the aggressively conservative Pakistani political religious party headed by Maulana Fazlur Rahman, arch rival of Qazi Hussain Ahmad, leader of the equally conservative Jamaat-e-Islami and longtime supporter of the mujahideen.

Headquartered in Kandahar, mostly Pashtuns from the rural areas, and from the top leadership down to the fighting militia characteristically in their thirties or forties and even younger, the Taliban swept the country. In September 1996 they captured Kabul and ruled over most of Afghanistan by 2001. The meteoric take over went almost unchallenged. Arms were collected and security was established. At the same time, acts committed for the purpose of enforcing the Shariah included public executions of murderers, stoning for adultery, amputation for theft, a ban on all forms of gambling such as kite flying, chess and cockfights, prohibition of music and videos, proscriptions against pictures of humans and animals, and an embargo on women's voices over the radio. Women were to remain as invisible as possible, behind the veil, in purdah in their homes, and dismissed from work or study outside their homes. They were toppled by a combined Afghan-NATO military force in late 2001. The majority of them escaped to neighboring Pakistan from where they launched an insurgency against the current NATO-backed Afghan government. Peace negotiations between the Taliban and the Afghan government were ongoing as of 2013.

Islam in Afghan society
For Afghans, Islam represents a potentially unifying symbolic system which offsets the divisiveness that frequently rises from the existence of a deep pride in tribal loyalties and an abounding sense of personal and family honor found in multitribal and multiethnic societies such as Afghanistan.

Islam is a central, pervasive influence throughout Afghan society; religious observances punctuate the rhythm of each day and season. In addition to a central congregational Mosque for weekly communal prayers which are obligatory for men in Islam (but not for woman) and are generally well attended, smaller community-maintained mosques stand at the center of villages, as well as town and city neighborhoods. Masjids serve not only as places of worship, but for a multitude of functions, including shelter for guests, places to meet, the focus of social religious festivities and schools. Almost every Afghan has at one time during his youth studied at a mosque school; for many this is the only formal education they receive.

Because Islam is a totalitarian way of life and functions as a comprehensive code of social behavior regulating all human relationships, individual and family status depends on the proper observance of the society's value system based on concepts defined in Islam. These are characterized by honesty, frugality, generosity, virtuousness, piousness, fairness, truthfulness, tolerance and respect for others. To uphold family honor, elders also control the behavior of their children according to these same Islamic prescriptions. At times, even competitive relations between tribal or ethnic groups are expressed in terms claiming religious superiority. In short, Islam structures day-to-day interactions of all members of the community.

The religious establishment has several levels. Any Muslim can lead informal groups in prayer. Mullahs who officiate at mosques are normally appointed by the government after consultation with their communities and, although partially financed by the government, mullahs are largely dependent for their livelihood on community contributions including shelter and a portion of the harvest. Supposedly versed in the Qur'an, Sunnah, Hadith and Shariah, they must ensure that their communities are knowledgeable in the fundamentals of Islamic ritual and behavior. This qualifies them to arbitrate disputes over religious interpretation. Often they function as paid teachers responsible for religious education classes held in mosques where children learn basic moral values and correct ritual practices. Their role has additional social aspects for they officiate on the occasion of life crisis rituals associated with births, marriages and deaths.

But rural mullahs are not part of an institutionalized hierarchy of clergy. Most are part-time mullahs working also as farmers or craftsmen. Some are barely literate, or only slightly more educated than the people they serve. Often, but by no means always, they are men of minimal wealth and, because they depend for their livelihood on the community that appoints them, they have little authority even within their own social boundaries. They are often treated with scant respect and are the butt of a vast body of jokes making fun of their arrogance and ignorance. Yet their role as religious arbiters forces them to take positions on issues that have political ramifications and since mullahs often disagree with one another, pitting one community against the other, they are frequently perceived as disruptive elements within their communities.

Veneration of saints and shrines is opposed by some Islamic groups, particularly those ascribing to the Salafi or Ahle Hadith. Nevertheless, Afghanistan's landscape is liberally strewn with shrines honoring saints of all descriptions. Many of Afghanistan's oldest villages and towns grew up around shrines of considerable antiquity. Some are used as sanctuaries by fugitives.

Shrines vary in form from simple mounds of earth or stones marked by pennants to lavishly ornamented complexes surrounding a central domed tomb. These large establishments are controlled by prominent religious and secular leaders. Shrines may mark the final resting place of a fallen hero (shahid), a venerated religious teacher, a renowned Sufi poet, or relics, such as a hair of Muhammad or a piece of his cloak (khirqah). A great many commemorate legends about the miraculous exploits of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph and the first Imam of Shi'a Islam believed to be buried at the nation's most elaborate shrine located in the heart of Mazari Sharif, the Exalted Shrine. Ali is revered throughout Afghanistan for his role as an intermediary in the face of tyranny.

Festive annual fairs celebrated at shrines attract thousands of pilgrims and bring together all sections of communities. Pilgrims also visit shrines to seek the intercession of the saint for special favors, be it a cure for illness or the birth of a son. Women are particularly devoted to activities associated with shrines. These visits may be short or last several days and many pilgrims carry away specially blessed curative and protective amulets (usually a tawiz) to ward off the evil eye, assure loving relationships between husbands and wives and many other forms of solace. Like saint veneration, such practices are generally not encouraged in Islam according to classical understanding of the Holy Qu'ran and Hadiths (prophetic sayings of the Rabi)

Shia Islam in Afghanistan

Roughly 10% of the Afghan population is Shia. Majority of Shias in Afghanistan belong to the Twelver branch. This includes the Hazara ethnic group and the smaller urbanized Qizilbash group, who are originally from eastern Iran.

Politically aware Shia students formed the Afghan Maoist movement in the 1960s and early 1970s. After the Saur Revolution (April Revolution) of 1978 and the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Shia rebel groups in the Hazarajat region, although frequently at odds with one another, became active in mujahideen activities. They were aided by Shi'a Iran and fought against the Soviet-backed Afghan government as well as other mujahideen groups.

During the political maneuvering leading up to the establishment of the Islamic State of Afghanistan in 1992, the Shi'a groups unsuccessfully negotiated for more equitable, consequential political and social roles.

Ismailism
The Ismailis accepted Ismail ibn Jafar instead of Musa al-Kadhim as the successor to Imam Jafar as-Sadiq. Ismaili communities in Afghanistan are less populous than the Twelver who consider the Ismaili heretical. They are found primarily in and near the eastern Hazarajat, in the Baghlan area north of the Hindu Kush, among the mountain Tajik of Badakhshan, and amongst the Wakhi in the Wakhan Corridor. The Ismailis believe that the series of Imamat or in another word Welayat that comes from the first Imami, Hazar-e-Ali, will never end. The 49th imam is Aga Khan IV.

During the 1980s Soviet war in Afghanistan Sayed Jafar Naderi was the Ismaili commander, called the 'Warlord of Kayan' in a documentary by Journeyman Pictures.

Following the fall of Taliban in 2001, Ismailis established a political party called the National Unity Party of Afghanistan, also known as the National Solidarity Party of Afghanistan which had seats in the Afghan government cabinet, including the State Ministry for Peace in 2020. In 2009, 2014 and 2019 presidential elections it backed Hamid Karzai in 2009, Ashraf Ghani in 2014 and Dr. Abdullah Abdullah in 2019.

Sufi influences
Three Sufi orders are prominent: the Naqshbandiya founded in Bukhara, the Qadiriya founded in Baghdad, and the Cheshtiya located at Chesht-i-Sharif east of Herat. Among the Naqshbandi, Ahmad al Faruqi Kabuli, born north of Kabul, acquired renown for his teachings in India during the reign of the Moghul Emperor Akbar in the sixteenth century.

Another famous Qadiriya pir named Mawlana Faizani came to prominence in the 1960s and 1970s, and was a leading critic against the creeping influence of communist philosophy. Jailed in the mid-70s, Mawlana Faizani disappeared when the khalqis came to power and remains missing to this day.

The Cheshtiya order was founded by Mawdid al-Cheshti who was born in the twelfth century and later taught in India. The Cheshtiya brotherhood, concentrated in the Hari River valley around Obe, Karukh and Chehst-i-Sharif, is very strong locally and maintains madrasas with fine libraries. Traditionally the Cheshtiya have kept aloof from politics, although they were effectively active during the resistance within their own organizations and in their own areas.

Herat and its environs has the largest number and greatest diversity of Sufi branches, many of which are connected with local tombs of pir (ziarat). Other Sufi groups are found all across the north, with important centers in Maimana, Faryab Province, and in Kunduz. The brotherhoods in Kabul and around Mazari Sharif are mostly associated with the Naqshbandiya. The Qadiriya are found mainly among the eastern Pashtun of Wardak, Paktia and Nangarhar, including many Ghilzai nomadic groups. Other smaller groups are settled in Kandahar and in Shindand, Farah Province. The Cheshtiya are centered in the Hari River valley. There are no formal Sufi orders among the Shi'a in the central Hazarajat, although some of the concepts are associated with Sayyids, descendants of Mohammad, who are especially venerated among the Shi'a.

Afghanistan is unique in that there is little hostility between the ulama (religion scholars) and the Sufi orders. A number of Sufi leaders are considered as ulama, and many ulama closely associate with Sufi brotherhoods. The general populace accords Sufis respect for their learning and for possessing karamat, the psychic spiritual power conferred upon them by God that enables pirs to perform acts of generosity and bestow blessings (barakat). Sufism therefore is an effective popular force. In addition, since Sufi leaders distance themselves from the mundane, they are at times turned to as more disinterested mediators in tribal disputes in preference to mullahs who are reputed to escalate minor secular issues into volatile confrontations couched in Islamic rhetoric.

Despite the Afghan Sufis' stable position in Afghan society, Sufi leaders were among those executed following the Saur Revolution, among them Baha'uddin Jan, the pir naqshbandi of the Aimaq of Purchaman District, Farah.

title: Islam in Afghanistan


text:
1946 in rail transport

January events

 * January 1 – The Lichfield rail crash in England kills 20 people.
 * January 18 – The Harvey Girls, a movie starring Judy Garland and Ray Bolger and set in a Harvey House Hotel, makes its American debut. The movie will win a Best Song Oscar for Johnny Mercer’s “On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe”.
 * January 21 – The Hull Electric Railway in Ottawa is fined $50 for violating a local law against moving freight on the city streets between midnight and 5:00 AM when it was delivering loads to oil companies along Laurier Avenue.

February events

 * February 1 – Henry G. Ivatt is promoted to Chief Mechanical Engineer of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, succeeding Charles Fairburn.
 * February 20 – Pullman Standard delivers the first passenger car built after World War II.
 * February 25 – The worst-ever train crash in Japan kills 184 people.

March events

 * March 29 – The north end of Ottawa's Interprovincial Bridge is destroyed by fire, severing Château Laurier from Hull Electric Railway passenger service.

April events

 * April 5 – The Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway Act is amended by the Ontario government, to change the name of the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway to the Ontario Northland Railway.
 * April 25 – Naperville train disaster in Naperville, Illinois, United States: Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad's Advance Flyer, stopped in the station, is rammed by the railroad's Exposition Flyer. 45 killed, more than 100 injured.

May events

 * May 17 – President Harry Truman seizes control of the railroads to prevent a nationwide strike.
 * May 30 – After a short strike earlier in the month, Hudson and Manhattan Railroad trainmen go on strike again when the Pennsylvania Railroad (which owned the H&M at this time) management decides that the recent PRR pay increase does not apply to H&M employees.

June events

 * June 20 – First use of a Public Address system on a passenger train for station announcements. The system was installed in a New York City Subway car.

July events

 * July – General Motors Electro-Motive Division introduces the EMD F2.
 * July 1 – Opening of replacement Hawkesbury River Railway Bridge north of Sydney, Australia.

August events

 * August 10 – The Pere Marquette Railway inaugurates the Pere Marquette passenger train between Detroit and Grand Rapids, Michigan, the first new postwar streamliner.
 * August 14 – Fréjus Rail Tunnel reopened as reconstructed after wartime closure (first public train September 11).
 * August 24 – The Boston and Maine Railroad replaces electric locomotive operation through the Hoosac Tunnel with diesel locomotives.
 * August 27 – The last T1 class steam locomotive built by Baldwin Locomotive Works for the Pennsylvania Railroad enters service.

September events

 * September – The first production ALCO PA diesel-electric units are delivered for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway in the United States.
 * September 29 – The Illinois Central Railroad fully dieselizes all passenger trains that it is operating between Chicago, Illinois, and St. Louis, Missouri.

December events

 * December 7 – The power car from the M-10002 streamliner trainset is sold to Northrup-Hendy for gas turbine train testing.
 * December 8 – General Motors Electro-Motive Division introduces the EMD NW5.
 * December 20 – Libyan section of Western Desert Extension Railway closed.
 * December 23 – 8,872,244 ride the New York City Subway system, the current one-day record.

Unknown date events

 * Vulcan Foundry of Newton-le-Willows, England, construct 120 Liberation Class 2-8-0 steam locomotives to British Ministry of Supply order for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration to supply to Eastern Europe.
 * United States builders construct 160 KD7 Class 2-8-0 steam locomotives for the UNRRA to supply to China Railway; a similar design is supplied as Class 29 to Belgian Railways.
 * General Electric builds the electric locomotive model that will soon become known as the Little Joe.
 * André Chapelon’s 4-8-4 SNCF 242A1 prototype compound locomotive is completed in France; it goes on to achieve extraordinary power outputs and efficiencies in coal and water use.
 * John W. Barriger III becomes president of the Monon Railroad.
 * The Atlanta, Birmingham and Coast Railroad is merged into the Atlantic Coast Line.
 * The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, under the direction of Robert R. Young, places the largest single passenger car order with Pullman-Standard for nearly 300 cars. These cars entered service beginning in 1950.

March deaths

 * March 21 – Oliver Bury, Chief mechanical engineer and manager of Great Western Railway of Brazil 1892–1894, general manager of the Great Northern Railway in England 1902–1912, Director of the GNR and London and North Eastern Railway 1912–1945 (born 1861).

November deaths

 * November 10 – Patrick H. Joyce, president of Chicago Great Western Railway 1931–1946 (born 1879).

title: 1946 in rail transport


text:
Talk:Chandigarh

City pictures
Could someone please place some pictures of the city here. Maybe an arial view and some buildings by le Corbusier?

(Too) many citations here are data rescued by archive.org
I think there are far too many citations that refer to archive.org as their source. (The original pages apparently have gone away.) Isn't it preferable to have information found in pages that are live now rather leaning so heavily on archive.org to rescue the information? Sesquiannual (talk) 18:18, 8 June 2020 (UTC)

A quick count shows 81 of 110 are from archive.org Sesquiannual (talk) 18:20, 8 June 2020 (UTC)

"Hmm., I just added a few new sources (live links) as archives (archived them, and cited the archived copy), in case they get deleted off the web later. So in that way I think having archived links is really useful. I don't think we can trust the world wide web to keep pages alive, and so, like wikipedia saves all versions of everything, I think the attempt with archive.org is the same =) Tanyasingh (talk) 06:10, 11 September 2020 (UTC)"

 * That makes sense. Having both the live data and the archive.org together is the best of both worlds. It also lets you see when the information on the live site has changed. Thanks for your effort! Sesquiannual (talk) 00:31, 29 September 2020 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 23:23, 4 October 2021 (UTC)
 * ..Chandigarh Flag(INDIA).png

Infobox Replacement
The Infobox settlement used on this page is going to be replaced with Infobox Indian state or territory as per the Proposal and consensus of RFC. Any questions/suggestions? Discuss Here.

You can also contribute by replacing Infobox settlement with Infobox Indian state or territory on other pages, or by improving this one. Tojoroy20 (talk) 17:00, 25 March 2023 (UTC)

 * ✅ Replaced — Tojoroy20 (talk) 20:03, 25 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chandigarh


text:
User:G-Man/photo gallery

Any images which I have taken myself and added to the Wikipedia are in the public domain unless otherwise stated, and are free to use by anyone. Although if you do use them I would appreciate wikipedia being cited as the source. I have left out some of my older and lower quality images here.

Birmingham and West Midlands
(For more see the 'Canals' section above)

title: User:G-Man/photo gallery


text: User talk:217.140.2.129

title: User talk:217.140.2.129


text:
If... (TV series)

If... is a series of BBC drama-documentaries broadcast on BBC Two from March to April 2004 and December 2004 to January 2005, each of which considers the potentially catastrophic political or social consequences that might arise from current trends in the United Kingdom. Using a drama with interviews from experts, then a discussion of the programme with a panel of experts from both sides of an argument. During the show a televote of opinion is cast.

Production
The series was filmed with the Panasonic SDX 900 DVCPRO 50 professional camcorder in widescreen 25fps progressive mode.

title: If... (TV series)


text: Category:Cities and towns in Greece

title: Category:Cities and towns in Greece


text: User talk:62.6.124.22

title: User talk:62.6.124.22