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Frederick Greenwood

Frederick Greenwood (25 March 1830 – 14 December 1909) was an English journalist, editor, and man of letters. He completed Elizabeth Gaskell's novel Wives and Daughters after her death in 1865.

Early years
Born in Kensington, London, he was the oldest of eleven children of James Caer Greenwood, a coach builder, and his wife, Mary Ann, née Fish. He and two brothers – James and Charles, gained reputations as journalists. Frederick started life in a printing house, but at an early age began to write in periodicals. In 1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon III to a volume called The Napoleon Dynasty (2nd ed., 1855). He also wrote several novels: The Loves of an Apothecary (1854), The Path of Roses (1859) and (with his brother James) Under a Cloud (1860).

To the second number of the Cornhill Magazine he contributed "An Essay without End," and this led to an introduction to Thackeray. In 1862, when Thackeray resigned the editorship of the Cornhill, Greenwood became joint editor with G. H. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole editor, a post which he held until 1868. While at the Cornhill he wrote an article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray might have intended to conclude his unfinished work Denis Duval. In its pages appeared the "sensation" novel Margaret Denzil's History, Greenwood's most ambitious work of fiction, also published in volume form in 1864.

Frederick Greenwood completed Elizabeth Gaskell's unfinished novel Wives and Daughters after she died suddenly in 1865.

Pall Mall Gazette
Greenwood conceived the idea of an evening newspaper, which, with news, should mainly contain original articles. Public affairs and culture were to be discussed by authoritative figures. He took the Anti-Jacobin and the Saturday Review of 1864 as models. The idea was taken up by George Smith, and the Pall Mall Gazette, named after Thackeray's fictional paper in Pendennis was launched in February 1865, with Greenwood as editor. Within a few years he became an influential Tory. "No minister in Great Britain," Mr Gladstone declared, "ever had a more able, a more zealous, a more effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beaconsfield had in Greenwood."

It was on the suggestion of Greenwood that Beaconsfield purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the Khedive Ismail; the British government was informed by Greenwood that the shares were for sale and likely to be bought by France. Greenwood waited for the official announcement before publishing the news.

Later years
Early in 1880 the Pall Mall changed owners, and the new proprietor, Henry Yates Thompson, shifted editorial policy to supporting the Liberal Party. Greenwood at once resigned his editorship, but in May a new paper, the St James's Gazette, was started for him by Mr Henry Hucks Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldenham), and Greenwood proceeded to carry on in it the tradition which he had established in the Pall Mall. At the St James's Greenwood remained for over eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone administration (1880–1885) and an independent supporter of Lord Salisbury. His connection with the paper ceased in August 1888, owing to disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr E Steinkopff, who had bought the St James's at Greenwood's own suggestion.

In January 1891 Greenwood brought out a weekly review which he named the Anti-Jacobin. It failed, however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in January 1892. In 1893 he published The Lover's Lexicon and in 1894 Imagination in Dreams. He continued to express his views on political and social questions in contributions to newspapers and magazines, writing frequently in the Westminster Gazette, the Pall Mall, Blackwood, the Cornhill, etc. Towards the end of his life his political views reverted in some respects to the Liberalism of his early days.

In the words of George Meredith Greenwood was not only a great journalist, he had a statesman's head. The national interests were always urgent at his heart. He was remarkable for securing for his papers the services of the ablest writers of the day, and for the gift of recognising merit in new writers, such, for instance, as Richard Jefferies and J. M. Barrie. His instinct for capacity in others was as sure as was his journalistic judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his 75th birthday, a dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen, journalists, and men of letters (with John Morley—who had succeeded him as editor of the Pall Mall—in the chair). In May 1907 he contributed to Blackwood an article on "The New Journalism," in which he drew a sharp contrast between the old and the new conditions under which the work of a newspaper writer is conducted. He belonged to the Garrick Club. He died at Sydenham on 14 December 1909.

title: Frederick Greenwood


text:
Infraero

Empresa Brasileira de Infraestrutura Aeroportuária (abr. Infraero) is a Brazilian government corporation founded in 1973, authorized by Law 5,862, that is responsible for operating the main Brazilian commercial airports. In 2011 Infraero's airports carried 179,482,228 passengers, 1,464,484 tons of cargo, and operated 2,893,631 take-offs and landings. Presently it manages 45 airports.

The company is present all over Brazil and employs approximately 23,000 employees and subcontracted workers nationwide. It is headquartered in the Infraero Building, in Brasília, Federal District.

History
The company implements a workplan which covers practically all airports managed by it and which generates over 50 thousand jobs all over Brazil. The Brazilian airport infrastructure, which may match to the international standards, is being updated to meet the next years demand.

The works are performed with the company's own revenue, mainly generated by the air cargo storage and custom duty, granting of commercial areas in the airports, boarding, landing and stay tariffs, and rendering of communication and air navigation auxiliary services.

On 9 October 2009, it was announced that Infraero will invest in airports abroad: Infraero was invited by the Government of Paraguay to administer Silvio Pettirossi International Airport in Asunción and invited to participate in the privatization of Ruzyně Airport in Prague, Czech Republic, among other investments.

On March 4, 2010, the government of Brazil announced that it would adopt the model of concession to airports. For this reason Infraero would become a concessionary rather than an administrator of the airports that it currently operates. The main consequence is the fact that Infraero will be able to open its capital and obtain resources necessary for infra-structure investments. Another consequence is that municipal or state governments would have it easier to change concessionaries, such as the intention announced on 28 August 2009 by Rosinha Matheus, the Mayor of Campos dos Goytacazes, who requested Infraero the transfer of the administration of Bartolomeu Lysandro Airport to the Municipality. The Minister of Defense, to whom Infraero was subordinate (currently it belongs to Civil Aviation Secretary), announced being in favor of the transfer.

Responding to critiques to the situation of its airports, and in preparation to the several rounds of concession biddings, on May 18, 2011, Infraero released a list evaluating some of its most important airports according to its saturation levels.

Investments related to the 2014 FIFA World Cup
On 31 August 2009 Infraero unveiled an ambitious BRL5.3 billion (US$2.8 billion; EUR2.0 billion) investment plan to upgrade airports of ten cities focusing mainly the preparations for the 2014 FIFA World Cup which was held in Brazil, and for the 2016 Summer Olympics, which was held in Rio de Janeiro. Of the twelve cities that held venues, ten received major investments. Natal – Augusto Severo International Airport and Salvador – Dep. Luís Eduardo Magalhães International Airport were excluded because their upgrade works were completed.

The investments were distributed as follows (in BRL million):

Ongoing works
Belo Horizonte
 * Pampulha/Carlos Drummond de Andrade Airport
 * New control tower. Value 5.6. Completion: originally November 2010; postponed to the end of 2012
 * Upgrade of general aviation hangars. Value 1.2. Completion: July 2013.
 * Enlargement of the apron. Value 1.6. Completion: July 2013.
 * Tancredo Neves International Airport (Confins)
 * Extension of runway, enlargement of apron and cargo terminal, construction of further taxiways. Value 120.0. Completion: July 2013.
 * Renovation of the passenger terminal. Value 215.5. Completion: March 2014.

Brasília – Presidente Juscelino Kubitschek International Airport
 * Enlargement of apron and taxiways. Value 34.5. Completion: April 2011.
 * Renovation of the existing passenger terminal. Value 22.5. Completion: November 2011.
 * Enlargement of the passenger terminal. Value 439.0. Completion: April 2013.
 * Parking. Value 18.8. Completion: April 2014

Campinas/São Paulo – Viracopos International Airport
 * Construction of the second runway. Value 314.0. Completion: April 2013.
 * Construction of phase 1 of a new passenger terminal. Value 2,500.0. Completion: May 2015.

Cuiabá – Marechal Rondon International Airport
 * Renovation of passenger terminal, parking and access to the airport. Value 30.9. Completion: October 2012.

Curitiba – Afonso Pena International Airport
 * Enlargement of the apron and implementation of taxiways. Value 30.0. Completion: March 2011.

Fortaleza – Pinto Martins International Airport
 * Renovation and enlargement of passenger terminal, apron, and parking. Value 525.0. Completion: November 2013.

Manaus – Eduardo Gomes International Airport
 * Enlargement of apron and existing runway. Construction of second runway. Value 600.0. Completion: July 2013.
 * Enlargement and renovation of the passenger terminal. Value 193.5. Completion: December 2013.

Porto Alegre – Salgado Filho International Airport
 * Extension of the runway. Value 122.0. Never completed.

Rio de Janeiro
 * Galeão/Antonio Carlos Jobim International Airport
 * Renovation of passenger terminal 1. Value 314.9. Completion: February 2011.
 * Completion and renovation of passenger terminal 2. Value 284.0. Completion: May 2012.
 * Construction of further parking. Value 220.0. Completion: May 2013.
 * Santos Dumont Airport
 * Completion of the renovation of the passenger arrivals terminal. Value 152.2. Completion: November 2011.

São Paulo
 * Congonhas Airport
 * Renovation of the apron. Value 20.6. Completion: January 2012.
 * Conclusion of the renovation on the south portion of the passenger terminal. Value 67.1. Completion: October 2012.
 * Renovation of the north portion of the passenger terminal. Value 65.1. Completion: October 2014.
 * Guarulhos/Governador André Franco Montoro International Airport
 * Construction of further taxiways. Value 19.0. Completion: April 2011 (work not yet completed in August 2011).
 * Enlargement of apron and taxiways. Value 370.5. Completion: July 2011 (work not yet completed in August 2011).
 * Construction of the passenger terminal 3. Value 1,100.0. Completion: March 2014.

Completed works
Belo Horizonte – Tancredo Neves International Airport (Confins)
 * Enlargement of Parking. Value 6.8. Completed on July 26, 2010

Recife – Guararapes/Gilberto Freyre International Airport
 * Conclusion of the passenger terminal renovation with installation of further 8 jetways. Value: 8.75. Completed on July 1, 2011

São Paulo – Congonhas Airport
 * New control tower. Value 11.9. Completed on May 8, 2013

Concessions
On April 26, 2011, it was confirmed that in order to speed-up much needed renovation and up-grade works, private companies would be granted a concession to commercially exploit some Infraero airports in exchange for the implementation of those works. Listed airports included São Paulo/Guarulhos – Governador André Franco Montoro International Airport, Brasília – Presidente Juscelino Kubitschek International Airport, Campinas – Viracopos International Airport, and later Belo Horizonte – Tancredo Neves International Airport and Rio de Janeiro – Galeão/Antonio Carlos Jobim International Airport. The plan was confirmed on May 31, 2011, and it was added that Infraero would retain 49% of the shares of each privatized airport. However, starting in the fourth phase (2017), this obligation ceased to exist.

The concession program was divided into phases, each with its own public bidding.

First Phase
The first phase was related to Natal–Gov. Aluízio Alves International Airport. In 1998 Infraero started the planning and construction of the airport. In 2011 the concession of the unfinished facility was auctioned and the winner would have to finish its construction, including the terminal building and control tower. On August 22, 2011, the concession of the airport was won by the Consortium Inframérica, formed by the Brazilian Engineering Group Engevix (50%) and the Argentinean Group Corporación América (50%), which operates 52 airports in seven countries. The concession was for 25 years (with one possible five-year extension) and as part of the agreement Infraero held no shares participation.

Second Phase
The second phase was related to the auction that took place on February 6, 2012. The result was:
 * Consortium Inframérica composed by the Brazilian Engineering Group Engevix (50%) and the Argentinean Group Corporación América (50%) won the concession of Brasília–Pres. Juscelino Kubitschek International Airport, which will be explored for a period of 25 years;
 * Consortium Aeroportos Brasil composed by the Brazilian Investments and Funds Society Triunfo (45%), UTC Engineering and Investments Society (45%), and the French airport operator Egis Avia (10%) won the concession of Campinas–Viracopos International Airport, to be explored for 30 years;
 * Consortium Invepar–ACSA, also known as GRU Airport, composed by the Brazilian Investments and Funds Society Invepar (90%) and the South African airport operator ACSA (10%) won the concession of São Paulo/Guarulhos–Gov. André Franco Montoro International Airport and was authorized to explore the facility for 20 years.

Third Phase
The third phase took place on November 22, 2013, when the Brazilian Government had a bidding process for:
 * the operation of Belo Horizonte/Confins–Tancredo Neves International Airport with rights from 2014 until 2044. The group Aerobrasil, also known as BH Airport, formed by the Brazilian transportation company CCR (75%) and by the Swiss operator Flughafen Zürich AG (25%) won the bid;
 * the operation of Rio de Janeiro/Galeão–Antonio Carlos Jobim International Airport from 2014 until 2039. It was won by the Group Aeroporto Rio de Janeiro, also known as RIOgaleão, formed by the Brazilian Conglomerate Odebrecht (60%) and the Singaporean operator Changi Airport Group (40%).

Fourth Phase
The fourth phase took place on March 16, 2017, and the result was:
 * Fortaleza–Pinto Martins International Airport and Porto Alegre–Salgado Filho International Airport were won by the German airport operator Fraport. The concession for Porto Alegre is for 25 years and Fortaleza for 30 years;
 * Florianópolis–Hercílio Luz International Airport was won by the Swiss airport operator Flughafen Zürich AG for 30 years;
 * Salvador da Bahia–Dep. Luís Eduardo Magalhães International Airport was won by the French airport operator Vinci SA for 30 years.

Fifth Phase
The fifth phase, done in blocks valid for 30 years, took place on March 15, 2019, and the result was:
 * Cuiabá–Mal. Rondon International Airport, Alta Floresta Airport, Rondonópolis Airport, and Sinop Airport, were won by the Consortium Aeroeste, formed by the Brazilian airport operators Socicam and Sinart. Alta Floresta, Rondonópolis, and Sinop were not previous Infraero facilities but were included in the auction;
 * Recife/Guararapes–Gilberto Freyre International Airport, Aracaju–Santa Maria Airport, Campina Grande–Pres. João Suassuna Airport, João Pessoa–Pres. Castro Pinto International Airport, Juazeiro do Norte–Orlando Bezerra de Menezes Airport, and Maceió–Zumbi dos Palmares International Airport and were won by the Spanish airport operator AENA;
 * Vitória–Eurico de Aguiar Salles Airport and Macaé–Benedito Lacerda Airport were won by the Swiss airport operator Flughafen Zürich AG.

Note:
 * The name was changed to Macaé–Joaquim de Azevedo Mancebo Airport in 2022.

Sixth Phase
The sixth phase, done in blocks valid for 30 years, took place on April 7, 2021, and the result was:
 * Curitiba–Afonso Pena International Airport, Bagé–Comte. Gustavo Kraemer International Airport, Curitiba–Bacacheri Airport, Foz do Iguaçu–Cataratas International Airport, Joinville–Lauro Carneiro de Loyola Airport, Londrina–Gov. José Richa Airport, Navegantes–Min. Victor Konder International Airport, Pelotas–João Simões Lopes Neto International Airport, and Uruguaiana–Ruben Berta International Airport were won by the Brazilian transportation company CCR;
 * Goiânia–Santa Genoveva International Airport, Imperatriz–Pref. Renato Moreira Airport, Palmas–Brig. Lysias Rodrigues Airport, Petrolina–Sen. Nilo Coelho Airport, São Luís–Mal. Cunha Machado International Airport, and Teresina–Sen. Petrônio Portella Airport were won by the Brazilian transportation company CCR;
 * Manaus–Brig. Eduardo Gomes International Airport, Boa Vista−Atlas Brasil Cantanhede International Airport, Cruzeiro do Sul International Airport, Porto Velho–Gov. Jorge Teixeira de Oliveira International Airport, Rio Branco–Plácido de Castro International Airport, Tabatinga International Airport, and Tefé–Pref. Orlando Marinho Airport and were won by the French airport operator Vinci SA.

Seventh Phase
The seventh phase, done in blocks valid for 30 years, took place on August 18, 2022, and the result was:
 * Belém/Val-de-Cans International Airport and Macapá International Airport were won by the Brazilian consortium Novo Norte, formed by the Brazilian airport operators Socicam and Dix Aeroportos;
 * Rio de Janeiro/Jacarepaguá–Roberto Marinho Airport and São Paulo–Campo de Marte Airport were won by the Brazilian investment company XP Inc.;
 * São Paulo/Congonhas–Dep. Freitas Nobre Airport, Altamira Airport, Campo Grande International Airport, Carajás Airport, Corumbá International Airport, Marabá–João Correa da Rocha Airport, Montes Claros–Mário Ribeiro Airport, Ponta Porã International Airport, Santarém–Maestro Wilson Fonseca Airport, Uberaba–Mário de Almeida Franco Airport, Uberlândia–Ten. Cel. Av. César Bombonato Airport, were won by the Spanish operator AENA.

Independent cases
Before 2003 Castilho/Urubupungá–Ernesto Pochler Airport was transferred from Infraero to DAESP.

On October 11, 2013, the administration of Campos dos Goytacazes–Bartolomeu Lysandro Airport was transferred from Infraero to the Municipality of Campos dos Goytacazes.

On August 22, 2017, the concession of Ilhéus–Jorge Amado Airport was transferred from Infraero to the State of Bahia.

On June 17, 2020, the Federal Government signed and agreement to transfer the administration of Belo Horizonte/Pampulha–Carlos Drummond de Andrade Airport from Infraero to the State of Minas Gerais.

On November 17, 2020, the concession of Paulo Afonso Airport was transferred from Infraero to the State of Bahia.

On December 2, 2020, the Federal Government signed and agreement to transfer the administration of São José dos Campos–Prof. Urbano Ernesto Stumpf Airport to the Municipality of São José dos Campos.

Further developments
On July 17, 2020, the Federal Government authorized the beginning of a new concession process for Viracopos International Airport in Campinas upon request from the present concessionary Consortium Aeroportos Brasil. In February 2022, it was announced that the National Civil Aviation Agency of Brazil would start a new concession process for Rio de Janeiro – Galeão/Antonio Carlos Jobim International Airport, at the request of the concessionary. The facility would be re-auctioned together with Santos Dumont Airport.

As partner concessionary
The following airports are administrated in partnership with other concessionaries. Infraero retains 49% of the shares:

By contract
The following airports are managed by Infraero by contract:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Infraero


text:
Stasys Girėnas

Stasys Girėnas (known as Stanley T. Girenas in the US; born Stasys Girskis; October 4, 1893 in Vytogala, Kovno Governorate – July 17, 1933 near Soldin, Germany) was a Lithuanian-American pilot, who died in a non-stop flight attempt with the Lituanica from New York City to Kaunas, Lithuania, in 1933.

Biography
Girenas was born in Vytogala, in the Šilalė district of Lithuania, then part of the Kovno Governorate of the Russian Empire. In 1910, when he was 17 years old, he emigrated to the United States, and settled in Chicago. As a young man he worked in a printing house. In 1917, upon the entry of the U.S. into World War I, he enlisted in the United States Army, where he was trained as a mechanic. In 1919, after being honorably discharged, he worked as a cab driver, and at the same time learned to fly. He acquired a plane in 1925. Despite being injured in an air crash, he continued flying and working in civil aviation. In 1931 he won the first prize at the Chicago Air Festival for the best landing of a plane with its engine turned off.

Death
On July 15, 1933, along with Steponas Darius, he attempted a nonstop flight from New York City, to Kaunas, Lithuania - a total of 7,186 km, in a Bellanca CH-300 Pacemaker airplane named Lituanica. After successfully crossing the Atlantic Ocean in 37 hours and 11 minutes, their plane crashed on July 17, 0:36 AM (Berlin Time) by the village of Kuhdamm, near Soldin, Germany (now Pszczelnik, Myślibórz County, Poland). Difficult weather conditions combined with engine defects were the findings of the official investigation. Both aviators were killed in the crash. They had covered a distance of 3,984 mile without landing, only 650 km short of their final destination.

Awards and honors

 * On 18 May 1934, Lithuania issued a set of six airmail stamps, in honor of Captains Girėnas and Darius, and the Lituanica.
 * In New York City, in 1957, the fliers were memorialized with a granite flagstaff showing the pair in bas-relief. The monument is located in Lithuania Square, in Williamsburg, Brooklyn.
 * Asteroid 288961 Stasysgirėnas, discovered by astronomers Kazimieras Černis and Justas Zdanavičius in 2004, was named in his memory. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on June 9, 2017 (M.P.C. 105279).

title: Stasys Girėnas


text: Category:467 births

title: Category:467 births


text:
Talk:Chen Zhenrong

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Chemically peculiar star

In astrophysics, chemically peculiar stars (CP stars) are stars with distinctly unusual metal abundances, at least in their surface layers.

Classification
Chemically peculiar stars are common among hot main-sequence (hydrogen-burning) stars. These hot peculiar stars have been divided into 4 main classes on the basis of their spectra, although two classification systems are sometimes used:
 * non-magnetic metallic-lined (Am, CP1)
 * magnetic (Ap, CP2)
 * non-magnetic mercury-manganese (HgMn, CP3)
 * helium-weak (He-weak, CP4).

The class names provide a good idea of the peculiarities that set them apart from other stars on or near the main sequence.

The Am stars (CP1 stars) show weak lines of singly ionized Ca and/or Sc, but show enhanced abundances of heavy metals. They also tend to be slow rotators and have an effective temperature between 7000 and $10,000 K$.

The Ap stars (CP2 stars) are characterized by strong magnetic fields, enhanced abundances of elements such as Si, Cr, Sr and Eu, and are also generally slow rotators. The effective temperature of these stars is stated to be between 8000 and $15,000 K$, but the issue of calculating effective temperatures in such peculiar stars is complicated by atmospheric structure.

The HgMn stars (CP3 stars) are also classically placed within the Ap category, but they do not show the strong magnetic fields associated with classical Ap stars. As the name implies, these stars show increased abundances of singly ionized Hg and Mn. These stars are also very slow rotators, even by the standards of CP stars. The effective temperature range for these stars is quoted at between $10,000$ and $15,000 K$.

The He-weak stars (CP4 stars) show weaker He lines than would be expected classically from their observed Johnson UBV colours. A rare class of He-weak stars are, paradoxically, the helium-rich stars, with temperatures of $18,000$–$23,000 K$.

Cause of the peculiarities
It is generally thought that the peculiar surface compositions observed in these hot main-sequence stars have been caused by processes that happened after the star formed, such as diffusion or magnetic effects in the outer layers of the stars. These processes cause some elements, particularly He, N and O, to "settle" out in the atmosphere into the layers below, while other elements such as Mn, Sr, Y and Zr are "levitated" out of the interior to the surface, resulting in the observed spectral peculiarities. It is assumed that the centers of the stars, and the bulk compositions of the entire star, have more normal chemical abundance mixtures which reflect the compositions of the gas clouds from which they formed. In order for such diffusion and levitation to occur and the resulting layers to remain intact, the atmosphere of such a star must be stable enough to convection that convective mixing does not occur. The proposed mechanism causing this stability is the unusually large magnetic field that is generally observed in stars of this type.

Approximately 5–10% of hot main sequence stars show chemical peculiarities. Of these, the vast majority are Ap (or Bp) stars with strong magnetic fields. Non-magnetic, or only weakly magnetic, chemically peculiar stars mostly fall into the Am or HgMn categories. A much smaller percentage show stronger peculiarities, such as the dramatic under-abundance of iron peak elements in λ Boötis stars.

sn stars
Another group of stars sometimes considered to be chemically peculiar are the 'sn' stars. These hot stars, usually of spectral classes B2 to B9, show Balmer lines with sharp (s) cores, sharp metallic absorption lines, and contrasting broad (nebulous, n) neutral helium absorption lines. These may be combined with the other chemical peculiarities more commonly seen in B-type stars.

It was originally proposed that the unusual helium lines were created in a weak shell of material around the star, but are now thought to be caused by the Stark effect.

Other stars
There are also classes of chemically peculiar cool stars (that is, stars with spectral type G or later), but these stars are typically not main-sequence stars. These are usually identified by the name of their class or some further specific label. The phrase chemically peculiar star without further specification usually means a member of one of the hot main sequence types described above. Many of the cooler chemically peculiar stars are the result of the mixing of nuclear fusion products from the interior of the star to its surface; these include most of the carbon stars and S-type stars. Others are the result of mass transfer in a binary star system; examples of these include the barium stars and some S stars.

Companions
There are very few reports of exoplanets whose host stars are chemically peculiar stars. The young variable star HR 8799, which hosts four directly imaged massive planets, belongs to the group of λ Boötis stars.

title: Chemically peculiar star


text: Category:474 deaths

title: Category:474 deaths


text:
Khazar Correspondence

The Khazar Correspondence is a set of documents, which are alleged to date from the 950s or 960s, and to be letters between Hasdai ibn Shaprut, foreign secretary to the Caliph of Cordoba, and Joseph Khagan of the Khazars. The Correspondence is one of only a few documents attributed to a Khazar author, and potentially one of only a small number of primary sources on Khazar history.

The authenticity of the correspondence has been challenged, on the grounds that it has little in common with the otherwise attested chronology, language, borders and economy of the Khazars at the time.

Ostensibly it gives both account of the Khazar conversion to Judaism and of its progress in subsequent generations, as well as potentially showing that within a generation of the fall of the Khazar empire in 969, the Khazar state was still militarily powerful and received tribute from several polities.

Background
The alleged Correspondence originated with Hasdai ibn Shaprut, foreign secretary to Abd ar-Rahman III, the Umayyad Caliph of Cordoba and al-Andalus. A man of extensive contacts and virtually unlimited resources, Hasdai is said to have learned of the existence of the Khazars from Khorasani merchants. His ignorance of the Khazar state is odd, and may even have been disingenuous, either on the part of a potential forger, or Joseph's statements to the effect that there had been communications between the two communities in the past.

Hasdai's first messenger is said to have found his way to Constantinople, where Byzantine authorities refused to permit him to proceed further. He is said to have returned, possibly taking the so-called Schechter Letter (penned by a Khazar and possibly intended for Hasdai) back with him. Eventually Hasdai's letter is said to have been given to Jews attached to a Croat embassy, and reached Khazaria via yet another messenger, Isaac ben Eliezer of Nemetz (Germany).

Joseph's alleged reply gives an account of Khazar history and of its current (c. 960) sociopolitical and economic status. He further invites Hasdai to come to Khazaria, an invitation that Hasdai probably never accepted. The Correspondence has survived in three slightly variant versions over the centuries.

Historian Peter Benjamin Golden wrote that "Dunlop and most recently Golb have demonstrated that Hasdai's letter, Joseph's response (dating perhaps from the 950s) and the 'Cambridge Document' are, indeed, authentic."

Historian Shaul Stampfer has questioned the authenticity of the letter said to have been received from the Khazar king, citing numerous linguistic and geographic oddities amid a flourishing of pseudo-historiographic texts and forgeries in medieval Spain. The text, written in literary Hebrew with many Arabic touches, offers a chronology hundreds of years off the actual dates of the Khazar kingdom; borders very different from that which it held at the time; and an economic and agricultural situation far removed from the realities at the time. Authenticity of the conversion story in the letter was dismissed by the early 12th century Talmudic scholar Rabbi Judah of Barcelona. Stampfer writes that a "similar pseudo-historiographic Muslim text from the time of Hasdai ibn Shaprut is quite similar to the correspondence attributed to him in its concern with buttressing identity." Such a legend would have been of use to the emerging Jewish aristocracy to show that biblical promises of Jewish kingship were extant.

Hasdai's letter to King Joseph

 * I, Hasdai, son of Isaac, son of Ezra, belonging to the exiled Jews of Jerusalem in Sepharad, a servant of my lord the King, bow to the earth before him and prostrate myself towards the abode of your Majesty from a distant land. I rejoice in your tranquility and magnificence and stretch forth my hands to God in heaven that He may prolong your reign in Israel....

 * Praise be to the beneficent God for His mercy towards me! Kings of the earth, to whom his [ Abd-ar-Rahman's ] magnificence and power are known, bring gifts to him, conciliating his favor by costly presents, such as the King of the Franks, the King of the Gebalim, who are Germans, the King of Constantinople, and others. All their gifts pass through my hands, and I am charged with making gifts in return. [Ibn Shaprut, who knew several languages, received these embassies.] Let my lips express praise to the God of Heaven, who so far extends His loving kindness towards me, without any merit of my own, but in the fullness of His mercies!

 * I always ask the ambassadors of these monarchs who bring gifts about our brethren the Israelites, the remnant of the captivity, whether they have heard anything concerning the deliverance of those who have languished in bondage and have found no rest. [He was anxious to know if the "Ten Lost Tribes" existed as an independent Hebrew state anywhere.]

 * At length mercantile emissaries of Khorasan [a land southeast of the Caspian Sea in modern north Iran] told me that there is a kingdom of Judah which is called al-Khazar. But I did not believe these words for I thought that they told me such things to procure my goodwill and favor. I was therefore wondering, till the ambassadors of Constantinople came [between 944 and 949] with presents and a letter from their king to our king, and I interrogated them concerning this matter,

 * They answered me: "It is quite true, and the name of that kingdom is al-Khazar. It is a fifteen days' journey by sea from Constantinople, but by land many nations intervene between us; the name of the king now reigning is Joseph; ships sometimes come from their country to ours bringing fish, skins, and wares of every kind [The Khazars, great traders, got their wares from the Rus to the north.] The men are our confederates and are honored by us; there is communication between us by embassies and mutual gifts; they are very powerful; they maintain numerous armies with which they occasionally engage in expeditions." When I heard this report I was encouraged, my hands were strengthened, and my hope was confirmed. Thereupon I bowed down and adored the God of heaven. [Hasdai was happy: Christians could no longer say the Jews were without a country as a punishment for their rejection of Jesus.]....

 * I pray for the health of my lord the King, of his family, and of his house, and that his throne may be established for ever. Let his days and his sons' days be prolonged in the midst of Israel!

King Joseph's reply

 * THE LETTER OF JOSEPH THE KING, SON OF AARON THE KING, THE TURK-MAY HIS CREATOR PRESERVE HIM TO THE HEAD OF THE ASSEMBLY, HASDAI, THE SON OF ISAAC, SON OF EZRA

....I wish to inform you that your beautifully phrased letter was given us by Isaac, son of Eliezer, a Jew of the land of Germany [Isaac carried it through Germany, Hungary, and Kievan Rus to Khazaria.] You made us happy and we are delighted with your understanding and wisdom.... Let us, therefore, renew the diplomatic relations that once obtained between our fathers, and let us transmit this heritage to our children. [Joseph believed the Khazars had once had diplomatic relations with the Spanish Arabs.]

You ask us also in your epistle: "Of what people, of what family, and of what tribe are you?" Know that we are descended from Japheth, through his son Togarmah. [In Jewish literature Togarmah is the father of all the Turks.] I have found in the genealogical books of my ancestors that Togarmah had ten sons. These are their names: the eldest was Ujur, the second Tauris, the third Avar, the fourth Uauz, the fifth Bizal, the sixth Tarna, the seventh Kozar, the eighth Janur, the ninth Bulgar, the tenth Sawir. [These are the mythical founders of tribes that once lived in the neighborhood of the Black and Caspian Seas.] I am a descendant of Khazar, the seventh son.

I have a record that although our fathers were few in number, the Holy One blessed be He [this is a common name for God], gave them strength, power, and might so that they were able to carry on war after war with many nations who were more powerful and numerous than they. By the help of God they drove them out and took possession of their country. Upon some of them they have imposed forced labor even to this very day. The land [along the Volga ] in which I now live was formerly occupied by the Bulgars. Our ancestors, the Khazars, came and fought with them, and, although these Bulgars were as numerous as the sand on the shores of the sea [a reference to the Book of Joshua], they could not withstand the Khazars. So they left their country and fled while the Khazars pursued them as far as the Danube River. Up to this very day the Bulgars camp along the Danube and are close to Constantinople. The Khazars have occupied their land up till now.

After this, several generations passed until a certain King arose whose name was Bulan. He was a wise and God-fearing man, trusting in his Creator with all his heart. He expelled the wizards and idolaters from the land and took refuge in the shadow of his wings ... After this his fame was spread broadcast. The king of the Byzantines and the Arabs who had heard of him sent their envoys and ambassadors with great riches and many great presents to the King as well as some of their wise men with the object of converting him to their own religion. [The Byzantines and Arabs hoped to stop the raids of the Khazars by converting them and later make them allies through shared faith.]

But the King-may his soul be bound up in the bundle of life [a standard burial phrase for Jews] With the Lord his God-being wise, sent for a learned Israelite. the King searched, inquired, and investigated carefully and brought the sages together that they might argue about their respective religions. Each of them refuted, however, the arguments of his opponent so that they could not agree. When the King saw this he said to them: "Go home, but return to me on the third day…"

On the third day he called all the sages together and said to them. "Speak and argue with one another and make clear to me which is the best religion." They began to dispute with one another without arriving at any results until the King said to the Christian priest "What do you think? Of the religion of the Jews and the Muslims, which is to be preferred?" The priest answered: "The religion of the Israelites is better than that of the Muslims."

The King then asked the qadi: "What do you say? Is the religion of the Israelites, or that of the Christians preferable?" The qadi answered: "The religion of the Israelites is preferable."

Upon this the King said: "If this is so, you both have admitted with your own mouths that the religion of the Israelites is better Wherefore, trusting in the mercies of God and the power of the Almighty, I choose the religion of Israel, that is, the religion of Abraham. If that God in whom I trust, and in the shadow of whose wings I find refuge, will aid me, He can give me without labor the money, the gold, and the silver which you have promised me. As for you all, go now in peace to your land."

From that time on the Almighty helped Bulan, fortified him, and strengthened him. He circumcised himself, his servants, attendants, and all his people. [Arabic sources say the royal family and nobility became Jews, but most of the commoners did not.][?] Then Bulan sent for and brought from all places wise men of Israel who interpreted the Torah for him and arranged the precepts in order, and up to this very day we have been subject to this religion. May God's name be blessed and may His remembrance be exalted for ever!

Since that day, when my fathers entered into this religion, the God of Israel has humbled all of their enemies, subjecting every folk and tongue round about them, whether Christian, Muslim, or pagan. No one has been able to stand before them to this day [about 960]. All of them are tributary. [But only about ten years later Joseph was defeated by Sviatoslav I of Kiev, 969.]

After the days of Bulan there arose one of his descendants, a king Obadiah by name [the name means "God's servant"], who reorganized the kingdom and established the Jewish religion properly and correctly. He built synagogues and yeshivot, brought in Jewish scholars, and rewarded them with gold and silver. [The Jewish scholars could have come from Baghdad and Constantinople.] They explained to him the Bible, Mishnah, Talmud and the order of divine services. The King was a man who revered and loved the Torah. He was one of the true servants of God. May the Divine Spirit give him rest!

He was succeeded by Hezekiah, his son; next to him was Manasseh, his son; next to him was Hanukkah, the brother of Obadiah; next Isaac, his son; afterwards, his son Zebulun; then his son Moses; then his son Nissi; then his son Aaron; then his son Menahem; then his son Benjamin; then his son Aaron II; and I, Joseph, the son of Aaron the King, am King, the son of a King, and the descendant of kings. No stranger can occupy the throne of my ancestors: the son succeeds the father. This has been our custom and the custom of our forefathers since they have come into existence. May it be the gracious will of Him who appoints all kings that the throne of my kingdom shall endure to all eternity.

You have also asked me about the affairs of my country and the extent of my empire. I wish to inform you that I dwell by the banks of the river known as the Itil [Volga]. At the mouth of the river lies the Caspian Sea. The headwaters of the river turn eastward, a journey of four months distance.

Alongside the river dwell many tribes in cities and towns, in open as well as fortified places.... Bear in mind that I dwell at the delta of the Itil and, by God's help, I guard the mouth of the river and do not permit the Rus who come in ships to enter into the Caspian so as to get at the Muslims. Nor do I allow any of their [the Muslims'] enemies who come by land to penetrate as far as Derbend [Derbend, an Arab city, was the gate through which the nomads of eastern and southern Europe hoped to rush through and raid the rich towns of Asia Minor.] I have to wage war with them, for if I would give them any chance at all they would lay waste the whole land of the Muslims as far as Baghdad...

You have also asked me about the place where I live. I wish to inform you that, by the grace of God, I dwell alongside this river on which there are situated three capital cities. The queen dwells in one of them; it is my birthplace. It is quite large, built round like a circle, the diameter of which is fifty parasangs. [The King lived in an island in the Volga; there were also towns on both banks.]

Jews, Christians, and Moslems live in the second city. Besides these there are many slaves of all nations in it. It is of medium size, eight square parasangs in length and breadth.

In the third I reside with my princes, officers, servants, cupbearers and those who are close to me. It is round in shape and its diameter is three parasangs. The river flows within its walls. This is my residence during the winter. From the month of Nisan [March–April] on we leave the city and each one goes forth to his vineyards, fields and to his work...

You mention in your letter that you yearn to see my face. I also would very much like to see your pleasant countenance and the rare beauty of your wisdom and greatness. Would that it were according to your word. If it were granted me to be associated with you and to behold your honored, charming, and pleasant countenance then you would be as my father and I as your son. According to your command would all my people be ruled, and according to your order and discreet counsel would I conduct all my affairs. Farewell.

Khazars in Spain
At least some Khazar rabbinical students appear to have studied in Spain. Abraham ibn Daud of Toledo, in his Book of Tradition (1161), writes:

"You will find the communities of Israel spread abroad... as far as Dailam and the river Itil where live Khazar peoples who became proselytes. The Khazar king Joseph sent a letter to Hasdai ibn-Shaprut and informed him that he and all his people followed the rabbinical faith. We have seen descendants of the Khazars in Toledo, students of the wise, and they have told us that the remnant of them is of the rabbinical belief."

title: Khazar Correspondence


text:
Talk:Abdolkarim Soroush

Untitled
Giordano Bruno is one person see --Pouya 19:49, 21 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Could someone knowledgeable on the matter possibly rewrite "Soroush main contribution to Islamic philosophy is that he maintains that one should distinguish between religious as divinely revealed as the interpretation of religion or religious knowledge which is based on socio-historical factors." As it stands it is not a meaningful sentence but as far as I can surmise its content is rather important.

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 22:23, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Clarity
I added a clarify-section tag to the #Religious democracy section, because it is unclear to what extent it is reporting and to what extent it is commenting on Soroush's views. --Philosopher Let us reason together. 14:07, 20 September 2012 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Abdolkarim Soroush


text:
Talk:List of calendars

Proposed calendars
The following proposed calendars should be discussed: Bob McClenon's Reformed Weekly Calendar: (http://www.go2zero.com/rwc/rwc.html) and adapted from that: Common-Civil-Calendar-and-Time (http://henry.pha.jhu.edu/calendar.html) - These are just two of various proposed leap week calendars. I've listed, linked and discussed various proposals in (http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/palmen/lweek1.htm).

The above proprosals suggest having months of 31, 30 and 30 days every three months and in 53-week years an additional one week month.

An alternative to this is to have months of 35, 28 and 28 days every three months and in 53-week years add a week to the last month. This is done by the Bonavian Civil Calendar in (http://personal.ecu.edu/mccartyr/bonavian.html)

Also 13 months of 28 days with the leap week as a separate 7-day month has been proposed (http://personal.ecu.edu/mccartyr/colligan.html).

Also there are numerous possible ways of defining which years have 53 weeks. Most of these make use of the fact that if there were 71 such years every 400 years, the 400 years would have exactly the same number of days as 400 Gregorian years. The only others actually proposed is 896 years with 159 years of 53 weeks and 834 years of 148 years of 53 weeks.

Karl Palmen 22 Dec 2004

Would this list make more sense as a category, so that it was always up to date? --Nantonos 16:58, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Multiple categories already exist: Calendars, which includes Specific calendars, Obsolete calendars, Fictional calendars, and Proposed calendars. List of calendars is in Calendars and in its subcategory Specific calendars (I'm changing that). — Joe Kress 07:46, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

I've added subheads to the "proposed" category clarifying the separate nature of the Darian Calendar (meant for far-future residents of Mars, Jupiter) and calendar reform proposals meant to be discussions about reforming the existing Gregorian calendar here on Earth in the here-and-now. The two subjects are clearly not the same, and the Darian calendar included with the others is confusing and tends to mislead readers about the nature of the others, since settlements on Mars and/or Jupiter's moons are required for the Darian Calendar to be worthwhile. Nhprman 02:44, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

Non-Terrestrial and Universal Date
I added the Non-Terrestrial and Universal Date (as a blank). I sadly had to use my own original research as an example external link for what such would be. Maybe the Non-Terrestrial category will be better served with a short category description of what a Non-Terrestrial date/calendar system is? If the example reference link is removed please add a category description instead and leave Universal Date if possible. And if any verifiable sources of universal and non-terrestrial calendars or date systems are found I'd appreciate if those are added. Surprisingly none exist (how can that be possible?), at least that I have managed to find so far, any assistance is welcome. And yeah, this is the original author of µDate in case you wondered. I'm fully ok if the external reference link to µDate is removed provided something else is put there instead. Trying to find more research info on calendar/date systems that are universal/non-terrestrial led me always back to my own site (frustrating), and even Wikipedia turned up nothing. (Non-Earth systems hardly count as Non-Terrestrial) I was hoping Wikipedia could provide research info and links to further improve my proposal before final submission to the scientific community, upon which time a proper entry for µDate (or maybe then named Universal Date if I'm lucky and it's accepted), a nice Catch-21 situation here, how to compare against other systems if none exist before?. Heh!- —Preceding unsigned comment added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)

Discordian Calendar
What makes the discordian calendar fictional, exactly? Or any of them? If people use it, it's real... right? And I'm sure there are people out there who use star wars and middle earth calendars. PopeJaimie 23:50, 8 April 2007 (UTC)
 * But who actually uses the Discordian calendar? Can anyone make the claim that there is significant use of that calendar? I think the comparison with Star Wars and Middle Earth is a good one. Discoridianism is a parody religion and fictional. I doubt it's inclusion under "In Use" is warranted. ProfGiles (talk) 22:00, 1 January 2011 (UTC)

Countries where governments mess with the year
Please also make sublists: and impact many people. Jidanni (talk) 04:27, 25 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Countries where governments mess (e.g., "98" for 2009: Taiwan, N. Korea) with the year (on many official documents)
 * Countries where governments mess with other parts too...

Calendar Acceptance
When a new calendar comes into use, how does it become accepted and referenced in Wikipedia? One specific example that comes to mind is the Ehoah Kalendars: Australis, Borealis, and by combining the two the Globus Kalendar(http://ehoah.weebly.com/kalendars.html)? 65.92.205.173 (talk) 18:21, 17 March 2013 (UTC)
 * It needs substantial coverage in multiple independent reliable sources. All the best, Rich Farmbrough, 17:38, 10 April 2014 (UTC).

Change in Calendar Grouping
I want to bring to your attention that User:Dbachmann is changing the grouping an thus classification of the calendars listed. Previously they were grouped according In Use and Obselete. This has been changed to 'Ancient and Traditional and Historical. I think such a change needs to be discussed. Perhaps a better change addressing all concerns could be made. Karl (talk) 12:11, 1 June 2015 (UTC)

I am not happy with the current grouping either. You will note the cleanup-rewrite tag is still in place. "All concerns" include that this list is worse than worthless still, as it doesn't even pretend to be based on any kind of reference. If the iterative approach to improvement is controversial, we should perhaps just axe it (always an improvement in pages that are worse than worthless), and see if we can rebuild it from scratch based on some kind of published source.

It goes without saying, I hope, that the "in use" vs. "obsolete" grouping was untenable, not only was it unreferenced, it is also intrinsically misguided -- calendars keep getting reformed and revived, so it is very far from clear which calendars are and are not "in use". It is also rather questionable to distinguish between merely "proposed" calendars and "used" ones. If this is going to be a referenced list, there can well be a column "official use" which can give referenced information on sovereign states recognizing the calendar, and perhaps another column citing usage in printed publications or similar. Even if this is done, an overall grouping by "usage" still strikes me as a bad idea, but it will not be a problem once we lose "grouping" in favour in a column-sortable table. --dab (𒁳) 13:33, 1 June 2015 (UTC)

Thank you dab for your comment. I appreciate your comments about usage. Usage would need to verified by a printed calendar or a document that uses a date from the calendar and a reliable source that states that the printed calendar or date is of the specified calendar. The Assyrian calendar is one that would need usage verification, but the Gregorian calendar, Islamic calendar or Chinese calendar are used so much that I don't think their usage needs verifying. Karl (talk) 15:00, 1 June 2015 (UTC)
 * great, sounds like a column "last recorded usage", if you feel like compiling it, but I still don't see how this is any kind of meaningful categorization. What qualifies as "current"? And why "print" specifically? Say there is a tradition of the Berber calendar being used in Timbuktu with several full-time scribes preparing handwritten copies every year (I just made that up). Would this make the calendar unfit for "currently used" because the printing press wasn't used? Also, you are aware, of course, that this puts the Shire calendar out of the "fictional" into the "currently used" category. In general, any pop culture item will receive orders of magnitude more printed references than ethnic or religious traditions alive somewhere in the third world. --dab (𒁳) 10:47, 2 June 2015 (UTC)

Perhaps calendars can be categorized by whether they are lunisolar, solar, lunar or some other such kind including those that follow no astronomical cycle. I see a table has been started with this categorization in one column. This page needs to be more useful than the category of specific calendars and so does need some additional information. Karl (talk) 13:20, 2 June 2015 (UTC)
 * Yes, it is still starved for references, but at least we now have something that isn't entirely devoid of information beyond "these articles exist on Wikipedia". The main problem is the distinction between broad categories along cultural lines (like "Chinese calendar", "Hindu calendar" which discuss numerous regional or historical calendar variants) and specific reforms (such as Islamic calendar, Julian calendar, French Republican calendar). Also problematic are links that are really just calendar eras used with the Gregorian calendar (which are not, strictly speaking, separate calendars, just eras) and stuff like Lithuanian calendar, which is basically a "list of Lithuanian translations of the Gregorian month names and weekdays" (also not strictly speaking a separate calendar). A third class of problem arises from articles that are themselves too purely referenced to make head or tail of them, mostly "reconstructed" ethnic traditions mostly notable for their (not necessarily historical) use in ethnic nationalism, such as Bulgar calendar, Berber calendar, Yoruba calendar. I tagged these as "traditional/tribal" for now, but they should properly be dropped pending the addition of acceptable references. --dab (𒁳) 12:18, 6 June 2015 (UTC)

I spent some more time with this, the page is still littered with inline tags marking missing information or references, but at least I do think the information is now roughly "reality based". --dab (𒁳) 16:02, 6 June 2015 (UTC)

Roman Republican Calendar
The table identifies the Roman Republican Calendar as a solar calendar, which is wrong. It was a lunisolar calendar. The better-known Julian Calendar which replaced the Roman Republican Calendar was a solar calendar, but the Roman Republican Calendar was a lunisolar calendar. -- Bob99 (talk) 14:08, 29 March 2016 (UTC)

Serbian Calendar forgotten?
Serbian, "Byzantin" calendar still in use in Serbia counts 7526 years (=2018)! No mention? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 188.155.139.87 (talk) 08:15, 3 February 2018 (UTC)

RFC: Appropriate reference calender to use. (Religiously neutral CE/BCE v Christian AD/BC).
I want to invite comment as to whether it is appropriate for this article to use the calendar of a particular religion as the reference scale for all the other calendars of many other religions and none. In my view, the (almost) religiously neutral Common Era is significantly more NPOV.

Per wp:ERA, I want to propose formally that the table entries that currently give a date using AD or BC notation (as a reference for its epoch or similar) be changed so as to use CE or BCE respectively.

Your comments please. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 18:57, 17 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Since this article does not focus on any one religion the AD/BC notation is fine, as it has been in English for centuries the predominant general-purpose notation. Jc3s5h (talk) 19:28, 17 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Also note RfC not set up right, and AD/BC/CE/BCE are not calendars, they are notations for counting from a point in time about 2019 years ago. Jc3s5h (talk) 19:32, 17 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Yes but the article is written by and for a world-wide, 21st century, audience, not a 17th C British one. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 20:01, 17 September 2019 (UTC)
 * I acknowledge of course that "calendar" is not technically correct but it is a reasonable approximation in this context. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 20:01, 17 September 2019 (UTC)
 * I wanted to test the water initially to see whether the work to set up a full RFC would be worthwhile.--John Maynard Friedman (talk) 20:01, 17 September 2019 (UTC)

 * "but the article is written by and for a world-wide, 21st century, audience" as a justification to exclude AD and use CE instead may convince other publications but is not in accord with WP:ERA. Also the reason applies to most WP articles so this discussion belongs at Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers. Jc3s5h (talk) 00:53, 18 September 2019 (UTC)
 * I don't seem to have made clear my proposal. WP:ERA says that the era first used in an article should be retained unless there is a substantial justification to change it due to article content. I believe that this condition applies (but then I would, that's why I am proposing it). Even so, I recognise that it is a controversial change so a consensus for change is needed. --John Maynard Friedman (talk)

Unless it would offend a rule that I don't know about, I propose next to leave an invitation to participate in this discussion, at the articles for the linked calendars. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 18:30, 18 September 2019 (UTC)

 * Oppose. There is nothing special about this article that justifies changing the established era style. Jc3s5h (talk) 19:41, 18 September 2019 (UTC)

క్రొత్త కాలెండర్ ప్రపంచానికి పరిచయం
కొప్పర్తి. సమూయేలు అనునేను 2007 సంవత్సరంలో క్రొత్త కాలెండర్ రూపొందించాను దాని ప్రకారం ఈ రోజు తేదీ 1-02-2021 /  24-04-2072 మెస్సీయ జననం తరువాత తేదీతో సమానంగా ఉంది ,మీ సహకారాన్ని మాకు అందిస్తే ఖచ్చితంగా మా కాలెండర్ ను ప్రవేశపెట్టడానికి సిద్ధంగా ఉన్నాము K.puliraju(samuel) (talk) 17:11, 1 February 2021 (UTC)
 * This is the english language version of Wikipedia. Please go to https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8A%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BF_%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%80 for Wikipedia in the Telugu language. --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 18:59, 1 February 2021 (UTC)

Korean week
What evidence is there that Koreans have a five-day week? According to the Wikipedia article on the Korean calendar, the Koreans don't even have any concept of weekdays, so that the article discusses the Korean names for the days of the seven-day Western week. --Susurrus (talk) 04:40, 5 June 2022 (UTC)

Vikram Sambat
The respected calendar Vikram Sambat which is spelled ad Bikram sambat which according to wikipedia “This is one of the oldest system of chronological reckoning which is still used in India.” But this is wrong and a shame to wikipedia. It is the main calendar followed by Nepalese and still we Nepalese follow this calendar everyday but not Indians. It is only used in India for few reasons, but in Nepal this is our main calender. You have to correct it and have more learning about it. 120.17.136.100 (talk) 01:27, 18 November 2023 (UTC)

 * Wikipedia relies on published sources. WP: original research is not permitted. So if the article is to be improved, additional evidence needs to be brought forward so that it can be summarised. Wikipedia is also written by volunteers like you and me, so someone in Nepal (you?) needs to find the published explanation (and ideally, summarise it). The source doesn't have to be in English provided that you summarise it in English, honestly and to the best of your ability, giving page numbers. If you like, you can put the information here and someone will make it look pretty, because that's the easy part. Thank you if you can do it. --𝕁𝕄𝔽 (talk) 14:58, 18 November 2023 (UTC)

 * I’m not sure what exactly the problem is, besides many English speakers not being well-versed with traditional Asian calendars, their relationships, differences and actual usage.
 * Nepal Sambat
 * ← Nepalese calendar
 * ← Nepal Era
 * ← Nepali New Year
 * ← Nepalese New Year
 * ← New Year (Nepal)
 * ← New Year's Day (Nepal)
 * ← Nepal Samvat
 * ← Nepali Calendar
 * Vikram Samvat
 * ← Bikram Sambat
 * ← Vikram-Samvat calendar
 * ← Vikrama Samvat
 * ← Vikram era
 * ← Bikram Sambhat
 * ← Bikrami calendar
 * ← Bikrami
 * ← Vikrama era
 * ← Nepali Date – should probably redirect to Nepal Sambat instead
 * ← Vikram Samwat
 * ← Vikram Samvant
 * ← Bikram Samwat
 * ← Bikram Samvat
 * ← B.S. (Vikram Samvat)
 * ← Vikrami calendar
 * ← Malava era
 * ← Bikram Era
 * ← Bikram calendar
 * but Vikram Sambat is currently not a redirect. — Christoph Päper 08:03, 23 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of calendars


text:
Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels

The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels (Catedral de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles), informally known as the COLA or the Los Angeles Cathedral (Catedral de Los Ángeles), is the metropolitan cathedral of the Roman Catholic Church in Los Angeles, California, United States. It opened in 2002 and serves as the mother church for the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, as well as the seat of Archbishop José Horacio Gómez.

The structure replaced the Cathedral of Saint Vibiana, which was severely damaged in the 1994 Northridge earthquake. Under Roger Cardinal Mahony, Archbishop of Los Angeles, Our Lady of the Angels was begun in 1998 and formally dedicated on September 2, 2002. There was considerable controversy over both its deconstructivist and modern design, costs incurred in its construction and furnishing, and the archdiocese's decision to build a crypt under the cathedral.

The cathedral is named in honor of the Virgin Mary under the patronal title of "Our Lady of the Angels", echoing the full name of the original settlement of Los Angeles (El Pueblo de Nuestra Señora la Reina de los Ángeles, or "The Town of Our Lady the Queen of the Angels"). The cathedral is widely known for enshrining the relics of Saint Vibiana and tilma piece of Our Lady of Guadalupe. It is the mother church to approximately five million professed Catholics in the archdiocese.

History

The Cathedral of Saint Vibiana had served as the cathedral of the Los Angeles see since its completion in 1876. Soon after its completion, the diocese noted it to be of inferior construction quality and also too small for Los Angeles' rapidly growing population. In 1904, Bishop Thomas James Conaty gained permission from the Holy See to build a new cathedral to be named after Our Lady of the Angels. However, an economic downturn in 1907 put a stop to the project; a Catholic parish church was later built on the site. In the 1940s, plans were drawn up for a new cathedral on Wilshire Boulevard that would seat 3,000 people, and in 1945 Archbishop John Joseph Cantwell announced that the Holy See approved the name "Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels". That cathedral was never built, however, as Cantwell died in 1947 and his successor, James Francis McIntyre, decided instead that building new parish churches and schools in the expanding metropolis was a more pressing need for the archdiocese. McIntyre gained permission from donors to redirect money donated for the Cantwell cathedral fund to those needs.

The 1994 Northridge earthquake severely damaged the Cathedral of Saint Vibiana, which led the archdiocese to close the cathedral due to safety concerns. In January 1995 the archdiocese announced plans to build a new cathedral on the Saint Vibiana site, plans which necessitated the demolition of the old cathedral. This led to a lengthy legal battle between the archdiocese and preservationists, who argued that the cathedral was a city landmark and that it should be either incorporated into the new cathedral or otherwise saved. The archdiocese contended that restoring the old cathedral to carry out its functions safely would cost $18–20 million, and had not received any pledges or donations for this purpose.

This legal battle prompted the archdiocese to look to build the cathedral on a new site. In December 1996, the archdiocese announced it was purchasing a 5.6 acre site between Temple Street and the Hollywood Freeway from Los Angeles County at a cost of $10.85 million. The archdiocese chose to retain the "Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels" name approved by the Vatican in the 1940s. The initially proposed budget for the project was $150 million, rising to a final cost of $189.7 million. The construction was supervised by Father Richard S. Vosko, a liturgical design consultant and priest of the Diocese of Albany who has overseen the design and renovation of numerous churches and cathedrals in the United States. Construction began in 1998 and was completed in September 2002.

Design

The architect was Pritzker Prize-winning Spaniard Rafael Moneo. Using elements of postmodern architecture, the church and the Cathedral Center feature a series of acute and obtuse angles while avoiding right angles. Contemporary statuary and appointments decorate the complex. Prominent of these appointments are the bronze doors and the statue called The Virgin Mary, all adorning the entrance and designed by Robert Graham. Other features include three fountains and a bronze sculpture by Johnny Bear Contreras dedicated as a Native American memorial. The building is equipped with solar panels for generating 15% of its electricity.

In addition to the church, the cathedral grounds also include a mausoleum, gift shop, cafe, children's garden, conference center, and clergy residences. The relics of Saint Vibiana are interred in the mausoleum, as are the remains of several past bishops, archbishops, and auxiliary bishops of Los Angeles. The size of the cathedral is 6038 sqm.

Criticism

Roger Cardinal Mahony's decision to build a new cathedral utilizing contemporary architecture drew criticisms from those who preferred the gothic revival stylings typical of preceding centuries. In actuality, the cathedral's architectural design was selected from a pool of 38 submissions from international architectural firms as far away as Japan, Germany, Spain and England, by a blue-ribbon jury of experts from the J. Paul Getty Trust, California Institute of the Arts, UCLA, USC, Harvard and the American Academy in Rome. Others argued that a church of that size and expense was unnecessary, overly-elaborate and that the money could have been better spent on social programs, suggesting that either St. Vincent Church on West Adams Boulevard or St. Basil Church on Wilshire Boulevard, despite their smaller size, could perform the functions required of a cathedral with minimal additional cost.

Cardinal Mahoney reiterated his pledge for no parish-based appeal to finance the cathedral construction, and urged major donors to the cathedral not to cut back on their current or future charitable giving in order to continue outreach efforts to the poor at the same time. To keep the record straight, a resume of the total construction costs was released to the press. Avoiding any fundraising from local parishes and devoting 24 hours per week in contacting actual and potential donors, the cardinal described his cathedral project in some of his letters as follows: "Historically, cathedrals have defined their eras, creating a legacy of enduring and innovative architectural designs. They have served as a focal point for artistic and religious expression through their acquisition from local artisans of the adornments that distinguish and enhance the structure, and through the central role they have played in preserving and expanding the spiritual and liturgical teachings that define the Catholic faith. . . . This project will serve a vital role in our society - contributing to the architectural, religious and cultural persona of downtown Los Angeles".

In response to protests staged during the construction of the cathedral, the cardinal's editorial for the Los Angeles Times, dated October 19, 1998, stated: "The Catholic Worker and others shortchange the poor when they adopt the stance that the Church should be attentive only to the material concerns of the needy. This is out of step with Church history and with the teaching of Jesus, who said that people do not live by bread alone.  There are various kinds of poverty, of which material poverty is but one." Entities within the Archdiocese of Los Angeles, such as Catholic Charities, Together in Mission, and the Catholic Education Foundation, are responsible for funneling funds that help to feed, clothe, house, educate and provide healthcare for the poor.

Organ
The organ is Opus 75 of Dobson Pipe Organ Builders of Lake City, Iowa, and is a 105 rank four-manual instrument that incorporates pipes from the 1929 Wangerin organ of St. Vibiana's Cathedral. The St. Vibiana instrument had been rebuilt in 1988 by Austin Organs. The Dobson instrument has a total of 6,019 pipes and was dedicated in 2003. It is the 89th largest pipe organ in North America and the 143rd largest in the world. The organ case is approximately 60 ft high, and is located approximately 24 ft above the floor. To meet earthquake-stability requirements, the pipes and case are supported by a massive internal steel frame.

Mausoleum
The cathedral features a mausoleum in its lower level, containing 1,270 crypts and 4,746 columbarium niches for burials. Proceeds from the sale of memorials and burial spaces are placed in an endowment fund to support the cathedral.

All past ordinaries of the archdiocese are memorialized in the mausoleum, including a future burial site for Cardinal Roger Mahony, and the remains of several ordinaries and auxiliary bishops who died before the cathedral was built were transferred there. The tomb of Saint Vibiana was transferred to the cathedral from its previous location above the altar at the Cathedral of Saint Vibiana; the tomb is the centerpiece of the St. Vibiana Chapel located adjacent to the mausoleum.

The crypt mausoleum features a number of stained glass windows that were originally installed in Saint Vibiana's Cathedral. This idea was suggested by Mario Agustin Locsin, a renowned Liturgical Artist and consultant on the renovation. The old cathedral windows were restored and two new windows featuring guardian angels created by the Judson Studios were placed at the entrance to the crypt mausoleum.

Clergy

 * Bishop Juan Alfredo Arzube
 * Thaddeus Amat y Brusi, first Bishop of Los Angeles
 * John Cantwell, first Archbishop of Los Angeles
 * Bishop Thomas James Conaty
 * Bishop Carl Anthony Fisher
 * James Francis McIntyre, second Archbishop of Los Angeles, who was created cardinal
 * Bishop David G. O'Connell
 * John J. Ward, auxiliary bishop

Laity

 * Bernardine Murphy Donohue, philanthropist and papal countess
 * Daniel J. Donahue, philanthropist and papal gentleman
 * Victor and Loretta Baron Mahony, parents of Cardinal Roger Mahony
 * June Marlowe, actress
 * Gregory Peck, actor
 * Veronique Peck, wife of Gregory Peck
 * Saint Vibiana, patron saint of the Archdiocese of Los Angeles
 * Adelina Naccarelli de Koenig, "Della Koenig," philanthropist, patron of the arts, former singer and actress.

Events
On September 3, 2011, the cathedral played host to a Votive Mass in honor of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The Mass marked the conclusion of the First Annual Grand Marian Procession organised by the Queen of Angels Foundation.

The cathedral is a popular Catholic wedding venue on a year-round basis.

The cathedral hosts occasional musical performances, including concerts by Libera.

On the first Wednesday of every month, the cathedral holds an organ recital at 1:00 in the afternoon. It is free and open to the public.

Pastor History

 * Msgr. Kevin Kostelnik 2002-2017
 * Fr. David Gallardo 2017-2022
 * Msgr. Antonio Cacciapuoti 2022-

title: Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels


text:
Jozef Lenárt

Jozef Lenárt (3 April 1923 – 11 February 2004) was a Slovak politician who was the prime minister of Czechoslovakia from 1963 to 1968.

Life and career
Born in Liptovská Porúbka, Slovakia, he graduated from a chemistry high school and worked for the Baťa company. He became a member of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) and of the Communist Party of Slovakia (KSS).

Lenart was a member of the federal parliament (whose name changed several times) from 1960 to 1990, and was Speaker of the Slovak National Council from 1962 to 1963. He was also a member from 1971 to (?)1990. He served as Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia between 1963 and 1968.

Although ethnically Slovak, he became a Czech citizen after the country split in 1993.

On the basis of insufficient evidence, on 23 September 2002 Lenárt was acquitted of treason charges (along with his co-defendant Miloš Jakeš), related to his handling (or lack thereof) of the Prague Spring events in 1968. He was accused of attending a meeting at the Soviet embassy in Prague on the day after the 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion, planning to establish a new "workers and farmers'" government.

Jozef Lenárt was one of the most resilient figures in Czechoslovakia's communist hierarchy, occupying one post or another in the leadership for no less than a quarter of the century. That achievement was all the more remarkable because his career at the top straddled a succession of regimes and several abrupt changes in policy.

He died in Prague in 2004.

Major functions

 * 1950–1953, 1957–1966, and 1970–(?)1990: Member of the KSS
 * 1956–1958: Leading Secretary of the Regional Committee of the KSS
 * 1958–1962: Secretary of the Central Committee of the KSS
 * 1958–(?)1990: Member of the Central Committee of the KSČ
 * 1962–1963: Chairman of the Slovak National Council
 * 1963–1968: Prime Minister of Czechoslovakia
 * 1968–1970: Secretary of the Central Committee of the KSČ
 * 1970–1987: First Secretary of the Central Committee of the KSS
 * 1970–(?)1990: Member of the Presidium of the KSČ
 * 1971–(?)1990: Chairman of the Central Committee of the National Front of the Slovak Socialist Republic, and Vice-Chairman of the Central Committee of the National Front of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic

title: Jozef Lenárt


text:
Bootstrap aggregating

Bootstrap aggregating, also called bagging (from bootstrap aggregating), is a machine learning ensemble meta-algorithm designed to improve the stability and accuracy of machine learning algorithms used in statistical classification and regression. It also reduces variance and helps to avoid overfitting. Although it is usually applied to decision tree methods, it can be used with any type of method. Bagging is a special case of the model averaging approach.

Description of the technique
Given a standard training set $$D$$ of size n, bagging generates m new training sets $$D_i$$, each of size n′, by sampling from D uniformly and with replacement. By sampling with replacement, some observations may be repeated in each $$D_i$$. If n′=n, then for large n the set $$D_i$$ is expected to have the fraction (1 - 1/e) (≈63.2%) of the unique examples of D, the rest being duplicates. This kind of sample is known as a bootstrap sample. Sampling with replacement ensures each bootstrap is independent from its peers, as it does not depend on previous chosen samples when sampling. Then, m models are fitted using the above m bootstrap samples and combined by averaging the output (for regression) or voting (for classification).

Bagging leads to "improvements for unstable procedures", which include, for example, artificial neural networks, classification and regression trees, and subset selection in linear regression. Bagging was shown to improve preimage learning. On the other hand, it can mildly degrade the performance of stable methods such as K-nearest neighbors.

Key Terms
There are three types of datasets in bootstrap aggregating. These are the original, bootstrap, and out-of-bag datasets. Each section below will explain how each dataset is made except for the original dataset. The original dataset is whatever information is given.

Creating the bootstrap dataset
The bootstrap dataset is made by randomly picking objects from the original dataset. Also, it must be the same size as the original dataset. However, the difference is that the bootstrap dataset can have duplicate objects. Here is a simple example to demonstrate how it works along with the illustration below:

Suppose the original dataset is a group of 12 people. Their names are Emily, Jessie, George, Constantine, Lexi, Theodore, John, James, Rachel, Anthony, Ellie, and Jamal.

By randomly picking a group of names, let us say our bootstrap dataset had James, Ellie, Constantine, Lexi, John, Constantine, Theodore, Constantine, Anthony, Lexi, Constantine, and Theodore. In this case, the bootstrap sample contained four duplicates for Constantine, and two duplicates for Lexi, and Theodore.

Creating the out-of-bag dataset
The out-of-bag dataset represents the remaining people who were not in the bootstrap dataset. It can be calculated by taking the difference between the original and the bootstrap datasets. In this case, the remaining samples who were not selected are Emily, Jessie, George, Rachel, and Jamal. Keep in mind that since both datasets are sets, when taking the difference the duplicate names are ignored in the bootstrap dataset. The illustration below shows how the math is done:

Importance
Creating the bootstrap and out-of-bag datasets is crucial since it is used to test the accuracy of a random forest algorithm. For example, a model that produces 50 trees using the bootstrap/out-of-bag datasets will have a better accuracy than if it produced 10 trees. Since the algorithm generates multiple trees and therefore multiple datasets the chance that an object is left out of the bootstrap dataset is low. The next few sections talk about how the random forest algorithm works in more detail.

Creation of Decision Trees
The next step of the algorithm involves the generation of decision trees from the bootstrapped dataset. To achieve this, the process examines each gene/feature and determines for how many samples the feature's presence or absence yields a positive or negative result. This information is then used to compute a confusion matrix, which lists the true positives, false positives, true negatives, and false negatives of the feature when used as a classifier. These features are then ranked according to various classification metrics based on their confusion matrices. Some common metrics include estimate of positive correctness (calculated by subtracting false positives from true positives), measure of "goodness", and information gain. These features are then used to partition the samples into two sets: those who possess the top feature, and those who do not.

The diagram below shows a decision tree of depth two being used to classify data. For example, a data point that exhibits Feature 1, but not Feature 2, will be given a "No". Another point that does not exhibit Feature 1, but does exhibit Feature 3, will be given a "Yes".

This process is repeated recursively for successive levels of the tree until the desired depth is reached. At the very bottom of the tree, samples that test positive for the final feature are generally classified as positive, while those that lack the feature are classified as negative. These trees are then used as predictors to classify new data.

Random Forests
The next part of the algorithm involves introducing yet another element of variability amongst the bootstrapped trees. In addition to each tree only examining a bootstrapped set of samples, only a small but consistent number of unique features are considered when ranking them as classifiers. This means that each tree only knows about the data pertaining to a small constant number of features, and a variable number of samples that is less than or equal to that of the original dataset. Consequently, the trees are more likely to return a wider array of answers, derived from more diverse knowledge. This results in a random forest, which possesses numerous benefits over a single decision tree generated without randomness. In a random forest, each tree "votes" on whether or not to classify a sample as positive based on its features. The sample is then classified based on majority vote. An example of this is given in the diagram below, where the four trees in a random forest vote on whether or not a patient with mutations A, B, F, and G has cancer. Since three out of four trees vote yes, the patient is then classified as cancer positive. Because of their properties, random forests are considered one of the most accurate data mining algorithms, are less likely to overfit their data, and run quickly and efficiently even for large datasets. They are primarily useful for classification as opposed to regression, which attempts to draw observed connections between statistical variables in a dataset. This makes random forests particularly useful in such fields as banking, healthcare, the stock market, and e-commerce where it is important to be able to predict future results based on past data. One of their applications would be as a useful tool for predicting cancer based on genetic factors, as seen in the above example.

There are several important factors to consider when designing a random forest. If the trees in the random forests are too deep, overfitting can still occur due to over-specificity. If the forest is too large, the algorithm may become less efficient due to an increased runtime. Random forests also do not generally perform well when given sparse data with little variability. However, they still have numerous advantages over similar data classification algorithms such as neural networks, as they are much easier to interpret and generally require less data for training. As an integral component of random forests, bootstrap aggregating is very important to classification algorithms, and provides a critical element of variability that allows for increased accuracy when analyzing new data, as discussed below.

Improving Random Forests and Bagging
While the techniques described above utilize random forests and bagging (otherwise known as bootstrapping), there are certain techniques that can be used in order to improve their execution and voting time, their prediction accuracy, and their overall performance. The following are key steps in creating an efficient random forest:

 * 1) Specify the maximum depth of trees: Instead of allowing your random forest to continue until all nodes are pure, it is better to cut it off at a certain point in order to further decrease chances of overfitting.
 * 2) Prune the dataset: Using an extremely large dataset may prove to create results that is less indicative of the data provided than a smaller set that more accurately represents what is being focused on.
 * 3) * Continue pruning the data at each node split rather than just in the original bagging process.
 * 4) Decide on accuracy or speed: Depending on the desired results, increasing or decreasing the number of trees within the forest can help. Increasing the number of trees generally provides more accurate results while decreasing the number of trees will provide quicker results.

Algorithm (classification)
For classification, use a training set $$D$$, Inducer $$I$$ and the number of bootstrap samples $$m$$ as input. Generate a classifier $$C^*$$ as output

for i = 1 to m { D' = bootstrap sample from D   (sample with replacement) Ci = I(D') } C*(x) = argmax #{i:Ci(x)=y}        (most often predicted label y)         y∈Y
 * 1) Create $$m$$  new training sets  $$D_i$$, from $$D$$ with replacement
 * 2) Classifier $$C_i$$ is built from each set $$D_i$$ using $$I$$ to determine the classification of set $$D_i$$
 * 3) Finally classifier $$C^*$$ is generated by using the previously created set of classifiers $$C_i$$ on the original data set $$D$$, the classification predicted most often by the sub-classifiers $$C_i$$ is the final classification

Example: ozone data
To illustrate the basic principles of bagging, below is an analysis on the relationship between ozone and temperature (data from Rousseeuw and Leroy (1986), analysis done in R).

The relationship between temperature and ozone appears to be nonlinear in this data set, based on the scatter plot. To mathematically describe this relationship, LOESS smoothers (with bandwidth 0.5) are used. Rather than building a single smoother for the complete data set, 100 bootstrap samples were drawn. Each sample is composed of a random subset of the original data and maintains a semblance of the master set's distribution and variability. For each bootstrap sample, a LOESS smoother was fit. Predictions from these 100 smoothers were then made across the range of the data. The black lines represent these initial predictions. The lines lack agreement in their predictions and tend to overfit their data points: evident by the wobbly flow of the lines.

By taking the average of 100 smoothers, each corresponding to a subset of the original data set, we arrive at one bagged predictor (red line). The red line's flow is stable and does not overly conform to any data point(s).

Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
 * Many weak learners aggregated typically outperform a single learner over the entire set, and have less overfit
 * Reduces variance in high-variance low-bias weak learner, which can improve efficiency (statistics)
 * Can be performed in parallel, as each separate bootstrap can be processed on its own before aggregation

Disadvantages:
 * For a weak learner with high bias, bagging will also carry high bias into its aggregate
 * Loss of interpretability of a model.
 * Can be computationally expensive depending on the data set

History
The concept of bootstrap aggregating is derived from the concept of bootstrapping which was developed by Bradley Efron. Bootstrap aggregating was proposed by Leo Breiman who also coined the abbreviated term "bagging" (bootstrap aggregating). Breiman developed the concept of bagging in 1994 to improve classification by combining classifications of randomly generated training sets. He argued, "If perturbing the learning set can cause significant changes in the predictor constructed, then bagging can improve accuracy".

title: Bootstrap aggregating


text:
Truro River

The Truro River (Hyldreth) is a river in the city of Truro in Cornwall, England, UK. It is the product of the convergence of the two rivers named Kenwyn and Allen which run under the city: the Truro River (named after the city) flows into the River Fal, estuarial waters where wildlife is abundant, and then out into the Carrick Roads. The river is navigable up to Truro.

The river valleys form a bowl surrounding the city on the north, east and west and open to the Truro River in the south. The fairly steep-sided bowl in which Truro is located, along with high precipitation swelling the rivers and a spring tide in the River Fal, were major causes of flooding in 1988 which caused large amounts of damage to the city centre. Since then, flood defences have been constructed around the city, including an emergency dam at New Mill on the River Kenwyn and a tidal barrier on the Truro River, to prevent future problems. The valley of the Tresillian River is between the valleys of the Truro River and the Fal; the Tresillian River flows into the Truro River just upstream of where the latter joins the Fal. Early records give the Tresillian River the name "Seugar" (1297) or "Sowgar" (1530); the meaning of this name is unknown.

The river is mentioned in the medieval Cornish language play Bewnans Ke (c. 1550), as the place from which the eponymous Saint Kea embarks for Rosené. It uses the river's Cornish name Hildrech, which in modern spelling is Hyldreth.

Malpas Estuary
The river from the city to the village of Malpas, including Lambe Creek and Calenick Creek, form Malpas Estuary SSSI (Site of Special Scientific Interest). It is an important habitat of tidal mudflats, which are feeding grounds for wildfowl and wading birds as well as fish species including European seabass, thicklip grey mullet, European flounder and European eel. There is also a small run of migratory brown trout (Sea Trout, known in Cornwall as Peel) into the River Allen. The banks of the estuary are also noted for their flora.

title: Truro River


text:
Frank S. Monnett

Francis Sylvester Monnett (March 19, 1857 – April 21, 1953) was Ohio Attorney General from 1896–1900 as a member of the Republican Party. Under the administration of Monnette, the Ohio Attorney General's office pursued and won the first major victories that finally led to the permanent break-up of Standard Oil Trust established by John D. Rockefeller.

While previous courts had ordered the Trust to divide its interests, the company failed to do so until it was sued in the Ohio courts. While Monnett's term ended before the matter could be settled, the work done during his administration set the course for the final resolution. Rockefeller funds were lavishly donated to Monnette's opponents, which led to his loss in the November 1900 election.

Monnett also worked with Ohio Senator H. E. Valentine in the investigation of trust problems undertaken by a committee of the Ohio state senate in 1898. As a result of this probe, Ohio enacted the Valentine Act. Under the terms of the Valentine Act, legal trust practices were defined and illegal practices were outlawed. The act also specified criminal penalties for violations of the law.

He died in 1953 in Columbus, Ohio.

title: Frank S. Monnett


text:
Avrom Isaacs

Avrom Isaacs, D.F.A. (March 19, 1926 – January 15, 2016) was a Canadian art dealer.

Career
Avrom Isaacovitch, known as Av Isaacs, was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and moved to Toronto with his family in 1941. Isaacs graduated with a bachelor's degree in Political Science and Economics from the University of Toronto in 1950.

He began his career in the arts in 1950 when he opened the Greenwich Art Shop, a small framing store on Hayter Street in Toronto. In 1955, when he shared a room with artist Graham Coughtry, Coughtry, along with Michael Snow, persuaded him to open the Greenwich Gallery. The inaugural show, understandably, had paintings by Coughtry and Snow. The gallery was renamed the Isaacs Gallery in 1959 and moved to a new location at 832 Yonge Street in 1961. In it he represented numerous Canadian artists, including Coughtry, Snow, William Kurelek, Gordon Rayner, Jack Chambers, Joyce Wieland, Mark Prent, Richard Gorman, John Meredith, Dennis Burton, Robert Markle, Gathie Falk and Christiane Pflug, many of whom stayed with the gallery for all or most of their careers. The Isaacs Gallery was noted for the broad range of work it showed, running from contemporary art to the art of New Guinea and west-coast Indian artists and even to Asian costumes but his efforts went beyond helping his artists and their markets, wrote the Globe and Mail in 2005. Isaacs also was famous for his "young talent" shows. The Art Gallery of Ontario described him in 2016 as both curator and agitator, challenging both his artists and the community to be progressive. He was more than just an art dealer, he was a champion for modern Canadian art and Toronto.

He opened the Innuit Gallery in Toronto in 1970, where he gave solo exhibitions to such distinguished artists as Karoo Ashevak and Jessie Oonark. In August 1991 Isaacs consolidated his two galleries to form the Isaacs/Innuit Gallery. The gallery closed in 2001.

He was awarded an honorary doctorate by York University in 1992, and was made a Member of the Order of Canada. Av Isaacs died on January 15, 2016. He was 89 years old.

Legacy
The key role of the Isaacs Gallery and the artists associated with Av Isaacs was revisited in a joint exhibition titled Isaacs Seen at the University of Toronto Art Centre, Hart House, the Art Gallery of Ontario (AGO), and the Textile Museum of Canada (2003-2005). In 2016, the AGO did a second show about Isaacs, Av Isaacs: Shaping the Scene which exhibited 19 works from the AGO's collection, donated by Av Isaacs or acquired from the Isaacs and Innuit Galleries through purchase and from local collectors.

title: Avrom Isaacs


text:
Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs

The Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs is a letter issued in May 1848 by the four Eastern patriarchs of the Eastern Orthodox Church, who met at Council in Constantinople. It was addressed to all Eastern Orthodox Christians, as a response against Pope Pius IX's Epistle to the Easterners which had been issued in January (1848).

The encyclical was solemnly addressed to "All the Bishops Everywhere, Beloved in the Holy Ghost, Our Venerable, Most Dear Brethren; and to their Most Pious Clergy; and to All the Genuine Orthodox Sons of the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church". The encyclical explicitly denounces the Filioque clause added by Rome to the Nicene Creed as a heresy, censures the papacy for missionizing among Eastern Orthodox Christians, and repudiates Ultramontanism (papal supremacy). It also describes the Roman Catholic Church as being in apostasy, heresy, and schism.

In the course of all this, it notably makes reference to the Fourth Council of Constantinople (879-880) as being the eighth ecumenical council.

Signatories

 * Patriarch Anthimus VI of Constantinople
 * Pope and Patriarch Hierotheus II of Alexandria
 * Patriarch Methodius of Antioch
 * Patriarch Cyril II of Jerusalem
 * The Holy Synod in Constantinople
 * The Holy Synod in Antioch
 * The Holy Synod in Jerusalem

title: Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs


text: User talk:68.165.159.82

title: User talk:68.165.159.82