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JMonkeyEngine

jMonkeyEngine (abbreviated JME or jME) is an open-source and cross-platform game engine for developing 3D games written in Java. It can be used to write games for Windows, Linux, macOS, Raspberry Pi, Android, and iOS (currently in alpha testing). It uses Lightweight Java Game Library as its default renderer, and also supports another renderer based on Java OpenGL.

jMonkeyEngine is community-centric and open-source. It is released under the New BSD license. It is used by several commercial game studios and educational institutions. The default jMonkeyEngine 3 comes integrated with a software development kit (SDK).

jMonkeyEngine 3 SDK
By itself, jMonkeyEngine is a collection of computing libraries, making it a low-level game development tool. Coupled with an integrated development environment like the official jMonkeyEngine 3 SDK, it becomes a higher-level game development environment with multiple graphical components.

The SDK is based on the NetBeans Platform, enabling graphical editors and plugin capabilities. Alongside the default NetBeans update centers, the SDK has its own plugin repository and a selection between stable point releases or nightly updates.

Since March 5th, 2016, the SDK is no longer officially supported by the core team. It is still being actively maintained by the community. The term "jMonkeyPlatform" is also used interchangeably with "jMonkeyEngine 3 SDK."

History
jMonkeyEngine helps to improve the lack of full featured graphics engines written in Java. The project has evolved over time.

jMonkeyEngine 0.1 – 2.0
Version 0.1 to 2.0 of jMonkeyEngine marks the time from when the project was first established in 2003, until the last 2.0 version was released in 2008. When the original core developers gradually discontinued work on the project throughout the end of 2007 and the beginning of 2008, Version 2.0 had not yet been made officially stable. The code-base became adopted for commercial use and was most popular with the engine's community at the time.

jMonkeyEngine 3.0
Since the departure of jME's core developers in late 2008, the codebase remained practically stagnant for several months. The community continued to commit patches, but the project was not moving in any clear direction. Development on Version 3.0 started as an experiment.

The first preview release of jME3 in early 2009 drew positive attention from many members in the community, and the majority agreed that this new branch would be the official successor to jME 2.0. From there on, all the formalities were sorted out between the previous core developers and the new.

Projects powered by jMonkeyEngine

 * Nord, a browser-based massively multiplayer online game (MMO) on Facebook, created by Skygoblin
 * Grappling Hook, a first-person action and puzzle game, created by an independent developer
 * Drohtin, a real-time strategy game (RTS)
 * Chaos, a 3D fantasy cooperative role-playing game (RPG) by 4Realms
 * Skullstone, a 3D retro-styled single player dungeon crawler game, created by Black Torch Games
 * Spoxel, a 2D action-adventure sandbox video game, created by Epaga Games
 * Lightspeed Frontier, a space sandbox game with RPG, building, and exploration elements, created by Crowdwork Studios
 * Subspace Infinity, a 2D top-down space fighter MMO
 * 3079 and 3089, randomly generated and open-world RPGs by Phr00t's Software
 * New Star Soccer, a mobile football video game, created by New Star Games.

Reception

 * JavaOne 2008 Presentation
 * Finalist in PacktPub Open Source Graphics Software Award 2010

Ardor3D fork
Ardor3D began life on September 23, 2008, as a fork from jMonkeyEngine by Joshua Slack and Rikard Herlitz due to what they perceived as irreconcilable issues with naming, provenance, licensing, and community structure in that engine, as well as a desire to back a powerful open-source Java engine with organized corporate support.

The first public release came January 2, 2009, with new releases following every few months thereafter. In 2011, Ardor3D was used in the Mars Curiosity mission both by NASA Ames and NASA JPL for visualizing terrain and rover movement.

On March 11, 2014, Joshua Slack announced that the project would be abandoned, although the software itself would remain under zlib license and continue to be freely available. However, a subset of Ardor3D called "JogAmp's Ardor3D Continuation" was still actively maintained by Julien Gouesse as of 2014.

title: JMonkeyEngine


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Nepal National Teachers Association

The Nepal National Teachers Association (NNTA) is an organization of teachers' trade unions in Nepal. It is the oldest and most influential organization of teachers' associations in Nepal. The NNTA was established in 1979, registered under the Educational Act of that time, and became a trade union. Currently, it has more than 70 thousand members. NNTA has established international relation and is the first member to the WCOTP from Nepal, and a charter member to Education International (EI) global union federation. NNTA is also affiliated or has working relationships with trade unions and professional organizations in Nepal and worldwide. NNTA has a faithful relationship with the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist).

The 12th national general convention of the NNTA took place from 30-31, May 2018. A 33-member central working committee was elected at the convention. The gathering elected Laxman Sharma as NNTA chairperson.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nepal National Teachers Association


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Enrique Salinas

Enrique Eduardo Guillermo Salinas de Gortari (November 15, 1952 – December 6, 2004) was the third of four brothers of former president of Mexico Carlos Salinas.

Death
On December 6, 2004 his corpse was found, with a plastic bag placed over his head, inside a Volkswagen Passat. The vehicle was abandoned in the upmarket municipality of Huixquilucan, Estado de México, on the outskirts of Mexico City. The authorities (PGJEM) gave asphyxiation as the cause of death.

Background
Unlike his brothers ex-president Carlos and convicted felon Raúl, Enrique had eschewed the world of politics in favour of the business sector.

Salinas' widow and kids reside in Lausanne, Switzerland

title: Enrique Salinas


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Khovanshchina

Khovanshchina (Хованщина, sometimes rendered The Khovansky Affair) is an opera (subtitled a 'national music drama') in five acts by Modest Mussorgsky. The work was written between 1872 and 1880 in St. Petersburg, Russia. The composer wrote the libretto based on historical sources. The opera was almost finished in piano score when the composer died in 1881, but the orchestration was almost entirely lacking.

Like Mussorgsky's earlier Boris Godunov, Khovanshchina deals with an episode in Russian history, first brought to the composer's attention by his friend the critic Vladimir Stasov. It concerns the rebellion of Prince Ivan Khovansky, the Old Believers, and the Muscovite Streltsy against the regent Sofia Alekseyevna and the two young Tsars Peter the Great and Ivan V, who were attempting to institute Westernizing reforms in Russia. Khovansky had helped to foment the Moscow Uprising of 1682, which resulted in Sofia becoming regent on behalf of her younger brother Ivan and half-brother Peter, who were crowned joint Tsars. In the fall of 1682 Prince Ivan Khovansky turned against Sofia. Supported by the Old Believers and the Streltsy, Khovansky – who supposedly wanted to install himself as the new regent – demanded the reversal of Patriarch Nikon's reforms. Sofia and her court were forced to flee Moscow. Eventually, Sofia managed to suppress the so-called Khovanshchina (Khovansky affair) with the help of the diplomat Fyodor Shaklovity, who succeeded Khovansky as leader of the Muscovite Streltsy. With the rebellion crushed, the Old Believers committed mass suicide (in the opera, at least).

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov completed, revised, and orchestrated Khovanshchina in 1881–1882. In 1958 Dmitri Shostakovich was commissioned to revise and reorchestrate the opera for a film version released the following year. It is the Shostakovich version which is now usually performed. In 1913 Igor Stravinsky and Maurice Ravel made their own arrangement at Sergei Diaghilev's request. When Feodor Chaliapin refused to sing the part of Dosifey in any other orchestration than Rimsky-Korsakov's, Diaghilev's company employed a mixture of orchestrations which did not prove successful. The Stravinsky-Ravel orchestration was forgotten, except for Stravinsky's finale, which is still sometimes used.

Although the background of the opera comprises the Moscow Uprising of 1682 and the Khovansky affair a few months later, its main themes are the struggle between progressive and reactionary political factions during the minority of Tsar Peter the Great and the passing of old Muscovy before Peter's westernizing reforms. It received its first performance in the Rimsky-Korsakov edition in 1886.

Compositional history

The libretto was written out by 1879, and shows some inconsistencies with the actual text set to music. The above table is based on those of Richard Taruskin (in Musorgsky: Eight Essays and an Epilogue) and Pavel Lamm (in the preface to his edition of the vocal score).

Performance history
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 * 1886, Saint Petersburg – World premiere

The world premiere took place on 9 February 1886 at Kononov Hall, St. Petersburg, using the Rimsky-Korsakov edition. Eduard Goldshteyn (Goldstein) conducted a cast of amateur singers.
 * 1892, Kiev – Professional premiere

26 October 1892, Kiev City Theatre, produced by I. Setov, cast included I. Tartakov (Shaklovitïy)

ноябрь 1892, Москва, силами арт. антр. Прянишникова;

27 окт. (8 нояб.) 1893, С.-Петербург, т-р бывш. Кононова, силами арт. Русского оперного товарищества. Дирижёр С. М. Безносиков. Режиссёр В. К. Травский. Солисты: Г. Кассилов (Князь Василий Голицын), И. В. Матчинский (Досифей), Г. Нивинская (Марфа), К. Л. Арсеньев (Подъячий);

 * 1897, Moscow – Shalyapin as Dosifey

The Russian Private Opera staged its version on 12 November 1897 at Solodovnikov Hall in Moscow. Production personnel included Savva Mamontov (producer) and Mikhail Lentovsky (stage director). E. Esposito conducted. The cast included Anton Bedlevich (Ivan Khovansky), Pyotr Inozemtsev (Andrey Khovansky), E. Karklin (Golitsïn), I. Sokolov (Shaklovitïy), Fyodor Shalyapin (Dosifey), Serafima Selyuk-Roznatovskaya (Marfa), A. Rubinskaya (Susanna), G. Kassilov (Scrivener), V. Antonova (Emma), M. Malinin (Varsonofyev), Nikolay Kedrov (Pastor), and Mikhail Levandovsky (Kuzka)

28 сент. 1907, С.-Петербург, Большой зал конс., силами арт. антр. А. Н. Дракули. Дирижёр А. А. Бернарди. Режиссёр Н. Н. Арбатов. Солисты: Москалев (Князь Иван Хованский), В. И. Лазарев (Князь Андрей Хованский), Н. В. Андреев (Князь Василий Голицын), Борисов-Мальский (Шакловитый), А. Н. Дракули (Досифей), Н. М. Калинина (Марфа), Владимиров (Подъячий);

1909, Париж, т-р «Шатле», силами рус. арт. Режиссёр А. А. Санин;

15 сент. 1910, Москва, т-р Солодовникова, силами арт. Оперы С. И. Зимина. Дирижёр И. О. Палицын. Режиссёр П. С. Оленин. Солисты: К. Д. Запорожец (Князь Иван Хованский), А. В. Секар-Рожанский (Князь Василий Голицын), Н. А. Шевелёв (Шакловитый), В. Н. Петрова-Званцева (Марфа);

 * 1911, Saint Petersburg – Mariinsky Theatre Premiere

The Mariinsky Theatre premiere took place on 7 November 1911. The Rimsky-Korsakov edition was performed. Production personnel included Fyodor Shalyapin and P. Melnikov (stage managers). Albert Coates conducted. the cast included Vasily Sharonov (Ivan Khovansky), Andrey Labinsky (Andrey Khovansky), Ivan Yershov (Golitsïn), P. Andreyev (Shaklovitïy), Fyodor Shalyapin (Dosifey),Yevgeniya Zbruyeva (Marfa), Yelena Nikolayeva (Susanna), Grigoriy Ugrinovich (Scrivener), M. Kovalenko (Emma), and V. Losev (Kuzka)

12 декаб. 1912, Москва, Большой т-р. Дирижёр Д. И. Похитонов. Режиссёры В. П. Шкафер и Ф. И. Шаляпин. Солисты: К. Д. Запорожец (Князь Иван Хованский), А. М. Лабинский (Князь Андрей Хованский), А. П. Боначич (Князь Василий Голицын), Ф. В. Павловский (Шакловитый), Ф. И. Шаляпин (Досифей), Е. И. Збруева (Марфа), Е. А. Подольская (Сусанна), Е. И. Гремина (Эмма), А. М. Успенский (Подъячий), А. Герасименко (Варсонофьев), П. П. Фигуров (Кузька), С. Трезвинский (1-й стрелец), Х. Толкачев (2-й стрелец), М. Толчанов (3-й стрелец);

 * 1912, Moscow – Bolshoy Theatre premiere

5 июня 1913, Париж, т-р Елисейских полей/Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, силами арт. антр. С. П. Дягилева (на рус. яз.), в рамках 8-го «Русского сезона» в Париже. Новая редакция и инструментовка Игоря Стравинского и Мориса Равеля. Дирижёр Э. А. Купер. Режиссёр А. А. Санин. Солисты: К. Д. Запорожец (Князь Иван Хованский), В. П. Дамаев (Князь Андрей Хованский), Н. В. Андреев (Князь Василий Голицын), П. З. Андреев (Шакловитый), Ф. И. Шаляпин (Досифей), Е. Ф. Петренко (Марфа), Е. Н. Николаева (Сусанна), М. И. Бриан (Эмма);

 * 1913, Paris – Rimsky-Korsakov-Ravel_Stravinsky Version

1 июля 1913, Лондон, «Друри-Лейн»/Drury Lane Theatre. Новая редакция и инструментовка Игоря Стравинского и Мориса Равеля. Дирижёр Э. А. Купер. Режиссёр А. А. Санин. Солисты: те же, что и 5 июня 1913 в Париже;

 * 1913, London – United Kingdom premiere
 * 1928, Philadelphia – United States premiere

18 April 1928 Hammerstein's Metropolitan In English The cast included Marek Windheim
 * 1931, New York–

The first New York performance, in Russian, took place at the Mecca Temple Auditorium on March 7, 1931.
 * 1950, New York – Met

English translation, Feb. 16, 1950, Emil Cooper conducted. The cast included Risë Stevens, Polyna Stoska, Charles Kuhlmann, Jerome Hines and Lawrence Tibbett.
 * 1985, New York –

orchestration by Dmitri Shostakovich. Neeme Järvi, conductor; production by August Everding; sets designed by Ming Cho Lee; At the Metropolitan Opera. Ivan KhovanskyAage Haugland MarfaHelga Dernesch DosifeiMartti Talvela GolitsynWieslaw Ochman

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The St. Petersburg and world premiere took place on 21 February (9 February O.S.), 1886 using the Rimsky-Korsakov edition. Also in St. Petersburg on 27 October 1893 the opera was presented by artists of the Russian Opera Society.

The Russian Private Opera presented the Moscow premiere at the Solodovnikov Theater on 12 November 1897 conducted by Michele Esposito, with scene designs by Konstantin Korovin, Apollinary Vasnetsov, and Sergey Malyutin. There were 1910 and 1911 productions in the two cities, the first by the Zimin Opera in Moscow and conducted by Palitsīn scenes by Matorin, while the second was at St. Petersburg's Mariinsky Theatre and conducted by Albert Coates. Khovanshchina reached the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris in 1913, where Emil Cooper (Kuper) conducted a Diaghilev production, in a new orchestration written collaboratively by Igor Stravinsky and Maurice Ravel. Because Feodor Chaliapin was unwilling to sing Dosifei in any orchestration other than Rimsky-Korsakov's, the Parisians heard a hybrid version which proved unsuccessful, and this orchestration was forgotten. Only the finale, which was composed by Stravinsky, has survived and was published in 1914. It occasionally replaces Dmitri Shostakovich's finale in some productions, such as Claudio Abbado's 1989 production in Vienna.

Also in 1913, it was presented in London at the Theatre Royal Drury Lane. It was produced in New York for the first time in 1931.

The Shostakovich version, in Pavel Lamm's edition, was first presented on 25 November 1960 at the Kirov Theater, conducted by Sergey Yeltsin with sets designed by Fedorovsky.

Khovanshchina was not staged by New York's Metropolitan Opera until 1950, although excerpts were performed by the Met as early as 1919. The 1950 production was sung in English and featured Risë Stevens as Marfa, Lawrence Tibbett as Prince Ivan and Jerome Hines as Dosifei. The sets and costumes were designed by the Russo-Lithuanian artist Mstislav Dobuzhinsky. That production received only four performances in 1950, and the Met did not stage Khovanshchina again until 1985, this time in Russian.

The new production was staged by August Everding, designed by Ming Cho Lee, and used the Shostakovich orchestration, with Martti Talvela as Dosifei and Natalia Rom as Emma. It has since been revived several times at the Met, most recently in a 2012 run, during which Stravinsky's final scene was employed there for the first time. Performances of Khovanshchina by visiting Russian companies have also appeared at the Met. More recently, it was performed by Welsh National Opera in both Wales and England as well as at the Bayerische Staatsoper in Munich under Kent Nagano in 2007.

Khovanshchina is not seen on stage often outside Russia, but it has been recorded complete 23 times, including seven videos.

Roles
Mussorgsky refers to Marfa as a contralto in a letter to Vladimir Stasov on 16 January 1876. Varsonofyev's part is written in the bass clef in his act 2 appearance, as expected for a bass or baritone; but it is written in the treble clef (presumably meant to sound an octave lower) in his act 4 appearance, as expected for a tenor.

Instrumentation
Rimsky-Korsakov Edition:
 * Strings: violins I, violins II, violas, cellos, double basses
 * Woodwinds: 3 flutes (3rd doubling piccolo), 2 oboes (2nd doubling english horn), 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons
 * Brass: 4 horns, 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, 1 tuba
 * Percussion: timpani, bass drum, snare drum, triangle, tambourine, cymbals, tam-tam, bells
 * Other: piano, harp
 * On/Offstage: 3 trumpets, wind band

Shostakovich Orchestration:
 * Strings: violins I, violins II, violas, cellos, double basses
 * Woodwinds: 3 flutes (3rd doubling piccolo), 3 oboes (3rd doubling English horn), 3 clarinets (3rd doubling bass clarinet), 3 bassoons (3rd doubling contrabassoon)
 * Brass: 4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, 1 tuba
 * Percussion: timpani, bass drum, snare drum, triangle, tambourine, cymbals, tam-tam, bells, glockenspiel
 * Other: piano, harp, celesta
 * On/Offstage: unspecified numbers of horns, trumpets, trombones

Historical basis of the plot
The death of the young Tsar Fyodor III has left Russia with a crisis of succession. Supported by Prince Ivan Khovansky, Fyodor's sickly brother Ivan, who is 16, and his half-brother Peter, who is only 10, have been installed as joint rulers, with their older sister Sofia acting as regent. Sofia has allied herself with Prince Vasily Golitsin, a powerful courtier and liberal politician, who is also her alleged lover.

Due to regulations applicable at the time of the composition of the opera in Imperial Russia, it was forbidden to portray members of the Romanov dynasty on stage, so Mussorgsky had recourse to a series of symbols and indirect mention of main characters in the plot. Sofia, Ivan and Peter never actually appear on stage. The principal theme of Khovanshchina is stated outright in the choral number "Akh, ty Rodnaya, Matushka Rus'" in act 1 ("Woe to thee, native, Mother Russia"), which laments that Russia is bleeding and dying not because of a foreign enemy, but because of fragmentation within. Something like a three-way civil war is in progress, which basically compresses twelve years of Russian history into one telling. The Tsarist court is modernizing, and two powerful forces are resisting these changes: the Streltsy and the Old Believers. The Streltsy are decommissioned elite soldiers/guards ("Streltsy" literally means "shooters", just like "musketeers"), past their prime and on indefinite furlough. They are fanatically loyal to Prince Ivan Khovansky. The Old Believers are Russian Orthodox Christians who have left the state-sponsored church because they disagree with the Patriarch Nikon's reforms; they also challenge the line of succession to the throne and have refused to recognize the Russian Patriarch. Their leader is Dosifey. Fortunately for Czar Peter, these two factions despise each other, as the Streltsy are rowdy degenerates and the Old Believers are pious ascetics. Each of the three principal basses in the opera believes himself to represent the "true" Russia against her internal enemies: Prince Ivan Khovansky claims legitimacy by noble birth and military prowess, Dosifey by religion, and Shaklovity by supporting Czar Peter.

Synopsis
Time: The year 1682 Place: Moscow

In some performances and recordings of the opera some segments are deleted, depending on the interpretation of the original notes, which are described in [brackets].

Act 1
Moscow, Red Square

In the morning in the Red Square, a member of the Streltsy (named Kuzka) sings his drunkenness off while two other Streltsy talk about their rowdy activities the night before. A scribe arrives; they all pick on him and then leave. Shaklovity, a Boyar and agent for the regent and the Tsars, enters and dictates a letter to the court, warning of a rebellion planned by Prince Ivan Khovansky (captain of the Streltsy Guards) and the Old Believers. After finishing the letter he warns the scribe not to repeat what he heard. The scribe, terrified by the prospect of being involved in a political intrigue, signs the letter with a false name. [''The crowd enters and they force the scribe to read a new proclamation that has been published in the public square, which describes the atrocities committed by the Streltsy. The crowd laments the state of Russia.''] Prince Ivan Khovansky enters promising an adoring crowd that he will defend the "young Tsars" (Ivan V and Peter I). He and the crowd exit.

Prince Andrey, Khovansky's son, chases in Emma, a German girl, intending to assault her. Marfa, an Old Believer and Andrey's former fiancée, interferes. Andrey threatens to kill Marfa, but Prince Ivan returns and decides to capture Emma himself. The ensuing quarrel between father and son is interrupted by the arrival of Dosifey, the leader of the Old Believers. Dosifey berates everyone for being so quarrelsome and un-Christian, and asks them all to join the Old Believers in reuniting Russia. Prince Ivan Khovansky leaves with Prince Andrey Khovansky. Marfa leaves with Emma. Dosifey, left alone, prays for the future of Russia.

Act 2
Summer study of Prince Vasily Golitsin

Golitsin, a nervous progressive nobleman, reads letters from his lover [and his mother, who warns him to keep himself pure]. [''A German Lutheran pastor enters to complain of the murder of one of the scribes in his community by the Streltsy and Prince Andrey Khovansky's pursuit of Emma. Prince Golitsin tries to appease the pastor and offers some form of political advantage that the pastor promises to collect later, although Golitsin flatly refuses to let him build another church; then the Prince wonders about the true motives behind the pastor's actions'']. The Prince hires Marfa to tell his fortune in secret. She predicts that he will fall from power and face exile; he dismisses her and orders his servant to kill her. Once alone he ponders on all the acts that he has made to advance Russia, but is interrupted when Prince Ivan Khovansky enters without being announced. (Ivan is ironically disrespecting Golitsin, who himself reformed the tradition of announcing noble visitors.) Prince Khovansky complains that Golitsin has been interfering with his friends in the nobility and diminishing the privileges of nobility, and states that only Tartars believe that all men are equal, and questions whether Russia shall become "tartarized". A quarrel ensues, [each making insulting remarks about the other's military campaigns,] but Dosifey enters and draws their attention away from their argument by criticising both of them: Golitsin for his modern views, and Prince Ivan for letting the Streltsy get drunk and run around making trouble all the time. [In the discussion with Dosifey it turns out that he was once Prince Myshetsky who renounced all worldly matters, to which Prince Ivan Khovansky says that a Prince must die a Prince.] Marfa comes back, there has been an attempt on her life but she was saved by the Petrovtsy (the Tsar's personal army). After her enters Shaklovity, who menacingly announces that the Tsar has been warned of the planned rebellion and has issued orders to arrest the Princes Khovansky. Without resolving the drama, the act ends.

Act 3
The Streltsy Quarter, south of the Moscow River

As Old Believers chant a hymn for the future of Russia, Marfa sings of her lost love for Prince Andrey Khovansky. [Susanna, a fellow Old Believer, scolds Marfa until Dosifey appears and drives Susanna away.] Marfa admits to Dosifey that she still loves Prince Andrey Khovansky. Dosifey tells her to pray for relief. They exit and Shaklovity, who until now had been presented as a purely threatening character, sings a haunting prayer for troubled Russia's protection from the Streltsy (he refers to them as "mercenaries") and from the rebellious powers they obey. Hearing them coming he exits; some of the Streltsy enter and sing a drinking chorus followed by their wives who scold them about their drinking. [The soldiers ask Kuzka to help them with their wives; he ends up organizing an entire celebration with all the Streltsy and their women.] The scribe arrives and informs them that Tsar Peter's troops have initiated an attack on Streltsy-Russian soldiers. The Streltsy call their leader, Prince Ivan Khovansky, who enters and begs their forgiveness for declining to lead them into retaliation; the new Tsar is very powerful, he explains, and their time of power is over.

Act 4
Scene 1: A richly furnished chamber in Prince Ivan Khovansky's palace

Prince Ivan Khovansky is being entertained by the women in his retinue but they are interrupted by a servant of Golitsin (Varsonofyev) who has come to warn him that he is in danger. Prince Ivan Khovansky ignores the warning and has the messenger flogged. He orders his Persian slaves to dance for him. Shaklovity enters and stabs Khovansky to death. Shaklovity scornfully imitates the servants' song over the Prince's corpse.

''Scene 2: Moscow. The square before the Cathedral of Vasiliy the Blessed''

Prince Golitsin is led into exile. Dosifey mourns the conspirators' downfall and the success of Tsar Peter and learns that the Imperial Council has decreed that the Old Believers are next. He discusses with Marfa that an everlasting example must be set by the Old Believers and agree that they shall immolate themselves. Prince Andrey Khovansky enters and confronts Marfa about where she hid Emma, but Marfa tells him that she is safely on her way back to Germany, her father and fiancé. Prince Andrey Khovansky threatens that he will have her burnt as a witch and calls for the Streltsy with his horn but instead a menacing sound is heard. Marfa offers sanctuary to Prince Andrey Khovansky with the Old Believers after she tells him of his father's murder. The Streltsy are led to their execution. Tsar Peter, through an agent, intervenes to pardon them.

Act 5
A pine forest, a secluded monastery, a moonlit night

Dosifey and his followers have taken refuge in a hermitage in the forest. Although he is weighed down by the sorrows and sufferings of the brethren, he remains defiant and determined to win a "crown of glory" in fire and flame ("Here, in this holy place"). He exhorts the brethren to don white clothing and light candles, preparing for immolation. They enter the hermitage. Prince Andrey Khovansky enters, singing of his lost love, still seeking Emma. Marfa sings to him, reminding him of their own love, and assuring him that she will not leave him. Dosifey and the brethren return, dressed in white and carrying candles. They build a funeral pyre. Offstage trumpet calls herald the approach of Tsar Peter's soldiers. Marfa sings to Andrey of the hopelessness of their situation. The trumpet calls sound again. Dosifey exhorts the brethren to remain strong one last time. Marfa lights the pyre. The schismatics sing a final hymn ("God will save me") as Dosifey, Marfa, Prince Andrey Khovansky and the Old Believers perish in the flames. [Tsar Peter's Preobrazhensky soldiers arrive in a vain attempt to capture them.] [Shostakovich version only: As the flames die away, the moon rises over the forest and the crowd from Moscow enters, reprising their act 1 lament for the state of Russia.]

Mussorgsky's original vocal score remained unfinished. The final portion of the libretto must be reconstructed from Mussorgsky's themes. The Rimsky-Korsakov edition (1883) adds to the final hymn figures representing flames, trumpet fanfares, and a final reprise of the "March of the Preobrazhensky Regiment" that concludes act 4. The Stravinsky version of the finale (1913) follows Mussorgsky's notes more closely in that the ending fades away. The Shostakovich version attempts to provide a musical conclusion of the opera by bringing back the theme of the sunrise from the Prelude to the opera.

Principal arias and numbers

 * Scene 1 –  Red Square
 * Introduction: "Dawn on the Moscow River", Вступление: «Рассвет на Москве-реке» (Orchestra)
 * Chorus: "Make a wide path for the White Swan", «Белому лебедю путь просторен» (Streltsï, People)
 * Chorus: "Glory to the White Swan", «Слава лебедю» (People)
 * Scene 2 –  Golitsïn's Study
 * Aria: Marfa's Divination "Mysterious powers", Гадания Марфы «Силы потайные» (Marfa, Golitsïn)
 * Scene 3 –  Streltsï Quarter
 * Song: "A maiden wandered", «Исходила младёшенька» (Marfa)
 * Aria: "The Streltsy nest sleeps", «Спит стрелецкое гнездо» (Shaklovitïy)
 * Scene 4 –  Khovansky's Palace
 * Ballet: "Dance of the Persian Slaves", «Пляски персидок» (Orchestra)
 * Chorus: "A young swan swims", «Плывет, плывет лебедушка» (Maidens, Shaklovitïy, Ivan Khovansky)
 * Scene 5 –  Red Square
 * Introduction "The Departure of Golitsïn", Вступление «Поезд Голицына» (Orchestra, Chorus)
 * Chorus: "Show them no mercy", «Не дай пощады» (Streltsï Wives, Streltsï, Andrey Khovansky, Marfa)
 * March: "March of the Preobrazhensky Regiment", «Марш преображенцев» (Orchestra)
 * Scene 6 –  Hermitage
 * Aria: "Here, in this holy place", «Здесь, на этом месте» (Dosifey)

title: Khovanshchina


text:
Roger Williams University

Roger Williams University (RWU) is a private university in Bristol, Rhode Island. Founded in 1956, it was named for theologian and Rhode Island cofounder Roger Williams. The school enrolls over 5,000 students and employs over 480 academic staff.

History
The university’s operations date to 1919, when Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts, opened a branch campus in the YMCA building in Providence, Rhode Island. In 1940, the YMCA board of directors began directing the school, and the YMCA Institute granted its first associate's degrees in 1948. In 1956, the institute received a state charter to become a two-year, degree-granting institution under the name of Roger Williams Junior College.

During the 1960s, the school began granting bachelor's degrees, and–in 1967–it subsequently adopted a new, shorter name: Roger Williams College. Needing a larger campus, the college purchased 80 acre of waterfront land and moved its main campus to Bristol in 1969. (RWU continues to operate a branch campus in Providence.) In 1989 new president Dr. Natale A. Sicuro initiated the Roger Williams Plan for the 1990s, and became concurrently the president of the newly established Roger Williams School of Law and, in 1992, led the name change of Roger Williams College to Roger Williams University. RWU celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2006.

Ioannis Miaoulis was appointed the eleventh president of Roger Williams University in 2019. Miaoulis previously served as both the president and director of the Boston Museum of Science since 2003 and brings a STEM philosophy to the university as he seeks to guide the university's mission and commitment in providing education through community-engaged learning and civic scholarship.

In 2012, Roger Williams University initiated a tuition freeze in which all entering freshmen would have a guarantee that their tuition would not increase for the next four years. The university renewed this promise for all freshmen entering in fall of 2015. As a result of this program, enrollment at the university has been steadily increasing, while enrollment at many peer institutions has been decreasing. In 2019, the university terminated this policy.

Academics
Roger Williams University enrolls approximately 3,800 undergraduate and 850 graduate students in eight schools. These schools offer more than 50 liberal arts majors and professional degrees, such as law, architecture, construction management, and historic preservation. The university has a student to faculty ratio of 14:1 while almost half of the classes offered have less than 20 students.

The largest majors are business, management, and marketing (24%); architecture (10%); security, law enforcement, and related protective services (9%); communication and journalism (8%); and psychology (7%).

Roger Williams University has several degree programs that are unusual in the United States:
 * Marine Biology program: offers a B.S. in Marine Biology, which is one of about fifteen in the country.
 * Architecture program: One of a few M. Arch. (Master’s of Architecture) in a traditional liberal arts environment.
 * Historic Preservation program: the B.S. in Historic Preservation is one of seven offered in the country and the M.S. in Historic Preservation is one of about 35 offered in the country.
 * Construction Management program: offers a B.S. in Construction Management (CM). RWU's Construction Management program is accredited by the American Council for Construction Education (ACCE) and a member of ASC's Northeast Region (Region 1).
 * Law program: Only Juris Doctor available in Rhode Island; offers a Master of Studies in Law (MSL).

Student life
Approximately 63% of students live on campus. 88% of the students attend school full-time. About 14% have a family income of less than $40k. 75% of the student population is white, 5% is Hispanic, and 2% is African American; less than 1% of the students are from other races or ethnicities.

The university's campus newspaper, The Hawks' Herald, publishes approximately 20 issues per academic year. An FM radio station, WQRI 88.3, plays everything from college alternative to hip hop. The college's 20 varsity athletic teams play at the Division III level as members of the Commonwealth Coast Conference.

Arts
On September 21, 2017, music icons The Beach Boys were honored by Roger Williams University, and music historians Al Gomes and Connie Watrous of Big Noise, and plaques were unveiled to commemorate the band's concert on September 22, 1971 at the university's Baypoint Inn & Conference Center in Portsmouth, Rhode Island. The 1971 concert was the first-ever appearance of South African Ricky Fataar as an official member of the band and Filipino Billy Hinsche as a touring member, essentially changing the Beach Boys' live and recording act's line-up into a multi-racial group. Diversity is a credo of Roger Williams University, which is why the school chose to celebrate this moment in the band's history.

Athletics
Roger Williams University teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III aside from the co-ed sailing team, which is Division I and is currently ranked number six in the sailing world's college rankings. Most of the Hawks are a member of the Commonwealth Coast Conference (CCC), except for the swimming and diving team, who compete in the New England Intercollegiate Swimming and Diving Association (NEISDA).

Men's sports include:
 * Baseball
 * Basketball
 * Cross country
 * Golf
 * Lacrosse
 * Polo
 * Soccer
 * Swimming & diving
 * Tennis
 * Track & field
 * Wrestling

Women's sports include:
 * Basketball
 * Cross country
 * Field hockey
 * Lacrosse
 * Polo
 * Soccer
 * Softball
 * Swimming & diving
 * Tennis
 * Track & field
 * Volleyball

Co-ed sports include:
 * Equestrian
 * Sailing

The university does not have a track and field and therefore uses the nearby Portsmouth High School facility in Portsmouth, Rhode Island.

Reputation and campus culture
The university established a program in civil discourse, including the journal Reason and Respect, which brought in speakers such as Salman Rushdie, David Gergen, First Minister and Nobel Prize–winner David Trimble, Khaled Hosseini, author of Kite Runner, Bob Geldof of Live Aid, and others to campus. The university has established campuses in London and Florence; collaborates with sister institutions in France, Brazil, Vietnam, and Hong Kong; features a broad portfolio of study-abroad opportunities encompassing over 30 countries; and is home to a Center for Macro Projects and Diplomacy, which brings together engineering, architecture, technology, economic development, and international relations for a common purpose. Furthermore, it was recently recognized as a non-governmental member of the United Nations.

Notable faculty members and alumni

 * Tim Baxter, '83 chairman of the board, former president and CEO, Samsung Electronics North America
 * Adam Braver, writer
 * Roberto DaSilva, first mayor of East Providence, Rhode Island
 * Jason Mattera, conservative blogger and writer.
 * James W. Nuttall, United States Army major general who served as deputy director of the Army National Guard and deputy commander of the First Army
 * Joe Polisena, former member of the Rhode Island State Senate and mayor of Johnston, Rhode Island
 * Jerry Remy, Former Boston Red Sox broadcaster and MLB player
 * Chris Sparling, screenwriter and director
 * June Speakman, member of the Rhode Island House of Representatives
 * Bob Wiley, former NFL offensive line coach

title: Roger Williams University


text:
Chiricahua National Monument

Chiricahua National Monument is a unit of the National Park System located in the Chiricahua Mountains of southeastern Arizona. The monument was established on April 18, 1924, to protect its extensive hoodoos and balancing rocks. The Faraway Ranch, which was owned at one time by Swedish immigrants Neil and Emma Erickson, is also preserved within the monument.

Just over 85% of the monument is protected as the Chiricahua National Monument Wilderness.

Visitor center
A visitor center is located two miles from the entrance to Chiricahua National Monument. The visitor center has exhibits relating to the geology, natural history, and cultural history of the area. A park ranger is available to provide visitors with trail guides and information. The main road, Bonita Canyon Drive, ventures 8 mi east through the park, ending at Massai Point. Approximately 17 mi of trails lead hikers through various ecosystems of meadows, forests, and rock formations.

The visitor center has a free shuttle that leaves each morning at 9:00am. The shuttle takes hikers to the Echo Canyon or Massai Point trailheads. Hikers return to the visitor center by following the designated trails.

Geology
Located approximately 36 mi southeast of Willcox, Arizona, the monument preserves the remains of an immense volcanic eruption that shook the region about 27 million years ago. The thick, white-hot ash spewed forth from the nearby Turkey Creek Caldera, cooled and hardened into rhyolitic tuff, laying down almost 2000 ft of highly siliceous, dark volcanic ash and pumice. The volcanic material eventually eroded into the natural rock formations of the present monument.

Historic Designed Landscape
Chiricahua National Monument Historic Designed Landscape is a historic district that covers roughly 80% of the national monument. The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 31, 2008.

It was the 18th property listed as a featured property of the week in a program of the National Park Service that began in July, 2008.

Redesignation as National Park
In 2022, the US Senate passed S. 1320 to redesignate the monument as a national park. The bill did not make it out of committee in the House and died with the conclusion of the 117th Congress. In early 2023, Senator Mark Kelly introduced S 736 in the Senate, while Representative Juan Ciscomani introduced HR 1479 in the House to redesignate the Monument as a Park. The 2023 bills passed out of committee in the Senate but have not passed out of committee in the House.

Missing naturalist
On January 13, 1980, Paul Fugate, a National Park Service naturalist and law enforcement ranger, disappeared after leaving the monument headquarters while in uniform, to check trails leading to the recently acquired Faraway Ranch. An acquaintance claimed to have seen him later that afternoon, slumped between two men in a pickup truck. Despite an extensive search of the rugged 17 sqmi monument area by authorities and search and rescue teams, no trace of him has been found.

Climate
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Chiricahua National Monument has a hot-summer mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csa" on climate maps. The hottest temperature recorded at Chiricahua National Monument was 109 F on July 13, 1909, while the coldest temperature recorded was -10 F on January 7, 1913.

title: Chiricahua National Monument


text:
Glycation

Glycation (non-enzymatic glycosylation) is the covalent attachment of a sugar to a protein, lipid or nucleic acid molecule. Typical sugars that participate in glycation are glucose, fructose, and their derivatives. Glycation is the non-enzymatic process responsible for many (e.g. micro and macrovascular) complications in diabetes mellitus and is implicated in some diseases and in aging. Glycation end products are believed to play a causative role in the vascular complications of diabetes mellitus.

In contrast with glycation, glycosylation is the enzyme-mediated ATP-dependent attachment of sugars to protein or lipid. Glycosylation occurs at defined sites on the target molecule. It is a common form of post-translational modification of proteins and is required for the functioning of the mature protein.

Biochemistry
Glycations occur mainly in the bloodstream to a small proportion of the absorbed simple sugars: glucose, fructose, and galactose. It appears that fructose has approximately ten times the glycation activity of glucose, the primary body fuel. Glycation can occur through Amadori reactions, Schiff base reactions, and Maillard reactions; which lead to advanced glycation end products (AGEs).

Biomedical implications
Red blood cells have a consistent lifespan of 120 days and are accessible for measurement of glycated hemoglobin. Measurement of HbA1c—the predominant form of glycated hemoglobin—enables medium-term blood sugar control to be monitored in diabetes.

Some glycation products are implicated in many age-related chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases (the endothelium, fibrinogen, and collagen are damaged) and Alzheimer's disease (amyloid proteins are side-products of the reactions progressing to AGEs).

Long-lived cells (such as nerves and different types of brain cell), long-lasting proteins (such as crystallins of the lens and cornea), and DNA can sustain substantial glycation over time. Damage by glycation results in stiffening of the collagen in the blood vessel walls, leading to high blood pressure, especially in diabetes. Glycations also cause weakening of the collagen in the blood vessel walls, which may lead to micro- or macro-aneurysm; this may cause strokes if in the brain.

DNA glycation
The term DNA glycation applies to DNA damage induced by reactive carbonyls (principally methylglyoxal and glyoxal) that are present in cells as by-products of sugar metabolism. Glycation of DNA can cause mutation, breaks in DNA and cytotoxicity. Guanine in DNA is the base most susceptible to glycation. Glycated DNA, as a form of damage, appears to be as frequent as the more well studied oxidative DNA damage. A protein, designated DJ-1 (also known as PARK7), is employed in the repair of glycated DNA bases in humans, and homologs of this protein have also been identified in bacteria.

title: Glycation


text:
CSS Morgan

CSS Morgan was a partially armored gunboat of the Confederate States Navy in the American Civil War. Morgan was built at Mobile, Alabama in 1861–62. She operated in the waters around Mobile from the time of her completion early in 1862 to the close of hostilities. One reference of October 1862 gave her name as Admiral.

Morgan, commanded by Commander George W. Harrison, CSN, took an active part in the Battle of Mobile Bay on August 5, 1864. Situated well to the right of the Confederate line of battle as the enemy proceeded up the channel, she was able to deliver a telling broadside raking fire against USS Hartford and others. Toward the end of the engagement, she was pursued by USS Metacomet but succeeded in driving her off. Morgan, attempting to avoid capture, then turned toward shallow water, grounded briefly, but continued on her perilous route and reached the guns at Fort Morgan. She dispatched a boat which effected the destruction of the Union gunboat USS Philippi below the fort. When the Union victory was apparent, Captain Harrison initially wanted to scuttle the ship, but was persuaded by his second in command, Lieutenant Thomas Locke Harrison (no relation) that she could be saved by boldly running the gauntlet up to Mobile. Although hotly pursued and shelled by cruisers for a large part of the 25-mile starlight voyage, she reached the outer obstructions near Mobile at daybreak, and that afternoon was permitted to pass through.

Morgan continued to serve in the Mobile area. In April 1865 she participated in the battle off Blakely Island in the last days of the Civil War. Blakely Island is located just off the docks of Mobile between the city and Old Spanish Fort located on the eastern shore of Mobile Bay. It was commanded by Captain Fry and sustained considerable damage in her final battle, but survived the war. CSS Morgan stood alone between the City of Mobile and the invading Union troops. On May 4, 1865, Commodore Ebenezer Farrand, commanding Confederate Naval Forces in the State of Alabama, ordered the surrender of Morgan to the United States Navy. She was sold the following December.

title: CSS Morgan


text:
Ecological effects of biodiversity

The diversity of species and genes in ecological communities affects the functioning of these communities. These ecological effects of biodiversity in turn are affected by both climate change through enhanced greenhouse gases, aerosols and loss of land cover, and biological diversity, causing a rapid loss of biodiversity and extinctions of species and local populations. The current rate of extinction is sometimes considered a mass extinction, with current species extinction rates on the order of 100 to 1000 times as high as in the past.

The two main areas where the effect of biodiversity on ecosystem function have been studied are the relationship between diversity and productivity, and the relationship between diversity and community stability. More biologically diverse communities appear to be more productive (in terms of biomass production) than are less diverse communities, and they appear to be more stable in the face of perturbations.

Also animals that inhabit an area may alter the surviving conditions by factors assimilated by climate.

Definitions
In order to understand the effects that changes in biodiversity will have on ecosystem functioning, it is important to define some terms. Biodiversity is not easily defined, but may be thought of as the number and/or evenness of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region. This definition includes genetic diversity, or the diversity of genes within a species, species diversity, or the diversity of species within a habitat or region, and ecosystem diversity, or the diversity of habitats within a region.

Two things commonly measured in relation to changes in diversity are productivity and stability. Productivity is a measure of ecosystem function. It is generally measured by taking the total aboveground biomass of all plants in an area. Many assume that it can be used as a general indicator of ecosystem function and that total resource use and other indicators of ecosystem function are correlated with productivity.

Stability is much more difficult to define, but can be generally thought of in two ways. General stability of a population is a measure that assumes stability is higher if there is less of a chance of extinction. This kind of stability is generally measured by measuring the variability of aggregate community properties, like total biomass, over time. The other definition of stability is a measure of resilience and resistance, where an ecosystem that returns quickly to an equilibrium after a perturbation or resists invasion is thought of as more stable than one that does not.

Productivity and stability as indicators of ecosystem health
The importance of stability in community ecology is clear. An unstable ecosystem will be more likely to lose species. Thus, if there is indeed a link between diversity and stability, it is likely that losses of diversity could feedback on themselves, causing even more losses of species. Productivity, on the other hand, has a less clear importance in community ecology. In managed areas like cropland, and in areas where animals are grown or caught, increasing productivity increases the economic success of the area and implies that the area has become more efficient, leading to possible long term resource sustainability. It is more difficult to find the importance of productivity in natural ecosystems.

Beyond the value biodiversity has in regulating and stabilizing ecosystem processes, there are direct economic consequences of losing diversity in certain ecosystems and in the world as a whole. Losing species means losing potential foods, medicines, industrial products, and tourism, all of which have a direct economic effect on peoples lives.

Effects on community productivity

 * Complementarity Plant species coexistence is thought to be the result of niche partitioning, or differences in resource requirements among species. By complementarity, a more diverse plant community should be able to use resources more completely, and thus be more productive. Also called niche differentiation, this mechanism is a central principle in the functional group approach, which breaks species diversity down into functional components.
 * Facilitation  Facilitation is a mechanism whereby certain species help or allow other species to grow by modifying the environment in a way that is favorable to a co-occurring species. Plants can interact through an intermediary like nitrogen, water, temperature, space, or interactions with weeds or herbivores among others. Some examples of facilitation include large desert perennials acting as nurse plants, aiding the establishment of young neighbors of other species by alleviating water and temperature stress, and nutrient enrichment by nitrogen-fixers such as legumes.
 * The Sampling Effect  The sampling effect of diversity can be thought of as having a greater chance of including a species of greatest inherent productivity in a plot that is more diverse. This provides for a composition effect on productivity, rather than diversity being a direct cause. However, the sampling effect may in fact be a compilation of different effects. The sampling effect can be separated into the greater likelihood of selecting a species that is 1) adapted well to particular site conditions, or 2) of a greater inherent productivity. Additionally, one can add to the sampling effect a greater likelihood of including 3) a pair of species that highly complement each other, or 4) a certain species with a large facilitative effect on other members of the community.

Review of data
Field experiments to test the degree to which diversity affects community productivity have had variable results, but many long-term studies in grassland ecosystems have found that diversity does indeed enhance the productivity of ecosystems. Additionally, evidence of this relationship has also been found in grassland microcosms. The differing results between studies may partially be attributable to their reliance on samples with equal species diversities rather than species diversities that mirror those observed in the environment. A 2006 experiment utilizing a realistic variation in species composition for its grassland samples found a positive correlation between increased diversity and increased production.

However, these studies have come to different conclusions as to whether the cause was due more to diversity or to species composition. Specifically, a diversity in the functional roles of the species may be a more important quality for predicting productivity than the diversity in species number. Recent mathematical models have highlighted the importance of ecological context in unraveling this problem. Some models have indicated the importance of disturbance rates and spatial heterogeneity of the environment, others have indicated that the time since disturbance and the habitat's carrying capacity can cause differing relationships. Each ecological context should yield not only a different relationship, but a different contribution to the relationship due to diversity and to composition. The current consensus holds at least that certain combinations of species provide increased community productivity.

Future research
In order to correctly identify the consequences of diversity on productivity and other ecosystem processes, many things must happen. First, it is imperative that scientists stop looking for a single relationship. It is obvious now from the models, the data, and the theory that there is no one overarching effect of diversity on productivity. Scientists must try to quantify the differences between composition effect and diversity effects, as many experiments never quantify the final realized species diversity (instead only counting numbers of species of seeds planted) and confound a sampling effect for facilitators (a compositional factor) with diversity effects.

Relative amounts of overyielding (or how much more a species grows when grown with other species than it does in monoculture) should be used rather than absolute amounts as relative overyielding can give clues as to the mechanism by which diversity is influencing productivity, however if experimental protocols are incomplete, one may be able to indicate the existence of a complementary or facilitative effect in the experiment, but not be able to recognize its cause. Experimenters should know what the goal of their experiment is, that is, whether it is meant to inform natural or managed ecosystems, as the sampling effect may only be a real effect of diversity in natural ecosystems (managed ecosystems are composed to maximize complementarity and facilitation regardless of species number). By knowing this, they should be able to choose spatial and temporal scales that are appropriate for their experiment. Lastly, to resolve the diversity-function debate, it is advisable that experiments be done with large amounts of spatial and resource heterogeneity and environmental fluctuation over time, as these types of experiments should be able to demonstrate the diversity-function relationship more easily.

Effects on community stability

 * Averaging Effect If all species have differential responses to changes in the ecosystem over time, then the averaging of these responses will cause a more temporally stable ecosystem if more species are in the ecosystem. This effect is a statistical effect due to summing random variables.
 * Negative Covariance Effect If some species do better when other species are not doing well, then when there are more species in the ecosystem, their overall variance will be lower than if there were fewer species in the system. This lower variance indicates higher stability. This effect is a consequence of competition as highly competitive species will negatively covary.
 * Insurance Effect If an ecosystem contains more species then it will have a greater likelihood of having redundant stabilizing species, and it will have a greater number of species that respond to perturbations in different ways. This will enhance an ecosystem's ability to buffer perturbations.
 * Resistance to Invasion Diverse communities may use resources more completely than simple communities because of a diversity effect for complementarity. Thus invaders may have reduced success in diverse ecosystems, or there may be a reduced likelihood that an invading species will introduce a new property or process to a diverse ecosystem.
 * Resistance to Disease A decreased number of competing plant species may allow the abundances of other species to increase, facilitating the spread of diseases of those species.

Review of temporal stability data
Models have predicted that empirical relationships between temporal variation of community productivity and species diversity are indeed real, and that they almost have to be. Some temporal stability data can be almost completely explained by the averaging effect by constructing null models to test the data against. Competition, which causes negative covariances, only serves to strengthen these relationships.

Review of resistance and resilience stability data
This area is more contentious than the area of temporal stability, mostly because some have tried generalizing the findings of the temporal stability models and theory to stability in general. While the relationship between temporal variations in productivity and diversity has a mathematical cause, which will allow the relationship to be seen much more often than not, it is not the case with resistance/resilience stability. Some experimenters have seen a correlation between diversity and reduced invasibility, though many have also seen the opposite. The correlation between diversity and disease is also tenuous, though theory and data do seem to support it.

Future research
In order to more fully understand the effects of diversity on the temporal stability of ecosystems it is necessary to recognize that they are bound to occur. By constructing null models to test the data against (as in Doak et al. 1998 ) it becomes possible to find situations and ecological contexts where ecosystems become more or less stable than they should be. Finding these contexts would allow for mechanistic studies into why these ecosystems are more stable, which may allow for applications in conservation management.

More importantly more complete experiments into whether diverse ecosystems actually resist invasion and disease better than their less diverse equivalents as invasion and disease are two important factors that lead to species extinctions in the present day. In order to address these problems specifically, future work should focus on practical methods to increase the successful establishment of the poor performing but desirable species.

Theory and preliminary effects from examining food webs
One major problem with both the diversity-productivity and diversity-stability debates discussed up to this point is that both focus on interactions at just a single trophic level. That is, they are concerned with only one level of the food web, namely plants. Other research, unconcerned with the effects of diversity, has demonstrated strong top-down forcing of ecosystems (see keystone species). There is very little actual data available regarding the effects of different food webs, but theory helps us in this area. First, if a food web in an ecosystem has a lot of weak interactions between different species, then it should have more stable populations and the community as a whole should be more stable. If upper levels of the web are more diverse, then there will be less biomass in the lower levels and if lower levels are more diverse they will better be able to resist consumption and be more stable in the face of consumption. Also, top-down forcing should be reduced in less diverse ecosystems because of the bias for species in higher trophic levels to go extinct first. Lastly, it has recently been shown that consumers can dramatically change the biodiversity-productivity-stability relationships that are implied by plants alone. Thus, it will be important in the future to incorporate food web theory into the future study of the effects of biodiversity. In addition this complexity will need to be addressed when designing biodiversity management plans.

title: Ecological effects of biodiversity


text: User talk:70.56.161.49

title: User talk:70.56.161.49


text: Template:Conference USA navbox

title: Template:Conference USA navbox


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Fort Frederica National Monument

Fort Frederica National Monument, on St. Simons Island, Georgia, preserves the archaeological remnants of a fort and town built by James Oglethorpe between 1736 and 1748 to protect the southern boundary of the British colony of Georgia from Spanish raids. About 630 British troops were stationed at the fort.

A town of up to 500 colonial residents had grown up outside the fort; it was laid out following principles of the Oglethorpe Plan for towns in the Georgia Colony. The town was named Frederica, after Frederick, Prince of Wales, son of King George II. The monument was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.

History
In the early 18th century, Europeans called the land lying between British South Carolina and Spanish Florida the "Debatable Land". Today's state of Georgia was then the center of a centuries-old imperial conflict between Spain and Britain. After the philanthropist James Oglethorpe founded the colony of Georgia in 1733, to provide a place where poor debtors could settle, colonists from England and Scotland, and refugees from the German Electorate of the Palatinate built Fort Frederica in 1736 to defend their new territory. They named Frederica for Frederick, Prince of Wales, (1707–1751). The name was feminized to distinguish it from Fort Frederick in South Carolina.

In the 1742 battles of Bloody Marsh and Gully Hole Creek, forces under Oglethorpe successfully repulsed Spanish attempts to invade St. Simons Island. Afterward the Spanish no longer threatened the colony; in 1749 the government disbanded the garrison at Frederica. Soon the village fell into economic decline, and by 1755 it was mostly abandoned. The town survived a fire in 1758, but after a few more years, it was abandoned. Naturalist William Bartram visited the site in March, 1774. Though it was in ruins he noted that there was still a small garrison there.

Fort Frederica was documented and authorized as a National Monument on May 26, 1936, under the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration during the Great Depression. During this period, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) sponsored numerous surveys of historic areas and buildings across the country to identify, document and protect the resources for the future, as well as to provide employment.

Starting in 1947, the National Park Service and the Ft. Frederica Association, a citizens' interest group, sponsored a series of archaeological investigations at the Frederica site. Using information from 18th-century maps and journals as guides, the archaeologists excavated sections of the fort and village. By correlating the archaeological data with the historic documents and excavating remains of structures, the archaeologists have provided important insight into Frederica's past and colonial history, a complex time of international rivalries.

As a historic area under the National Park Service, the National Monument was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. Fort Frederica is open to the public and admission is free.

Related sites

 * Fort Argyle
 * Battle of Bloody Marsh
 * Battle of Gully Hole Creek
 * Castillo de San Marcos National Monument
 * Fort Caroline National Memorial
 * Fort King George
 * Fort Matanzas National Monument
 * Fort Morris State Historic Site
 * Wormsloe Historic Site
 * Oglethorpe Plan
 * List of national monuments of the United States

title: Fort Frederica National Monument


text:
Talk:Baduy people

Untitled
I know nothing on the subject of the main page. I have changed wording and spelling to improve the English grammer of the article, but to the best of my ability, not changed the information in the article. Can the originator please check that I have not misunderstood the original intent please. Shokaman — Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.159.71.40 (talk) 00:08, 7 December 2004 (UTC)

Pajajaran Princes
Interesting article about badui people. However, as the Princess of Pajajaran/Sunda Empire, i dont think that we have something to do with Badui people. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 222.124.48.212 (talk) 15:34, 22 September 2005 (UTC) Yes, they might still do the Empire tradition of philosophy, and having the same Sunda Religion with the Imperial Royal member. But, regarding them as the Princely of Pajajaran, absolutely no. HIM Crown Princess Fathia WiranataDikusumah Siliwangi-Al Misri

Her Imperial Majesty Crown Princess Fathia WSA was Born in Switzerland. She is the owner of Land Certificate of the Entire World. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.52.21.246 (talk) 00:05, 14 September 2007 (UTC)

Kaneke
Is this word by any chance related to the polynesian (or Melanesian) Kanak? It's an interesting coincidence (though the Austronesian languages spread to the pacific anyways!)Domsta333 (talk) 05:15, 9 November 2008 (UTC)
 * That should be observed. Horst Emscher (talk) 10:04, 8 May 2014 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Baduy people


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File:BrandNewMontyPythonBok.jpg

Summary
Cover of The Brand New Monty Python Bok.

title: File:BrandNewMontyPythonBok.jpg


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Talk:Yaum-e-Azadi

This is a long way from NPOV.

What are you talking about dude? --Sheikhu 01:16, 30 May 2006 (UTC) I will fix it !--Sheikhu 01:16, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Yaum-e-Azadi


text:
Thorvald Eiriksson

Thorvald Eiriksson (Þórvaldr Eiríksson ; Modern Icelandic: Þorvaldur Eiríksson ) was the son of Erik the Red and brother of Leif Erikson. The only Medieval Period source material available regarding Thorvald Eiriksson are the two Vinland sagas; the Greenland Saga and the Saga of Erik the Red. Although differing in various detail, according to both sagas Thorvald was part of an expedition for the exploration of Vinland and became the first European to die in North America outside of Greenland.

The Greenland Saga describes a voyage made by Bjarni Herjolfsson, and the subsequent voyages of Leif Eriksson, his brother Thorvald Eiriksson, his sister Freydís Eiríksdóttir, and the Icelandic merchant Thorfinn Karlsefni. The Saga describes hostilities with Skrælings, the Norse term for the native peoples they met in the lands visited south and west of Greenland which they called Vinland and Markland. The Saga of Erik the Red tells the story as a single expedition led by Thorfinn Karlsefni. The voyage of Thorvald Eriksson is told here as part of the Karlsefni expedition.

Other sources

 * Brown, Nancy Marie (2012) Song of the Vikings: Snorri and the Making of Norse Myths (Palgrave Macmillan) ISBN 978-0-2303-3884-5
 * Haugen, Einar (2007) Voyages To Vinland - The First American Saga Newly Translated And Interpreted (Barzun Press) ISBN 978-1406774993
 * Jones, Gwyn (1986) The Norse Atlantic Saga: Being the Norse Voyages of Discovery and Settlement to Iceland, Greenland, and North America (Oxford University Press) ISBN 0-19-285160-8
 * Magnusson, Magnus (1973) The Vinland Sagas: The Norse Discovery of America (Penguin Group) ISBN 978-0-1419-0698-0
 * Short, William R. (2010) Icelanders in the Viking age: the people of the sagas (McFarland) ISBN 978-0-7864-4727-5

title: Thorvald Eiriksson


text:
Fort Pulaski National Monument

Fort Pulaski National Monument is located on Cockspur Island between Savannah and Tybee Island, Georgia. It preserves Fort Pulaski, the place where the Union Army successfully tested rifled cannon in combat during the American Civil War in 1862, the success of which rendered brick fortifications obsolete. The fort was also used as a prisoner-of-war camp.

The National Monument includes most of Cockspur Island (containing the fort) and all of the adjacent McQueens Island.

Construction
After the War of 1812, US President James Madison ordered a new system of coastal fortifications to protect the United States from a foreign invasion. Construction of a fort to protect the port of Savannah began in 1829 under the direction of Major General Babcock and later Second Lieutenant Robert E. Lee, a recent graduate of West Point. The new fort would be on Cockspur Island, at the mouth of the Savannah River. In 1833, the facility was named Fort Pulaski in honor of Casimir Pulaski, a Polish soldier and military commander who fought during the American Revolution under the command of George Washington. Pulaski was a noted cavalryman, played a large role in training Revolutionary troops, and took part in sieges at Charleston and Savannah.

Fort Pulaski belonged to what is known as the Third System of coastal fortifications, which were characterized by greater structural durability than the earlier works. Most of the nearly 30 Third System forts built after 1816 still exist along the Atlantic and the Gulf Coasts.

Wooden pilings were sunk up to 70 ft into the mud to support an estimated 25 million bricks. Fort Pulaski was finally completed in 1847, after 18 years of construction and nearly $1 million (~$ in ) in construction costs.

Walls were 11 feet thick and were thought to be impenetrable except by only the largest land artillery. The smoothbore cannon of the time had a range of only around half a mile, and the nearest land (Tybee Island) was much further away than that. It was assumed that the fort would be invincible to enemy attack. In reference to the fort's strength, United States Chief of Engineers, General Totten, remarked that "you might as well bombard the Rocky Mountains."

Civil War

Though completed in 1847, Fort Pulaski was under the control of only two caretakers until 1860, when South Carolina seceded from the United States and set in motion the Civil War. Georgia Governor Joseph E. Brown ordered Fort Pulaski to be taken by his state. A steamship carrying 110 men from Savannah traveled downriver, and the fort was seized by the state. After the secession of Georgia in February 1861, the state joined the Confederate States of America, and Confederate troops moved into the fort.

By December 1861, Tybee Island was thought to be too isolated and unprepared for conflict and so was abandoned by Confederate forces. This allowed Union troops to gain a foothold across the Savannah River from Fort Pulaski. Union forces, under Quincy A. Gillmore, began constructing batteries along the beaches of Tybee Island.

Siege and reduction of Fort Pulaski
On the morning of April 10, 1862, Union forces asked for the surrender of the Fort to prevent needless loss of life. Colonel Charles H. Olmstead, commander of the Confederate garrison, rejected the offer.

Fort Pulaski was prepared for a possible infantry attack, but it never endured a direct land assault. Using 36 guns, including the new James Rifled Cannon and Parrott rifles, Union troops began the long bombardment of Fort Pulaski. The rifled projectiles could be accurately fired farther (4–5 miles) than the larger and heavier smoothbore cannonballs. Within 30 hours, the new rifled cannon had breached one of the fort's corner walls. Shells now passed through the fort dangerously close to the main powder magazine. Reluctantly, Colonel Olmstead surrendered the fort. Only two soldiers (one Confederate and one Union) were killed in the attack. Olmstead's decision to surrender haunted him for decades:

We were absolutely isolated beyond any possibility of help from the Confederate authorities, and I did not feel warranted in exposing the garrison to the hazard of the blowing up of our main magazine -- a danger which had just been proved well within the limits of probability.... There are times when a soldier must hold his position to the last extremity, which means extermination, but this was not one of them.... That the fort could and would be absolutely destroyed by the force of the enemy was a demonstrated fact,... while our own power to harm them had been reduced to a minimum,... I am still convinced that there was nothing else that could be done.

Gillmore succeeded almost entirely because of his rifled cannon, which caused massive damage in the walls of the fort. Gillmore's triumph won him promotion from engineer captain to brigadier general.

Union control
Within six weeks of the surrender, Union forces repaired the fort, and all shipping into and out of Savannah ceased. The loss of Savannah as a viable Confederate port crippled its war effort. With the Fort securely in Union control, General David Hunter, commander of the Union garrison, issued General Order Number 7 on April 16, 1862, which stated that all enslaved at the fort and on Cockspur Island were now free. Fort Pulaski was made a final destination on the Underground Railroad, as slaves throughout the area were freed upon their arrival to Cockspur Island.

The garrison of Union soldiers reached 600 during the initial occupation, but as the war dragged on, it became clear that Southern forces would not be able to retake the fort. The garrison was later reduced to about 250. In October of 1864, the fort became a prison for captured Confederate soldiers, mostly officers, known as "The Immortal Six Hundred." The rations given to these men consisted of "moldy bread, soured pickles, and limited water," resulting in multiple cases of "starvation, dehydration, dysentery, and scurvy". As a result of these conditions, thirteen of the men would die at the fort and be buried outside of its walls. After the war ended, Fort Pulaski continued briefly as a military and political prison. It would house a Confederate Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Assistant Secretary of War as well as three state governors, a senator, and the men who had commanded the fort after it had been taken by the South.

Postwar
Between 1869 and 1872 the demilune to the rear of the Fort was covered with powder magazines, and the few gun positions that were left were enlarged for heavier guns.

By the turn of the 20th century, the fort began to fall into disrepair. In an effort to save the old fort, the War Department finally declared Fort Pulaski a National Monument on October 15, 1924, by presidential proclamation of Calvin Coolidge. The monument was transferred from the War Department to the National Park Service on August 10, 1933. Repairs were then started, and members of the Civilian Conservation Corps arrived on Cockspur Island and began rehabilitation of the fort.

Fort Pulaski was opened to the public only for a short time before the beginning of World War II, which would see further use of Cockspur Island as a section base for the US Navy. After the war, Fort Pulaski reverted to the control of the Park Service and was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.

Fort Pulaski remains open to the public, with a museum opened in the 1980s.

In November 2009, Fort Pulaski was used in the filming of Robert Redford's movie The Conspirator, based on the conspiracy involving the assassination of US President Abraham Lincoln, most notably as the site for the gallows used to hang Mary Surratt and others.

It was used once again in filming the 2012 action comedy horror B-movie Abraham Lincoln vs. Zombies for the shooting of scenes in which Lincoln confronts zombies who had overrun a Confederate stronghold.

title: Fort Pulaski National Monument


text:
Anthony Daly (Whiteboy)

Anthony Daly (died 1820) was a native of Rahruddy, a townland west of Loughrea, County Galway, Ireland, and a member of the local Whiteboy movement. Daly was hanged on the Hill of Seefin in 1820 for allegedly attempting to assassinate local landlord James Hardiman Burke, father of explorer Robert O'Hara Burke, of St Clerans, Craughwell, County Galway, even though it was widely claimed that he was innocent.

Samuel Barber composed a significant choral work, "Anthony O Daly", lamenting his death, based on a poem of retribution by Antoine Ó Raifteiri translated by James Stephens in his collection, Reincarnations.

Numerous literary references have been made to Daly, including in John Steinbeck's short nonfiction work The Ghost of Anthony Daly.

title: Anthony Daly (Whiteboy)


text:
Sweet sorghum

Sweet sorghum or sorgo is any of the many varieties of the sorghum grass whose stalks have a high sugar content. Sweet sorghum thrives better under drier and warmer conditions than many other crops and is grown primarily for forage, silage, and syrup production.

Sweet sorghum syrup is known as sorghum molasses in some regions of the United States, though in most of the U.S. the term molasses refers to a sweet syrupy byproduct of sugarcane or sugar beet sugar extraction.

Cultivation
Sweet sorghum has been widely cultivated in the U.S. since the 1850s for use in sweeteners, primarily in the form of sorghum syrup. In 1857 James F. C. Hyde wrote, "Few subjects are of greater importance to us, as a people, than the producing of sugar; for no country in the world consumes so much as the United States, in proportion to its population." The price of sugar was rising because of decreased production in the British West Indies and more demand for confectionery and fruit preserves, and the United States was actively searching for a sugar plant that could be produced in northern states. The "Chinese sugar-cane" as it was called was viewed as a plant that would be productive and high-yielding in that region.

In the early 1860s, the American Civil War not only disrupted both interstate and maritime commerce but also diverted commodities from civilian to military purchases; these factors rendered some food and fiber supplies, including sugar cane and the sugar and molasses made from it, unreliable and expensive. In particular, the South was under naval blockade by the Union navy, making importation of Caribbean cane sugar and molasses expensive and scarce via blockade running. Under these conditions, some farms grew sweet sorghum for syrup to substitute for cane sugar and molasses, which helped ensconce sweet sorghum in Southern food culture. At the same time, anti-slavery families boycotting sweeteners made under slavery as "blood-stained" could grow sorghum and make the syrup in the North, so it was not solely a Southern foodstuff.

By the early 1900s, the U.S. produced 20 e6USgal of sweet sorghum syrup annually. Making syrup from sorghum (as from sugar cane) is heavily labor-intensive. Following World War II, with the declining availability of farm labor, sorghum syrup production fell drastically. Currently, less than 1 e6USgal are produced annually in the U.S.

In Central India it was introduced in the early 1970s by Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute for ethanol and syrup production. Sweet sorghum syrup has shown good antioxidant properties and is found to be useful in food, beverage and pharmaceutical industries. Presently it is grown on large area as a fodder crop.

Most sorghum grown for syrup production is grown in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Iowa, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, Missouri, and Tennessee.

Uses
Sorghum syrup and hot biscuits are a traditional breakfast in the Southern United States. Sorghum syrup is also used on pancakes, cornmeal mush, grits and other hot cereals. It can be used as a cooking ingredient with a similar sweetening effect as molasses, though blackstrap molasses still has a higher nutritional value than sorghum syrup in most regards. In India sweet sorghum syrup is promoted as a health food.

In the U.S. since the 1950s, sorghum has been raised primarily for forage and silage, with sorghum cultivation for cattle feed concentrated in the Great Plains (Texas, Kansas, and Nebraska are the leading producers), particularly in areas where insufficient rainfall and high temperature make corn production unprofitable.

Grain sorghum has also been used by the ethanol industry for quite some time because it yields about the same amount of ethanol per bushel as corn. As new-generation ethanol processes are studied and improved, sorghum's role may continue to expand. Texas A&M University ran trials to ascertain the best varieties for ethanol production from sorghum leaves and stalks in the USA.

In India and other places, sweet sorghum stalks are used for producing biofuel by squeezing the juice and then fermenting into ethanol. The crop is particularly suitable for growing in dryland conditions, as it only extracts one-seventh of the water used by sugarcane.

A 2015 study by researchers at the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) found that growing sweet sorghum instead of grain sorghum could increase farmers' incomes by US$40 per hectare per crop because it can provide food, feed, and fuel. With grain sorghum currently grown on over 11 million ha in Asia and on 23.4 million ha in Africa, a switch to sweet sorghum could have a considerable economic impact.

title: Sweet sorghum


text:
Talk:Persia/Archive 1

Fishal 20:09, 2 Apr 2004 (UTC)Hello. I am attempting to turn this article into a definitive description of Persia at defferent stages of history. If you have a different vision of where this page should go, let's talk about it.

This page has really become better than before. Just one thing: I think History of Persia should be renamed/moved to Rulers of Persia, or something like that. --The Phoenix 16:53, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Here's an idea: How about History of Persia redirects to this page, and the current content is renamed Rulers of Persia, List of Persian REulers, List of Persian Monarchs, List of Persian Shahs, etc. --Fishal, 5 June 2004

The idea is very good, but I don't understand why you choose the term kings of Persia. Wouldn't rulers have been better? It's just a minor objection, nothing serious, but I think of the shahs as emperors. –The Phoenix 06:22, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Actually I would have prefered "Persian monarchs." Someone else made the switch before I had the chance. I actually think "List OF kings OF presia" has an awkward sound to it. But stil i don't think it's worth going back and changing everything. --Fishal 20:21, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

To the curious reader:

Hi friends. If you are reading this, it is because you have seen the notice at the beginning of the Persia article. Please allow me to tell you the story of the whole controversey.

I, Fishal, wrote a good deal of this material. I am no expert, but I researched it reasonably well. Since then, many, many people have tweaked it and checked it for accuracy, and in general it has proved to be a good, factual account of the country of Persia, with a level of detial appropriate for a general article. Plenty of links are on the page for people looking for more in-depth stuff.

However, in hte last couple of weeks, a group (or possibly an individual) has disagreed with the underlying philosophy behind the article, namely, that although it has been led by various rulers, both Persian and non-Persian, Persia has maintained a national and cultural continuity. Conquerors, whether Greek or Arab or Mongol, have both added to and borrowed from Persian culture. The group/individual has objected to this article's apparent neglect of Persia's minority groups. In fact, the he/she/they insist that Persian culture itself is exaggerated, and that, for example, when Persia was ruled by the Azerbaijani Safavid dynasty, it was an Azerbaijani kingdom, not a Persian one. An extreme viewpoint, but one that would still make for a good discussion.

However, he/she/they did not go about trying to make a good discussion, or try to arrive at a compromise position for a well-balanced article. No, he/she/they chose to express their opinions by deleting the entire article and inserting words that better expressed their own opinions. When other Wikipedia users undid their vandalism, a classic edit war ensued. Finally, someone, I think K1, got the administrators to protect the page from editing. The idea was that we could all discuss our opinions here, on the talk page. But, the peopele behind the vandalism have chosen not to participate in any discussion. He/she/they seem to be less interested in retional argument and more interested in forcing their opinions on people by destroying the work of others.

So that brings us here. The article as you see it will probably be frozen htat way for a good while. There is lots of room for improvement, but because of the obnoxious actions of a few people, we're stuck with what we have. Don't worry about the factual content though-- as I said, it's all accurate.

Thanks for reading.

Your friend, Fishal 18:57, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Persia/Archive 1


text:
Talk:Prince's wand

There should surely be a link to mental health entries? -- posted by user:81.155.66.25

 * Please sign your posts using four tildes (~), like this: ~ . As to your question, no.  Why would there be?  Exploding Boy 00:22, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC)

How does one urinate while wearing said jewelry? 216.194.58.96 17:09, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Read the first paragraph of the article. Exploding Boy 17:24, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

can someone point me in the right direction to a definition on wikipedia for sounding kits [that are completely unrelated to railroads]?

 * Urethral_Play should do the job --Stapleballs 19:21, 29 September 2007 (UTC)

I've seen references to the pinless sort as an alternative to a penis ring (used instead of a ring for aesthetic purposes mostly). Is this accurate? Should there be anything mentioning this or perhaps a link to the penis ring page? IsaacSapphire (talk) 04:18, 22 August 2009 (UTC)

No Evidence
There is no evidence in modern medical history. This article is void. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.208.235.51 (talk) 09:58, 20 August 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Prince's wand


text:
Snorri Thorfinnsson

Snorri Thorfinnsson (Old Norse and Icelandic: Snorri Þorfinnsson or Snorri Karlsefnisson) most likely born between 1004 and 1013, and died c. 1090) was the son of explorers Thorfinn Karlsefni and Gudrid Thorbjarnardóttir. He is considered to be the first child of European descent to be born in the Americas, apart from Greenland. He became an important figure in the Christianisation of Iceland.

Name
Snorri is an Old Norse name derived from the word snerra, meaning "a fight." Þorfinnsson is a patronymic, meaning "son of Þorfinnr", (see Icelandic naming conventions). Snorri was named for his great-grandfather, Snorri Þórðarson, or after Snorri Þorbrandsson who was not a kinsman but a participant in Karlsefni's expedition

Family
There is speculation about the birth date of Snorri Thorfinnsson. Birth years such as 1005, 1009, and 1012 have been postulated, but all sources agree that he was born between 1004 and 1013. According to the Vinland sagas, when Snorri was 3 years old, his family left Vinland because of hostilities with indigenous peoples (called Skrælingar by the settlers, meaning "barbarians"). The family returned to the Glaumbær farm in Seyluhreppur.

Snorri Thorfinnsson had two children; a daughter named Hallfrid, and a son named Thorgeir. Hallfrid was the mother of Thorlak Runolfsson, bishop of Skálholt in the south of Iceland. One of the descendants of Snorri's brother Thorbjorn, Bjorn Gilsson, was also a bishop of Hólar. Thorgeir was the father of Yngvild who was the mother of Brand Sæmundarsson, bishop of Hólar. The sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen claimed descent from Snorri Thorfinnsson in the 19th century.

Christianisation of Iceland
In the 13th century texts Snorri Thorfinnsson and Snorri Thorrgrimsson are considered the two main figures responsible for the early Christianisation of Iceland. Consequently, they were portrayed by various writers of the 13th and 14th century as "Christian chieftain models". According to Grœnlendinga saga, Snorri had built the first church of Glaumbaer, which would later increase Christian influence in the area. His descendants became the first Bishops of Iceland, and published the first Christian Code of Iceland.

Legacy

 * Snorri Thorfinnsson was purported to be born in Vinland (North America), making him the first European child known to be born in the Americas, provided that Greenland is defined as being outside the Americas.
 * In 2002, American archaeologists discovered the remains of a thousand-year-old longhouse located on Iceland's northern coast. It is believed that it was Snorri Thorfinnsson's farmhouse. The longhouse was found near the Glaumbær Folk Museum, at the Skagafjörður Heritage Museum outside the coastal village of Sauðárkrókur. The museum was once thought to have been built on the site of Snorri's farmhouse. According to archaeologists it was "a classic Germanic fortress longhouse like the Great Hall of Beowulf".

 * There is a non-profit organisation called The Snorri Program that focuses on the history of Icelandic settlers in North America and regularly runs exchange programs for youth and adults.

Genealogy
Below is the genealogy of descendants of Snorri, as given in the close of each saga, Grœnlendinga saga ch. 9 and Eiríks saga ch. 14. It is supplemented with further ancestral information from (Eiríks saga ch. 7 and Landnámabók), a more complete family tree for which, see Thorfinn Karlsefni.

Family tree
The following stemma is drawn from the genealogy appended to the last chapter of Eiríks saga rauða in Hauk's own recension (in the Hauksbók, supplemented with additional information from the Landnámabók).

title: Snorri Thorfinnsson


text:
Anthony Duane

Anthony Duane (c. 1679–1747) was a Protestant Irish immigrant to New York who was the father of James Duane, later a congressman, Mayor of New York City, and U.S. judge.

Anthony Duane was born in County Galway c.1679 and joined the Royal Navy, becoming an officer. He first came to New York in 1698 where he met and courted Eva, the daughter of local merchant Dirck Benson. In 1702, Duane left the navy to marry Eva and settle in New York City, where he pursued a mercantile career. Before her death, they had two sons, Abraham and Cornelius.

Duane prospered and bought land for investment, rental, and future development. When Eva died, he remarried, this time to Altea Ketaltas (Hettletas), the daughter of a wealthy Dutch merchant family. The couple's only child was James. When Altea died in 1736, Duane married a third time in 1741, to a Margaret Riken (or Rycken), the widow of Thomas Lynch of Flushing, New York.

Anthony Duane died in 1747.

title: Anthony Duane


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Treaty of Finkenstein

Treaty of Finkenstein was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was keep

Treaty of Finkenstein
This page looks deceptively good (no red links etc) but Googling reveals that there has never been a Treaty of Finkelstein, nor is the historical context plausible (Napoleon never got to Persia). JFW | T@lk  00:21, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Okay, I misgoogled. JFW | T@lk  10:50, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete JFW | T@lk  00:21, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep: "Treaty of Finkenstein" gets non-Wikipedia Google hits, and I turned up references to it in legitimate books (for example The Cambridge Shorter History of India), so I don't believe it's a hoax. The details may need checking but the article should be kept. —No-One Jones (m) 00:31, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Sounds like a legitimate treaty on the surface. I am not a historian though. --JuntungWu 01:07, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment is a book whose publisher's description says "Franco-Persian relations have long been neglected by Napoleonic scholars, however, they show how Napoleon's political and strategic thinking extended far beyond the frontiers of Europe. Begun in 1802 under the Consulate, those relations culminated in the signature of the Treaty of Finkenstein, on 4 May 1807, and the dispatch of the Gardane Mission to Tehran." [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 01:12, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * OK, Keep. It's a rewrite/extract/paraphrase of part of an article in the 1911 Britannica as follows: [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 01:18, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * In the spring of 1807, when Russia and Prussia were at war with France, and the emperor Alexander I. of Russia was also engaged in hostilities with Persia. the court of Teheran sent a mission to the French emperor, then at the castle of Finkenstein in the east of Prussia, with a view to the conclusion of a Franco-Persian alliance. This was signed on the 4th of May 1807, at that castle; and Napoleon designed Gardane as special envoy for the cementing of that alliance. The secret instructions which he drew up for Gardane, and signed on the 3oth of May, are of interest as showing the strong oriental trend of the emperors policy. France was to guarantee the integrity of Persia, to recognize that Georgia (then being invaded by the Russians) belonged to the shah, and was to make all possible efforts for restoring that territory to him. She was also to furnish to the shah arms, officers and workmen, in the number and to the amount demanded by him. Napoleon on his side required Persia to declare war against Great Britain, to expel all Britons from her territory, and to come to an understanding with the Afghans with a view to a joint Franco-Perso-Afghan invasion of India.

 * This looks like a perfectly acceptable article. Keep. DS 02:35, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Keep: DCEdwards1966 03:44, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC)

 * OH MY GOD. WHAT HAS HAPPENED?  WE'RE KEEPING AN ARTICLE ON SOMETHING NON-VERIFIABLE VIA GOOGLE?!  EXTREME HOLY MOTHER OF KEEP.  —[[en:RaD Man|RaD Man (talk)]] 04:26, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Of course it's verifiable via Google: 29 hits, most of them relevant. And how do you think I found it in the Britannica 11th? It's just tricky because the exact phrase "Treaty of Finkenstein" doesn't appear in the article. Did you think I was such a great historian that it just happened to occur to me to look up Claude Matthieu, Count Gardane in my print copy of the Britannica 11th? I can no longer trace the lateral thinking that got me there, but a search on Claude Matthieu Finkenstein brings it right up. Google and the Web do not always locate useful material on a topic, but are very good at confirming basic existence. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 11:58, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.