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Talk:Fansub

Update is needed
Judging by the way this article is written it is in a need of an update. It looks like it has not been updated since 2007 and many things have changed. -legal and illegal streaming websites have become the dominant way which Anime fans consume fan-subs over the past 5 years as internet connections have improved. -Pressures from fan-subbing has lead to a widespread practice of content creators simulcasting their shows where shows are subbed and broacast thin 1 hour of the Japanese release. -Many popular anime are now hosted by content creators for free on ad-based/subscription sites like hulu, netflix, crunchyroll,funimation and diasuki. - I don't want to edit the article myself since I don't know how to correctly include these changes in a manner that is consistent with expectation of wikiperdia. These are changes that seem to have been taken

2602:306:C456:A060:8514:1E19:A8FB:2FF9 (talk) 16:31, 19 May 2016 (UTC)

I felt that the ending paragraph in this section (perhaps even statements in other areas) were incredibly biased in the phrasing. Statement were made such as "Some say *insert argument- like "fansubs increase popularity of anime"*, BUT *reason why it is not true, which is stated as fact and not opinion or what the other side believes*". I felt it should be editted slightly so identical content would remain but slightly altered phrasing- "Proponents of fansubbing feel *insert content*, however opponents feel *insert responding argument*". I feel this portrays each position more fairly and removes the strong bias I felt eminating from the document. I feel that it is important that we try our best to make sure wikipedia represents a neutral view without coming across like an involved party.

-Pat —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.68.239.27 (talk) 02:50, October 9, 2006

enjoyed this article
It was informative and entertaining, which I think are two qualities needed in abundance on this site. To whoever wrote this article, bravo and good job! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.55.193.129 (talk) 17:51, 9 December 2010 (UTC)

Issues in quality of subbing
Noticed almost no activity in the talk page and that information in this area was lacking. Appended a paragraph to the end of the "Legal and ethical issues" section regarding the low quality of some official subs in contrast to the fairly consistent quality of fansubs; I couldn't find a more suitable section and as a single paragraph didn't feel it merited it's own section yet. I'm not very good with the WP standards (probably needs some neutrality revision) and I couldn't find a good way to use citations so used a prominent example instead. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 62.31.91.176 (talk) 00:16, 19 May 2011 (UTC)
 * There are no reliable sources to support the paragraph. So I've removed on the be bases of original research (which there is enough of already in the article) along with its pro-fansub point of view. —Farix (t | c) 00:36, 19 May 2011 (UTC)
 * The source used was an officially published DVD and fact verifiable (the statement about the subtitles lagging behind the speech is again fact verifiable by the English Dub available on the same DVD) and as such not "original research" though I am not sure as to how to cite a DVD. As for being a point of view, I agree it needs to be more neutrally worded though fact is non-point-of-view regardless of who it supports.

Definition
en.wp: "A fansub (short for fan-subtitled) is a version of a foreign film or foreign television program which has been translated by fans and subtitled into a language other than that of the original."

Shouldn't it maybe simply be more like: "a fansub is a subtitled version of a film or TV show or video or even song (= some music with lyrics in it) or audio drama by fans or in some situations for fans". -Yodonothav (talk) 21:05, 20 October 2012 (UTC)
 * If e.g. an US-American would sub an US-American music video from any US-American singer or band or if he would sub any US-American movie or show, wouldn't it still be a fansub as long as the US-American does it as a fan (or (non-commercially) for fans?)? Of course there might be less situations where a native speaker subtitles something which already was in his native language, but sometimes such things happen; e.g. @yt: "Lazy Town song 2 Spanish fansub KARAOKE", which has only spanish text inside a spanish video and calls itself "fansub".
 * "version of a [...] film or [...] television program" - what's with non-films and non-TV programs? E.g. when there is a song and someone subtitles it and combines one or more single pictures into a video for that. Technically it still is a subtitled video, i.e. has text inside the video matching the audio, but doesn't have real film material in it. There are also ways to subtitle audio files, which don't have any video, i.e. some audio players support a .srt-like lyric file format called .lrc. At least theoretically even fansubs of some video games (resp. video sequences of games, which get reinserted into the game) should be possible.
 * "translated by fans" - has it to be translated by fans? E.g. one could dislike a foreign show (thus that one is not a fan of it) and still could translate it (non-commercially) into his native language, e.g. for fans. Wouldn't it still be a fansub, especially as one can't really decide if the translator resp. subber was/is a fan or not? Though of course (non-commercial) translations and subs by non-fans should be less common. Though, of course, one could define it as translated by fans, but then usually there is no real proof that the translator or the subber actually is or are fans. E.g. a situation for a sub created by a non-fan for fans: someone translating and subtitleing a in his opinion boring show non-commercially (and without being associated to any producer or licensing firm) for some friend/relative/someone who is a fan of the show; like an older brother could sub Doremi or PreCure for his little sister or like some fansubber could something he actually dislikes by request of someone from the internet.

Removals
Going to drop the uncited and OR here for now... at least until I can grab sources and rewrite them. The material does not seem to be false, but it is highly detailed.
 * "Fansubs originated during the explosion of anime production during the 1980s in Japan. Relatively few titles were licensed for distribution outside of Japan. This made it difficult for anime fans to obtain new titles. Some fans, generally those with some Japanese language experience, began producing amateur subtitled copies of new anime programs so that they could share them with their fellow fans who did not understand Japanese."
 * "Due to the relatively low quality of television broadcasts (when compared with a DVD or Blu-ray release of the same show), fansubs done from television video sources do not have the high quality video of official releases. There are certain "standards" that many fansub groups adhere to, resulting in certain codecs being used and certain target filesizes for encoded fansubs. This results in most fansubs having similar file sizes: 175 MB, 233 MB, and 350 MB are generally treated as the "standard" sizes for a fansub file because they divide evenly into 700 MB, the size of a typical CD-R. As the price of Hard disk drives have decreased while their storage capacity has increased, modeling fansub filesizes after optical media constraints has become largely unimportant. Fansubs using HDTV broadcast video sources require a higher bit rate to maintain quality, and in combination with varying amounts of motion between episodes (large amounts of motion require high bit rates to maintain quality), file sizes for HD fansub encodes can range from 200MB to 800MB even using the latest H264 codecs. For episodes sourced from Blu-ray discs, filesizes can be several gigabytes. Some anime series which are broadcast in high definition do not go on to be released on Blu-ray. Thus it is often the case that downloading a fansub sourced from HDTV will offer much higher video quality than purchasing an official DVD, due to the difference in resolution."

I think it may be easier to create Anime fansubs because this is all so biased to the anime works. ChrisGualtieri (talk) 04:14, 10 August 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Fansub


text:
Homeorhesis

Homeorhesis, derived from the Greek for "similar flow", is a concept encompassing dynamical systems which return to a trajectory, as opposed to systems which return to a particular state, which is termed homeostasis.

Biology
Homeorhesis is steady flow. Often biological systems are inaccurately described as homeostatic, being in a steady state. Steady state implies equilibrium which is never reached, nor are organisms and ecosystems in a closed environment. During his tenure at the State University of New York at Oneonta, Dr William Butts correctly applied the term homeorhesis to biological organisms. The term was created by C.H. Waddington and first used in biology in his book Strategy of the Genes (1957), where he described the tendency of developing or changing organisms to continue development or adapting to their environment and changing towards a given state.

Gaia hypothesis
In ecology the concept is important as an element of the Gaia hypothesis, where the system under consideration is the ecological balance of different forms of life on the planet. James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis, coauthors of Gaia hypothesis, wrote in particular that only homeorhetic, and not homeostatic, balances are involved in the theory. That is, the composition of Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere are regulated around "set points" as in homeostasis, but those set points change with time.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Homeorhesis


text:
CSS Beaufort

The CSS Beaufort was an iron-hull gunboat that served in North Carolina and Virginia during the American Civil War. Originally launched as Caledonia at Wilmington, Delaware, in 1854, the ship was owned by James Cathcart Johnston. It saw use as a tugboat on the Dismal Swamp Canal. On July 9, 1861, Beaufort was commissioned into the navy of the state of North Carolina for use in the American Civil War. First serving on the North Carolina coast, Beaufort was present at the battles of Roanoke Island and Elizabeth City in February 1862. Escaping the Confederate defeat at Elizabeth City via the Dismal Swamp Canal, Beaufort reached Norfolk, Virginia, where she joined the James River Squadron.

On March 8, 1862, Beaufort served as an escort and ship's tender for the ironclad CSS Virginia at the Battle of Hampton Roads. In April, she supported the Confederate defense of Yorktown, Virginia, before the Confederates withdrew up the Virginia Peninsula. Before the Battle of Drewry's Bluff in mid-May 1862, Beaufort was ordered upriver and was mostly inactive until mid-1864. With Union troops having moved upriver, Beaufort saw some action, including bombarding the Fort Harrison area after Union troops had captured it. However, the ship was hampered with an understrength crew, as much of her crew had been transferred to North Carolina or to land fortifications along the James River. In January 1865, Beaufort was part of the Confederate advance before the Battle of Trent's Reach, but ended up spending hours trying to free the ironclad CSS Virginia II after the latter had run aground. On the night of April 2/3, after the fall of Richmond, Virginia, the Confederates scuttled the ships of the James River Squadron, but Beaufort failed to sink. Captured by Union forces, Beaufort was sold in September 1865. As a civilian merchant vessel, she was renamed Roanoke and was converted into a barge in 1878.

Construction and early history
Originally known as Caledonia, Beaufort was launched at Wilmington, Delaware, in 1854. Constructed by Pusey & Jones, Caledonia had been built for James Cathcart Johnston, who named it after his plantation, although the ship as constructed was found to draw too deep of a draft to navigate to the plantation. Caledonia was originally based out of Edenton, North Carolina. Later used as a tugboat on the Dismal Swamp Canal, the vessel had a tonnage of 85 tons, a length of 85 ft, a beam of 17 ft, and a depth of hold of 6 ft. An iron-hulled screw steamer, power was provided by a single vertical direct acting steam engine.

Early in the American Civil War, the coastline of North Carolina was recognized as being of strategic importance, and a state Military and Navy Board was created. Part of the state's defenses was the North Carolina Navy (informally known as the Mosquito Fleet). One of the Mosquito Fleet's vessels was Beaufort. The Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships states that Beaufort was commissioned for military service on July 9, 1861, by Lieutenant R. C. Duvall, while at Norfolk, Virginia, before then traveling to New Bern, North Carolina. The Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies reports that Beaufort was purchased at New Bern. In order to allow her to mount a cannon, the vessel's structure was strengthened with wooden beams. Beaufort was armed with a 32-pounder rifled cannon, and her magazine and boiler were located in a position where they would be endangered during naval combat. She was manned by a crew of 35. The crews of the ships of the North Carolina Navy were generally inexperienced in naval matters and were barely trained for the service they performed, ammunition was often faulty, and the cannons the ships were armed with had a tendency to explode.

North Carolina
Beaufort took part in the first ship-versus-ship action of the American Civil War on July 20, when it fought USS Albatross near Oregon Inlet. Albatross was a much larger vessel than Beaufort, but both ships spent the 45-minute battle firing from behind the cover of either side of a barrier island. At this time, Beaufort was still under the command of Duvall. Later that month, Beaufort and the other ships of the North Carolina Navy were transferred into the Confederate States Navy from the North Carolina state forces. Along with fellow Mosquito fleet vessels CSS Winslow and CSS Raleigh, Beaufort engaged in raiding Union merchant shipping along the North Carolina coast, although Winslow had the most success. Confederate Lieutenant William Harwar Parker took command of Beaufort on September 9.

By the time of Burnside's North Carolina Expedition in February 1862, Beaufort was part of the Confederate fleet near Roanoke Island commanded by Commodore William F. Lynch. Confederate land forces had built three forts on the island, and Lynch's Mosquito Fleet was present as well, positioned behind a group of blockships sunk between the island and the North Carolina mainland. The Union had an infantry force prepared to land, as well a naval force. Both outnumbered their Confederate counterparts. On February 7, the Battle of Roanoke Island began, with the Union ships firing on the Mosquito Fleet and on the Confederate land defenses. Only one of the forts was in a position where it could return fire. The Mosquito Fleet tried to lure the Union vessels further north into the range of the other two forts, but this was not successful. The Union was able to land infantry on Roanoke Island and overran the island's defenders the next day. After the fight at Roanoke Island, Lynch withdrew his ships to Elizabeth City, North Carolina. Parker and most of Beaufort's crew were sent ashore to man a fortification on February 10, the same day that Union ships attacked and brought on the Battle of Elizabeth City. Most of the Mosquito Fleet was destroyed in the fighting, but Beaufort was able to escape up the Dismal Swamp Canal to Norfolk.

Hampton Roads and inactivity
At Norfolk, Beaufort was part of the James River Squadron. Led by the ironclad CSS Virginia, the squadron sallied forth against the vessels of the Union blockade stationed in Hampton Roads on March 8. Beaufort and Raleigh served as escort vessels for the ironclad. At the mouth of the Elizabeth River on the way to Hampton Roads, Beaufort had to user a hawser to assist Virginia in turning in shallow water. Virginia attacked the blockaders in the Battle of Hampton Roads and after sinking one Union vessel, badly damaged USS Congress. Beaufort and Raleigh moved towards Congress to negotiate surrender of the damaged vessel but came under fire from the shore. After an officer from Virginia was wounded during another attempt to negotiate the surrender of Congress, Virginia sank the blockader. Beaufort also served as a ship's tender for Virginia during the battle and fired on other Union ships. The crew of Beaufort received the Thanks of Congress from the Confederate States Congress for her role in the battle.

On April 18, Beaufort joined Raleigh and the gunboats CSS Teaser, CSS Jamestown, and CSS Patrick Henry in supporting the Confederate land forces defending Yorktown, Virginia. The Confederates retreated from the Virginia Peninsula, and fell back to close to Richmond, Virginia, leading to the abandonment of Norfolk and the scuttling of Virginia. When Union ships moved up the James River towards Drewry's Bluff in May, Beaufort and several other Confederate vessels were sent to a safe position upriver while their crews fought from land positions in the Battle of Drewry's Bluff on May 15.

The James River Squadron entered into a long period of routine patrolling of a stretch of 8 miles of the James River downriver from Richmond until 1864, when the region was threatened by Union ships again. Not long after Hampton Roads, Parker was transferred to Charleston, South Carolina. For a period of time in 1862 and 1863, Lieutenant William H. Murdaugh commanded Beaufort. Lieutenant William Sharp took command in October 1863, and was replaced by Lieutenant Edward J. Means the next month. Means remained in command until June 1864. A second cannon had been added to Beaufort's armament by November 30, 1863. Beaufort remained inactive during the time Means was in command. Union vessels had moved upriver towards the Confederate positions in mid-May, and the James River Squadron's new commander, Captain John Kirkwood Mitchell, requested a more experienced officer be assigned to command Beaufort in anticipation of action. Lieutenant J. M. Gardner then took command in June.

End of war
On September 29, Union infantry won the Battle of Fort Harrison, and captured Fort Harrison itself, a Confederate defensive position. In response, Beaufort, along with several other Confederate vessels, bombarded Union troops in the area of the fort from September 29 through October 1. The Confederate fire was effective, and Union return fire did little damage. A number of men from Beaufort were also transferred to man land fortifications. Other members of the ship's crew had been transferred to North Carolina in July, and as a result Beaufort could only provide minimal service due to a shortage of crew members. Some Confederate sailors were released in prisoner exchanges in October, which allowed the vessel to regain some crew strength. November saw Beaufort's armament reduced to a single 32-pounder cannon. Lieutenant William Pinckney Mason took command of Beaufort in October, and Lieutenant Joseph W. Alexander took over on December 19. In January 1865, Mitchell decided to sally forth and attack the Union ships in the James River, as many Union ships had been transferred to North Carolina for the operations against Confederate-held Fort Fisher.

On the evening of January 23, the Confederate ships began their movements downriver, starting the Battle of Trent's Reach. As the navigable channel of the river was narrow, the wooden Confederate ships were either lashed to one of the three ironclads in the James River Squadron, or were towed behind another ship. Beaufort and the tender CSS Drewry were lashed to the ironclad CSS Richmond, with Drewry towing the torpedo boat CSS Wasp. When the ironclad CSS Virginia II ran aground, Drewry and Beaufort were released to go to her aid. When efforts to free Virginia II failed. Drewry later moved downstream, but Beaufort and the gunboat CSS Nansemond spent three hours trying to free the ironclad. Before dawn, the Confederate vessels who had not run aground withdrew upriver, but Drewry, Richmond, Virginia II, and the torpedo boat CSS Scorpion had all grounded within range of Union guns. While the two ironclads were eventually able to get free and escape, Drewry blew up after being struck by Union fire, and the explosion forced Scorpion downriver, where she was captured.

Command of Beaufort passed to George Henry Arledge on February 12. Mitchell was relieved of command on February 18 and replaced by Rear Admiral Raphael Semmes. Mitchell left Semmes a description of the condition of the James River Squadron vessels, which noted that Beaufort was "not servicable, except in emergencies" and that she had problems were her propeller and rudder. The Confederates abandoned Richmond on April 2, and the James River Squadron was scuttled. The ironclads were destroyed at Drewry's Bluff, while the wooden ships went upriver to Richmond to be burned on the night of April 2/3. The fire set on Beaufort did not sink her, and the ship was captured by Union troops. She was operated by the Union until September 15, when she was sold. Beaufort was then used as a civilian merchant vessel, and was renamed Roanoke in October. In 1878 she was converted into a barge.

title: CSS Beaufort


text:
User:Jackson~enwiki

Personal Info

 * Name - Rob
 * Location - Stony Brook University

Interests

 * Computer Programming
 * Computer Graphics (Photoshop)
 * Military History
 * The American Civil War
 * Ancient History
 * Evolution:
 * Sexual Selection
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 * Music
 * Jazz
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 * Indietronica
 * Reading:
 * Roger Zelazny
 * Chronicles of Amber
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 * The Wanting Seed
 * Franz Kafka
 * Metamorphosis
 * Neil Gaiman
 * Neverwhere
 * American Gods
 * Good Omens
 * Terry Pratchett
 * Douglas Coupland
 * Microserfs
 * Eleanor Rigby
 * Hey Nostradamus!

Major Edits
These are edits in which I either created a useable page or expanded it noticeably from sub-stub status:

The Wanting Seed - Mike McCready - In Defense of Women - A Book of Prefaces - Urban Sprawl - Malcolm Cowley - James Young - Billy and the Boingers (and related topics) - Ivailo - Kardam - The American Language - Ten Years After - Börger - The Lizard King in fiction - Al-Anfal Campaign

Planned Edits

 * Major expansion of H. L. Mencken page and related topics (early 20th century American literary criticism)
 * Expanding information on various Civil War topics
 * Major expansion of information on Brian Boru

title: User:Jackson~enwiki


text:
Ispat

Ispat (lit. 'steel' in Indic languages) may refer to:
 * Ispat Autonomous College, Rourkela, college in Rourkela, Odisha, India
 * Ispat English Medium School, school in Rourkela, Odisha, India
 * Ispat Express, Indian passenger train in Odisha
 * Ispat International, Indian steel company
 * Ispat Nagar railway station, railway station in Bokaro district, Jharkhand, India
 * Ispat Post Graduate Institute and Super Specialty Hospital, Rourkela, Odisha, India
 * Ispat Stadium, cricket stadium located in Rourkela, Odisha, India

title: Ispat


text:
Talk:Homeorhesis

Untitled
I have restored this page. It already survived VfD in October 2004, then it was listed on WP:SD and deleted without discussion in early December 2004. This article has a potential to expand beyond a dictionary definition, and in fact is longer than a pure dictionary definition as it stands. --Lexor|Talk 22:14, Dec 8, 2004 (UTC)

Homeorhesis in quality management
Homeorhesis and homeostasis are good words to distinguish different strategies for sustainable development of a human society. They are also useful to describe different purposes of a quality management system. Are there synonyms in the management jargon?

// Jakob Rosenquist, Gothenburg, Sweden

title: Talk:Homeorhesis


text:
Oi Aparadektoi

Oi Aparadektoi (Οι Απαράδεκτοι, The Unacceptables) is a comedy television series broadcast by Mega Channel from September 1991 to January 1993. The series is considered one of the most successful on Greek television, representative of the daily life of Athenians in the early 1990s.

Premise
The show is about the lives of four friends, the eponymous "Aparadektoi": Spyros (Spyros Papadopoulos), Dimitra (Dimitra Papadopoulou, who is also the script writer), Yannis (Yannis Bezos) and Vlassis (Vlassis Bonatsos). Spyros and Dimitra have been married for five years, while Yannis and Vlassis are roommates and best friends, despite the fact that the former is a homosexual and the latter a shameless womanizer. All four live on the same floor of an apartment building in Lycabettus, Athens, Greece, in two apartments that share the same terrace. The cast is rounded out by Renia (Renia Louizidou), Vlassis' girlfriend, and Mr. Vassilis (Vassilis Halakatevakis), the landlord.

The show's episodes are self-contained - even if hell may have broken loose by the end of an episode (e.g. Dimitra declaring that she will divorce Spyros), the next episode will find everything back to normal. The show is also notable for the unconventional friendship between the characters; even though they describe themselves as friends, the four frequently quarrel, casually badmouth and plot against each other; Spyros and Vlassis often plan to cheat on Dimitra and Renia and vice versa; and so on.

Spyros Papadopoulos and Yannis Bezos are widely considered to be among the finest Greek actors of their generation, Dimitra Papadopoulou is one of the most successful female comedians and script writers, and the intro theme was composed/sampled by renowned electronica musician Nikko Patrelakis. Also, Vlassis Bonatsos was a highly successful comedian, singer and TV personality, who died a few years after the show, in 2004.

In 2009, MEGA Channel asked Dimitra Papadopoulou to write the script for a new season of episodes, however she rejected the proposal due to the death of the fourth actor (Vlassis). As she explained later, she was shattered by the death of Vlassis Bonatsos, and being loyal to her friend's memory she would never replace his role with another actor.

Spyros
Spyros is an advertising producer. Despite a glorious - according to him - past in the Communist Party of Greece and his participation in the Athens Polytechnic uprising against the Greek military junta of 1967-1974 from November 14 to November 17, 1973, Spyros today is no better than the capitalists he views with disdain. He is obsessed with making and saving money and thus absorbed in his work, while maintaining the theoretical views of a communist. He is short tempered and supposedly the most level headed of the quartet, which makes him often exclaim his catchphrase "Ti egine re paidia?" (approx. "What on earth happened, you guys?") while looking at the camera in perplexed demeanour when crazy situations arise.

Dimitra
Dimitra is Spyros' disgruntled wife. Spyros' devotion to his job leave her feeling neglected, leading her in numerous fruitless attempts to arouse her husband's interest in her. She is not as refined as Spyros thinks himself to be, which is often a cause of friction between them. She is insanely jealous of Spyros, often with good reason and she has threatened to divorce him many times during the show's run.

Yannis
Yannis is a fashion designer. He is also a homosexual, a fact that all his friends know and accept. He has a neurotic personality and elitist attitude. This is because he knows he is often the shrewdest one in the gang, but also because being a homosexual in the early 1990s Greece made forming and having an according relationship tricky, a source of much stress for Yannis. His only surviving family, his Aunt Virginia, is in the dark about her nephew's sexuality.

Vlassis
Vlassis works as the main actor in Spyros' commercials. He is also Yannis' best friend and roommate ever since one of his girlfriends broke up with him. Vlassis is laid back and easy going - he enjoys the earthly pleasures of life, like food, drink and especially women.

Renia
Renia works as an advertising model and secretary in Spyros' firm. She is also Vlassis' girlfriend, a pretty shaky term considering Vlassis' flirtatious nature. Renia is young and modern and often introduces new notions for the others to try. Yannis views Renia with disdain, nicknaming her To astropeleki ("The thunderbolt") due to her unpredictably energetic attitude and inane comments.

Mr. Vassilis
Mr. Vassilis is the landlord of the apartments Spyros, Dimitra, Yannis and Vlassis live in. He tries to have friendly relationships with his tenants but something always puts a crimp in these attempts, such as him demanding overdue rent or being decidedly uncool. He is often the harbinger of bad news to the rest of the gang.

Reruns
After the show ended its run in January 1993, Mega Channel reran it a multitude of times over the next few years, together with other much-loved series, like Oi Treis Harites. The show ended up being reran in the 1990s more times than any other on Greek television (more than 12 reruns within 5 years). Eventually, a tired television audience and sarcastic TV magazine reviews forced the show off the air after the summer of 1997.

In 2004, Mega Channel reran a small number of episodes as part of its 15-year anniversary. After 7 years of absence, this revisit was welcomed by the public. Mega Channel then started rerunning Oi Aparadektoi again on a weekly basis in a prime time slot (Friday 21:00) for a few months.

title: Oi Aparadektoi


text:
F82

F82 or F-82 may refer to :

 * North American F-82 Twin Mustang, a 1945 American piston engine fighter
 * HMS Sikh (F82), a Royal Navy Tribal-class destroyer, 1938–1942
 * HMS Somerset (F82), a Royal Navy Type 23 frigate, launched 1994
 * HMS Magpie (F82), formerly U82, a Royal Navy Black Swan-class sloop 1943–1959
 * HMS Bulolo (F82), a passenger and cargo ship in Royal Navy service 1940–1946
 * SPANISH FRIGATE Victoria (F82), a Santa Maria-class frigate, launched 1986
 * F82, a version of the BMW M4 car

title: F82


text:
Candyman (1992 film)

Candyman is a 1992 American  gothic supernatural horror film, written and directed by Bernard Rose and starring Virginia Madsen, Tony Todd, Xander Berkeley, Kasi Lemmons, and Vanessa E. Williams. Based on Clive Barker's short story "The Forbidden", the film follows a Chicago graduate student completing a thesis on urban legends and folklore, which leads her to the legend of the "Candyman", the ghost of an African-American artist and the son of a slave who was murdered in the late 19th century for his relationship with the daughter of a wealthy white man.

The film came to fruition after a chance meeting between Rose and Barker who recently completed his own film adaptation of Nightbreed (1990). Rose expressed interest in Barker's story "The Forbidden", and Barker agreed to license the rights. Where Barker's story revolved around the themes of the British class system in contemporary Liverpool, Rose chose to refit the story to Cabrini-Green's public housing development in Chicago and instead focus on the themes of race and social class in the inner-city United States.

Candyman premiered at the 1992 Toronto International Film Festival, and was theatrically released on October 16, 1992 by TriStar Pictures and PolyGram Filmed Entertainment. It received generally positive reviews and grossed over $25 million in the US, where it was also regarded in some critical circles as a contemporary classic of horror cinema. It was followed by three sequels: Candyman: Farewell to the Flesh (1995), Candyman: Day of the Dead (1999), and Candyman (2021).

Plot
Helen Lyle is a semiotics graduate student at the  University of Illinois Chicago. While researching urban legends, she learns of the Candyman, a spirit who kills anyone that speaks his name five times in front of a mirror. She learns of a recent murder at the Cabrini–Green Homes public housing project and two dozen others that have been attributed by locals to the Candyman. Skeptical, Helen and her friend Bernadette Walsh repeat the Candyman's name to Helen's bathroom mirror, to no avail.

Helen and Bernadette work together on a thesis on how Cabrini-Green residents use the Candyman legend to cope with hardship and inequality. She and Bernadette visit the scene of the most recent murder. There, Helen discovers a room where offerings have been left for the Candyman. Afterwards, they interview the victim's neighbor, Anne-Marie McCoy, a single mother raising her infant son Anthony. Helen and her husband Trevor later have dinner with an expert on the Candyman legend. He explains that the "Candyman" was Daniel Robitaille, an African-American man born in the late 1800s as the son of a slave who grew up to become a well-known painter. After he fell in love with and impregnated a white woman, her father sent a lynch mob after him. The mob cut off his right hand and smeared him with honeycomb stolen from an apiary, attracting bees that stung him to death. His corpse was burned in a pyre erected on the site where the Cabrini-Green Homes were eventually built.

When Helen returns to Cabrini-Green, a young boy named Jake tells her of an incident where a developmentally disabled boy was violently castrated by the Candyman in a public bathroom. She goes there to investigate, where a man calling himself the Candyman batters her with a hook. She identifies her attacker to the police, who recognize him as the head of a local gang, and is therefore charged for the murders attributed to Candyman. The real Candyman appears to Helen in a parking garage, hypnotizing her. He explains that due to her discredit of his legend, he must shed innocent blood to perpetuate it. Helen blacks out and awakens in Anne-Marie's apartment, covered in blood, finding Anne-Marie's pet Rottweiler, Annie, decapitated and her son Anthony missing. The police arrive and arrest Helen.

After Trevor bails her out of jail, Helen finds the Candyman in a photograph she took at Cabrini-Green. He breaks into Helen's apartment and cuts her neck, causing her to bleed and pass out. Bernadette arrives at Helen's apartment, and when Helen comes to, she sees that the Candyman has murdered Bernadette. Framed for the crime, Helen is committed to a psychiatric hospital. While being interviewed in preparation for her trial a month later, Helen attempts to prove her innocence by summoning the Candyman, who appears and murders her psychiatrist. Candyman then frees Helen from her restraints, allowing her to escape.

Helen returns to her apartment to find Trevor now living with one of his students, Stacey. Helen confronts him, then flees to Cabrini-Green to rescue Anthony. When she finds the Candyman in his lair, he tells Helen that her surrendering to him will ensure Anthony's safety. Offering Helen immortality, the Candyman opens his coat, revealing a ribcage wreathed in bees. The bees pour out of his mouth and stream down her throat as he kisses her. He vanishes with Anthony, and Helen awakes to discover a mural of the Candyman and his lover, who bears a striking resemblance to her.

The Candyman promises to release Anthony if Helen helps him strike fear into Cabrini-Green's residents. Attempting to feed his legend, the Candyman reneges and attempts to immolate both Helen and Anthony in a pyre. Helen stabs the Candyman with a flaming plank. The flames destroy the Candyman and Helen dies while saving Anthony. The residents, led by Anne-Marie and Jake, pay their respects at Helen's funeral. At home, the grief-stricken and guilt-ridden Trevor looks into the mirror and says Helen's name five times, whereupon Helen's vengeful spirit appears and kills him. A new mural of Helen dressed in white with her hair ablaze appears in the Candyman's lair.

Production
Barker's short story, set in his native Liverpool, was about segregation and the culture of the poor urban areas. For Candyman, Rose was so shocked by Chicago's "dynamic" architecture and large amount of prejudice that he decided to change the Liverpool location to Chicago. Assisted by members of the Illinois Film Commission, Rose scouted locations in Chicago and found Cabrini-Green, a housing project notorious for its poor construction, violence and high robbery rates. The project was also located in between high-class neighborhoods, meaning that the character of Helen could feel Cabrini-Green's chaos from a safe apartment not too far away. This Americanization of the story turned Candyman into an interracial love story where the ghetto residents are now victims of the titular killer. With this change, Rose wanted to showcase those that are living in the poor neighborhoods as regular human beings that are trying to get by which is why he avoided tropes that are common in most American ghetto stories such as gangs and drugs. According to journalist Steve Bogira, one source of inspiration may have been a pair of articles that he wrote for the Chicago Reader in 1987 and 1990 about the murder of Ruthie Mae McCoy, a resident of Chicago's Abbot Homes housing project. In 1987, McCoy was killed by an intruder who entered her apartment through an opening behind the bathroom's medicine cabinet.

Rose's screenplay garnered a huge amount of attention in the casting agencies and Virginia Madsen and Tony Todd instantly tried to get parts to have a chance to work with the filmmaker. Eddie Murphy was the original choice for the role of Candyman, but the filmmakers could not afford him. Todd, who was fit for playing the killer as he was six-foot-five and physically fit, recalled that there was skepticism from his colleagues about him playing the Candyman due to the number of bee sting injuries that he would have to receive. He persisted as he wanted to work with the director and said, "I've always wanted to find my own personal Phantom of the Opera." While the Candyman's background is unknown in the original story, Todd came up with the backstory for the character in the film. Virginia Madsen was friends with Rose and his then-wife, Alexandra Pigg and Madsen was originally to play the role of Helen's friend, Bernie while Pigg was to play Helen. The choice was made to make the character of Bernie Black American so Madsen lost the part. As the shooting was about to commence, Pigg discovered that she was pregnant so the role of Helen was offered to Madsen. Had Madsen been unable to accept, producer Alan Poul was partial to Sandra Bullock as Helen.

Three days of Candyman 's filming was spent on Cabrini-Green while the other days were spent in scenes on Hollywood sound stages. With plainclothes law enforcement by their side, Todd and Madsen went into the buildings of Cabrini-Green as part of researching their roles which was a useful, but distressing experience for both actors. For playing the Candyman, Todd tried to act as a "primeval boogeyman" without overacting the part which was tricky to do. He worked with Bob Keen on the Candyman's look. Keen first had Todd wear a machine-controlled fake right arm, but found the movements of the arm too strict. Then, Keen came up with the idea of having Todd wear a hook to indicate the Candyman's supernatural being. He spent three hours making the hook. Todd suggested the character wear an eyepatch, but Keen rejected the idea. To keep the budget low, Rose instructed a special effects manager named Martin Bresson to use traditional effects instead of optical effects. The same team who worked on Backdraft also designed the set for the bonfire scene of Candyman which involved using 1,500 gallons of propane and its largest section having a 70-foot width and 30-foot height.

The honeybees in Candyman were controlled by Norman Gary who previously handled the bees on films such as The Deadly Bees (1966), My Girl (1991) and Fried Green Tomatoes (1991). The film used more than 200,000 real honeybees throughout and most of the crew wore bodysuits to be protected from stings, although all of them faced at least one sting. Todd negotiated a bonus of $1,000 for each of the 23 bee stings that he received during filming. In shooting the film's climax where the Candyman sends 500 bees into Helen's face, he first had the bees placed in his mouth by using a protective mouthpiece to avoid as many stings as possible. Gary had to use freshly hatched, non-stinging and non-flying bees for the scene as Madsen was very allergic to stings. It took half an hour for all of the bees to get into Todd's mouth and he recalled being "tranced out" when he let all of the bees out of his mouth. Rose also utilized hypnosis in his movie to work around what he saw as the cliche of excessive screaming in the horror films. Bernard Rose came up with the idea to have Virginia Madsen hypnotized in the scenes where she confronted the Candyman. According to Todd, this process would occur prior to filming the scenes where he and Madsen interacted and would take roughly ten minutes to prepare. This was accomplished through the use of a professional hypnotist who established a key word that Rose would use to put Madsen under a trancelike state.

Music
The film's score was composed by Philip Glass. According to Glass, "It has become a classic so I still make money from that score, get checks every year.". A compilation of music from the film and from the first sequel was released under the title The Music of Candyman as the inaugural release of Glass's Orange Mountain Music record company in 2001. A limited edition featuring 7500 copies of the film's soundtrack was released in February 2015.

Theatrical
Candyman had its world premiere at the 1992 Toronto International Film Festival, playing as part of its Midnight Madness line-up. It was released on October 16, 1992 in the United States where it made $25.7 million.

Home media
It was released on home video in February 1993 by Columbia TriStar Home Video. A special edition DVD was released in August 2004.

Candyman was first released on Blu-ray format in Australia on September 1, 2011 via Universal Studios Home Entertainment. The same Blu-ray version was made available in the United Kingdom on October 10, 2011. The set contains DTS-HD Master Audio 2.0 for its original English track as well as standard DTS 2.0 surround for its additional French, Italian, Japanese and Spanish tracks with multiple subtitle options including English SDH and no special features. The film was released again in Australia from Shock Records via their Cinema Cult subsidiary with the only addition being a slipcover. In Germany, a "Limited Edition" Digibook was made available on May 27, 2016 and was, at the time, the most definitive Blu-ray edition to date. It contains both German and English DTS-HD Master Audio 2.0, German and English subtitles and special features including audio commentary, featurettes, storyboards and original trailer. A standard edition set was released in Germany on July 29, 2016. Several standard Blu-ray editions eventually became available in France, Italy, Spain, Japan, Denmark, Finland and Sweden throughout 2011 and 2012.

On July 20, 2018, it was announced that Candyman would be released on Blu-ray in a "Collector's Edition" on November 20, 2018 in the United States via Scream Factory, a subsidiary of Shout! Factory. The set contains a newly remastered 2K restoration from a new 4K scan as well as a number of new special features including an unrated cut, commentaries and featurettes. The following week, on July 27, 2018, Arrow Films announced a "Limited Edition" Blu-ray set in the United Kingdom which includes the same scan and special features as the Scream Factory edition. It was confirmed for this edition that the film would contain a new DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 track for the first time. The set includes a collector's booklet, six lobby cards, a reversible poster and reversible cover artwork. It was released on October 29, 2018.

Arrow issued a limited edition of Candyman on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray in the UK on May 23, 2022. It features a new 4K restoration from the original negative, both the US R-rated version and the original UK theatrical version featuring alternate footage, two booklets, six UK lobby card reproductions and a poster. Scream Factory also issued a 4K edition in the United States and Canada on May 24.

Controversy
There was some controversy that the film was depicting racism and racial stereotypes. According to Rose, "I had to go and have a whole set of meetings with the NAACP because the producers were so worried and what they said to me when they'd read the script was 'Why are we even having this meeting? You know, this is just good fun.' Their argument was 'Why shouldn't a black actor be a ghost? Why shouldn't a black actor play Freddy Krueger or Hannibal Lecter? If you're saying that they can't be, it's really perverse. This is a horror movie.'" At the time of the film's release, Madsen said, "I was and am now worried about how people will respond. I don't think Spike Lee will like this film."

Critical response
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote, "Elements of the plot may not hold up in the clear light of day, but that didn't bother me much. What I liked was a horror movie that was scaring me with ideas and gore, instead of simply with gore." Janet Maslin of The New York Times compared it to "an elaborate campfire story" with an "unusually high interest in social issues". Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times called the film Clive Barker's "worst to date"—an ambitious, but pretentious film that "quickly becomes as repellent as it is preposterous." Variety called it "an upper-register horror item that delivers the requisite shocks and gore, but doesn't cheat or cop out."

In a review for Channel 4 Candyman has been called "atmospheric and visually stimulating enough to satisfy gore-hounds", as well as an "intelligent social commentary". Slant Magazine's Eric Henderson positively reviewed both the eponymous character and the leading actor: "Played by Tony Todd (and his velvety basso profundo voice), the Candyman is a svelte, sexual monument, far removed from the silent brutality of your average serial slasher."

The film scored 79% on Rotten Tomatoes, 61/100 on Metacritic, and a "C+" on CinemaScore. Allmovie called it "haunting, intelligent and poetic" and "the finest Barker adaptation ever committed to film".

Legacy
The film came in at number 75 on Bravo's 100 Scariest Movie Moments. The character Candyman came in at number 8 on Bloody Disgusting's "The Top 13 Slashers in Horror Movie History" and ranked the same on Ugo's "Top Eleven Slashers". The actor who played Candyman, Tony Todd, made #53 on Retrocrush's "The 100 Greatest Horror Movie Performances" for his role.

The film appears in two sections of Filmsite.org's "Greatest Scariest Movie Moments and Scenes" and "Greatest Movie Twists, Spoilers and Surprise Endings". In 2001, the American Film Institute nominated this film for AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills. South Park parodied this film in the season 10 episode "Hell on Earth 2006", in which The Notorious B.I.G. appears whenever someone says "Biggie Smalls" three times in a mirror.

Sequels
Two stand-alone sequels comprising a single storyline were released in 1995 and 1999 respectively: Candyman: Farewell to the Flesh and Candyman: Day of the Dead. Originally, Bernard Rose wanted to make a prequel film about Candyman and Helen's love but the studio turned it down.

In September 2018, it was announced that Jordan Peele was in talks to produce a direct sequel to the 1992 film using his company, Monkeypaw Productions. Todd stated in a 2018 interview with Nightmare on Film Street, "I'd rather have [Peele] do it, someone with intelligence who's going to be thoughtful and dig into the whole racial makeup of who Candyman is and why he existed in the first place." In November 2018, it was confirmed that Peele would produce the film with Universal and MGM and will partner with Win Rosenfeld to co-produce the film while Nia DaCosta signed on as director. The film serves as a sequel, taking place back in the new gentrified Cabrini-Green where the old housing projects development once stood in Chicago. Filming was due to commence in spring 2019. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Todd spoke of Peele, stating: "I know he's a fan. I'm hoping I will appear in the film in some form of fashion. Wouldn't that make sense? But, it's Hollywood so I won't take it personally if for some reason it doesn't work out." He added, "If this new one is successful, it will shed light back on the original. I think the subject matter is more important than any individuals and I mean that."

In February 2019, Yahya Abdul-Mateen II was in talks to play the titular character. In response to the news, Todd said: "Cheers to Candyman, a wonderful character that I've lived with for 25 years. He's brought grace and glory and a beautiful boatload of friends & family. I'm honored that the spirit of Daniel Robitaille & Cabrini-Green rises again. Truth to power! Blessings to the cast & crew". However, it was ultimately announced that Todd would reprise his role, while Adbul-Mateen would portray the adult version of Anthony McCoy. Teyonah Parris was cast opposite in playing Anthony's girlfriend. Other added cast are Colman Domingo and Nathan Stewart-Jarret. Vanessa Estelle Williams would also reprise her role as Anne-Marie, Anthony's mother.

Production for the film began in August 2019 and wrapped in September 2019 in Chicago, Illinois. The working title of the film was revealed on some of the cast and crew social media pages as Say My Name which was discreetly used in the revised scripts and production sets to keep things "flying under the radar" with the official title also being Candyman. The film was released on August 27, 2021.

title: Candyman (1992 film)


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Albanians in North Macedonia

Albanians in North Macedonia (Shqiptarët në Maqedoninë e Veriut, Албанци од Северна Македонија) are the second largest ethnic group in North Macedonia, forming 446,245 individuals or 24.3% of the resident population. Of the 2,097,319 total population in the 2021 census (including self-enumerated diaspora), 619,187 or 29.52% are Albanians.

Geography
The Albanian minority is concentrated mostly in the western, north-western and partially middle area of the country with small communities located in the south-west. The largest Albanian communities are in the cities and surrounding regions of Tetovo, Gostivar, Debar, Struga, Kičevo, Kumanovo and Skopje. Smaller numbers are also found in and/or around the cities of Ohrid, Kruševo, Resen, Bitola and Veles.

Toponymy
A number of placenames in North Macedonia have been considered as being ultimately derived through Albanian. Some cases include:
 * Štip (Shtip in Albanian) is a city in eastern North Macedonia. It was known in antiquity as Astibo-s. About the date of settlement of Proto-Albanians in eastern North Macedonia similar arguments as in the case of Nish have emerged.
 * Ohrid (Ohër in Albanian) is a city in southwestern North Macedonia. It has been proposed that the modern name is a modified version of the ancient Greek name, where the transition of "Lychnidus" to "Ohrid".
 * Skopje (Shkupi in Albanian) is the capital of North Macedonia. Scupi as it was known in Classical Antiquity.
 * Drin is a river in western North Macedonia. It is recorded in Ancient Greek as Drilon (Δρίλων) and in Latin as Drinus. The form Drin- has been evidenced by Pliny the Elder ( 1st century AD) and is most likely primary. The ancient name Drinus has undergone sound changes reaching the current Albanian form Drin through the evolution of Albanian sound changes.
 * Veles (Qyprill in Albanian) was renamed during Ottoman rule as Köprülü, named after the noble Köprülü family.
 * Malesia (Malësia in Albanian) is a small region north of Struga. The toponym Malesija is of Albanian origin from the word Malësi meaning a mountainous area or region.
 * Šar (Sharr in Albanian) is a mountain range in Kosovo, Albania and North Macedonia.

Antiquity
The multi-layered  Albanian  dialects  in  western Macedonia  demonstrate  that they have, at different stages, immigrated into an area that was inhabited by Albanians since antiquity. The name development of 'Shtip' and 'Shkupi' may indicate that Proto-Albanian was spoken in the region in pre-Slavic antiquity. Mihaescu argues that Albanian evolved in a region with much greater contact to Western Romance regions than to Romanian-speaking regions, and located this region in present-day Albania, Kosovo and Western North Macedonia, spanning east to Bitola and Pristina.

The toponym Albanopolis has been found on a funeral inscription in Gorno Sonje, near the city of Skopje (ancient Scupi), present-day North Macedonia. It was discovered in 1931 by Nikola Vulić and its text was analyzed and published in 1982 by Borka Dragojević-Josifovska. The inscription in Latin reads "POSIS MESTYLU F[ILIUS] FL[AVIA] DELVS MVCATI F[ILIA] DOM[O] ALBANOP[OLI] IPSA DELVS". It is translated as "Posis Mestylu, son of Flavia, daughter of Delus Mucati, who comes from Albanopolis". It dates to the end of the 1st century CE or the beginning of the 2nd century CE.

The ethnonym Albanos was found on a funeral inscription from ancient Stobi in present-day North Macedonia, near Gradsko about 90 km to the southeast of Gorno Sonje. The inscription in ancient Greek reads "ΦΛ(ΑΒΙΩ) ΑΛΒΑΝΩ ΤΩ ΤΕΚΝΩ ΑΙΜΙΛΙΑΝΟΣ ΑΛΒΑΝΟ(Σ) ΜΝΗΜ(Η)Σ [ΧΑΡΗΝ]" ("In memory of Flavios Albanos, his son Aemilianos Albanos"). It dates to the 2nd/3rd century AD.

Middle Ages
The Slavic migration probably shaped the present geographic spread of the Albanians. It is likely that Albanians took refuge in the mountainous areas of northern and central Albania, eastern Montenegro, western North Macedonia and Kosovo. Long-standing contact between Slavs and Albanians might have been common in mountain passages and agriculture or fishing areas, in particular in the valleys of the White and Black branches of the Drin and around the Shkodër and Ohrid lakes. The contact with one another in these areas have caused many changes in Slavic and Albanian local dialects.

Placenames with the designation Arbanasi, an archaic term for Albanians, are usually found in "onomastic provinces" throughout the area of western, northeastern, central and southern North Macedonia: located in the area of Skopje, Kumanovo, Sveti Nikole, Stip, Kratovo, Prespa, Bitola, Ohrid, Prilep, Kichevo, Gostivar, and Tetovo. These "Albanian onomastic provinces" in the area of North Macedonia are chronologically old, which speaks of early contacts of Arbanasi (Albanians) with Latin and Old Slavic, and goes against the idea of a late 18th-century migration of Albanians into Macedonia.

In a document of Serbian King Stefan Milutin that dates between 1293 and 1302, in which the citizens of Štip are named, there are several figures listed with Albanian names and anthroponomy. Likewise, in a charter issued by the same ruler in 1300, it is noted that whoever visited the market of Skopje - be they Greek, Bulgarian, Serbian, Latin, Albanian, or Vlach - must pay the dues in both Tetovo and Gračanica. Furthermore, in a 1330 letter by Serbian Tsar Stefan Dušan, several figures with Albanian names and anthroponomy (including the last name Arbanasin, which literally means Albanian) were recorded. In 1350 the Serbian Tsar had donated a church and a number of serfs to the nobleman Ivanko around the region of Štip, and among the serfs a certain Gin Arbanasi is attested.

In a text by Emperor John VI Kantakouzenos there is mention of nomadic Albanians present in the vicinity of Ohrid at around 1328. Andrea Gropa ruled the region and the city of Ohrid as an ally of King of Serbia Vukašin Mrnjavčević until Vukašin's death in 1371, with Andrea beginning a rivalry with his son, Prince Marko. Ruling as an independent ruler since the time of Vukašin, Andrea became de jure independent from Prince Marko in 1371 and was referred to as Župan and Gospodar of Ohrid (Lord of Ochrid). He joined the Albanian ruler and noble Andrea II Muzaka, and managed to take Kostur, Prilep and all Dibër region from Marko by that year. During Andrea's reign, the Gropa family forged their own coins.

Albanian noble families controlled swathes of land in North Macedonia during different historical periods within the Middle Ages. The Gropa family ruled the regions between Pogradec, Ohrid and Debar during the 12th — 14th centuries. The presence of Albanians within modern-day North Macedonia is attested to by Serbian kings of the Middle Ages. In 1330, Stefan Dečanski explicitly mentioned the presence of Albanians and the Albanian names of villages in Kosovo, particularly in the district of Prizren, as well as within the district of Skopje. Between 1348 and 1353, Albanians are mentioned by Stefan Dušan as farmers and soldiers in the district of Tetovo and frequenters of the Fair of Saint George held in the vicinity of Skopje. In fact, entire Albanian villages were gifted by Serbian kings, especially by Stefan Dušan, as presents to the Serbian monastery of Tetovo, as well as to the monasteries of Prizren and Deçan.

In the Middle Ages, Dibër was part of the Principality of Kastrioti ruled by the royal Kastrioti family with Gjon Kastrioti on the Albanian throne. After the death of Gjon Kastrioti in 1437, the eastern region was annexed by the Ottomans and became seat of the Sanjak of Dibra. Skanderbeg carried out several military actions in the territory of modern-day North Macedonia during his rebellion against the Ottoman Turks, such as the Battle of Oranik and the Battle of Ohrid. Svetigrad had initially served as a fortress for the League of Lezhë before being taken by the Ottomans. Both Svetigrad and Modriç, along with the surrounding areas in the Dibër region, were under Skanderbeg's control.

Ottoman Empire

The arrest and liquidation of local Albanophone pashas, most notably that of Abdurrahman Pasha of Kalkandelen (now Tetova) and his two brothers, Havzi Pasha of Üsküb (now Shkup) and Hussein Pasha of Kustendil, directly caused the Uprising of Dervish Cara, which occurred between 1843 and 1844. The rebels of this uprising were led by Dervish Cara, and they had the support of the Christian population as well as other Albanophone pashas. The revolt began in Üsküb in July 1843 and several Ottoman-controlled towns and regions were captured over the next two years - in North Macedonia, these territories included Gostivar, Tetova, Skopje, Kumanova, Ohrid and Manastir. The Ottoman government declared an amnesty, the abolishment of the new taxes and the postponement of the recruitment process, in an effort to disunite the rebels. In May 1844, the Ottoman army attacked the rebels, forcing them to retreat to the areas of Kalkandelen, Üsküb and Kumanova. Heavy fighting took place from 13 to 17 May 1844 in Katlanovo Pass, and on 18 May in Katlanovo thermals. The rebels could no longer resist the numerically superior and better-armed Ottoman army. In May–July, the Ottoman army retook all areas taken by the rebels. Dervish Cara was captured by Ottoman forces in summer 1844.

The resistance would continue in the Dibër valley, which was very strong under its local leaders. Ottoman forces led by Rexhep Pasha were defeated by the rebels in the field of Mavrova. The rebels in the Sanjak of Dibër were led from Sheh Mustafa Zerqani, a Bektashi priest. In a meeting in November 1844 they declared that the old autonomy of Dibër was not to be changed. The rebel army led by Cen Leka tried to stop the advancing Ottoman army led by Hayredin Pasha. The Ottoman commander declared again an amnesty, the abolishment of the new taxes and the postponement of the recruitment process which would become voluntary in the future.

The League of Prizren fought against Bulgarian groups and repelled them in the regions of Köprülü, Përlep and Manastir, which were at that time inhabited by Albanians, wiping out the Bulgarian movements in those areas.

In a 1903 document by the Cartographic Society of Sofia, the villages of Struga Malesia were all registered with Albanian Orthodox majorities, but nowadays they have assimilated and identify as Macedonians. There is a sizeable amount of Turkified Albanians in Ohrid who originate from the cities of Elbasan, Durrës and Ulcinj. A significant part of the Muslim Albanian population of Kumanovo and Bitola was also Turkified during Ottoman rule. An Albanian revolt took place against the Ottoman Empire lasted from January until August 1912. Albanians took Skopje on August. The revolt ended when the Ottoman government agreed to fulfill the rebels' demands, namely the creation of an Albanian Vilayet and expansion of Albanians rights on 4 September 1912.

German linguist Gustav Weigand described the process of Turkification of the Albanian urban population of Macedonia in his 1923 work Ethnographie Makedoniens (Ethnography of Macedonia). He writes that in the cities, especially noting Skopje and Bitola, many of the Turkish inhabitants are in fact Albanians, being distinguished by the difference in articulation of certain Turkish words, as well as their clothing and tool use. They speak Albanian at home, however use Turkish when in public. They refer to themselves as Turks, the term at the time also being a synonym for Muslim, with ethnic Turks referring to them as Turkoshak, a derogatory term for someone portraying themselves as Turkish.

Balkan Wars
During the Balkan wars Serbia took control of cities in northern and western Ottoman Macedonia, lands inhabited by a large Albanian population. The advance of the Serbian army as well as the formation of local Chetnik groups was followed beatings, imprisonments, massacres, disarmaments, burnings of Albanian villages as well as looting Albanian possessions. In this state of war, large numbers of Albanians fearing persecution by the Serbian army fled to Anatolia, mostly from Kumanovo and Skopje but also from Veles, Prilep, Krushevo, Tetovo, Gostivar, Kichevo, Ohrid and Bitola. Most of these Muhacirs never returned. After the Battle of Kumanovo, Chetnik paramilitary groups supported by the Serbian Army attacked and expelled the Albanian populations of Kratovo, Štip, Veles, Kruševo and Bitola. Albanians were massacred in Skopje, Veles, Prilep, Tetovo, Gostivar and most other cities.

Yugoslavia
Shortly after the defeat of Turkey by the Balkan allies, a conference of ambassadors of the Great Powers (Britain, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and Italy) convened in London in December 1912 to settle the outstanding issues raised by the conflict. With support given to the Albanians by Austria-Hungary and Italy, the conference agreed to create an independent state of Albania, which became a reality in 1913. However, the boundaries of the new state were drawn in such a way that large areas with Albanian populations remained outside of Albania, including the area that would go on to become the Socialist Republic of Macedonia.

During the Skopje communist party conference held on August 12–13, 1945, Qemal Sejfulla, a representative of the Turkish minority, although himself of Albanian origin from Kaçanik, declared that: "In the cities there are some regroupings - differentiations between Turks and Albanians. As it is known that the great Serbian policy towards the Albanian masses was a policy of physical liquidations. While the policy towards the Turks - was more tolerant, for which a very large part of the Albanians became Turks - were assimilated."

When the Socialist Republic of Macedonia was established in 1946, the constitution guaranteed the right of minorities to cultural development and free use of their language. Minority schools and classes in minority languages were introduced immediately, in order to counter the high percentage of illiteracy among these groups. In the following two decades, the communist party continuously introduced measures meant to promote the incorporation of the Albanian community into the economic and social life of the new socialist state through education, professional training, and social opportunities.

A policy of Turkification of the Albanian population was employed by the Yugoslav authorities in cooperation with the Turkish government, stretching the period of 1948–1959. A commission was created to tour Albanian communities in Macedonia, visiting Tetovo, Gostivar, Debar, Kičevo, Struga, Kumanovo, Gjorče Petrov and Resen. Starting in 1948, six Turkish schools were opened in areas with large Albanian majorities, such as Tearce, Gorna Banjica, Dolna Banjica Vrapčište as well as in the outskirts of Tetovo and Gostivar. In 1951–52, a total of 40 Turkish schools were opened in Debar, Kičevo, Kumanovo, Struga, Resen, Bitola, Kruševo and Prilep.

In 1952, Yugoslavia and Turkey signed a free emigration agreement that allowed for Muslims in Yugoslavia to migrate to Turkey. Some of these individuals from more northern portions of Yugoslavia did not complete their migrations and instead settled in Macedonia, including 10,643 Albanians from Sandžak.

Contemporary analysis described cases of resistance to the Turkish schools in the Polog area, with Albanian speaking students and teachers refused to attend Turkish schools. In Tetovo, none of the native teachers wanted to give lessons in Turkish, so substitutes from Skopje were brought in instead. Another notable case happened in Gostivar, where a teacher from Banjica, who according to the committees analysis: "even though he was born in the same village and his mother tongue is Turkish, when the Turkish school was opened he refused to teach in Turkish and had asked to work in Albanian villages ...". Thus the Yugoslav committee characterized the local population as having adopted a "Greater Albanian political worldview". Resistance against the opening of Turkish schools was most prevalent in Tetovo and Gostivar. In 1952, on the night of Eid al-Adha, the local Tetovo political leader Mehmet Riza Gega distributed flyers imploring Albanian parents from sending their children to Turkish speaking schools. In Gostivar the nationalist activist Myrtezan Bajraktari was detained and interrogated by the Yugoslav secret police (UDBA). During his interrogation he stated he openly opposed the Turkish schools, and that he does so "just so Albanians can feel like patriots and not allow themselves to be Turkified."

In the late 1980s when the autonomy of the province of Kosovo was revoked, and the repression of the Albanian population significantly increased, these developments also took place in the Socialist Republic of Macedonia. Albanian was removed from public sight, Albanian families were prohibited from naming their children with Albanian names on the ground that it caused divisions with the other communities in the republic, and finally, to lower the significantly high birth rate of the Albanian population, Albanian families were prohibited from having more than two children. This assimilative campaign can be clearly seen by the fact that in 1990 the amended Constitution redefined the state from "a state of the Macedonian people and the Albanian and Turkish nationalities" to a "national state of the Macedonian people".

Contemporary
In 1994 the US Department of State's Report on Human Rights in Macedonia reported that the following forms of discrimination against ethnic Albanians existed in Macedonia: limited access to Albanian-language media and education; poor representation in public sector jobs; poor representation in the police corps; poor representation in the military officer corps; denial of citizenship to many long-time ethnic Albanian residents of Macedonia as well as discrimination in the process of citizenship applications; and unfair drawing of voting districts which dilutes their voting strength.

In the September 2002 elections, an SDSM-led pre-election coalition won half of the 120 seats in parliament. Branko Crvenkovski was elected Prime Minister in coalition with the ethnic Albanian Democratic Union for Integration (DUI) party and the Liberal-Democratic Party (LDP).

On 26 November 2019, an earthquake struck Albania. Albanians from North Macedonia responded in large numbers to the Albanian government's appeal for financial assistance through donations to various humanitarian organisations and special bank accounts fundraising for aid.

Demography
According to the 1903 Austrian consular reports on ethnic composition of the kazas of the Sanjak of Skopje in 1903, the kaza of Kočani was populated by a total of 39,406 inhabitants, of whom 16,524 (41.93%) were Bulgarian Exarchists, 11,600 (29.44%) Ottoman Muslim, 7,800 (19.79%) Albanians, 1,680 (4.26%) Aromanians, 1,090 (2.77%) Patriarchists and 712 (1.8%) Romanis.

In the 1953 census, large portions of Albanians declared themselves as ethnic Turks:
 * In the municipality of Lipkovo, 12,733 Albanians were registered in 1948 a number which dropped to 3609 in 1953. The Turkish population went from numbering 5 people in 1948, to 9,878 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Radostuša, 2,252 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 410 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 7 members in 1948, to numbering 2,453 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Demir Hisar, 964 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 50 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 6 members in 1948, to numbering 1,027 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Dolneni, 4,786 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 174 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 1,005 members in 1948, to numbering 6,450 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Krivogaštani, 594 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 12 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 2 members in 1948, to numbering 656 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Kruševo, 2,335 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 1,265 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 3 members in 1948, to numbering 1,269 in 1953.
 * In the then municipality of Tabanovce, 3,372 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 476 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 436 members in 1948, to numbering 3,434 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Kičevo, 1,187 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 413 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 1,748 members in 1948, to numbering 5,192 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Butel, 4,755 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 2,958 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 14 members in 1948, to numbering 2,204 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Gjorče Petrov, 12,443 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 8,827 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 48 members in 1948, to numbering 4,783 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Kumanovo, 3,919 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 1,331 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 1,793 members in, to numbering 5,622 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Tetovo, 22,631 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 20,873 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 306 members in 1948, to numbering 4,516 in 1953.
 * In the then municipality of Dračevo, 7,006 Albanians were registered in 1948 and in 5,745 1953, with the Turkish community going from 178 members in 1948, to numbering 5,195 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Bitola, 13,166 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 4,014 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 14,050 members in 1948, to numbering 29,151 in 1953.
 * In the municipality of Rakotince, 2,494 Albanians were registered in 1948 and 1,362 in 1953, with the Turkish community going from 60 members in 1948, to numbering 4,538 in 1953.

Of the 203,087 Turks in Macedonia in 1953, 27,086 or 13.28% gave Albanian as their mothertongue.

Since the end of World War II, the Socialist Republic of Macedonia's population has grown steadily, with the greatest increases occurring in the ethnic Albanian community. From 1953 through the time of the latest census in 2002 (initial results were released December 2003), the percentage of Albanians living in North Macedonia rose 25.2%. Most of the ethnic Albanians live in the western part of the country. According to the official census data, Albanians made up 19% of the total population in 1953. The population fell to 13% in 1961, but grew again in 1971 to 17%. The group formed 19.7% in 1981 and 21% in 1991. At the last census in 2002, the Albanian population was at 25.2%. Ethnologue in 2002 estimated some 500,000 people speaking Albanian in North Macedonia. In the decade since the republic declared independence from Yugoslavia, some Albanians have claimed to account for 30% of the population and demanded an appropriate share of power. On the other side, ethnic Macedonians said Albanians were barely 20%. However, the widely accepted number of Albanians in North Macedonia is according to the internationally monitored 2002 census. The census data estimated that Albanians account for about 25.2% of the total population. The 2012 census was not held and boycotted by the Albanian political parties. In the 2008 Macedonian parliamentary elections, Albanian political parties received 22.61% of the total vote, receiving 29 of 120 seats.

Albanian is co-official at a state level (excluding defense and monetary policy) and in local self-government units where speakers of the population are 20% or more. The change in status occurred in 2019 as use of Albanian became no longer geographically limited. The new law extended the official use of Albanian over the entire country, easing communication in Albanian with the institutions. Under the new legislation, Macedonian continues to be the primary official language, while Albanian may be used now as a second one, including at a national level in official matters. The legislation stipulates also all public institutions in the country will provide Albanian translations in their everyday work.

The Albanian population in the country is largely rural with ethnic Albanians forming a majority or plurality in only 3 of the country's 34 cities.

Around 35% of the newborns in North Macedonia belong to the Albanian ethnic minority. In 2017, 21,754 children were born in Macedonia. The ethnic affiliation of these newborns was: 11,260 (51.76%) Macedonian; 7,404 (34.03%) Albanians; 940 (4.32%) Turkish; 1,276 (5.87%) Roma; 40 (0.18%) Vlach; 129 (0.59%) Serbian; 213 (0.98%) Bosniaks; 492 (2,26%) other ethnic affiliation and unknown.

Municipalities
According to the 2021 census, of the 80 municipalities in the country Albanians were the dominant resident ethnic group in 17 municipalities, with 15 having a resident ethnic Albanian majority and 2 a resident ethnic Albanian plurality. When accounting the total population, including self-enumerated diaspora, Albanians make up the majority in 16 municipalities and the plurality in 2.

Parties
North Macedonia has a few Albanian parties. As of 2020 election The Democratic Union for Integration (DUI) and the Alliance for Albanians are the two largest Albanian political parties in the country. In the 2008 Macedonian parliamentary elections, DUI won 11.3% of the total vote, while DPA got 10.1%. However, due to pre-election fights between the two main Albanian political parties, some Albanian areas of the country have revoted.

In the 2011 Macedonian parliamentary elections, Albanian parties received 20.96% of the total popular vote. DUI received 10.2% of the vote, giving it 15 seats. This is a loss of 3 seats from the previous elections. DPA received 5.9% of the vote, winning 8 seats which is also a drop of 3 seats from the 2008 election. The third Albanian party to receive seats in parliament is the National Democratic Revival party which received two seats with 2.7% of the vote.

In the 2014 elections, three Albanian parties, DUI, DPA, and NDP won 19 seats, seven seats, and one seat, respectively, out of the 123 total seats. Ethnic Albanians parties received just under 21% of the total popular vote.

Discrimination
Ethnic tensions have simmered in North Macedonia since the end of an armed conflict in 2001, where in July 2001, former NLA fighters created the Albanian National Army (ANA, AKSh), and announced itself on 3 August 2001. The group participated in attacks against Macedonian forces alongside the NLA. After the NLA disbanded, the ANA began to operate in the Preševo Valley.

The Macedonian Academy for Science and Art was accused of Albanophobia in 2009 after it published its first encyclopaedia in which it was claimed that Shqiptar, the Albanian endonym that is primarily used by other Balkan peoples to describe Albanians, is considered derogatory by the Albanian community if used in South Slavic languages. The encyclopaedia also claimed that the Albanians settled the region in the 16th century. Distribution of the encyclopaedia was ceased after a series of public protests.

On 12 April 2012, five ethnic Macedonian civilians were shot dead – allegedly by ethnic Albanians – in an attack known as the Smilkovci lake killings. On 16 April 2012, a protest against these attacks and demanding justice was held in Skopje. Some of the participants in the protests were chanting anti-Albanian slogans.

On 1 March 2013 in Skopje, a mob of ethnic Macedonians protested against the decision to appoint Talat Xhaferi, an ethnic Albanian politician, as Minister of Defence. The protest turned violent when the mob started hurling stones and also attacking Albanian bystanders and police officers alike. The police reports 3 injured civilians, five injured police officers and much damage to private property. Although the city hospital reported treating five heavily injured Albanian men, two of which are on intensive care unit. During this protest part of the mob burned the Albanian flag. A mob of Macedonian nationalists also stormed the Macedonian Parliament on 27 April 2017 in reaction to the election of Talat Xhaferi as Speaker of the Assembly, numerous were injured during the riot.

On the 108th anniversary of the Congress of Manastir, the museum of the Albanian alphabet in Bitola was vandalized, the windows and doors were broken. A poster with the words "Death to Albanians" and with the drawing of a lion cutting the heads of the Albanian double-headed eagle was placed on the front doors of the museum. One week after this incident, on the day of the Albanian Declaration of Independence, graffiti with the same messages, as those of the previous week, were placed on the directorate of Pelister National Park.

Current issues
Amongst the unemployed, Albanians are highly overrepresented. In public institutions as well as many private sectors they are underrepresented. They also face discrimination by public officials and employers. According to the United States' Country Report on Human Rights 2012 for Macedonia, "certain ministries declined to share information about ethnic makeup of employees". The same report also added: "'...ethnic Albanians and other national minorities, with the exception of ethnic Serbs and Vlachs, were underrepresented in the civil service and other state institutions, including the military, the police force, and the intelligence services, as well as the courts, the national bank, customs, and public enterprises, in spite of efforts to recruit qualified candidates from these communities. Ethnic Albanians constituted 18 percent of army personnel, while minority communities as a whole accounted for 25 percent of the population according to statistics provided by the government.'"

As of 2019, the Albanian language is a co-official language in the country.

Religion
The main religion among Albanians in North Macedonia is Islam, though there are some who are Roman Catholic, with the most prominent member Agnes (Anjeza) Bojaxhiu, also known as Mother Teresa. Another prominent figure is the composer Lorenc Antoni.

Eastern Orthodox
In statistics gathered by Vasil Kanchov in 1900, the city of Skopje was inhabited by 31900 people, of whom 150 were Christian Albanians.

Orthodox Christian Albanian villages located in Upper Reka, as well as historic communities in Ohrid, Malesia, Resen, Kruševo, Prilep, Kumanovo (in particular the nearby abandoned village of Dumanovce) as well as Bitola city and certain surrounding villages (Trnovo, Nižepole and Magarevo). These communities largely assimilated into the Slavic corpus.

During the Ottoman period, besides the ethnic Turks and the majority Slavic population, Prilep was also home to both a Sunni Muslim and Orthodox Christian Albanian community, which lived alongside. Serbian historiographer Jovan Hadži-Vasiljević writes that:

"'Between Turks and Muslim Albanians who have lived in the city (Prilep), it is very difficult to distinguish, especially between the old families of the city. The Mohammedan Albanian families, as soon as they arrived in the city, merged with the Turks, just as the Christian Albanian families merged with the Slavs or the Greeks'"

Bulgarian researcher, Georgi Traichev, wrote that:

"'In the city of Prilep, there were no pure Greeks, but there are several (dozens) of Grecomans supported by schismatic Vlachs and Albanian Christians.'"

The newspaper Прилепу преди 100 години ("Prilep 100 years ago". Sofia, 1938) reports that after the arrival of Orthodox Albanians in the city around the 18th-19th century, the Christian Vlach and Albanian elements have assimilated under the influence of Bulgarian population, and that there are no longer any traces of them. Information is also given for Albanians of both denominations. Of the Orthodox Albanians, a part has been Bulgarianized, while others have been Hellenised. In the newspaper there is also a report about the Orthodox Albanian entitled Ico Kishari, whose family, along with the Tilevci, Georgimajkovci and Ladcovci, were Orthodox Albanian refugees from Moscopole who had settled in the beginning of the 19th century.

Two dozen Orthodox Albanians were recorded as living in the villages of Konopište and Mrežičko near Kavadarci in 1900. In 1905, Dimitar Mishev Brancoff gathered statistics about the Christian population of Macedonia, in which the population of Veles appears as consisting of, among others, 12 Christian Albanians. The researcher Dimitar Gađanov wrote in 1916 that Gostivar was populated by, among others, 100 Orthodox Albanians.

Culture
The spoken dialects of Albanian are Gheg, by majority, and Tosk in parts of the south. Education in Albanian is provided in all levels, including university levels, such as State University of Tetovo, South East European University, also in Tetovo.

Pjetër Bogdani (c. 1630–1689), known in Italian as Pietro Bogdano, is the most original writer of early literature in Albania. He is author of the Cuneus Prophetarum (The Band of the Prophets), 1685, the first prose work of substance written originally in Albania. Born in Gur i Hasit, Has, near Kukës district, Albania about 1630, Bogdani was educated in the traditions of the Catholic Church to which he devoted all his energy. His uncle, Andrea Bogdani (c. 1600–1683), was Archbishop of Skopje and author of a Latin-Albanian grammar, now lost.

title: Albanians in North Macedonia


text:
P82

P82 may refer to:

 * Boulton Paul P.82 Defiant, a British interceptor aircraft
 * HMAS Adroit (P 82), a patrol boat of the Royal Australian Navy
 * HMS Upshot (P82), a submarine of the Royal Navy
 * North American XP-82 Twin Mustang, an American fighter aircraft
 * Papyrus 82, a biblical manuscript
 * WM P82, a French sports prototype racing car
 * P82, a state regional road in Latvia

title: P82


text: Category:Topologists

title: Category:Topologists


text:
6-4-4-6

A 6-4-4-6 steam locomotive, in the Whyte notation for describing locomotive wheel arrangements, is one with six leading wheels, two sets of four driving wheels, and six trailing wheels.

Other equivalent classifications are:
 * UIC classification: 3BB3 (also known as German classification and Italian classification)
 * French classification: 3223
 * Turkish classification: 2525
 * Swiss classification: 2/5+2/5 up to the early 1920s, later 4/10

Only one was produced, the Pennsylvania Railroad's sole class S1 of 1939. It was a duplex locomotive, the longest and heaviest rigid frame reciprocating steam locomotive ever built and is referred to as the Pennsylvania Type. This experimental locomotive was exhibited at the 1939 New York World's Fair, and was afterward placed in limited service between Chicago, Illinois, and Crestline, Ohio. The locomotive was too large to work elsewhere in the system. Pennsylvania Railroad executive hoped that the locomotive could haul 1,000 tons at 100 miles per hour, which were exceeded in a December 1940 test run which reached 101 mph with 1,350 tons being pulled. While it was capable of very high speeds, no firm documentary evidence has so far surfaced to confirm the record 133 mph run cited in the December 1941 issue of Popular Mechanics magazine which, if true, would make this locomotive the fastest steam locomotive ever built.

title: 6-4-4-6


text:
Mittal

Mittal may refer to
 * Mittal (surname), an Indian surname
 * Lakshmi Mittal (born 1950), an Indian steel magnate
 * Mittal Patel, an Indian activist
 * Mittal Champions Trust, an Indian sports promotion trust established by Lakshmi Mittal
 * Mittal Steel Company, an Indian steel company owned by Lakshmi Mittal, now a part of ArcelorMittal
 * Mittal Steel South Africa, its subsidiary
 * 15434 Mittal, an asteroid

title: Mittal


text:
List of poisonous plants

Plants that produce toxins and/or cause irritation on contact are referred to as poisonous plants. The toxins in poisonous plants affect herbivores, and deter them from consuming the plants. Plants cannot move to escape their predators, so they must have other means of protecting themselves from herbivorous animals. Some plants have physical defenses such as thorns, spines and prickles, but by far the most common type of protection is chemical.

Over millennia, through the process of natural selection, plants have evolved the means to produce a vast and complicated array of chemical compounds to deter herbivores. Tannin, for example, is a defensive compound that emerged relatively early in the evolutionary history of plants, while more complex molecules such as polyacetylenes are found in younger groups of plants such as the Asterales. Many of the known plant defense compounds primarily defend against consumption by insects, though other animals, including humans, that consume such plants may also experience negative effects, ranging from mild discomfort to death.

Many of these poisonous compounds also have important medicinal benefits. The varieties of phytochemical defenses in plants are so numerous that many questions about them remain unanswered, including:

 * 1) Which plants have which types of defense?
 * 2) Which herbivores, specifically, are the plants defended against?
 * 3) What chemical structures and mechanisms of toxicity are involved in the compounds that provide defense?
 * 4) What are the potential medical uses of these compounds?

These questions and others constitute an active area of research in modern botany, with important implications for understanding plant evolution and medical science.

Below is an extensive, if incomplete, list of plants containing one or more poisonous parts that pose a serious risk of illness, injury, or death to humans or domestic animals. There is significant overlap between plants considered poisonous and those with psychotropic properties, some of which are toxic enough to present serious health risks at recreational doses. There is a distinction between plants that are poisonous because they naturally produce dangerous phytochemicals, and those that may become dangerous for other reasons, including but not limited to infection by bacterial, viral, or fungal parasites; the uptake of toxic compounds through contaminated soil or groundwater; and/or the ordinary processes of decay after the plant has died; this list deals exclusively with plants that produce phytochemicals. Many plants, such as peanuts, produce compounds that are only dangerous to people who have developed an allergic reaction to them, and with a few exceptions, those plants are not included here (see list of allergens instead). Despite the wide variety of plants considered poisonous, human fatalities caused by poisonous plants – especially resulting from accidental ingestion – are rare in the developed world.

Poisonous plants that are food
Many plants commonly used as food possess toxic parts, are toxic unless processed, or are toxic at certain stages of their lives. Some only pose a serious threat to certain animals (such as cats, dogs, or livestock) or certain types of people (such as infants, the elderly, or the immunocompromised). Most of these food plants are safe for the average adult to eat in modest quantities. Notable examples include:

Other poisonous plants
Countless other plants not commonly used in food or drink are also poisonous, and care should be taken to avoid accidentally contacting or ingesting them. Some of these are popular ornamental plants or are cultivated for purposes other than consumption.

title: List of poisonous plants


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Ghost Rock

Ghost Rock
A trivial component of a role-playing game. Cdc 22:20, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge and redirect with Deadlands. -- Scott $e^{i \pi} \,\!$ 23:34, Dec 8, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, no redirect. Wyss 00:22, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Redirects are cheap. [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 00:36, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge and Redirect with Deadlands. Inky 01:31, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge and Redirect with Deadlands. -- Antaeus Feldspar 05:47, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, no redirect. "Ghost Rock" is also the name of a rather bad 2003 movie, a rock formation in Nevada, landmarks in New Brunswick and Alberta, and probably a large number of other things, at least one of which is deserving of an article. --Carnildo 07:18, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not even worth redirecting. P Ingerson 23:21, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Carnildo makes a good point. Also, I'm sure someday someone's going to label it a rock sub-genre, somewhere between Goth, the Misfits, and some kitch act with glow in the dark skeleton costumes. Delete. -R. fiend 03:14, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Del.Mikkalai 08:36, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Mixonyte

Mixonyte
Article about an unpublished fantasy book. Book most likely written by same person as article. ike9898 22:20, Dec 8, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Google search for mixonyte returns one hit.  The article is full of red links, and both of the blue links point to irrelevant articles (in one case, the plural "Gens" links to an article about the singular Gens).  Also the anon that created this removed the VfD notice, and made this edit a couple of days ago. Dave6 22:44, 8 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. It's a sly ad... in this instance for an unpublished fantasy book. Wyss 00:24, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Buy my book! Buy my book! Buy my book! (Advertising/fiction/advertising fiction.)  Geogre 00:56, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Sheer self-boosterism. Katefan0 01:07, Dec 9, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, advertisement, probably vanity. I'd really like to see a strong and simply "no-futures" policy about books/movies/games/software that is just about to be released. Even if arguably notable, I think it should be policy to delete these because a) Wikipedia is not a news medium and there should be no rush to include things; b) waiting for release does very little harm, while allowing Wikipedia to be used as a publicity medium does a good deal of harm; a "no-futures" rule is simple to understand and uncontroversial to apply, whereas "really notable futures" is subject to endless debate. It is similar to the "no-autobiography" rule: we do not allow autobiography no matter how notable the autobiographer. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 02:26, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: I entirely agree with you there and always vote delete on future releases, no matter what they are.  The rumors of a product, whether artistic or material, are never verifiable.  To say that it is anticipated is not content.  To say that it is expected is not content.  To say more than that it is expected and anticipated is unverifiable, and this is true of upcoming Parliamentary elections, upcoming games, movies, etc.  Also, upcoming anything attracts fan writing.  It's just easier and saner to wait for the thing to exist. Geogre 04:37, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Keep Have you all hearts of stone? Can you not see that this young author is reaching out to the wikipedia community? What makes you think that they want advertisement? Could it be because, within you unstable minds, such a thing would fall under the guidelines of your motives? I say give Mixonyte a chance, and watch to see if it turns to anything better. Because seriously; judging from the brutish and uncivilized way in which you all have attacked this article, do you truly want to turn away ALL of you potential visitors? Thsi is simple a suggestion (and do forgive me if I semed to have added my response in the wrong way; this portion of Wikipedia's navigation is quite secretive.)
 * Better to have a heart of stone and an encyclopedia than a head of stone and an advertising space. It's pretty simple:  if it's advertising, we don't accept it.  We don't accept advertising in banner ads for pay, and we surely don't allow unpaid advertising disguised as an article.  Given the blitheness with which the author of the article has produced false accounts and vandalized voting, I'm not in any way worried about hurting the author's feelings.  Find another medium to drum up business.  Geogre 01:21, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Please do not attack Geogre, thats just his personality. [[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 17:24, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * What could possibly be less secretive than a link from the explanatory notice within the article itself? Deletion debates are supposed to be public and open. If you had a problem "navigating" please let us know what it was so that we can improve the VfD notice format. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 18:11, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, non-notable advertisement for a non-existent product. [[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 17:24, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep I think this article has alot of potential. I personally agree with what the man above wrote about you all having hearts of stone. Get your heads out of your asses; excuse my use of term, but I truly think you all should lighten up, especially George. As for you, Grider, I've just throne a bone. Go feth it.
 * Keep, I've actually heard of the Bobble de Mixonyte series of comic books which were also about a clone named Bobble. I think this should be kepts, because many young readers enjoy the series of comics. I agree that the masses of you should lighten up, please.
 * User:Brogarthsmith, please sign your votes by typing ~ after your comment. Also, each person only gets one vote.  This is your third Keep vote. Dave6 18:05, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Also, **User:Brogarthsmith's first edit is to this page. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 18:11, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Not a notable book. I feel kind of bad, because it would be great to encourage authors, but still, it doesn't belong on wikipedia. --Improv 22:22, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Anything that so many anonymous sock-puppets want to keep has just got to go! P Ingerson 23:18, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete this. —[[en:RaD Man|RaD Man (talk)]] 23:06, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete as bovine excrement. There's also call to ban this IP.  Wouldn't break my heart. - Lucky 6.9 23:12, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Ad. And the author is not helping his case. And keep an eye on the "Useful Terms" list (boy, were they ever useful!) to make sure no other articles on this thing sneak in. -R. fiend 03:19, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Del.Mikkalai 08:36, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep 155.91.19.73 02:29, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC) cool idea.  don't dis the little guy