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Language of Jesus

There exists a consensus among scholars that the language of Jesus and his disciples was Aramaic. Aramaic was the common language of Judea in the first century AD. The villages of Nazareth and Capernaum in Galilee, where Jesus spent most of his time, were Aramaic-speaking communities. Jesus probably spoke a Galilean variant of the language, distinguishable from that of Jerusalem. Based on the symbolic renaming or nicknaming of some of his apostles it is also likely that Jesus or at least one of his apostles knew enough Koine Greek to converse with those not native to Judea. It is reasonable to assume that Jesus was well versed in Hebrew for religious purposes.

Cultural and linguistic background
Aramaic was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean during and after the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Achaemenid empires (722–330 BC) and remained a common language of the region in the first century AD. In spite of the increasing importance of Greek, the use of Aramaic was also expanding, and it would eventually be dominant among Jews both in the Holy Land and elsewhere in the Middle East around 200 AD and would remain so until the Islamic conquests in the seventh century.

Dead Sea Scrolls
According to Dead Sea Scrolls archaeologist Yigael Yadin, Aramaic was the language of Hebrews until Simon Bar Kokhba's revolt (132 AD to 135 AD). Yadin noticed the shift from Aramaic to Hebrew in the documents he studied, which had been written during the time of the Bar Kokhba revolt. In his book, Bar Kokhba: The rediscovery of the legendary hero of the last Jewish Revolt Against Imperial Rome, Yigael Yadin notes, "It is interesting that the earlier documents are written in Aramaic while the later ones are in Hebrew. Possibly the change was made by a special decree of Bar Kokhba who wanted to restore Hebrew as the official language of the state".

In another book by Sigalit Ben-Zion, Yadin said: "it seems that this change came as a result of the order that was given by Bar Kokhba, who wanted to revive the Hebrew language and make it the official language of the state." Yadin points out that Aramaic was the regional lingua franca at the time.

Josephus
Hebrew historian Josephus comments on learning Greek in first century Judea: "I have also taken a great deal of pains to obtain the learning of the Greeks, and understand the elements of the Greek language, although I have so long accustomed myself to speak our own tongue, that I cannot pronounce Greek with sufficient exactness; for our nation does not encourage those that learn the languages of many nations, and so adorn their discourses with the smoothness of their periods; because they look upon this sort of accomplishment as common, not only to all sorts of free-men, but to as many of the servants as please to learn them. But they give him the testimony of being a wise man who is fully acquainted with our laws, and is able to interpret their meaning; on which account, as there have been many who have done their endeavors with great patience to obtain this learning, there have yet hardly been so many as two or three that have succeeded therein, who were immediately well rewarded for their pains."

- Antiquities of Jews XX, XI

In the first century AD, the Aramaic language was widespread throughout the Middle East, as is supported by the testimony of Josephus's The Jewish War.

Josephus chose to inform people from what are now Iran, Iraq, and remote parts of the Arabian Peninsula about the war of the Jews against the Romans through books he wrote "in the language of our country", prior to translating into Greek for the benefit of the Greeks and Romans:

"I have proposed to myself, for the sake of such as live under the government of the Romans, to translate those books into the Greek tongue, which I formerly composed in the language of our country, and sent to the Upper Barbarians; Joseph, the son of Matthias, by birth a Hebrew, a priest also, and one who at first fought against the Romans myself, and was forced to be present at what was done afterwards, [am the author of this work]."

- Jewish Wars (Book 1, Preface, Paragraph 1)

"I thought it therefore an absurd thing to see the truth falsified in affairs of such great consequence, and to take no notice of it; but to suffer those Greeks and Romans that were not in the wars to be ignorant of these things, and to read either flatteries or fictions, while the Parthians, and the Babylonians, and the remotest Arabians, and those of our nation beyond Euphrates, with the Adiabeni, by my means, knew accurately both whence the war begun, what miseries it brought upon us, and after what manner it ended."

- Jewish Wars (Book 1 Preface, Paragraph 2)

H. St. J. Thackeray (who translated Josephus' Jewish Wars from Greek into English) also points out, "We learn from the proem that the Greek text was not the first draft of the work. It had been preceded by a narrative written in Aramaic and addressed to "the barbarians in the interior", who are more precisely defined lower down as the natives of Parthia, Babylonia, and Arabia, the Jewish dispersion in Mesopotamia, and the inhabitants of Adiabene, a principality of which the reigning house, as was proudly remembered, were converts to Judaism (B. i, 3, 6). Of this Aramaic work the Greek is described as a "version" made for the benefit of the subjects of the Roman Empire, i.e. the Graeco-Roman world at large.

In, the "Field of Blood" was known to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem in their own language as Akeldama, which is the transliteration of the Aramaic words "Haqal Dama".

Josephus differentiated Hebrew from his language and that of first-century Israel. Josephus refers to Hebrew words as belonging to "the Hebrew tongue" but refers to Aramaic words as belonging to "our tongue" or "our language" or "the language of our country".

Josephus refers to a Hebrew word with the phrase "the Hebrew tongue": "But the affairs of the Canaanites were at this time in a flourishing condition, and they expected the Israelites with a great army at the city Bezek, having put the government into the hands of Adonibezek, which name denotes the Lord of Bezek, for Adoni in the Hebrew tongue signifies Lord."

In this example, Josephus refers to an Aramaic word as belonging to "our language": "This new-built part of the city was called 'Bezetha,' in our language, which, if interpreted in the Grecian language, may be called 'the New City.'"

On several occasions in the New Testament, Aramaic words are called Hebrew. For example, in (KJV), the gospel-writer narrates that Jesus, "bearing his cross[,] went forth into a place called the place of a skull, which is called in the Hebrew Golgotha." The last word is, in fact, Aramaic. The word "Golgotha" is a transliteration of an Aramaic word, because -tha in Golgotha is the Aramaic definite article on a feminine noun in an emphatic state.

Aramaic phrases in the Greek New Testament
The Greek New Testament transliterates a few Semitic words. When the text itself refers to the language of such Semitic glosses, it uses words meaning "Hebrew"/"Jewish" (Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14:, lit. 'in the Hebrew dialect/language') but this term is often applied to unmistakably Aramaic words and phrases; for this reason, it is often interpreted as meaning "the (Aramaic) vernacular of the Jews" in recent translations.

A small minority of scholars believe that most or all of the New Testament was originally written in Aramaic. This theory is known as Aramaic primacy.

(Ταλιθὰ κούμ)
In the Gospel of Mark, 5:41:

"And taking the hand of the child, he said to her, 'Talitha kum', which translates as, 'Little girl, I say to you, get up.'"

This verse gives an Aramaic phrase, attributed to Jesus bringing the girl back to life, with a transliteration into Greek, as ταλιθὰ κούμ. A few Greek manuscripts (Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus) of Mark's Gospel have this form of the text, but others (Codex Alexandrinus, the text-type known as the Majority Text, and also the Latin Vulgate) write κοῦμι (koumi, cumi) instead. The latter is in the Textus Receptus and is the version which appears in the KJV.

The Aramaic is ṭlīthā qūm. The word ṭlīthā is the feminine form of the word ṭlē, meaning "young". Qūm is the Aramaic verb 'to rise, stand, get up'. In the feminine singular imperative, it was originally qūmī. However, there is evidence that in speech, the final -ī was dropped so the imperative did not distinguish between masculine and feminine genders. The older manuscripts, therefore, used a Greek spelling that reflected pronunciation, whereas the addition of an 'ι' was perhaps due to a bookish copyist.

In square script Aramaic, it could be טליתא קומי or טליתא קום.

Ephphatha (Ἐφφαθά)
Mark
 * And looking up to heaven, he sighed and said to him, "Ephphatha," which is 'be opened'.

Once again, the Aramaic word is given with the transliteration, only this time, the word to be transliterated is more complicated. In Greek, the Aramaic is written ἐφφαθά. This could be from the Aramaic ethpthaḥ, the passive imperative of the verb pthaḥ, 'to open', since the th could assimilate in western Aramaic. The pharyngeal ḥ was often omitted in Greek transcriptions in the Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) and was also softened in Galilean speech.

In Aramaic, it could be אתפתח or אפתח. This word was adopted as the official motto of Gallaudet University, the United States' most prominent school for the deaf.

Abba (Ἀββά[ς])
Mark 14:36
 * "Abba, Father," he said, "everything is possible for you. Take this cup from me. Yet not what I will, but what you will."

Galatians 4:6
 * Because you are his sons, God sent the Spirit of his Son into our hearts, the Spirit who calls out, "Abba, Father."

Romans 8:15
 * The Spirit you received does not make you slaves, so that you live in fear again; rather, the Spirit you received brought about your adoption to sonship. And by him we cry, "Abba, Father."

Abba, an originally Aramaic form borrowed into the Greek Old Testament as a name (2Chr 29:1) [standing for the Hebrew Abijah ], common in Mishnaic Hebrew and still used in Modern Hebrew (written Αββά[ς] in Greek, and ’abbā in Aramaic), is immediately followed by the Greek equivalent (Πατήρ) with no explicit mention of it being a translation. In Aramaic, it would be אבא.

Note, the name Barabbas is a Hellenization of the Aramaic Bar Abba (בר אבא), literally "Son of the Father".

Raca (Ρακά)
Matthew 5:22
 * But I say unto you, That whosoever is angry with his brother [without a cause] shall be in danger of the judgment: and whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the council: but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire.

(The bracketed text does not appear in all recensions and is absent in the Latin Vulgate.)

Raca, or Raka, in the Aramaic and Hebrew of the Talmud, means empty one, fool, empty head.

In Aramaic, it could be ריקא or ריקה.

Mammon (Μαμωνάς)
Gospel of Matthew 6:24
 * No one can serve two masters: for either they will hate the one, and love the other; or else they will hold to the one, and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon.

Luke 16:9–13
 * And I say unto you, Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness; that, when ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting habitations. He that is faithful in that which is least is faithful also in much: and he that is unjust in the least is unjust also in much. If therefore ye have not been faithful in the unrighteous mammon, who will commit to your trust the true riches? And if ye have not been faithful in that which is another man's, who shall give you that which is your own? No servant can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon.

2 Clement 6
 * Now the Lord declares, "No servant can serve two masters." If we desire, then, to serve both God and mammon, it will be unprofitable for us. "For what will it profit if a man gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?" This world and the next are two enemies. The one urges to adultery and corruption, avarice and deceit; the other bids farewell to these things. We cannot, therefore, be the friends of both; and it behoves us, by renouncing the one, to make sure of the other. Let us reckon that it is better to hate the things present, since they are trifling, and transient, and corruptible; and to love those [who are to come,] as being good and incorruptible. For if we do the will of Christ, we shall find rest; otherwise, nothing shall deliver us from eternal punishment, if we disobey His commandments. (Roberts-Donaldson)

In Aramaic, it could be ממון (or, in the typical Aramaic "emphatic" state suggested by the Greek ending, ממונא). This is usually considered to be an originally Aramaic word borrowed into Rabbinic Hebrew, but its occurrence in late Biblical Hebrew and, reportedly, in 4th century Punic may indicate that it had a more general "common Semitic background".

In the New Testament, the word Μαμωνᾶς Mamōnâs is declined like a Greek word, whereas many of the other Aramaic and Hebrew words are treated as indeclinable foreign words.

Rabbuni (Ραββουνί)

 * Jesus saith unto her, Mary. She turned herself, and saith unto him, Rabboni; which is to say, Master. (KJV)

Also in Mark 10:51. Hebrew form rabbi used as title of Jesus in Matthew 26:25,49; Mark 9:5, 11:21, 14:45; John 1:38, 1:49, 4:31, 6:25, 9:2, 11:8.

In Aramaic, it would have been רבוני.

Maranatha (Μαραναθά)
Didache 10:6 (Prayer after Communion)
 * Let grace come, and let this world pass away. Hosanna to the God (Son) of David! If any one is holy, let him come; if any one is not so, let him repent. Maran-Atha. Amen. (Roberts-Donaldson)

1 Corinthians 16:22
 * If any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema Maranatha.

Depending on how one selects to split the single Greek expression of the early manuscripts into Aramaic, it could be either מרנא תא (marana tha, "Lord, come!") or מרן אתא (maran atha, "Our Lord has come").

Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani (Ἠλί, Ἠλί, λεμὰ σαβαχθανί)
This phrase, one of the seven sayings of Jesus on the cross, is given in two versions: in the Gospel of Matthew, it is transliterated in Greek as Ἠλί, Ἠλί, λεμὰ σαβαχθανί; in the Gospel of Mark, it is given as Ἐλωΐ, Ἐλωΐ, λαμὰ σαβαχθανί. The differences between the two are the use, in Mark, of elōi rather than ēli, and of lama rather than lema.

Overall, both versions can be said to be in Aramaic, rather than in Hebrew, because of the verb (šbq) "abandon", which exists only in Aramaic. The Biblical Hebrew counterpart to this word, (‘zb) is seen in the second line of the Old Testament's Psalm 22, which the saying appears to quote. Thus, Jesus is not quoting the canonical Hebrew version (ēlī ēlī lāmā ‘azabtānī), spoken by King David himself, but rather the version in an Aramaic Targum (translation of the Bible). Surviving Aramaic Targums do use the verb šbq in their translations of the Psalm 22.

The word used in the Gospel of Mark for "my god", Ἐλωΐ, corresponds to the Aramaic form אלהי, elāhī. The one used in Matthew, Ἠλί, fits in better with the אלי of the original Hebrew Psalm, as has been pointed out in the literature; however, it may also be Aramaic because this form is attested abundantly in Aramaic as well.

In the next verse, in both accounts, some who hear Jesus' cry imagine that he is calling for help from Elijah (Ēlīyā in Aramaic).

Almost all ancient Greek manuscripts show signs of trying to normalize the two slightly different versions of Jesus's saying, presented in Mark and Matthew. For instance, the peculiar Codex Bezae renders both versions with ηλι ηλι λαμα ζαφθανι (ēli ēli lama zaphthani). The Alexandrian, Western and Caesarean textual families all reflect harmonization of the texts between Matthew and Mark. Only the Byzantine textual tradition preserves a distinction.

The Aramaic word form šəḇaqtanī is based on the verb šǝḇaq/šāḇaq, 'to allow, to permit, to forgive, and to forsake', with the perfect aspect ending -t (second person singular: 'you'), and the object suffix -anī (first person singular: 'me').

The most likely rendition of the phrase in its original Aramaic, as said by Jesus, would have been "אלי, אלי, למה שבקתני", transliterated as Eli, Eli, ləmā šəḇaqtanī.

In Hebrew, the saying would be "" (ēlī ēlī, lāmā ‘azabtānī in Biblical Hebrew, eli eli lama azavtani in Modern Hebrew pronunciation), while the Syriac-Aramaic phrase according to the Peshitta would be (Matthew 27:46) or  (Mark 15:34).

This saying is taken by some as an abandonment of the Son by the Father. Another interpretation holds that at the moment when Jesus took upon himself the sins of humanity, the Father had to turn away from the Son because the Father is "of purer eyes than to see evil and cannot look at wrong" (ESV). Other theologians understand the cry as that of one who was truly human and who felt forsaken. Put to death by his foes, very largely deserted by his friends, he may have also felt deserted by God.

Others see these words in the context of Psalm 22 and suggest that Jesus recited these words, perhaps even the whole psalm, "that he might show himself to be the very Being to whom the words refer; so that the Jewish scribes and people might examine and see the cause why he would not descend from the cross; namely, because this very psalm showed that it was appointed that he should suffer these things."

Jot and tittle (Ἰῶτα ἓν ἢ μία κεραία)
Matthew 5:18
 * For assuredly, I say to you, till heaven and earth pass away, one jot or one tittle will by no means pass from the Law (that is, the Torah) till all is fulfilled.

The quotation uses them as an example of extremely minor details. In the Greek text translated as English jot and tittle is found iota and keraia. Iota is the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet (ι), but since only capitals were used at the time the Greek New Testament was written (Ι; still, it is the smallest of all the Greek majuscules) and because the Torah was written in Hebrew, it probably represents the Hebrew yodh (י) which is the smallest letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Keraia is a hook or serif.

Korban (Κορβάν)
Matthew 27:6
 * But the chief priests, taking the pieces of silver, said, ‘It is not lawful to put them into the treasury, since they are blood money.’

In Aramaic (קרבנא) it refers to the treasury in the Temple in Jerusalem, derived from the Hebrew Korban (קרבן), found in Mark 7:11 and the Septuagint (in Greek transliteration), meaning religious gift or offering.

The Greek κορβανᾶς is declined as a Greek noun, much like other examples.

Sikera (Σίκερα)
Luke 1:15
 * for he will be great in the sight of the Lord. He must never drink wine or strong drink; even before his birth he will be filled with the Holy Spirit.

Hosanna (Ὡσαννά)
Mark 11:9
 * Then those who went ahead and those who followed were shouting, Hosanna! Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord!

This word is derived from הושע נא. It is generally considered to be a quote from Psalms 118:25 "O, save (us)", but the original Biblical Hebrew form was הושיעה נא. The shortened form הושע could be either Aramaic or Hebrew.

Aramaic personal names in the New Testament
Personal names in the New Testament come from a number of languages; Hebrew and Greek are most common. However, there are a few Aramaic names as well. The most prominent feature in Aramaic names is bar (Greek transliteration βαρ, Aramaic bar), meaning 'son of', a common patronym prefix. Its Hebrew equivalent, ben, is conspicuous by its absence. Some examples are:
 * – Bartholomew (Βαρθολομαῖος from bar-Tōlmay, perhaps "son of furrows" or "ploughman").
 * – Simon bar-Jona (Σίμων Βαριωνᾶς from Šim‘ōn bar-Yōnā, "Simon son of Jonah").
 * – Simon bar-Jochanan ("Simon son of John").
 * – Barabbas (Βαραββᾶς from bar-Abbā, "son of the father").
 * – Bartimaeus (Βαρτιμαῖος possibly from combination of Aramaic bar and Greek timaios meaning "honorable" or "highly prized", perhaps "honorable son").
 * – Barsabbas (Βαρσαββᾶς from bar-Šabbā, "son of the Sabbath").
 * – Joseph who is called Barnabas (Βαρνάβας from bar-Navā meaning "son of prophecy", "the prophet", but given the Greek translation υἱὸς παρακλήσεως; usually translated as "son of consolation/encouragement", the Greek could mean "invocation" as well).
 * – Bar-Jesus (Βαριησοῦς from bar-Išo, "son of Jesus/Joshua").

Boanerges (Βοανηργές)
Mark 3:17
 * And James, the son of Zebedee, and John, the brother of James, and he gave them the name Boanerges, which is Sons of Thunder.

Jesus surnames the brothers James and John to reflect their impetuosity. The Greek rendition of their name is Βοανηργές (Boanērges).

There has been much speculation about the name . Given the Greek translation provided by the Biblical text ('Sons of Thunder'), it seems that the first element of the name is bnē, 'sons of' (the plural of 'bar'), Aramaic (בני). This is represented by βοάνη (boanē), giving two vowels in the first syllable where one would be sufficient. It could be inferred from this that the Greek transliteration may not be a good one. The second part of the name is often reckoned to be rḡaš ('tumult') Aramaic (רגיש), or rḡaz ('anger') Aramaic (רגז). Maurice Casey, however, argues that it is a simple misreading of the word for thunder, rḡam (due to the similarity of s to the final m). This is supported by one Syriac translation of the name as bnay ra‘mâ. The Peshitta reads ܒܢܝ ܪܓܫܝ bnay rḡešy, which would fit with a later composition for it, based on a Byzantine reading of the original Greek.

Cephas (Κηφᾶς)
John 1:42
 * He brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him and said, "You are Simon son of John, you shall be called Cephas", which is translated 'Peter'. (New International Version)

1 Corinthians 1:12
 * But I say that each of you says "I am of Paul", or "I am of Apollos", or "I am of Cephas", or "I am of Christ".

Galatians 1:18 NRSV
 * Then after three years I did go up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas and stayed with him for fifteen days;

In these passages, 'Cephas' is given as the nickname of the apostle better known as Simon Peter. The Greek word is transliterated Κηφᾶς (Kēphâs).

The apostle's given name appears to be Simon, and he is given the Aramaic nickname, kēpā, meaning 'rock' or 'stone'. The final sigma (ς) is added in Greek to make the name masculine rather than feminine. That the meaning of the name was more important than the name itself is evidenced by the universal acceptance of the Greek translation, Πέτρος (Petros). It is not known why Paul uses the Aramaic name rather than the Greek name for Simon Peter when he writes to the churches in Galatia and Corinth. He may have been writing at a time before Cephas came to be popularly known as Peter.

According to Clement of Alexandria, there were two people named Cephas: one was Apostle Simon Peter, and the other was one of Jesus' Seventy Apostles. Clement goes further to say it was Cephas of the Seventy who was condemned by Paul in Galatians 2 for not eating with the Gentiles, though this is perhaps Clement's way of deflecting the condemnation from Simon Peter. In 1708, a French Jesuit, Jean Hardouin, wrote a dissertation that argues "Peter" was actually "another Peter", thus the emphasis of using the name Cephas (Aramaic for Peter). In 1990 Bart D. Ehrman wrote an article on the Journal of Biblical Literature, similarly arguing that Peter and Cephas should be understood as different people, citing the writing of Clement of Alexandria and the Epistula Apostolorum and in support of his theory; Ehrman's article received a detailed critique by Dale Allison, who argued that Peter and Cephas are the same person. Ehrman later retracted his proposal, deeming it "highly unlikely".

In Aramaic, it could be כיפא.

Thomas (Θωμᾶς)
John 11:16
 * Then Thomas, who was called Didymus, said to his co-disciples, "Now let us go that we might die with him!"

Thomas (Θωμᾶς) is listed among the disciples of Jesus in all four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. However, it is only in John's Gospel that more information is given. In three places (John 11:16, 20:24 and 21:2), he is given the name Didymus (Δίδυμος), the Greek word for a twin. In fact, "the Twin" is not just a surname, it is a translation of "Thomas". The Greek Θωμᾶς—Thōmâs—comes from the Aramaic tōmā, "twin". Therefore, rather than two personal names, Thomas Didymus, there is a single nickname, the Twin. Christian tradition gives him the personal name Judas, and he was perhaps named Thomas to distinguish him from others of the same name.

In Aramaic, it could be ܬܐܘܡܐ.

Tabitha (Ταβιθά)
Acts 9:36
 * In Joppa, there was a disciple named Tabitha, which is translated Dorcas.

The disciple's name is given both in Aramaic (Ταβιθά) and Greek (Δορκάς). The Aramaic name is a transliteration of Ṭḇīthā, the female form of טביא (Ṭaḇyā). Both names mean 'gazelle'.

It may be just coincidence that Peter's words to her in verse 40, "Tabitha, get up!" (Ταβιθᾶ ἀνάστηθι), are similar to the "talitha kum" phrase used by Jesus.

In Aramaic, it could be טביתא.

Gethsemane (Γεθσημανῆ)
Matthew 26:36
 * Then Jesus went with them to a place called Gethsemane.

Mark 14:32
 * And they went to a place that has the name Gethsemane.

The place where Jesus takes his disciples to pray before his arrest is given the Greek transliteration Γεθσημανῆ (Gethsēmanē). It represents the Aramaic Gath-Šmānē, meaning 'the oil press' or 'oil vat' (referring to olive oil).

In Aramaic, it could be ܓܕܣܡܢ. This place name is more properly an Aramaized version of an original Hebrew place name. Gath גת is a normal word for press in Hebrew, generally used for a wine press not an olive press though; and shemanei שמני is the Hebrew word shemanim שמנים meaning "oils", the plural form of the word shemen שמן, the primary Hebrew word for oil, just in a construct form (-ei instead of the ordinary plural suffix -im). The word in Aramaic for "oil" is more properly mišḥa (משחא), as also attested in Jewish writings in Aramaic from the Galilee (see Caspar Levias, A Grammar of Galilean Aramaic, Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1986).

Golgotha (Γολγοθᾶ)
Mark 15:22
 * And they took him up to the place Golgotha, which is translated Place of the Skull.

John 19:17
 * And carrying his cross by himself, he went out to the so-called Place of the Skull, which is called in 'Hebrew' Golgotha.

Gagūltā Aramaic, means 'skull'. The name appears in all of the gospels except Luke, which calls the place simply Kranion (Κρανίον) 'the Skull' in Greek, with no Semitic counterpart. The name 'Calvary' is taken from the Latin Vulgate translation, Calvaria.

In Aramaic, it could be ܓܓܘܠܬܐ. Though this word has the Aramaic final form -ta / -tha, it is otherwise also closer to the Hebrew word for skull, gulgolet גולגולת, than to the Aramaic form.

Gabbatha (Γαββαθᾶ)
John 19:13
 * When Pilate heard these words, he brought Jesus outside and sat on the judge's bench at a place called The Stone Pavement, or in Hebrew, Gabbatha.

The place name appears to be Aramaic. According to Josephus, War, V.ii.1, #51, the word Gabath means high place, or elevated place, so perhaps a raised flat area near the temple. The final "א" could then represent the emphatic state of the noun.

In Aramaic, it could be גבהתא.

Akeldama (Ἀκελδαμά)
Acts 1:19
 * And this became known to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so that field was called, in their own dialect, Akeldama, that is Field of Blood.

The place of Judas Iscariot's death is clearly named Field of Blood in Greek. However, the manuscript tradition gives a number of different spellings of the Aramaic. The Majority Text reads Ἀκελδαμά (Akeldama); other manuscript versions give Ἀχελδαμάχ (Acheldamach), Ἁκελδαμά (Hakeldama), Ἁχελδαμά (Hacheldama) and Ἁκελδαμάχ (Hakeldamach). Despite these variant spellings the Aramaic is most probably ḥqēl dmā, 'field of blood'. While the seemingly gratuitous Greek sound of kh at the end of the word is difficult to explain, the Septuagint similarly adds this sound to the end of the Semitic name Ben Sira to form the Greek name for the Book of Sirakh (Sirach). The sound may be a dialectic feature of either the Greek speakers or the original Semitic language speakers.

In Aramaic, it could be חקל דמא.

Pool of Bethesda (Βηθεσδά)
John 5:2
 * Now there is in Jerusalem near the Sheep Gate a pool, which in Aramaic is called Bethesda and which is surrounded by five covered colonnades.

Bethesda was originally the name of a pool in Jerusalem, on the path of the Beth Zeta Valley, and is also known as the Sheep Pool. Its name in Aramaic means "House of Grace". It is associated with healing. In John 5, Jesus was reported healing a man at the pool.

For other Aramaic place names in the New Testament beginning with beth ("house of"), see Bethabara, Bethany, Bethphage and Bethsaida and Bethlehem.

In Aramaic, "Bethesda" could be spelled בית חסדא.

title: Language of Jesus


text:
Talk:Adrian Legg

Neutrality
Hi, thanks for work on this article, you make a point about my neutrality, how would you like to see it improved ?

Remarks about pre-eminence of a particular musician are very common on Wikipedia. I can see why they're perhaps controversial, but they can also be necessary. We have to choose who/what goes into Wikipeda. There are too many guitarists in the world for them all to go in (and I've listened to too many of them!). So there is a value judgement implicit in the inclusion of pre-eminent individuals.

Thus, I felt that some justification was needed for inclusion, apart from fame. It may need to be worded differently here and there, and I'm making a few changes. Would be very glad of your comments.

(If value judgements, however well-informed, don't belong here, then there are a list of pages that need updating.)

cheers

 * He was voted Best Acoustic Guitarist for 4 years running (1993-6) by the readers of Guitar Player magazine. Guitar for mortals, and Mrs Crowe's blue waltz were voted best acoustic album of the years 1992 and 1993 respectively.

 * This is good, somebody else's opinions stated as opinions, and attributed to source. It is left to the reader to decide if this really means that the artist is good or if the public just has a lousy taste.

 * With all this technical wizardry, it must be said that he manages to create astonishingly evocative music. The track just mentioned is a fine example, but his "Green Ballet II" bears listening to again and again as a daring, imaginative, and atmospheric piece.

 * This is bad, author stating her/his opinions as facts. It's OK for an art review, where everyone knows the author is stating her/his opinions, but not in an article for encyclopaedia, where people come for facts, not for opinions (or at least, if they want opinions, they also want to know whose opinions they are).

 * There followed a string of hugely successful albums in the 1990s, starting with...

 * This is a bit problematic. As "success" can be measured objectively, for example by how many records have been sold, it is still arbitrary where the success becomes "huge." I think it would be better to just mention the actual number of records sold (a fact), and leave it to the reader to decide whether it constitutes a "huge success" or just "big success" (an opinion). — Timo Honkasalo 12:35, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Deleted paragraphs
I put the most problematic paragraphs here. As Timo Honkasalo points out above, these would be far better if they could be attributed to some sort of source rather than stating it as fact. --CVaneg 04:48, 27 Mar 2005 (UTC)

With all this technical wizardry, it must be said that he manages to create astonishingly evocative music. The track just mentioned is a fine example, but his "Green Ballet II" bears listening to again and again as a daring, imaginative, and atmospheric piece. Occasionally his imagination lets him down when naming his pieces, leading to amusing names based on the general style of the music. (Examples are "Paddy goes to Nashville" and "Paddy in the Synagogue", tunes in which an Irish melody took on bluegrass or Jewish elements). He also seems to have a particular fondness for writing waltzes.

Some feel that Legg is at his best when playing live, and he is also an excellent anecdotalist. Some of his humor has found its way onto his albums, especially in the live material in High strung tall tales. A musician who blends many styles, as much as, for example Michael Hedges (though to entirely different effect), Adrian Legg is surely one of the great acoustic player/composers of his time.

Minor Changes
Added some periods to "Mrs", fixed "eclctic" to "eclectic", as well "Adian" to "Adrian".

Zidel333 02:18, 25 December 2005 (UTC)

Rewrite
Folks, this article needs to be written in an encyclopedic tone. I like Legg just as much as any other fan, but I'm surprised this article is in the state that it is. Viriditas (talk) 03:36, 10 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Improved to B-Class now. Binksternet (talk) 19:36, 9 January 2010 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Adrian Legg


text:
User talk:Xpertgamer

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I thought useful:

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[[User:Sam Spade|Sam Spade Wants you to vote!]] 11:57, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Xpertgamer


text:
Talk:Boiling

Transition Boiling
I've removed the "transition" from caption of the boiling pot on the stove and replaced it with "nucleate". Although bubble nucleation and departure look very much different on glass than metal this is definately nucleate boiling. Lest there be any doubt about my judgement of the bubble pattern, true transition boiling 1) requires temperature control which wouldn't be achieved over a constant intensity gas flame  2) requires about 40 times more power than the stove burner can supply  3) would probably result in glass shattering rapidly due to severe overheating and thermal stress. Bdentremont (talk) 20:59, 6 December 2012 (UTC)

Boiling with the lid on does what?
"and boiling water with the lid on wears out the pot." Link? This seems ridiculous. I'll delete it if no one has anything to say about it...

Lenso —Preceding unsigned comment added by 219.90.186.160 (talk) 06:18, 9 May 2008 (UTC)

Boiling curve
There should be something more on the detail of the boiling curve (flux v temperature) in the region between nucleate and film boiling. (I think this is not an unstable region if the right experiment is done). The Departure from Nucleate Boiling, where the flux curve starts to turn over, is also very important technically.

Linuxlad 11:57, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

adding salt/sugar
Maybe adding salt raises the boiling point only slightly, but sugar is another matter. A saturated sugar solution boils at far above 100 degrees celsius. Cbdorsett 07:17, 16 January 2007 (UTC)

Does boling filtered tap water kill the Floride in it?
Does boling filtered tap water kill the Floride in it? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.16.206.213 (talk) 18:22, 29 January 2008 (UTC)

 * You cannot kill what is not alive. Fluoride is a chemical compound (actually several -- see water fluoridation) and is not inactivated by boiling. It is also not toxic or harmful in the quantities used in municipal water fluoridation, although some natural water supplies contain (much, much higher) harmful quantities of fluoride. --FOo (talk) 01:19, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

Fish?!
First there is: Delicate foods such as fish, brains ect can not be cooked in this fashion because the bubbles can damage the food.

Then later: Foods suitable for boiling include fish...

One of statements is wrong. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.255.192.37 (talk) 18:11, 2 October 2008 (UTC)
 * I agree... wtf. 68.6.123.236 (talk) 06:53, 5 November 2008 (UTC)

Not necessarily. Some fish is softer than others. Gefilte fish is prepared by boiling. But boiling plain fish tends to cause the meat to fall apart. (Then you might have a chowder.) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.125.203.235 (talk) 03:53, 19 November 2015 (UTC)

boiling water
is there a problem with boiling the same water in a ketle more than once. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.67.127.65 (talk) 08:57, 10 January 2009 (UTC)

 * no Fyrenado (talk) 01:23, 21 January 2023 (UTC)

The Myth of the Boiling Point by Hasok Chang
Just noted this site, I think there is a lot of relevant material in it. (Water not boiling at 178°C ? <:-O) Paradoctor (talk) 12:00, 8 May 2009 (UTC)

External links modified
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Temperature and Boiling
When boiling occurs, the more energetic molecules change to a gas, spread out, and form bubbles. These rise to the surface and enter the atmosphere. It requires energy to change from a liquid to a gas (see enthalpy of vaporization). In addition, gas molecules leaving the liquid take away heat energy. Therefore the temperature of the liquid remains constant during boiling. For example, water will remain at 100ºC (at a pressure of 1 atm or 101.3 kPa) while boiling. A graph of temperature vs. time for water changing from a liquid to a gas, called a heating curve, shows a constant temperature as long as water is boiling. Abdullah Naveed (talk) 07:47, 26 August 2017 (UTC)

Asparagus?
Could the image imply to some people that the asparagus is in some way important to the boiling of the water? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2A02:C7F:DC08:9000:BC0E:8B7C:1D1C:D7DC (talk) 23:42, 27 March 2020 (UTC)

 * What readers may infer is probably not relevant, but the image was poor, it duplicated another further down the article, and now it has gone.  Velella  Velella Talk 23:51, 27 March 2020 (UTC)

Poor glassware-on-flame image
The lead image of glassware over flame is very poor and may hurt people. The plastic handle is visibly melting over the flame. And most consumer-grade glassware cannot handle direct flame and may shatter violently. People may be hurt by misunderstanding this image. The visibility of the bubbles through the glass is desirable, but that can be achieved by looking down at an angle into a metal pot, which would be much safer. Or an image of laboratory-grade glassware could be used instead, with explanation. 174.160.168.129 (talk) 22:51, 29 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I think it's a poor image, but "may hurt people" is a bit of a stretch. User:Velella, got any ideas? Drmies (talk) 22:54, 29 May 2023 (UTC)

 * @174.160.168.129 agreed. That drip coffee carafe is liable to explode in direct flame. the melting handle makes me cringe. Plorpy (talk) 16:28, 12 November 2023 (UTC)
 * @174.160.168.129 I took my own photo of a kettle. I think it's better. if you have a better one, feel free to replace. Plorpy (talk) 17:10, 12 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Boiling


text:
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (College Street site)

The Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (College Street site) is a psychiatric hospital in Toronto, Ontario. It is located at 250 College Street, just east of Spadina Avenue. Much of its work focuses on forensic psychology, sex addiction, drug addiction, and research designed to shape public policy.

The hospital was originally founded in 1966 as the Clarke Institute of Psychiatry, after Charles Kirk Clarke, a pioneer in mental health in Canada. In 1998, it merged with several other Ontario institutions to form the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH), and the facility is now called the CAMH College Street site.

CAMH's College Street and Spadina Avenue location is the only 24-hour emergency psychiatric care facility in Ontario.


text:
User talk:Dbrett480

Welcome to the Wikipedia
Here are some links I thought useful:

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Feel free to contact me personally with any questions you might have. The Village pump is also a good place to go for quick answers to general questions. You can sign your name by typing 4 tildes, like this: ~.

Be Bold!

[[User:Sam Spade|Sam Spade Wants you to vote!]] 12:00, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

NPOV
Your edits to Paris Hilton have been reverted. Please see WP:NPOV, WP:NOR, WP:V, WP:CITE, and WP:RS. --Yamla 20:51, 2 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dbrett480


text:
West Langdon

West Langdon is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Langdon, in the Dover district of Kent, England. It is located five miles north of Dover town. In 1961 the parish had a population of 68. On 1 April 1963 the parish was abolished and merged with East Langdon to form "Langdon".

The name Langdon derives from an Old English word meaning long hill. The first known written reference dates to 861 AD, mentioning one Langandune, but around 1200 AD there was a reference to Estlangedoun (East Langdon, about one mile to the south east) and Westlangedone.

The Church is dedicated to Saint Mary. The remains of Langdon Abbey are nearby.

title: West Langdon


text:
Pottawatomi River

The Pottawatomi River is a river in the municipalities of Owen Sound and Georgian Bluffs, Grey County in Southwestern Ontario, Canada. It is in the Great Lakes Basin and empties into Owen Sound, an inlet of Georgian Bay on Lake Huron, at Owen Sound Harbour.

Course
The river begins in a field in geographic Derby Township in Georgian Bluffs. It flows southeast, then turns northeast for the remainder of its course. It takes passes under Ontario Highway 21 at the community of Springmount, and passes over the Niagara Escarpment at Jones Falls. The river then takes in the right tributary Maxwell Creek, enters the municipality of Owen Sound, and reaches its mouth at Georgian Bay.

Tributaries

 * Maxwell Creek

title: Pottawatomi River


text:
User talk:Fivetrees

Greetings
Shalom Fivetrees: I have noticed your work in the area of Judaism and I commend you for it. You do seem seem to have a deep grasp of your subject matter. However, there are some problems with the way you present things, for example in the Kovno kollel article. I will try to help you. Feel free to be in touch, and all the best. Happy Chanuka! IZAK 03:43, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Litaim
I have redirected your article on "Litaim judaism" to Lithuanian Jews, it was also fit to be redirected to Mitnagdim. You must be very careful when you write articles with poor English. For example, "Judaism" is always with a capital "J", and you wrote "judaism", also Litaim just means "Lithuanian" in English, and in America, where many Lithuanina, or Litvishe, Jews live and also have Lithuanian yeshivas, nobody uses the word "Litaim" outside of Israel, so it's a useless description on an English encyclopedia when you have alternatives in English that are better. Please be more careful, I am cleaning up a lot of you mistakes. IZAK 11:05, 16 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Kabbalistic astrology and Da'at (Kabbalah)
Hello Fivetrees: Would you be able to take a look at and make heads or tails of Kabbalistic astrology and Da'at (Kabbalah) and add something that could make the articles clearer? Thanks. IZAK 11:13, 8 May 2005 (UTC)

BC/AD versus BCE/CE
There's a discussion and a vote on this topic going on at Talk:Jesus; I thought you might be interested. Jayjg (talk) 18:38, 10 May 2005 (UTC)

Sephirah (Kabbalah)
Hello Fivetrees: Looking at the Sephirah (Kabbalah) article, the following articles are waiting to be written: These have brief articles, but could use improvement:
 * Binah ("Understanding"; בינה)
 * Chesed ("Mercy"; חסד)
 * Gevurah ("Severity"; גבורה)
 * Tiphereth ("Glory"; תיפארת)
 * Netzach ("Victory"; נצח)
 * Yesod ("Foundation"; יסוד)
 * Malkhut ("Kingdom"; מלכות)
 * Keter ("Crown"; כתר)
 * Chochmah ("Wisdom"; חכמה)
 * Hod ("Majesty"; הוד)
 * Da'at ("Knowledge"; דעת)

Best wishes, IZAK 10:07, 11 May 2005 (UTC)

Sefirot, Sfirot, Sephiroth
OK, I'll try --Fivetrees 06:02, 14 May 2005 (UTC)

Category:Hebrew Bible verses
Hello Fivetrees: See the verses in Category:Hebrew Bible verses with the two samples so far: Genesis 1:1, and Genesis 1:2. Is this the way the Torah verses should be "presented"? (Compare with the verses in Category:New Testament verses.) At what point should the classical teachings of famous meforshim be inserted, and in what way and how much? The time to decide on this is now, because at this stage the "project" is still being "formed" by User:Neutrality alone. Thank you. IZAK 02:56, 26 May 2005 (UTC)

Orthodox Rabbinical Biography Collaboration of the Week
Hi Fivetrees, I've created an Orthodox Rabbinical Biography Collaboration of the Week. I'd love to see your comments, improvements, amendations and nominations, preferably all on the discussion or the actual page there. Many thanks, Nesher 14:23, 14 May 2006 (UTC)

Jewish Kabbalah - Hermetic Qabbalah
Shalom fivetrees, I could not help but notice your excellent work on various Judaism related subjects and Kabbalah in particular. I also note that you have suggested the same thing as I regarding the seperation of Jewish Kabbalah and Hermetic Qabbalah pages. I would be really happy to work with you regarding this split. I would be happy to edit Hermetic Qabbalah if you would like to edit Jewish Kabbalah. I am going to start work offline on a Hermetic Kabbalah page and if you want to start, as perhaps you already have, on the Jewish one then we can synchronise when we each upload our respective pages in order to minimalise disruption.

Morgan Leigh 01:08, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

To Morgan Leigh
Thanx to Your good words! I appreciate your suggestion and wish. I am not sure will I have enough time to do this split of article, but I will try. Kabbalah is most interesting topic to me. But I ask You to be in a direct contact through mail or chat. All my contacts are on my page in Wiki --fivetrees 10:46, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

Pictures
Hello Fivetrees. As you are a current resident of Kaunas, and interested in Lithuanian yeshivas and Jewry, I was wondering whether you may have any current pictures of old yeshiva buildings in Lithuania that we can put in the articles about them? Some of these buildings may no longer be in existence, but I believe some still are. Telzer 10:06, 21 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks for that Fivetrees. I don't want you driving around Lithuania though!! As you are based in Kovno, let's start there. Are the buildings of Yeshiva Knesses Yisroel and Yeshiva Knesses Beis Yitzchak in Slabodka still standing? I'm also after pictures of the Telz Beis Midrash and Kelm Talmud Torah. Telz building is still there, I'm not sure about Kelm. The Kelm Talmud Torah was on Tavrig Street in Kelm. Many thanks again, Telzer 03:21, 22 June 2006 (UTC).

Messianic Judaism
Fivetrees, are you able to make sense of our dispute? I would love to be able to get down to the business of editing but the article is protected. Many of us who are MJs prefer Inigmatus' article that he has put together and would like to to replace the current one. I feel that the person who has protected the article has an interest in preserving the Jewish nation rather than giving us a fair article... Please review our information and get back to me. Thanks so much, Rivka 18:09, 5 July 2006 (UTC)

Nazarene Mysticism
I see you are quite partial to a mystical understanding of Adonai's plan for existance. I imagine you will love the following websites:

http://www.nazarenekabbalah.net/index.htm A community of advanced Messianic Jewish Kosher, Torah-observant Zoharists/Kaballists

http://yashanet.com/studies/revstudy/index.htm Yashanet's study of the mystical Jewish eschatology text of Revelations

Moshiach is Yeshua! Shalom. 12.64.108.225 00:22, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

 * You didn't reply T_T Please do. 12.64.228.158 00:51, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Sorry, it's difficult to reply, cause I cant see You except your IP. Thanx alot for your reply. Send me email to fivetrees@yahoo.com I already attentively read these links ! VERY interesting and useful! And I need a Your support.

 * Well, unfortunatly my account has been blocked for about a week. I really shouldn't even be talking to you right now as an Ip. Deeply sorry. So I will be gone for a week. When I come back as my actual actual account, named Zorkfan. I will be very glad to help you shape up your article when I return. Until then, always remember to approach the mystical texts under Torah observance; otherwise, Kaballah becomes is own debased religion. May Adonai our Eloheim bless you. 12.64.228.158 01:50, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Waiting an email from You to fivetrees@yahoo.com

Regarding Yeshua_and_Jewish_Kabbalah
Greetings, Fivetrees,

Regretfully, I've had to nominate the article Yeshua_and_Jewish_Kabbalah for nomination. The nomination discussion is here, and I do invite you to come and join the discussion, but Wikipedia has some fairly strict guidelines dealing with original research.

Shalom,

Justin Eiler 19:23, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your zeal, but article is started only hours ago and soon will have a lot of non original objective material. And this is not a personal research. fivetrees 19:32, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, keep on working with the article, and be sure to mention that established research is being added. Though I regret having to add the article, I do wish you well in this endeavor. :) Justin Eiler 19:34, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

My inner dialogue
I'm sorry, but if you know both side sources good enough - now there are already too much of them. Of course I can and will expand a lot of citations. But do I need to explain what is Gilgulim Neshamot of Kabbalah if there is an appropriate article Gilgul (Kabbalah) and famous book of Luria/ARI "Shaar Gilgulim" in english translation - what any serious student of Jewish Kabbalah should know at least in general ? Do I need to cite beginning of Gospel of Matthew - a genealogy of Jesus if it is obvious to any who studied New Testament and even general educated public ?
 * Maybe move the info from the Yeshua and Jewish Kabbalah article to your User Page before possible deletion. Then you'll be able to protect the work you've done so far, and continue working on it in your User Page. After the article shapes up with citations, you can recreate the article and move the information from your page to the new article. Unfortunately in Wikipedia, it's not enough to prove the obvious by citing the primary sources (tho this is good too). It's necessary to quote a secondary source who's citing the primary sources, and even be ready to cite several secondary sources that agree with each other's interpretations. Just consider this "verification" requirement a form of Tsimtsum! :D --Haldrik 05:52, 1 November 2006 (UTC)
 * You can just cut and past to "move" the article. :) --Haldrik 12:51, 1 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Thanks, I knew this way. I just thought it is another special command. Can you connect to SKYPE/YahooIM fivetrees ? - I have a lot of questions to you.

Yeshua and Jewish Kabbalah page moved
Shalom, Fivetrees,

I took the liberty of moving the page to User:Fivetrees/Yeshua_and_Jewish_Kabbalah--that way if it does get deleted from article space (as it looks like it will), you won't lose any content. Justin Eiler 00:24, 5 November 2006 (UTC)

Third opinion
You left a message on Third opinion. First, I don't think it's correct that "secular and occultist opinions" resulted in the deletion of your article. I didn't participate in the article's AfD discussion, but I do see that even those who felt your article was interesting nevertheless viewed it as original research. Consequently, it cannot be part of Wikipedia — yet. In time, as more research is conducted and published in peer-reviewed journals, that will change.

Even if I agreed with your position 100%, my third opinion isn't going to get it restored. The third opinion page isn't the place to contest an AfD. I don't know what the mechanism is for that; you may want to ask on Village pump (miscellaneous). However, until your field of study generates more verifiable information, I don't think you will find anyone willing to restore the article.

I suggest keeping it at User:Fivetrees/Yeshua_and_Jewish_Kabbalah for the time being. -Amatulic 00:04, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Very good idea and thanx sincerely! --fivetrees 00:12, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

Aramaic Wiktionary
Seeing your knowledge in Aramaic, I believe that you may be interested in something that has been recently proposed on Meta. :-) אמר Steve Caruso ( desk / AMA ) •  Give Back Our Membership!  06:08, 6 February 2007 (UTC)

Kadmon Group
If you have a close connection to some of the people, places or things you have written about, you may have a conflict of interest. In keeping with Wikipedia's neutral point of view policy, edits where there is a conflict of interest, or where such a conflict might reasonably be inferred from the tone of the edit and the proximity of the editor to the subject, are strongly discouraged. If you have a conflict of interest, you should avoid or exercise great caution when:
 * 1) editing articles related to you, your organization, or its competitors, as well as projects and products they are involved with,
 * 2) participating in deletion discussions about articles related to your organization or its competitors,
 * 3) linking to the Wikipedia article or website of your organization in other articles (see Spam);
 * and you must always:
 * 1) avoid breaching relevant policies and guidelines, especially neutral point of view, verifiability, and autobiography.

For information on how to contribute to Wikipedia when you have conflict of interest, please see Business' FAQ. For more details about what constitutes a conflict of interest, please see Conflict of Interest. --Ronz 16:52, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

Shlom bayit
Just to let you know that a consensus discussion is underway about changing Shlom bayit to Shalom bayit. Please add your opinion at Talk:Shlom bayit. Thank you, Yoninah (talk) 23:42, 15 February 2009 (UTC)

MfD nomination of User:Fivetrees/Yeshua and Jewish Kabbalah
User:Fivetrees/Yeshua and Jewish Kabbalah, a page you substantially contributed to, has been nominated for deletion. Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at Wikipedia:Miscellany for deletion/User:Fivetrees/Yeshua and Jewish Kabbalah and please be sure to sign your comments with four tildes ( ~ ). You are free to edit the content of User:Fivetrees/Yeshua and Jewish Kabbalah during the discussion but should not remove the miscellany for deletion template from the top of the page; such a removal will not end the deletion discussion. Thank you.-- Uzma Gamal (talk) 15:58, 7 December 2010 (UTC)

Speedy deletion nomination of List of famous love stories
Hello Fivetrees,

I wanted to let you know that I just tagged List of famous love stories for deletion, because the article doesn't clearly say why the subject is important enough to be included in an encyclopedia.

If you feel that the article shouldn't be deleted and want more time to work on it, you can contest this deletion, but please don't remove the speedy deletion tag from the top.

You can leave a note on my talk page if you have questions. Katrinamoris2014 (talk) 14:37, 5 June 2015 (UTC)

 * Hi! Please read Talk:List_of_famous_love_stories and this User_talk:Softlavender#Category:_Love_stories fivetrees (talk) 21:15, 5 June 2015 (UTC)

June 2015
Please do not remove speedy deletion notices from pages you have created yourself, as you did with List of famous love stories. If you believe the page should not be deleted, you may contest the deletion by clicking on the button that says: Contest this speedy deletion, which appears inside the speedy deletion notice. This will allow you to make your case on the article's talk page. Administrators will consider your reasoning before deciding what to do with the article. Thank you. Stifle (talk) 15:22, 5 June 2015 (UTC)
 * Hi! Please read Talk:List_of_famous_love_stories and this User_talk:Softlavender#Category:_Love_stories fivetrees (talk) 21:15, 5 June 2015 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:53, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Vision vs. Mission Statement
Hello, Fivetrees. I wanted to let you know that I’m proposing an article that you started, Vision vs. Mission Statement, for deletion because I don't think it meets our criteria for inclusion. If you don't want the article deleted:

 * 1) edit the page
 * 2) remove the text that looks like this:
 * 3) save the page

Also, be sure to explain why you think the article should be kept in your edit summary or on the article's talk page. If you don't do so, it may be deleted later anyway.

You can leave a note on my talk page if you have questions.

TonyBallioni (talk) 23:36, 4 April 2017 (UTC)
 * This essay seems like a good idea, but right now, it's not really an article. Do you want it saved as a draft? Bearian (talk) 18:07, 5 April 2017 (UTC)

Hi TonyBallioni and Bearian! Thank you for input! I am deeply studying separate topics of Vision and Mission and was reading corresponding articles in Wikipedia. I found these articles incompatibe between each other and with duplicated or unsynced parts about Vision vs Mission comparison. So I decided to cut materials from both articles and put them into separate article, hoping that someone knowing English much better than me will correct or rewrite this new article. I would do this if it were in Lithuanian language, but not in English. I'm sorry but editing of nowadays Wikipedia and reading it's rules is too complicated for me. I was very enthusiastic and active 2004 (few years after launch of Wikipedia), but later Wikipedia became too complicated and I quit as editor. Fivetrees

Nomination of Vision vs. Mission Statement for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Vision vs. Mission Statement is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Vision vs. Mission Statement until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. TonyBallioni (talk) 21:29, 9 April 2017 (UTC)

Nomination of List of love stories for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article List of love stories is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/List of love stories until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Clarityfiend (talk) 22:10, 19 March 2018 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Acme and Septimius

The article Acme and Septimius has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "Classic but no indication of passing WP:NFICTION/GNG. No redirect feasible as the source work does not appear to have its own article yet."

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus| reply here 17:44, 6 February 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:Fivetrees


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Amanda Coogan

Amanda Coogan (born 1971) is an Irish performance artist, living and working in Dublin. She studied under the performance artist Marina Abramović at the HBK Hochschule für Bildende Kunste, Braunschweig, Germany. In her performance art, she produces videos and photographs from live performances. Her work often begins with her own body and often challenges the expectations born of context.

Early life
Coogan was born in Dublin. She studied Painting at Limerick School of Art and Design, Ireland, Athens School of Fine Arts, Greece, and Sculpture at the National College of Art and Design, Dublin and under the performance artist Marina Abramović at the HBK Hochschule fur Bildende Kunste, Braunschweig, Germany. She received her PhD from the University of Ulster in 2013.

Career
In her performance art, she produces videos and photographs from live performances. Her work often begins with her own body and often challenges the expectations born of context. Not deaf herself, she is a first language signer and in one striking work, she dances to Gil Scott-Heron's "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised," while signing the lyrics. In a more recent work, produced for the Liverpool Biennial, she filmed local people headbanging to Beethoven's "Ode to Joy."

Coogan has exhibited at the Irish Museum of Modern Art, was an award winner at EV+A 2002 in Limerick, was selected by the Royal Hibernian Academy for the Eurojets Futures exhibition in 2003, and was an invited participant in the 2004 Liverpool Biennial. The Limerick City Gallery of Art hosted an exhibition of her installation work in 2005. She was part of Dublin Contemporary 2011.

During the 2020 Covid-19 pandemic she worked on a project about the Wrens of the Curragh.

Notable performances
Coogan has had numerous solo exhibitions, including:
 * Amanda Coogan, Recycling the Future, Venice Biennale, Venice (2003)
 * Amanda Coogan, A Brick In The Handbag, The Void, Derry, (2005)
 * Amanda Coogan, The Fall, Kevin Kavanagh Gallery, Dublin, (2009)
 * Amanda Coogan, The Passing, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Boston, (2011)
 * Amanda Coogan, I’ll sing you a song from around the town, Royal Hibernian Academy, Dublin, (2015)
 * Amanda Coogan, I’ll sing you a song from around the town, Limerick City Gallery of Art, Limerick (2017)

title: Amanda Coogan


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Yopy

The Yopy was the name of a series of Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) made by GMate Corporation, also used as a popular PDA Phone in Korea and based on the Linux operating system. The Linux Documentation Project considers the Yopy series to be "true Linux PDAs" because their manufacturers install Linux-based operating systems on them by default.

Overview
At the CeBIT 2000, GMate introduced the YDK1000, the Yopy Development Kit. Without a physical keyboard this device looked very different from later versions. It came with an embedded Linux operating system and the W Window System. Later also precompiled versions of the X Window System and the IceWM window manager became available.

The first official model in the Yopy line of PDAs was the YP3000. It introduced the clam shell design with a full-Qwerty keyboard, and featured a 3.5 inch TFT screen. It also came with the X Window System and IceWM.

One of the features of the YP3500 is a CDMA module, so it can be used as a mobile phone. In 2003, Wi-Fi was widely used in Korea, and so the YP3700 targeted this environment with an additional Wi-Fi module.

By March 2005 Gmate had stopped producing and selling the Yopy PDA and closed down its official web sites.

Yopy models

 * YDK1000, the Yopy Development Kit
 * YP3000, the first official model of the Yopy
 * YP3500, CDMA module was added in YP3500
 * YP3700, Wi-Fi module was added in YP3700

Yopy software
Because it used the Linux operating system, the Yopy was capable of running a variety of open source software.

title: Yopy


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File:Adam (Ted Dekker novel - front cover).png

Summary
Ted Dekker holds the copyright. It is the cover for his new novel, Adam.


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Talk:Mount Tongariro

Moved
I've moved the article Tongariro to Mount Tongariro for several reasons: 12:07, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * 1) consistency. "Ngauruhoe" redirects to Mount Ngauruhoe, and "Ruapehu" redirects to Mount Ruapehu. Why should this volcano be treated differently?
 * 2) "Tongariro" is an ambiguous term, and could apply to the mountain or the national park. "Mount Tongariro" removes that ambiguity.
 * 3) there were more links to "Mount Tongariro" being redirected to "Tongariro" than there were direct links to "Tongariro".

I don't know how this works and I do realise this is a few years late, but just for clarity Tongariro is not actually a Mount, Tongariro is the whole Massif which includes Mount Ngaruhoe as one of its peaks. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.62.211.75 (talk) 11:51, 28 June 2017 (UTC)

Readability
Although this page nows looks OK, the pictures on the left are almost useless as the wording on them can't be read, & the detail is not visible, unless full versions are obtained by clicking. I suggest go back to the previous version until a better picture display is ready (I wonder how the size of pictures in a gallery is controlled). GrahamBould 12:34, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

Mount Doom?
I heard somewhere that Mount Tongariro was the mountain used for Mount Doom in LOTR. Is there anything to this? 75.35.227.117 17:36, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, there's some truth to that. See Mount Ngauruhoe. -- Avenue 22:23, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

hydro-thermal eruption
The jury is still out on the cause as scientists gain more information.

"We know that it wasn't just a hydro-thermal eruption, it wasn't just a shallow explosion, there was definitely magma gas released and that's why we're saying it was a phreatic eruption, driven by volcanic gas pressure."
 * http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10826599

--Zven (talk) 03:44, 13 August 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mount Tongariro


text:
Talk:Tongariro

I've moved the article Tongariro to Mount Tongariro for several reasons: 12:08, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * 1) consistency. "Ngauruhoe" redirects to Mount Ngauruhoe, and "Ruapehu" redirects to Mount Ruapehu. Why should this volcano be treated differently?
 * 2) "Tongariro" is an ambiguous term, and could apply to the mountain or the national park. "Mount Tongariro" removes that ambiguity.
 * 3) there were more links to "Mount Tongariro" being redirected to "Tongariro" than there were direct links to "Tongariro".

title: Talk:Tongariro


text:
User:Jofi~enwiki

de:Benutzer:Jofi
 * Wikisource: s:de:Benutzer:Jofi
 * (Wikipedia: de:Benutzer:Jofi)

title: User:Jofi~enwiki


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Japanese nuclear weapons program

During World War II, Japan had several programs exploring the use of nuclear fission for military technology, including nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Like the similar wartime programs in Nazi Germany, it was relatively small, suffered from an array of problems brought on by lack of resources and wartime disarray, and was ultimately unable to progress beyond the laboratory stage during the war.

Today, Japan has no known nuclear weapons programs. It is a signatory in good standing of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and has enacted domestic legal prohibitions against producing nuclear weapons. However, it is unique among non-nuclear weapons states in that it possesses a full nuclear fuel cycle, as part of its civilian nuclear energy industry, and advanced developments in the industries necessary to make nuclear weapons. As a result, it is often cited as a primary example of a latent or threshold nuclear state, capable of developing weapons in a very short timespan should its government decide to do so.

Background

In 1934, Tohoku University professor Hikosaka Tadayoshi's "atomic physics theory" was released. Hikosaka pointed out the huge energy contained by nuclei and the possibility that both nuclear power generation and weapons could be created. In December 1938, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann sent a manuscript to Naturwissenschaften reporting that they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons; simultaneously, they communicated these results to Lise Meitner. Meitner, and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, correctly interpreted these results as being nuclear fission and Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939. Physicists around the world immediately realized that chain reactions could be produced and notified their governments of the possibility of developing nuclear weapons.

World War II

The leading figure in the Japanese atomic program was Yoshio Nishina, a close associate of Niels Bohr and a contemporary of Albert Einstein. Nishina had co-authored the Klein–Nishina formula. Nishina had established his own Nuclear Research Laboratory to study high-energy physics in 1931 at RIKEN Institute (the Institute for Physical and Chemical Research), which had been established in 1917 in Tokyo to promote basic research. Nishina had built his first 26 inch cyclotron in 1936, and another 60 inch, 220-ton cyclotron in 1937. In 1938 Japan also purchased a cyclotron from the University of California, Berkeley.

Due to the German-Japanese alliance resulting from Germany's Four Year Plan, Japan and its military had already been pursuing nuclear science to catch up to the West in nuclear technology. This allowed for Nishina to introduce quantum mechanics to Japan.

In 1939, Nishina recognized the military potential of nuclear fission, and was worried that the Americans were working on a nuclear weapon which might be used against Japan.

In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leo Szilard and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilard letter, which warned of the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type". The United States started the investigations into fission weapons in the United States, which eventually evolved into the massive Manhattan Project, and the laboratory from which Japan purchased a cyclotron became one of the major sites for weapons research.

In the early summer of 1940, Nishina met Lieutenant-General Takeo Yasuda on a train. Yasuda was at the time director of the Army Aeronautical Department's Technical Research Institute. Nishina told Yasuda about the possibility of building nuclear weapons. However, the Japanese fission project did not formally begin until April 1941 when Yasuda acted on Army Minister Hideki Tōjō's order to investigate the possibilities of nuclear weapons. Yasuda passed the order down the chain of command to Viscount Masatoshi Ōkōchi, director of the RIKEN Institute, who in turn passed it to Nishina, whose Nuclear Research Laboratory by 1941 had over 100 researchers.

B-Research
Meanwhile, the Imperial Japanese Navy's Technology Research Institute had been pursuing its own separate investigations, and had engaged professors from the Imperial University, Tokyo, for advice on nuclear weapons. Before the Attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Captain Yoji Ito of the Naval Technical Research Institution of Japan initiated a study that would allow for the Japanese Navy to use nuclear fission. After consulting with Professor Sagane at Tokyo Imperial University, his research showed that nuclear fission would be a potential power source for the Navy.

This resulted in the formation of the Committee on Research in the Application of Nuclear Physics, chaired by Nishina, that met ten times between July 1942 and March 1943. After the Japanese Navy lost at Midway, Captain Ito proposed a new type of nuclear weapons development designated as "B-Research" (also called "Jin Project", 仁計画, lit. "Nuclear Project") by the end of June 1942. By December, deep in the project, it became evident that while an atomic bomb was feasible in principle, "Japanese scientists believed that it would be difficult for even the United States to realize the application of atomic energy in time to influence the outcome of the war." This caused the Navy to lose interest and to concentrate instead on research into radar.

Ni-Go Project
In 1942 the Army was not discouraged, and soon after the Committee issued its report it set up an experimental project at RIKEN, the Ni-Go Project (lit. "The Second Project"). Its aim was to separate uranium-235 by thermal diffusion, ignoring alternative methods such as electromagnetic separation, gaseous diffusion, and centrifugal separation.

By spring 1944, the Nishina Project barely made any progress due to insufficient uranium hexafluoride for its Clusius tube. The previously provided uranium within the copper tube had corroded and the project was unable to separate U-235 isotopes.

By February 1945, a small group of scientists had succeeded in producing a small amount of material in a rudimentary separator in the RIKEN complex—material which RIKEN's cyclotron indicated was not uranium-235. The separator project came to an end in March 1945, when the building housing it was destroyed by a fire caused by the USAAF's Operation Meetinghouse raid on Tokyo. No attempt was made to build a uranium pile; heavy water was unavailable, but Takeuchi Masa, who was in charge of Nishina's separator, calculated that light water would suffice if the uranium could be enriched to 5–10% uranium-235.

While these experiments were in progress, the Army and Navy searched for uranium ore, in locations ranging from Fukushima Prefecture to Korea, China, and Burma. The Japanese also requested materials from their German allies and 560 kg of unprocessed uranium oxide was dispatched to Japan in April 1945 aboard the submarine, which however surrendered to US forces in the Atlantic following Germany's surrender. The uranium oxide was reportedly labeled as "U-235", which may have been a mislabeling of the submarine's name and its exact characteristics remain unknown; some sources believe that it was not weapons-grade material and was intended for use as a catalyst in the production of synthetic methanol to be used for aviation fuel.

The attack also effectively destroyed the Clusius tube and any chances of the Japanese producing an atomic bomb in time to influence the war in their favor and rival the West in nuclear weaponry.

According to the historian Williams, "The same lack of sufficient high quality uranium that had impeded the German atomic project had also, as it turned out, obstructed Japanese attempts to make a bomb." This was the conclusion of the Manhattan Project Intelligence Group, who also reported Japan's nuclear physicists were just as good as those from other nations.

F-Go Project
In 1943, a different Japanese naval command began a nuclear research program, the F-Go Project (lit. "The F Project"), under Bunsaku Arakatsu at the Imperial University, Kyoto. Arakatsu had spent some years studying abroad including at the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge under Ernest Rutherford and at Berlin University under Albert Einstein. Next to Nishina, Arakatsu was the most notable nuclear physicist in Japan. His team included Hideki Yukawa, who would become in 1949 the first Japanese physicist to receive a Nobel Prize.

Early on in the war Commander Kitagawa, head of the Navy Research Institute's Chemical Section, had requested Arakatsu to carry out work on the separation of Uranium-235. The work went slowly, but shortly before the end of the war he had designed an ultracentrifuge (to spin at 60,000 rpm) which he was hopeful would achieve the required results. Only the design of the machinery was completed before the Japanese surrender.

After Arakatsu and Nishina's meeting, in spring 1944, the Army-Navy Technology Enforcement Committee formed due to lack of progress in the development of Japanese nuclear weapons. This led to the only meeting of the leaders of the F-Go Project scientists, on 21 July 1945. After the meeting, nuclear weaponry research ended as a result of the destruction of the facility that housed isotope separation research, known as Building 49.

Shortly after the surrender of Japan, the Manhattan Project's Atomic Bomb Mission, which had deployed to Japan in September, reported that the F-Go Project had obtained 20 grams a month of heavy water from electrolytic ammonia plants in Korea and Kyushu. In fact, the industrialist Jun Noguchi had launched a heavy water production program some years previously. In 1926, Noguchi founded the Korean Hydro Electric Company at Konan (now known as Hungnam) in north-eastern Korea: this became the site of an industrial complex producing ammonia for fertilizer production. However, despite the availability of a heavy-water production facility whose output could potentially have rivalled that of Norsk Hydro at Vemork in Norway, it appears that the Japanese did not carry out neutron-multiplication studies using heavy water as a moderator at Kyoto.

Postwar aftermath
On 16 October 1945, Nishina sought permission from the American occupation forces to use the two cyclotrons at the Riken Institute for biological and medical research, which was soon granted; however, on 10 November instructions were received from the US Secretary of War in Washington to destroy the cyclotrons at the Riken, Kyoto University, and Osaka University. This was done on 24 November; the Riken's cyclotrons were taken apart and thrown into Tokyo Bay.

In a letter of protest against this destruction Nishina wrote that the cyclotrons at the Riken had had nothing to do with the production of nuclear weapons, however the large cyclotron had officially been a part of the Ni-Go Project. Nishina had placed it within the Project by suggesting that the cyclotron could serve basic research for the use of nuclear power, simply so that he could continue working on the device; the military nature of the Project gave him access to funding and kept his researchers from being drafted into the armed forces. He felt no qualms about this because he saw no possibility of producing nuclear weapons in Japan before the end of the war.

Reports of a Japanese weapon test
On 2 October 1946, the Atlanta Constitution published a story by reporter David Snell, who had been an investigator with the 24th Criminal Investigation Detachment in Korea after the war, which alleged that the Japanese had successfully tested a nuclear weapon near Hungnam (Konan) before the town was captured by the Soviets. He said that he had received his information at Seoul in September 1945 from a Japanese officer to whom he gave the pseudonym of Captain Wakabayashi, who had been in charge of counter-intelligence at Hungnam. SCAP officials, who were responsible for strict censorship of all information about Japan's wartime interest in nuclear physics, were dismissive of Snell's report.

Under the 1947–1948 investigation, comments were sought from Japanese scientists who would or should have known about such a project. Further doubt is cast on Snell's story by the lack of evidence of large numbers of Japanese scientists leaving Japan for Korea and never returning. Snell's statements were repeated by Robert K. Wilcox in his 1985 book Japan's Secret War: Japan's Race Against Time to Build Its Own Atomic Bomb. The book also included what Wilcox stated was new evidence from intelligence material which indicated the Japanese might have had an atomic program at Hungnam. These specific reports were dismissed in a review of the book by Department of Energy employee Roger M. Anders which was published in the journal Military Affairs, an article written by two historians of science in the journal Isis, and another article in the journal Intelligence and National Security.

Postwar
Since the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan has been a staunch upholder of antinuclear sentiments. Its postwar Constitution forbids the establishment of offensive military forces, and in 1967 it adopted the Three Non-Nuclear Principles, ruling out the production, possession, or introduction of nuclear weapons. Despite this, the idea that Japan might become a nuclear power has persisted. After China's first nuclear test in 1964, Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Satō said to President Lyndon Johnson when they met in January 1965, that if the Chinese Communists had nuclear weapons, the Japanese should also have them. This shocked Johnson's administration, especially when Sato added that "Japanese public opinion will not permit this at present, but I believe that the public, especially the younger generation, can be 'educated'."

Throughout Sato's administration Japan continued to discuss the nuclear option. It was suggested that tactical nuclear weapons, as opposed to larger strategic weapons, could be defined as defensive, and therefore be allowed by the Japanese Constitution. A White Paper commissioned by future Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone opined that it would be possible that possessing small-yield, purely defensive nuclear weapons would not violate the Constitution, but that in view of the danger of adverse foreign reaction and possible war, a policy would be followed of not acquiring nuclear weapons "at present".

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
The Johnson administration became anxious about Sato's intentions and made securing Japan's signature to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) one of its top priorities. In December 1967, to reassure the Japanese public, Sato announced the adoption of the Three Non-Nuclear Principles. These were that Japan would not manufacture, possess, or permit nuclear weapons on Japanese soil. The principles, which were adopted by the Diet, but are not law, have remained the basis of Japan's nuclear policy ever since.

According to Kei Wakaizumi, one of Sato's policy advisers, Sato realized soon after making the declaration that it might be too constraining. He therefore clarified the principles in a February 1968 address to the Diet by declaring the "Four Nuclear Policies" ("Four-Pillars Nuclear Policy"):

 * Promotion of the peaceful use of nuclear energy
 * Efforts towards global nuclear disarmament
 * Reliance and dependence on US extended deterrence, based on the 1960 US-Japan Security Treaty
 * Support for the "Three Non-Nuclear Principles under the circumstances where Japan's national security is guaranteed by the other three policies."

It followed that if American assurance was ever removed or seemed unreliable, Japan might have no choice but to go nuclear. In other words, it kept the nuclear option available.

In 1969, a policy planning study for Japan's Foreign Ministry concluded that Japan should, even if it signed the NPT, maintain the economic and technical ability to develop and produce nuclear weapons in case it should ever become necessary, for example due to the international situation.

Japan finally signed the NPT in 1970 and ratified it in 1976, but only after West Germany became a signatory and the US promised "not to interfere with Tokyo's pursuit of independent reprocessing capabilities in its civilian nuclear power program".

Extension of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
In 1995, the Clinton administration pushed the Japanese government to endorse the indefinite extension of the NPT, but it opted for an ambiguous position on the issue. A former Japanese government official recalled, "We thought it was better for us not to declare that we will give up our nuclear option forever and ever". However, eventually pressure from Washington and other nations led to Japan's supporting the indefinite extension.

In 1998, two events strengthened the hand of those in Japan advocating that the nation should at least reconsider if not reverse its non-nuclear policy. Advocates of such policies included conservative academics, some government officials, a few industrialists, and nationalist groups.

The first of these events was India and Pakistan both conducting nuclear tests; the Japanese were troubled by a perceived reluctance on the part of the international community to condemn the two countries' actions, since one of the reasons Japan had opted to join the NPT was that it had anticipated severe penalties for those states who defied the international consensus against further nuclear proliferation. Also, Japan and other nations feared that an Indian nuclear arsenal could cause a localized nuclear arms race with China.

The second event was the August 1998 launch of a North Korean Taepodong-1 missile over Japan which caused a public outcry and led some to call for remilitarization or the development of nuclear weapons. Fukushiro Nukaga, head of the Japan Defense Agency, said that his government would be justified in mounting pre-emptive strikes against North Korean missile bases. Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi reiterated Japan's non-nuclear weapon principles and said that Japan would not possess a nuclear arsenal, and that the matter was not even worthy of discussion.

However, it is thought that Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi implied he agreed that Japan had the right to possess nuclear weapons when he added, "it is significant that although we could have them, we don't".

Earlier, Shinzō Abe had said that Japan's constitution did not necessarily ban possession of nuclear weapons, so long as they were kept at a minimum and were tactical weapons, and Chief Cabinet Secretary Yasuo Fukuda had expressed a similar view.

De facto nuclear state
While there are currently no known plans in Japan to produce nuclear weapons, it has been argued Japan has the technology, raw materials, and the capital to produce nuclear weapons within one year if necessary, and many analysts consider it a de facto nuclear state for this reason. For this reason Japan is often said to be a "screwdriver's turn" away from possessing nuclear weapons, or to possess a "bomb in the basement".

The United States stored extensive nuclear assets in Okinawa prefecture when it was under American administration until the 1970s. There were approximately 1,200 nuclear warheads in Okinawa.

Significant amounts of reactor-grade plutonium are created as a by-product of the nuclear energy industry. During the 1970s, the Japanese government made several appeals to the United States to use reprocessed plutonium in forming a "plutonium economy" for peaceful commercial use. This began a significant debate within the Carter administration about the risk of proliferation associated with reprocessing while also acknowledging Japan's need for energy and right to the use of peaceful nuclear technology. Ultimately, an agreement was reached that allowed Japan to repurpose the byproducts of nuclear power-related activities; however their efforts regarding fast-breeding plutonium reactors were largely unsuccessful.

In 2012, Japan was reported to have 9 tonnes of plutonium stored in Japan, which would be enough for more than 1,000 nuclear warheads, and an additional 35 tonnes stored in Europe. It has constructed the Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant, which could produce further plutonium. Japan has a considerable quantity of highly enriched uranium (HEU), supplied by the U.S. and UK, for use in its research reactors and fast neutron reactor research programs; approximately 1,200 to 1,400 kg of HEU as of 2014. Japan also possesses an indigenous uranium enrichment plant which could hypothetically be used to make highly enriched uranium suitable for weapons use.

Japan has also developed the M-V three-stage solid-fuel rocket, somewhat similar in design to the U.S. LGM-118A Peacekeeper ICBM, giving it a missile technology base. It now has an easier-to-launch second generation solid-fuel rocket, Epsilon. Japan has experience in re-entry vehicle technology (OREX, HOPE-X). Toshiyuki Shikata, a Tokyo Metropolitan Government adviser and former lieutenant general, said that part of the rationale for the fifth M-V Hayabusa mission, from 2003 to 2010, was that the re-entry and landing of its return capsule demonstrated "that Japan's ballistic missile capability is credible." A Japanese nuclear deterrent would probably be sea-based with ballistic missile submarines. In 2011, former Minister of Defense Shigeru Ishiba explicitly backed the idea of Japan maintaining the capability of nuclear latency: "'I don't think Japan needs to possess nuclear weapons, but it's important to maintain our commercial reactors because it would allow us to produce a nuclear warhead in a short amount of time... It's a tacit nuclear deterrent'"

On 24 March 2014, Japan agreed to turn over more than 700 lb of weapons grade plutonium and highly enriched uranium to the US, which started to be returned in 2016. It has been pointed out that as long as Japan enjoys the benefits of a "nuclear-ready" status held through surrounding countries, it will see no reason to actually produce nuclear arms, since by remaining below the threshold, although with the capability to cross it at short notice, Japan can expect the support of the US while posing as an equal to China and Russia.

Former Mayor and Governor of Osaka Tōru Hashimoto in 2008 argued on several television programs that Japan should possess nuclear weapons, but has since said that this was his private opinion.

Former Governor of Tokyo 1999-2012, Shintaro Ishihara was a advocate of Japan having nuclear weapons.

On 29 March 2016, then-U.S. presidential candidate Donald Trump suggested that Japan should develop its own nuclear weapons, claiming that it was becoming too expensive for the US to continue to protect Japan from countries such as China, North Korea, and Russia that already have their own nuclear weapons.

On 27 February 2022, former prime minister Shinzo Abe proposed that Japan should consider a nuclear sharing arrangement with the US similar to NATO. This includes housing American nuclear weapons on Japanese soil for deterrence. This plan comes in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Many Japanese politicians consider Vladimir Putin's threat to use nuclear weapons against a non-nuclear state to be a game changer.

Although an indigenous nuclear program in Japan is unlikely to develop due to low public support, the existential Chinese and North Korean threats have raised security concerns domestically. The role of public opinion is central, and studies show that threat perceptions—mainly of China’s growing military abilities—have strengthened Japanese public support for a nuclear program. Japan has long held negative views on nuclear weapons, and previously, even discussions of nuclear armament or deterrence in the country was unpopular due to a strong "nuclear taboo". However, this taboo has been breaking, especially because Abe elevated the topic to mainstream politics during his tenure.

National identity is an important factor in Japanese nuclear armament. Since World War II, the peace constitution has greatly limited the ability of Japanese military advancement, restricting them from having an active military or waging war with another country. These restrictions and the strong desire of former colonies—especially Korea and China—for apology and reconciliation by Japan for its crimes and atrocities committed under pre-WWII imperialism, coupled with Japan's refusal to make appropriate amends, led to the rise of a conservative branch of the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) in Japan that encouraged revisions to the Peace Constitution and promoted, under former prime minister Shinzo Abe, "healthy nationalism", which aimed to restore the Japanese public's sense of pride in the country. The revisionists sought to "create a new national identity" that increased national pride, allowed for collective self-defense and removed "institutional limitations on military activities".

Since the reliability of U.S. security guarantees shapes Japan's nuclear policy, a strong American nuclear umbrella is necessary to prevent Japan from developing nuclear weapons of its own. Since the 1960s, however, Japanese confidence in U.S. security guarantees has been influenced by American foreign policy shifts, from Nixon's "Guam Doctrine" to Trump's desire for allies to provide more of their own security. Although Japan developing nuclear weapons would violate the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and potentially decrease U.S. power in East Asia, there is historical precedent for the U.S. to be complacent regarding Japan building nuclear arms: as long as Japan is a democracy, a friend of Washington and has high state capacity, the U.S. alliance would likely be maintained. This was the case for France and the United Kingdom, when they developed their own nuclear weapons after the end of the Second World War despite American deterrence.

title: Japanese nuclear weapons program