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Air Education and Training Command

The Air Education and Training Command (AETC) is one of the nine Major Commands (MAJCOM) of the United States Air Force (USAF), reporting to Headquarters, United States Air Force. It was established 1 July 1993, with the realignment of Air Training Command and Air University.

AETC is headquartered at Randolph Air Force Base, Joint Base San Antonio, Texas. AETC is the primary training and professional education command in the Air Force.

More than 48,000 active duty and Air Reserve Component members and 14,000 civilian personnel make up AETC. The command has responsibility for approximately 1,600 aircraft.

AETC's mission is to "recruit, train and educate Airmen to deliver air power for America."

Air Force Recruiting Service
AETC's mission begins with the Air Force Recruiting Service (AFRS), an AETC activity also headquartered at Randolph AFB, Texas. AFRS comprises three regional groups and 24 squadrons with more than 1,400 commissioned officer and enlisted recruiters assigned throughout the United States, including territories Puerto Rico and Guam, as well as foreign counties England, Germany, Japan,. Recruiters in more than 1,000 offices worldwide recruit the young men and women needed as both enlisted airmen and commissioned officers to meet the demands of the U.S. Air Force.

AFRS recruitment of commissioned officers is limited to 4-year college/university graduates via Air Force Officer Training School (OTS). Individuals who desire to become commissioned USAF officers and enter the service via the U.S. Air Force Academy (USAFA) and Air Force ROTC (AFROTC) are not recruited by AFRS and are instead accessed via recruitment and application activities of USAFA and AFROTC, respectively.

Basic military training and technical training
Second Air Force (2 AF), with headquarters at Keesler AFB, Mississippi, is responsible for conducting basic military and technical training for Air Force enlisted members and technical training for non-flying missile launch officers, as well as support officers. The first stop for all Regular Air Force, Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve Command enlisted personnel is Basic Military Training (BMT) at Lackland AFB, Texas. More than 36,000 new airmen complete this recently lengthened eight-and-a-half-week program each year.

After completing BMT, airmen begin technical training in their career field specialties, primarily at five installations: Goodfellow AFB, Lackland AFB, and Sheppard AFB in Texas; Keesler AFB, Mississippi; and Vandenberg SFB, California. There are also several cross-service schools such as Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California and the U.S. Army CCBRN School at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri that select USAF enlisted personnel will also attend. A recently established technical training institute at Fort Sam Houston, Texas, also conducts training in several medical career fields. Each base is responsible for a specific portion of formal technical training airmen require to accomplish the Air Force mission. Instructors conduct technical training in specialties such as aircraft maintenance, electronic principles, air transportation, civil engineering, medical services, computer systems, security forces, air traffic control, personnel, intelligence, fire fighting, weather forecasting and space and missile operations.

Commissioned officers not assigned to flight training as prospective pilots, combat systems officers or air battle managers attend technical training courses for similar career fields at the same locations.

2 AF also conducts specialized training for military working dogs and dog handlers at Lackland AFB, Texas, for the entire Department of Defense and the Federal Aviation Administration. Additionally, the Inter-American Air Forces Academy at Lackland AFB hosts more than 160 courses in aviation specialties, taught in Spanish, to students from 19 Western hemisphere countries.

Flying training
When AETC was established in 1993, Nineteenth Air Force (19 AF) was also established as a companion numbered air force to 2 AF within AETC. While 2 AF focused on ground-based technical training, 19 AF focused on all undergraduate flying training and those formal training units (FTU) under its claimancy from 1993 until 2012, and again from 2014 to present. On 12 July 2012, 19 AF was temporarily inactivated for budgetary reasons in an effort to gain efficiencies. By 2014, these efficiencies had failed to materialize and the then-Commander of AETC, Gen Robin Rand, directed reestablishment of 19 AF effective 1 October 2014 for the oversight of all flight training operations under AETC's claimancy.

Pilot training
Air Force pilot candidates begin their flying careers with Initial Flight Training (IFT) at Pueblo Memorial Airport, Colorado. In IFT, civilian flight instructors working under contract to AETC and the command's 306th Flying Training Group (306 FTG) provide up to 25 hours of flight instruction to commissioned officer and enlisted student pilots accessed via the U.S. Air Force Academy, Air Force ROTC and Air Force OTS.

Following successful completion of IFS, student pilots attend either:

 * Specialized Undergraduate Pilot Training (SUPT)
 * Euro-NATO Joint Jet Pilot Training (ENJJPT)

Primary Training – SUPT
SUPT students accomplish primary training in the T-6A Texan II at one of three Air Force bases:

 * Columbus AFB, Mississippi
 * Laughlin AFB, Texas
 * Vance AFB, Oklahoma

Between 1994 and 2013, SUPT was titled JSUPT for "Joint Specialized Undergraduate Pilot Training" and 100 USAF students annually accomplished primary training in the T-34C Turbomentor and later the T-6B Texan II with Training Air Wing FIVE at Naval Air Station Whiting Field, Florida via a combination of USN, USAF, USMC and USCG flight instructors while 80 USN and 20 USMC students annually accomplished primary training in the T-6A Texan II with the 71st Flying Training Wing at Vance Air Force Base. This program was terminated on 25 July 2013 with the graduation of the final USAF student pilot from primary training at NAS Whiting Field.

Primary Training – ENJJPT
ENJJPT students accomplish primary training in the T-6A Texan II at the following location:

 * Sheppard AFB, Texas

The entire ENJJPT course lasts about 54 weeks and students learn with, and are taught by, officers of the U.S. Air Force and various European air forces. During the primary phase, students master contact, instrument, low-level and formation flying.

Advanced Training – Fighter/Bomber (ENJJPT + SUPT)
After the primary phase of SUPT and ENJJPT, student pilots select one of three advanced training tracks based on their class standing. Those qualified for fighter or bomber assignments are assigned to the fighter/bomber track and train in the T-38 Talon at the SUPT and ENJJPT bases. Following completion of the fighter/bomber track, graduates will be assigned to the A-10, F-15 Eagle, F-15E Strike Eagle, F-16, F-22 and F-35, B-1, B-2 or B-52.

NOTE: ''The U-2 is not an option for new graduates of the Fighter/Bomber track. Prospective U-2 pilots must be qualified in another fighter, bomber, reconnaissance or mobility aircraft before applying to fly the U-2. First Assignment Instructor Pilots (FAIPs) are also eligible to apply following their FAIP assignment.''

Advanced Training – Airlift/Tanker (SUPT only)
Prospective airlift, tanker and "big wing" reconnaissance and special mission pilots are assigned to the airlift/tanker track and train in the T-1A Jayhawk at SUPT bases only. Following completion of the Airlift/Tanker track, graduates of this track will fly the C-5, C-17, C-21, C-130, AC-130, EC-130, HC-130, LC-130, MC-130, WC-130, KC-135, KC-10, KC-46, E-3, E-8, RC-135 and OC-135.

Prior to mid-2012, some USAF student pilots selected for the airlift/tanker track with specific assignment to the C-130 Hercules or its variants (special operations, electronic warfare, combat rescue, weather reconnaissance, etc.) were assigned to a multi-engine turboprop track flying the T-44 Pegasus and/or TC-12B Huron at NAS Corpus Christi, Texas in a cooperative arrangement between AETC and the Naval Air Training Command / Chief of Naval Air Training (CNATRA). These USAF students received instruction from a combination of USN, USAF, USMC and USCG flight instructors with Training Air Wing FOUR at NAS Corpus Christi. This program was discontinued in 2012 and all USAF student pilots slated for the C-130 and its variants now train in the T-1A at one of the three SUPT bases.

NOTE: ''The 55th Wing's (55 WG) E-4B National Air Operations Center (NAOC) aircraft and any of the Special Air Mission (SAM) aircraft operated by the 89th Airlift Wing (89 AW), e.g., VC-25/Air Force One, C-32, C-40, etc., are not options for new graduates of the Airlift/Tanker track. Prospective E-4 and VC-25/C-32/C-40 pilots must be qualified in an airlift, tanker, or other intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) aircraft before applying to fly the E-4 or any SAM aircraft.''

Advanced Training – Helicopter (SUPT only)
Those selected to fly helicopters or tilt-rotor aircraft are assigned after completion of the primary phase to AETC's 23d Flying Training Squadron at Fort Novosel, Alabama to train in the TH-1H Huey. Graduates will fly the UH-1N Twin Huey, HH-60G Pave Hawk or CV-22 Osprey.

Undergraduate Combat Systems Officer Training – UCSOT
Previously known as Navigators, the training pipeline for Combat Systems Officers has seen significant change since AETC's establishment. When AETC was first activated to replace Air Training Command (ATC), it inherited ATC's modernization effort of navigator training in the midst of a BRAC-directed closure of Mather AFB, California and the inactivation of its 323d Flying Training Wing, USAF's sole Undergraduate Navigator Training (UNT) wing, which also provided advanced training for USN Student Naval Flight Officers destined for land-based naval aircraft (e.g., P-3 Orion, E-6 Mercury, etc.) under the dual-designation of Interservice Undergraduate Navigator Training (IUNT).

As part of this transition, AETC opted to implement a dual training track whereby most USAF and all land-based USN and NATO/Allied officer student navigator training would transition to the 12th Flying Training Wing (12 FTW) at Randolph AFB, Texas utilizing the T45 navigation simulator and flying the T-43 Bobcat (both relocated from Mather AFB) and adding the T-1 Jayhawk for USAF students. The relocated programs were renamed Specialized Undergraduate Navigator Training (SUNT) for USAF and USAF-sponsored NATO/Allied students, and Joint Specialized Undergraduate Navigator Training (JSUNT) for USN and USN-sponsored NATO/Allied students. USAF students graduating from SUNT were assigned to B-52, C-130, AC-130, EC-130, HC-130, LC-130, MC-130, WC-130, KC-135, E-3, E-8, RC-135 and OC-135 aircraft.

At the same time, a pre-selected cohort of USAF officer student navigators destined as weapon systems officers in the F-15E Strike Eagle, the B-1 Lancer, and, with the retirement of the EF-111 Raven, electronic warfare officers providing USAF manning of joint USN-USAF EA-6B Prowler squadrons, would complete a joint flight training program established between 19 AF and the Naval Air Training Command / Chief of Naval Air Training (CNATRA) with Training Air Wing SIX at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. In this latter program, prospective USAF WSOs and EWOs would follow essentially the same training track as USN and USMC Student Naval Flight Officers destined for tactical fighter, strike and electronic attack aircraft, flying the T-34C Turbomentor in primary training until the T-34C's replacement by the T-6 Texan II, USAF T-1 Jayhawk aircraft on detached operations at NAS Pensacola, and USN/USMC T-39 Sabreliner aircraft in intermediate and advanced training under the tutelage of USN, USAF and USMC instructors.

In 2009, with the transition of all USAF Navigators to Combat Systems Officers, the merger of SUNT into Undergraduate Combat Systems Officer Training (UCSOT), and pursuant to additional BRAC directives, the 12 FTW established the 479th Flying Training Group (479 FTG) with two flying training squadrons and an operations support squadron as a geographically-separated unit (GSU) at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.

Pursuant to USAF policy changes, AETC and CNATRA also discontinued joint training at Training Air Wing SIX with the establishment of the 479 FTG. Although NAS Pensacola remains the principal base for Student Naval Flight Officer (SNFO) training for the U.S. Navy, the 479 FTG operates independently of this program with its own USAF T-6 Texan II and T-1 Jayhawk aircraft. Upon establishment of the 479 FTG at NAS Pensacola, the remaining "legacy" navigator training squadrons that had relocated from the former Mather AFB to Randolph AFB in 1992 were inactivated and the remaining T-43 Bobcat aircraft retired.

Starting in the summer of 2010, following completion of Initial Flight Screening (IFS) at Pueblo Memorial Airport, Colorado with their USAF student pilot counterparts, all USAF CSO students undergo Undergraduate Combat Systems Officer Training (UCSOT) with the 479 FTG. Merging the three previous USAF Undergraduate Navigator Training (UNT) tracks formerly known as Navigator track, Weapon Systems Officer (WSO) track and Electronic Warfare Officer (EWO) track into one coherent training cycle, the first UCSOT class (11-01) under the new syllabus commenced training on 5 May 2010 and graduated on 15 April 2011. Today, USAF CSOs continue to fill all of the previously mentioned multi-place USAF combat aircraft with the exception that the USN has since retired all of its EA-6B Prowlers and the USAF now provides a few CSOs to four of the USN's thirteen Electronic Attack Squadrons flying the EA-18G Growler. Those four squadrons are land based and do not deploy aboard aircraft carriers.

Air Battle Manager Training
Air Battle Managers (ABM) are aircrew who operate mission systems in the E-3 Sentry "AWACS" and E-8 J-STARS and operate the ground based Control and Reporting Centers. Since October 1999, they have been considered "Aeronautically Rated Officers" on par with USAF pilots and CSOs. ABMs complete Undergraduate Air Battle Manager Training (UABMT) under AETC cognizance at Tyndall AFB, Florida that consists of a 6-9 month training syllabus with topics ranging from Radar Theory, Basic Aviation, The Continuum of Control (Close Control, Tactical Fluid Control, Broadcast Control, Advisory and Autonomous Control), Red Air (adversary aircraft capabilities) and Blue Air (joint and coalition aircraft capabilities) Academics, Electro-Magnetic Spectrum Academics, Air to Ground combat simulator, Large Force Employment simulators and culminating with live Air to Air control with Fighter Squadrons along the East Coast/Gulf of Mexico. The syllabus also includes 6 training sorties in the MU-2 Peacock. As of May 2010, a new training syllabus at Tyndall AFB allows ABMs to receive their wings at the conclusion of UABMT, finally bringing their undergraduate flight training in line with pilots and CSOs. Follow-on simulator and flying training in the E-3 or E-8 aircraft takes place under the cognizance of Air Combat Command at Tinker AFB, Oklahoma with the 966th Airborne Air Control Squadron and Robins AFB, Georgia, with the 330 Combat Training Squadron respectively. ABMs also receive their follow on simulator and live control training for the CRC at Luke AFB, AZ with the 607th Air Control Squadron.

Enlisted Aircrew Training
AETC also provides enlisted aircrew training for a wide variety of aircrew specialties including flight engineers, air-to-air refueling boom operators, loadmasters, aerial gunners, and airborne communications specialists as follows:

 * Flight engineers, loadmasters, other aircrew (C-130, EC-130, LC-130, WC-130) – Little Rock AFB
 * Flight engineers, loadmasters, other aircrew (AC-130, MC-130, HC-130) – Little Rock AFB and Kirtland AFB
 * Flight engineers, aerial gunners, other aircrew (CV-22, HH-60, UH-1) – Kirtland AFB
 * Aerial refueling boom operators (KC-10, KC-46, KC-135) – Altus AFB
 * Loadmasters (C-5) – Lackland AFB / Kelly Field Annex
 * Loadmasters (C-17) – Altus AFB
 * Airborne communications specialists (various aircraft) – Lackland AFB
 * RPA Sensor Operator – Randolph AFB

Formal Training Unit
Air Education and Training Command also provides follow-on training for most Air Force pilots, CSOs and enlisted aircrew in their assigned aircraft via Formal Training Units (FTUs). For those pilots and CSOs selected for assignment to fighter aircraft, they will complete the Introduction to Fighter Fundamentals (IFF) course, an AETC-administered program, at Randolph AFB, Texas, Columbus AFB, Mississippi, or Sheppard AFB, Texas, shortly following completion of undergraduate flying training and prior to reporting to their FTU. At IFF, pilots fly the AT-38B Talon.

 * Air Education and Training Command FTUs:
 * F-15 Eagle (e.g., F-15C and F-15D) – Kingsley Field ANGB, Oregon; conducted by an AETC-gained fighter wing of the Oregon Air National Guard
 * Training at Kingsley Field is conducted by an AETC-gained fighter wing of the Air National Guard; this unit trains both active duty Air Force and Air National Guard personnel
 * F-16 Fighting Falcon – Luke AFB, Arizona (slated for relocation to Holloman AFB, New Mexico); Lackland AFB/Kelly Field Annex, Texas; and Tucson Air National Guard Base, Arizona
 * Training at Luke is conducted by an AETC fighter wing and an AETC-gained fighter wing of the Air Force Reserve Command;
 * Training at Lackland AFB/Kelly Field (former Kelly AFB) is conducted by an AETC-gained fighter wing of the Texas Air National Guard
 * Both units at Luke AFB and Lackland AFB/Kelly Field train Air Force, Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard personnel for the F-16C and F-16D
 * Training at Tucson ANGB is conducted by an AETC-gained fighter wing of the Arizona Air National Guard focusing on international (NATO/Allied/Coalition) pilot training in support of the F-16 Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program
 * F-35 Lightning II – Eglin AFB, Florida; Luke AFB, Arizona
 * C-5 Galaxy – Lackland AFB/Kelly Field Annex (former Kelly AFB)
 * Training conducted by an AETC-gained airlift wing of the Air Force Reserve Command; this unit trains Air Force and Air Force Reserve personnel for the C-5 and previously trained Air National Guard personnel for the C-5 until retirement of the C-5 from the ANG
 * C-17 Globemaster III – Altus AFB, Oklahoma
 * C-21 Learjet – Keesler AFB, Mississippi
 * C-130 Hercules – Little Rock AFB, Arkansas
 * KC-135 Stratotanker – Altus AFB, Oklahoma
 * KC-46 Pegasus – Altus AFB, Oklahoma
 * MC-130 Commando II and HC-130 Combat King II – Kirtland AFB, New Mexico
 * UH-1N Twin Huey – Kirtland AFB, New Mexico
 * HH-60G Pave Hawk and HH-60W Jolly Green II – Kirtland AFB, New Mexico
 * CV-22 Osprey – Kirtland AFB, Mexico
 * T-6 Texan II, T-38 Talon and T-1 Jayhawk Pilot Instructor Training (PIT) – Randolph AFB, Texas

FTUs not under AETC claimancy are:
 * Air Combat Command
 * A-10 Thunderbolt II
 * E-3 Sentry
 * E-4 NAOC
 * E-8 J-STARS
 * EC-130 Hercules (Compass Call)
 * F-15E Strike Eagle
 * F-22 Raptor
 * OC-135 Open Skies
 * RC-135 Rivet Joint
 * U-2 Dragon Lady
 * MQ-1 Predator
 * MQ-9 Reaper
 * RQ-170 Sentinel
 * Air Force Global Strike Command
 * B-1 Lancer
 * B-2 Spirit
 * B-52 Stratofortress
 * Air Force Special Operations Command
 * AC-130 Spectre, Spooky and Stinger
 * EC-130 (Commando Solo)
 * U-28
 * Air Mobility Command
 * KC-10 Extender
 * C-20 Gulfstream IV
 * C-21 Learjet
 * VC-25
 * C-40 Clipper
 * C-32
 * C-37 Gulfstream V

Air University
Air University (AU), headquartered at Maxwell AFB, Alabama, conducts professional military education (PME), graduate education and professional continuing education for officers, senior enlisted members and DoD and DAFC civilians throughout their careers.

USAF Commissioned Officer Accession & Training
Air University also has responsibility for all Air Force officer accession and training other than those officers accessed and commissioned the United States Air Force Academy (USAFA). This is conducted via AU's subordinate activity, the Jeanne M. Holm Center for Officer Accessions and Citizen Development (Holm Center), formerly the Air Force Officer Accession and Training Schools (AFOATS).

As an AU activity, the Holm Center oversees both the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps (AFROTC), with detachments at numerous colleges and universities across the United States, and the Air Force Officer Training School (OTS) at Maxwell AFB, Alabama.

Professional Military Education (PME) and Graduate and Continuing Education
Air University's professional military education schools prepare students from the Air Force, its sister services and both NATO and other U.S.-allied nations as they progress through their careers. Emphasis in these programs includes leadership, military doctrine and air power.

The three primary PME schools are: Air University oversees the Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT), the Air Force's primary institution for graduate and continuing education. Approximately 700 full-time students, most of whom are Air Force and Space Force officers, pursue both master of science and doctor of philosophy degrees through the institute's Graduate School of Education and Management. The School of Systems and Logistics, the Civil Engineer School, and the School of Strategic Force Studies provides opportunities for acquisition management, logistics management, civil engineering, and nuclear and cyber professional and continuing education.
 * Squadron Officer School (SOS), an approximately two-month leadership development program primarily for USAF company grade officers (First Lieutenants (O-2) and Captains (O-3)); attendance is also open to US civil service (primarily DAFC) in grades GS-11 and GS-12
 * Air Command and Staff College (ACSC), an approximately year long joint "intermediate" service college program for officers of all services in the rank of (or selected for) Major (O-4), Lieutenant Commander (O-4) in the Navy and Coast Guard, other Allied military equivalents, or US civil service GS-13, primarily DAFC, DoD, DHS and NASA
 * USAF Air War College (AWC), an approximately year long joint "senior" service college program for officers in the rank of (or selected for) Lieutenant Colonel (O-5), Commander (O-5) in the Navy and Coast Guard, other Allied military equivalents, or US civil service GS-14. Officers in the grade of Colonel (O-6), Captain (O-6) in the Navy and Coast Guard, and US civil service GS-15 (primarily DAFC, DoD, DHS and NASA) may also attend AWC in residence, although this is usually due to previous completion of AWC via correspondence or seminar, career timing, or early promotion.

Air Force Junior ROTC
Air University also oversees one of Air Force's two civilian participatory programs, Air Force Junior ROTC. Civil Air Patrol was moved under Air Combat Command in 2016:

 * The Air Force Junior ROTC program is a cadet program for high school students at more than 870 high schools in the United States and at Department of Defense Dependent Schools (DoDDS) locations overseas. AFJROTC Instructors are retired USAF officers in the ranks of Major, Lieutenant Colonel and Colonel, assisted by retired USAF non-commissioned officers in the ranks of Technical Sergeant through Chief Master Sergeant.
 * As opposed to its college/university counterpart, Air Force ROTC (AFROTC), the AFJROTC program is not a military pre-commissioning program for prospective USAF officers, but is instead a citizenship program for youth similar to, but with an overall narrower age range than, the Civil Air Patrol Cadet Program.

AFJROTC are subordinate to the Jeanne M. Holm Center for Officer Accessions and Citizen Development (Holm Center).

Other academic support services at Air University include the Academic Instructor School, the Air Force Public Affairs Center of Excellence, the Muir S. Fairchild Research Information Center (formerly known as Air University Library) and the International Officer School.

Bases
AETC has claimancy and oversight of the following installations:

 * Altus AFB, OK
 * Columbus AFB, MS
 * Goodfellow AFB, TX
 * Holloman AFB, NM
 * Keesler AFB, MS
 * Joint Base San Antonio, TX
 * JBSA-Lackland
 * JBSA-Randolph
 * JBSA-Fort Sam Houston
 * Laughlin AFB, TX
 * Luke AFB, AZ
 * Maxwell-Gunter AFB, AL
 * Sheppard AFB, TX
 * Vance AFB, OK

AETC is also a major tenant at Eglin AFB, FL; Kirtland AFB, NM; Little Rock AFB, AR; NAS Pensacola, FL; and Vandenberg SFB, CA.

Units

 * Wings
 * 12th Flying Training Wing.png Flying Training Wing
 * 14th Flying Training Wing.png Flying Training Wing
 * 17th Training Wing.svg Training Wing
 * 33d Fighter Wing.png Fighter Wing
 * 37th Training Wing.svg Training Wing
 * 42d Air Base Wing.png Air Base Wing
 * 47th Flying Training Wing.png Flying Training Wing
 * 49th Fighter Wing.png Wing
 * 56th Fighter Wing.svg Fighter Wing
 * 58th Special Operations Wing.jpg Special Operations Wing
 * 59th Medical Wing.png Medical Wing
 * 71st_Flying_Training_Wing.png Flying Training Wing
 * 80th Flying Training Wing.png Flying Training Wing
 * 81st Training Wing.png Training Wing
 * 82d Training Wing.png Training Wing
 * 97th Air Mobility Wing.jpg Air Mobility Wing
 * 314th Airlift Wing.png Airlift Wing
 * USAF - 502d Air Base Wing.png Air Base Wing

 * Groups
 * 336th_Training_Group.png Training Group

Medical services
The Air Force's two largest medical facilities belong to AETC: the Wilford Hall Medical Center at Lackland AFB, Texas, and the Keesler Medical Center at Keesler AFB, Mississippi.

History
For a history prior to 1993, see Air Training Command

On 1 January 1993, Air Training Command absorbed Air University and changed the command designation to Air Education and Training Command (AETC). AETC assumed responsibilities for both aspects of career development: training and education. Missions such as combat crew training, pararescue, and combat controller training, and (later) space training transferred to the new command, so that airmen would report to their operational units mission ready.

Restructuring the command assumed priority among the issues facing the command staff. The introduction of three new training aircraft, the Raytheon T-1 Jayhawk, Slingsby T-3 Firefly, and Beech T-6 Texan II (JPATS); the addition of joint training; and the BRAC-mandated closures of Chanute AFB, Illinois (a major technical training center); Mather AFB, California (previously USAF's sole Undergraduate Navigator Training base) and Williams AFB, Arizona (an Undergraduate Pilot Training base) were major challenges following the establishment of AETC.

In 1994, AETC adopted the Objective Wing Concept and stood up several wings responsible for crew training in the F-16, special operations aircraft, airlift aircraft, the KC-135 aerial refueling aircraft, and space and missile operations. AETC also began the first Specialized Undergraduate Pilot Training (SUPT) and Joint-SUPT courses.

Lowry AFB, Colorado, a technical training center with closed runways that, like the previously closed Chanute AFB, no longer conducted flight operations but conducted both non-flying officer and enlisted technical training, was added to the list of AETC bases closed by the Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC) in the mid-1990s. This was followed by the BRAC mandated closure of Reese AFB, Texas, an Undergraduate Pilot Training base, in 1995. The transition to SUPT was completed in 1996, the delivery of the first JPATS aircraft in 1999, and the discontinuation of the controversial T-3 as an initial flight screening aircraft in 2000 following a higher than average fatal mishap record.

In response to the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001, AETC went on a war footing, activating a Crisis Action Team and supplying both fighters and tankers from its wings for combat air patrols in American airspace as part of Operation Noble Eagle. An operational test and evaluation of JPATS began in 2002 at Moody AFB and upgrades to its Training Integration Management System (TIMS) were begun the next year, resulting in retirement of the T-37 Tweet and full implementation of JPATS with the T-6 Texan II in 2007.

Lineage

 * Established as Air Corps Flying Training Command on 23 January 1942
 * Redesignated as Army Air Forces Flying Training Command on or about 15 March 1942
 * Redesignated as Army Air Forces Training Command on 31 July 1943
 * Redesignated as Air Training Command (ATC) on 1 July 1946
 * Redesignated as Air Education and Training Command (AETC) on 1 July 1993

title: Air Education and Training Command


text:
Nenets languages

Nenets (in former work also Yurak) is a pair of closely related languages spoken in northern Russia by the Nenets people. They are often treated as being two dialects of the same language, but they are very different and mutual intelligibility is low. The languages are Tundra Nenets, which has a higher number of speakers, spoken by some 30,000 to 40,000 people in an area stretching from the Kanin Peninsula to the Yenisei River, and Forest Nenets, spoken by 1,000 to 1,500 people in the area around the Agan, Pur, Lyamin and Nadym rivers.

The Nenets languages are classified in the Uralic language family, making them distantly related to some national languages spoken in Europe – namely Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian – in addition to other minority languages spoken in Russia. Both of the Nenets languages have been greatly influenced by Russian. Tundra Nenets has, to a lesser degree, been influenced by Komi and Northern Khanty. Forest Nenets has also been influenced by Eastern Khanty. Tundra Nenets is well documented, considering its status as an indigenous and minority language. It has a literary tradition going back to the 1930s, while Forest Nenets was first written during the 1990s and has been little documented.

Apart from the word 'Nenets', only one other Nenets word has entered the English language: 'parka', their traditional long, hooded jacket, made from skins and sometimes fur.

Common features of Nenets languages
Tundra Nenets has 16 moods, most of which reflect different degrees of certainty in what in English might be called indicative statements or different degrees of force in what in English might be called imperative commands. An overarching feature of the Nenets languages is the introduction of systematic palatalization of almost all consonants. This originates from contrasts between different vowel qualities in the Proto-Samoyedic language. The velar consonants *k and *ŋ were additionally shifted to *sʲ and *nʲ when palatalized.
 * *Cä, *Ca → *Cʲa, *Ca
 * *Ce, *Cë → *Cʲe, *Ce
 * *Ci, *Cï → *Cʲi, *Ci
 * *Cö, *Co → *Cʲo, *Co
 * *Cü, *Cu → *Cʲu, *Cu

Similar changes have also occurred in the other Samoyedic languages spoken in the tundra zone: Enets, Nganasan and the extinct Yurats.

Differences between Tundra and Forest Nenets
Tundra Nenets generally has remained closer to Proto-Nenets than Forest Nenets, whose phonology has been influenced by eastern Khanty dialects. Changes towards the modern languages include:
 * Tundra Nenets:
 * Delabialization of /wʲ/ → /j/
 * Lenition of initial /k/ → /x/
 * Simplification of /ʔk/ → /k/
 * Forest Nenets:
 * Initial /s/ → /x/
 * Medial denasalization of /nʲ/ → /j/
 * The change of rhotics to lateral fricatives: /r/, /rʲ/ → /ɬ/, /ɬʲ/
 * Shortening of geminate nasals
 * Breaking of geminate /lː/ → /nɬ/
 * Phonemicization of palatalized velars /kʲ/, /xʲ/, /ŋʲ/ due to vowel changes
 * Raising of non-close vowels preceding a syllable with an original close vowel
 * Loss of vowel distinctions in unstressed syllables
 * Introduction of short/long contrasts for /a/ and /æ/

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nenets languages


text:
Nothing-up-my-sleeve number

In cryptography, nothing-up-my-sleeve numbers are any numbers which, by their construction, are above suspicion of hidden properties. They are used in creating cryptographic functions such as hashes and ciphers. These algorithms often need randomized constants for mixing or initialization purposes. The cryptographer may wish to pick these values in a way that demonstrates the constants were not selected for a nefarious purpose, for example, to create a backdoor to the algorithm. These fears can be allayed by using numbers created in a way that leaves little room for adjustment. An example would be the use of initial digits from the number $\pi$ as the constants. Using digits of π millions of places after the decimal point would not be considered trustworthy because the algorithm designer might have selected that starting point because it created a secret weakness the designer could later exploit—though even with natural-seeming selections, enough entropy exists in the possible choices that the utility of these numbers has been questioned.

Digits in the positional representations of real numbers such as π, e, and irrational roots are believed to appear with equal frequency (see normal number). Such numbers can be viewed as the opposite extreme of Chaitin–Kolmogorov random numbers in that they appear random but have very low information entropy. Their use is motivated by early controversy over the U.S. Government's 1975 Data Encryption Standard, which came under criticism because no explanation was supplied for the constants used in its S-box (though they were later found to have been carefully selected to protect against the then-classified technique of differential cryptanalysis). Thus a need was felt for a more transparent way to generate constants used in cryptography.

"Nothing up my sleeve" is a phrase associated with magicians, who sometimes preface a magic trick by holding open their sleeves to show they have no objects hidden inside.

Examples

 * Ron Rivest used the trigonometric sine function to generate constants for the widely used MD5 hash.
 * The U.S. National Security Agency used the square roots of the first eight prime integers to produce the hash constants in their "Secure Hash Algorithm" functions, SHA-1 and SHA-2. SHA-1 also uses 0123456789ABCDEFFEDCBA9876543210F0E1D2C3 as its initial hash value.
 * The Blowfish encryption algorithm uses the binary representation of π (without the initial 3) to initialize its key schedule.
 * RFC 3526 describes prime numbers for internet key exchange that are also generated from π.
 * The S-box of the NewDES cipher is derived from the United States Declaration of Independence.
 * The AES candidate DFC derives all of its arbitrary constants, including all entries of the S-box, from the binary expansion of $e$.
 * The ARIA key schedule uses the binary expansion of 1/π.
 * The key schedule of the RC5 cipher uses binary digits from both $e$ and the golden ratio.
 * Multiple ciphers including TEA and Red Pike use 2654435769 or 0x9e3779b9 which is $\floor{2^{32}/ϕ}$, where ϕ is the golden ratio.
 * The BLAKE hash function, a finalist in the SHA-3 competition, uses a table of 16 constant words which are the leading 512 or 1024 bits of the fractional part of π.
 * The key schedule of the KASUMI cipher uses 0x123456789ABCDEFFEDCBA9876543210 to derive the modified key.
 * The Salsa20 family of ciphers use the ASCII string "expand 32-byte k" or "expand 16-byte k" as constants in its block initialization process.
 * Bcrypt uses the string "OrpheanBeholderScryDoubt" as an initialization string

Counterexamples
Although not directly related, after the backdoor in Dual_EC_DRBG had been exposed, suspicious aspects of the NIST's P curve constants led to concerns that the NSA had chosen values that gave them an advantage in finding private keys. Since then, many protocols and programs started to use Curve25519 as an alternative to NIST P-256 curve.
 * The Streebog hash function S-box was claimed to be generated randomly, but was reverse-engineered and proven to be generated algorithmically with some "puzzling" weaknesses.
 * The Data Encryption Standard (DES) has constants that were given out by NSA. They turned out to be far from random, but instead made the algorithm resilient against differential cryptanalysis, a method not publicly known at the time.
 * Dual_EC_DRBG, a NIST-recommended cryptographic pseudo-random bit generator, came under criticism in 2007 because constants recommended for use in the algorithm could have been selected in a way that would permit their author to predict future outputs given a sample of past generated values. In September 2013 The New York Times wrote that "internal memos leaked by a former NSA contractor, Edward Snowden, suggest that the NSA generated one of the random number generators used in a 2006 NIST standard—called the Dual EC DRBG standard—which contains a back door for the NSA."
 * P curves are standardized by NIST for elliptic curve cryptography. The coefficients in these curves are generated by hashing unexplained random seeds, such as:
 * P-224:.
 * P-256:.
 * P-384:.

Limitations
Bernstein and coauthors demonstrate that use of nothing-up-my-sleeve numbers as the starting point in a complex procedure for generating cryptographic objects, such as elliptic curves, may not be sufficient to prevent insertion of back doors. For example, many candidates of seemingly harmless and "uninteresting" simple mathematical constants exist, such as π, e, Euler gamma, √2, √3, √5, √7, log(2), (1 + √5)/2, ζ(3), ζ(5), sin(1), sin(2), cos(1), cos(2), tan(1), or tan(2). For these constants, there also exists several different binary representations to choose. If a constant is used as a random seed, a large number of hash function candidates also exist for selection, such as SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512, SHA-512/256, SHA3-256, or SHA3-384.

If there are enough adjustable parameters in the object selection procedure, combinatorial explosion ensures that the universe of possible design choices and of apparently simple constants can be large enough so that an automatic search of the possibilities allows construction of an object with desired backdoor properties.

title: Nothing-up-my-sleeve number


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Bobby Rhine

Bobby Rhine (April 18, 1976 – September 5, 2011) was an American soccer player who last played for FC Dallas of Major League Soccer.

Rhine played college soccer at the University of Connecticut from 1994 to 1998. In 1997, he redshirted his senior season in order to complete his master's degree requirements. In 1998, he returned for his last season, earning second-team All-American recognition. In February 1999, the Dallas Burn selected Rhine in the first round (sixth overall) in the 1999 MLS College Draft. During his Dallas career, Rhine filled a variety of positions as an on-and-off starter, usually playing up front or in the midfield. His versatility even led to a switch to defense for the 2005 season. His best season came in 2002, when he scored seven goals and six assists and added another goal in the playoffs. In eight MLS seasons, Rhine's regular-season totals stand at 23 goals and 33 assists. In 1999, he went on loan to the Milwaukee Rampage of the USL A-League. In 2000, he played one game on loan with the Tennessee Rhythm. Rhine played his final career game against Los Angeles Galaxy on October 26, 2008, a game in which normal team captain Duilio Davino insisted Rhine take the captain's armband.

Rhine retired at the end of the 2008 season. Upon retiring, he accepted the position of Manager of Community Development with the FC Dallas front office. In addition, Rhine also worked as the color commentator for the team's television broadcasts.

On September 5, 2011, while vacationing with his family in Florida, Rhine died from a sudden heart attack at the age of 35.

title: Bobby Rhine


text:
Jacqueline Fatima Bocoum

Jacqueline Fatima Bocoum is a Senegalese journalist turned author from the West African state of Senegal. She is director of the media company Com 7.

As a journalist, she worked for R.T.S. and Sud FM before becoming Programme Director and Director of Information at Radio Nostalfie. Her father was a bureaucrat under President Léopold Sédar Senghor.

Publications

 * Motus et bouche ... décousue (Words and Secrets), Xamal (2002), ISBN 978-2-84402-043-7

title: Jacqueline Fatima Bocoum


text:
Talk:Hermit crab

Taxonomy
Is the subphylum Mandibula supposed to be Mandibulata? I say this because the latter is how it is spelled in all texts I've seen this year, as well as in the article, Mandible (arthropod), to which it links. Case in point:

"In arthropods, the mandible is either of a pair of arthropod mouthparts used for biting, cutting and holding food. Mandibles are often simply referred to as jaws. The arthropods with mandibles form the clade Mandibulata, comprising the extant subphyla Myriapoda, Crustacea and Hexapoda."

Also, there are some missing taxwe. Among them, Subclass Malacostraca which is not a minor classification at all. I am basing this on my Invertebrate zoology text published this year. I have it at my apartment, so I can't give the citation at this moment, but anywhere you look, I think your sources will agree. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Yarnbell333 (talk • contribs) 17:06, 29 November 2008 (UTC)

Notable Species
I think we should keep links to stub articles out of the notable species section. Mostly because they are not notable enough to have a full article about them.

I could link to the entire Category:Anomura if that would be useful.

Comments? Mech Aaron (talk) 20:00, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

Optimum habitat temperature
The Temperature must be kept between 74-82 degrees F sustained and the humidity must be between 75%-85% relative.

The conditions must be monitored constantly through the use of either dial type gauges or digital gauges. You are also reccomended to have a themometer that can be stuck down into the sand/substrate to read the temp. of the substrate which should be kwpt warm with the use of a UTH or under tank heater. That temp should range about the same as the air temp.

Have a couple sets of gauges, one close to the substrate level and the other set aobut mid way up the glass.. you need to make sure there are both light and shady areas of the tank and warm and cool areas.

Citations please. 58.96.80.136 (talk) 05:17, 26 December 2009 (UTC)

Wouldn't it depend on the specific species? Given that they live in such a wide range of habitats and climates I find it hard to believe they all require identical conditions. Danikat (talk) 20:22, 13 February 2010 (UTC)

Distinguish b/w male and female
SO IS IT A BOY OR A GIRL?? FOR the land hermit crab only

Take your crab in your hand, hold him/her above your line of sight.

Take your free hand and bring it steadily in front of your crab.

Allow him/her to stretch out to try to reach your free hand. (You can even use a pencil for this, in case he or she is pinchy.)

While the crab is stretching out of it's shell try to look on the underside of the legs.

Now the last pair of walking legs is where you need to look, right where they attach to the Hermie's body.

If you see small blackish dots or spots (one on each leg) then it is a GIRL!!!

NO dots or spots, it's a BOY!!!

Here is further info on the dots and what they do...

These "dots" are actually called Gonopores. They are close to the body near the joint of the last pair of walking legs of the Hermit Crabs.

This is where the male Hermit Crab will transfer his Spermatophore into the female. Though I have read it is transferred onto the female and not within. I guess since they do not reproduce successfully while in captivity, there will be much debate and discussion about this topic.

(Please also note the blackish/dark spots or dots may also be like tiny round holes depending on the actual species)

SO IN CONCLUSION...

Despite of what you may have been told or read while learning about Land Hermit Crabs, it is VERY POSSIBLE to sex your crab and quite simple with patience and a cooperative crab.

Be gentle and take your time, sometimes they can be shy.. wouldn't you be?

Paguroidea: infraorder or superfamily?
This article describes Paguroidea as an infra-order, while Anomura says it's a superfamily. Is there a consensus in the scientific community? A-giau 19:48, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Any animal taxon ending in -oidea is a superfamily, including Paguroidea. I will change the article now. --Stemonitis 08:31, 1 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Photograph
I just added a photograph of a Hermit Crab I photographed in Corcovado National Park in Costa Rica. I would prefer to place it in a more specific article, but the closest I come to identifying it is as a Land Hermit Crab. Does anyone know more specifics? Btw, other photographs that need identifying can be found at User:DirkvdM/Photographs. Thanx. DirkvdM 11:23, 18 September 2005 (UTC)

>>>>> I believe that is an Ecuadorian land hermit crab, or C. Compressus. --Caaristiona (talk) 04:11, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

________

Yes is is a C. Compressus. I have access to a large collection of high quality hermit crab photos. I can upload some if you like. Post here. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.215.30.37 (talk) 09:34, 22 September 2008 (UTC) -

Why is the current photo a photo of a marine hermit crab? It would make more sense for it to be any of the land hermit crab species.

Coconut Crab?
I do believe that the coconut crab is not a kind of hermit crab, as this article suggests, but just a similar crab. It's genus is Birgus, not Coenoebita. Is this correct, or do I have something wrong? authraw 02:38, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

The coconut crab, Birgus latro, is indeed a hermit crab. It is in the same family (Coenobitidae) as the more typically shell-using terrestrial hermit crabs Coenobita. Newly settled Birgus occupy snail shells in the same manner as Coenobita, but eventually abandon the habit while still quite small. For more information, see:

Reese, E. S. 1968. Shell use: an adaptation for emigration from the sea by the coconut crab. Science 161: 385—386.

Reese, E. S.; Kinzie, R. A. III. 1968. Studies on decapod larval development: The larval development of the coconut or robber crab Birgus latro (L.) in the laboratory (Anomura, Paguridea). Crustaceana Supplement 2: 117—144. Clibanarius 15:26, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

Question about lifespan and rate of growth
Thank you for the page. I was wondering if someone in the know could write something about how long hermit crabs live and the rate of growth. Thank you.

Stemonitis will not allow us to add that info, he continues to remove all information that we have added therefor the article will remoain the sole ownership of him and had made it obvious that no one is aloowed to edit it or improve it in anyway.

 * That's not true. You just need to remember that this is an encyclopaedia and not a pet owner's manual. Information about lifespan in the wild would be highly appreciated, particularly if it comes from a cited source. --Stemonitis 16:12, 12 August 2006 (UTC)

Are They Endangered?
Hello, I was wondering if the hermit crabs are endangered? ---

I would think that an endangered species wouldn't be kept as a pet. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 137.186.187.144 (talk) 21:16, 6 February 2009 (UTC)

Species in Costa Rica?
Does anyone know?? (on the Pacific side). Please tell me, thanks. --207.69.137.41 05:59, 20 January 2007 (UTC) too lazy to login

People who insist on deleting other's contributions
Stemonitis, instead of deleting the gallery of images I uploaded, why don't you improve it if it's not up to your 'encylopedic' standards? Are you of the opinion that an image of a hermit crab is worthless if the Latin name isn't shown?

Wikipeidia is a SHARED effort. People contribute different parts. I have lots of images but I know little of the taxonomy of the creatures. Why don't you ADD knowledge and use your skills to improve the gallery by adding the names instead of deleting it? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Aquaimages (talk • contribs) 16:47, 21 April 2007 (UTC).

predators
Hermit crabs, having no shells of their own, use discarded gastropod shells for protection agaisnt predators. Such as? 172.130.4.65 13:52, 6 July 2007 (UTC)RKH

cross-article agreement
The article on Carcinisation seems to state that, while there is a fair amount of evidence supporting the relation of Red King Crabs and Hermit Crabs, there is still some amount of debate over the matter. To what extent is this true? If there is a respectable amount of disagreement, it should probably be mentioned somewhere in this article as well; otherwise, the article on Carcinisation should be edited to reflect that. Inspector Baynes 15:37, 14 July 2007 (UTC)

Picture
What on earth is up with the current picture for the hermit crab? I'm going to assume it's vandalism, but I don't think I have enough expertise to replace it, and observe all the copyright rules. Vendretta 17:40, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

____- Why is the current photo a photo of a marine hermit crab? It would make more sense for it to be any of the land hermit crab species. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lolagran (talk • contribs) 23:42, 24 August 2008 (UTC)

claws falling off!!!
My son just got a hermit crab and we have had him/her for about three weeks. Food and water are readily avalible to him and he seems to be eating.... but, his large claw has fallen off, and now there is another leg laying in the sand. Is this normal?? if not, what can I do about it or is he about to die??? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)

'''Your questions are all solved. Take a look at this page. If you need more assistance post a question on my page.

http://www.hermit-crabs.com/FAQ.html

98.64.110.12 (talk) 17:47, 28 November 2008 (UTC)

claws falling off!!!
my son has had a hermit crab for about three weeks and the claw has fallen off. also one of the legs has fallen off as well. Is this normal???? can I do anything about it.. steve@roddeninstallation.com 71.75.123.53 15:22, 23 August 2007 (UTC)

Claws falling off is fairly normal, and it may take a while to grow back. they can lose them quite often when looking for a new shell. 24.77.19.12 (talk) 19:34, 23 February 2008 (UTC)

How old do hermit crabs grow?
hermit crabs can live to be anywhere from 15 to 30 years old if the are in the wild of have a good home. If someone has the information, please add it to the wiki. Iam very interested in how old these creatures can grow, given they have optimal care. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.208.90.130 (talk) 17:40, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

Added (for Caribean crabs anyway) Mech Aaron (talk) 02:41, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

Columella
The link in the first paragraph for Columella goes nowhere. The link is to the Roman writer, and the link that is there for the genus gives little information about what a columella is. I think that the link should be either redirected or unlinked, but unfortunately do not have time today to find a better link. Would some kind individual do that research? 72.92.94.137 16:07, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

The answer to hermit crab lifespan & Falling Limbs
I have had hermit crabs for a year and a half now, I have three happy hermit crabs from Petsmart. I noticed that some of you wanted to know the lifespan of these critters. It's actually surprising, in the wild they can live up to 20 years, and in captivity, the average is 11 years, if properly taken care of. The reason for the falling limbs is simply the fact that they are molting. This process is necessary for them to grow. They shed their small limbs and turn a pinkish color. Please do not worry, all you must do is ( if you have more than one little guy) make a small isolation tank with all the necessities he might need, and leave him alone until he returns to his normal color and starts regrowth of new limbs. I hope that this answered some of your questions. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 208.100.203.47 (talk) 18:43, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

Limbs falling off is NOT a normal part of a crabs molt cycle it is a sign of stress or disease. During a molt a crab sheds his entire exoskeleton, not one leg at a time. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lolagran (talk • contribs) 23:43, 24 August 2008 (UTC)

Hermit Crab Diet
People who have hermit crabs sometimes don't know what to feed them. A proper crab diet would be chopped carrots, salad, boughten food ( but I don't recommend boughten food, because they get tired of eating it all the time ) They love the freshness. Raw fish, chicken, beef, are all ok to give them. As long as you remove them the day after. If you forget to remove it, flies and hermit crab mites will infest your habitat.Please keep it small or they can't pinch any off. Weekly crab baths are strongly recommended for your hermits. You can buy hemrit crab salt and put it in a sink full of water. Submerge them for about 10 seconds and dry them in a small box with paper towels. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 208.100.202.111 (talk) 21:34, 10 January 2008 (UTC) llll

Interesting picture
I just found an interesting picture portraying a hermit crab with a cup as its shell at (http://news.163.com/08/0618/11/4ENEC07E0001125G.html). The title of the page is "Tourists take away shells and leave trashes：Hermite crab on orchid island takes a cup as its home."(18:36pm EDT)Schpnhr (talk) 22:36, 18 June 2008 (UTC)

Vandalism
Wow, who would have guessed this page got so much vandalism??

I find something new every other week! Mech Aaron (talk) 02:57, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

???
I have a new class pet and his/ her name is Kiki. I wonder if it's a girl or a boy. Any hints? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.64.110.12 (talk) 16:29, 28 November 2008 (UTC)

If it's a land hermit crab, check it back legs. If it has black dots/holes, it's a girl. Otherwise it's a boy :D FuriousFox60 (talk) 19:19, 31 July 2019 (UTC)

Chirping
Shouldn't there some info about Hermit Crab Chirping. http://www.hermit-crabs.com/chirping.html --75.154.186.241 (talk) 17:36, 7 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes, but there needs to be some good quality sources to back it up.Mech Aaron (talk) 19:42, 30 July 2009 (UTC)

Inaccurate info
--Sterwick (talk) 15:48, 6 August 2009 (UTC) On one of the care bullet points, there are the words 'Seperate moulting tank'. There has been lots of dispute amongst crab owners whether this should be done or not. This can cause stress and perhaps even death, and by doing this you are saying you know more about the crab than the crab- if you know what I am saying. But then again, doing this prevents cannibalism.

Reason for the name?
"This habit of living in a second hand shell gives rise to the popular name "hermit crab", by analogy to a hermit who lives alone." This sentance from the lead parapgraph seems somewhat contradictory, what on earth does using a 2nd hand shell have to do with living alone?

I'm no expert but I was always under the impression that hermit crabs got their name because hermits are stereotypically poor and have to scavange useful items discarded by people nearby because they can't afford to buy their own, which obviously parallels the crabs use of discarded shells. However as I said I'm not an expert so I don't want to just go ahead and change it. I have put a note in requesting a citation if one can be found for the original version and I'm putting this here to request a change if not. Danikat (talk) 20:36, 13 February 2010 (UTC)

my new pet hermy
hermy constantly goes deep within his/her (no idea of gender) shell leaving only a few legs and his dominant claw exposed, is this normal, or am I doing something wrong?? also will "playing" (moving,putting in hand,and taking it for walks) with hermy make it die sooner? also (again) how can I identify hermies species???-- RIVER Babble at my brooks 19:14, 9 June 2010 (UTC)

 * There are lots of internet forums where you can discuss such issues. This page is (only) for talking about our encyclopaedia entry on hermit crabs. --Stemonitis (talk) 20:22, 9 June 2010 (UTC)

Since Stemonitis didn't help XD it's legs sticking out is normal. Playing with it will make it trust you more. And if it's a land hermie, check it's back legs. Black dots/holes? Girl. No black dots/holes? Boy FuriousFox60 (talk) 19:22, 31 July 2019 (UTC)

Number of species
The intro says there are 1100 species of hermit crabs, but later in the article it says "about five hundred". Which is it? 24.214.230.66 (talk) 20:50, 17 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Thanks for pointing that out. The true figure is 1100, as referenced to McLaughlin et al. (2010). The estimate of 500 must be quite an old one; I have taken it out. --Stemonitis (talk) 21:55, 17 February 2011 (UTC)

External link moved from article
I moved this from the article:

For more information visit http://www.hermitcrabassociation.com/phpBB/

–Jérôme (talk) 18:09, 7 July 2012 (UTC)

I am thinking of adding some more general information under the pet section like more types of food and shelter and information from a couple of sorces Gabsj54 (talk) 16:47, 20 November 2013 (UTC)

what are those colors at the top?
what are those colors at the top? Howlpumpkin27125 (talk) 20:37, 8 May 2014 (UTC)

Breeding
The Outline published a piece on the woman who has figured out how to get hermit crabs to breed in captivity. This feels like important information to in some way have in our article — as well as the fact that all pet hermit crabs have (until now) been wild-caught. DS (talk) 12:56, 20 October 2019 (UTC)

Curious, a crab in a glass shell
There are many experiments where the crab "agreed" to move to a glass shell... Seems that the first scientific one was in New Zealand in ~2009, see for example https://madscientistnz.files.wordpress.com/2009/04/hermit-crab.jpg

Similar thing (and worrying)  with trash, see https://roaring.earth/one-mans-trash/ (image).

Curious and good to see all crab's anatomy: how about adding into the article? --Krauss (talk) 18:59, 29 May 2021 (UTC)

(more refs: original iniciative at otago.ac.nz and odt.co.nz/news... and a blog that cites a video!).

title: Talk:Hermit crab


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Barbara Radziwiłł

Barbara Radziwiłł (Barbara Radziwiłłówna, Barbora Radvilaitė; 6 December 1520/23 – 8 May 1551) was Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania as consort of Sigismund II Augustus, the last male monarch of the Jagiellon dynasty. Barbara, a great beauty and already widowed, became a royal mistress most likely in 1543 and they married in secret in July or August 1547. The marriage caused a scandal; it was vehemently opposed by Polish nobles, including Queen mother Bona Sforza. Sigismund Augustus, assisted by Barbara's cousin Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł and brother Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł, worked tirelessly to gain recognition of their marriage and to crown Barbara as Queen of Poland. They succeeded and Barbara's coronation was held on 7 December 1550 at Wawel Cathedral. However, her health was already failing and she died just five months later. Even though it was brief, her reign propelled the Radziwiłł family to new heights of political power and influence.

Her contemporaries generally viewed Barbara in a negative light, accusing her of promiscuity and witchcraft. Her life became surrounded by many rumors and myths. She was a heroine of many legends in a wide range of literary works. From the 18th century, the life of Barbara became romanticized as the great tragic love affair. It has been used as an example of "love conquers all" with Bona Sforza often acting as the chief villain. It caught public imagination and has inspired many artists to create poems, plays, films, and other works. That made Barbara Radziwiłł one of the best known and most recognized women in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland.

Marriage to Stanislovas Goštautas
Barbara was the youngest child of Jerzy Radziwiłł, Voivode of Trakai and Vilnius and Great Lithuanian Hetman, and his wife Barbara Kolanka, daughter of Voivode of Podolia. Her exact birth date is unknown. It is known that she was born on 6 December, but the year is not known. Historians usually provide either 1520, as recorded in Radziwiłł genealogy found in Nesvizh, or 1523, as recorded on a plaque found in her tomb. Details of her education are unknown, but it is unlikely that it was extensive. From her correspondence, it is known that she could speak and write in Polish. From a February 1549 letter it could be inferred that she understood at least some Latin, but her letters to Sigismund Augustus had not a single Latin phrase. According to her contemporaries, Barbara was very beautiful. Moreover, Barbara had an interest in fashion and cosmetics; she used perfumes and face powder.

In 1536, Stanislovas Goštautas, Voivode of Nowogrodek, canceled his betrothal to Anna Elżbieta Radziwiłł, elder sister of Barbara. Jerzy Radziwiłł then offered the hand of Barbara even though it was against custom for a younger sister to wed first. The wedding treaty was signed on 20 October 1536 in Radun. Another plan to wed either Anna Elżbieta or Barbara to Ilia Ostrogski, the only son of Great Hetman Konstanty Ostrogski, fell through. The wedding of Barbara and Stanislovas Goštautas took place on 18 May 1537 in Goštautas' residence in Hieraniony. Her dowry included numerous silver and gilded tableware items, 24 fine horses, dresses of satin and damask decorated with gold and precious stones. In exchange, Stanislovas transferred property worth 8,000 kopas of Lithuanian groschens to Barbara. Their marriage was childless. Stanislovas died unexpectedly after a brief illness on 18 December 1542.

Love affair and secret marriage
Stanislovas Goštautas was the last male member of the Goštautai family and, according to law regarding childless widows, the majority of his possessions were inherited by Sigismund I the Old, Grand Duke of Lithuania. On 15 June 1543, Sigismund transferred the property to his son Sigismund II Augustus who visited Hieraniony in October 1543 to take over the estate. It is likely that it was when Barbara and Sigismund Augustus became lovers, though there is no evidence of the affair until after the death of Sigismund Augustus' first wife.

In July 1544, Sigismund Augustus traveled to Brest and returned with his wife Elizabeth of Austria in October to Vilnius, where Barbara resided with her mother. On 15 June 1545, Elizabeth died from epileptic seizures. Sigismund Augustus and Barbara were free to enjoy each other's company – rumors spread about their romantic rendezvous, hunts, and parties. Sigismund Augustus spent 223 days in 1546 hunting. It was said that Sigismund Augustus ordered construction of a secret tunnel connecting the Royal Palace with the nearby Radziwiłł Palace so that the couple could meet frequently and discreetly. At the same time, Sigismund Augustus and his parents searched for a new bride. Sigismund I the Old contemplated a marriage to Anna Sophia, daughter of Albert, Duke of Prussia. Other candidates included Anna d'Este of Duchy of Ferrara, widowed Anna of Lorraine, Princesses Mary I of England and Margaret of France.

Sometime in 1547, Sigismund Augustus and Barbara wed in secret. Neither exact date nor circumstances are known. The Lithuanian Chronicles recorded the doubtful claim that Sigismund Augustus was forced into the marriage when he was caught with Barbara by the Radziwiłł cousins. According to research by Władysław Pociecha, the wedding probably took place between 26 July and 6 August. Her cousin Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł was sent to Kraków to inform the Polish court that Sigismund Augustus and Barbara were married since 25 November 1545. It seems he failed the assignment and Sigismund Augustus had to travel to Poland himself. He departed Vilnius on 15 November; Barbara was sent to the Radziwiłł estate in Dubingiai. In a letter dated 20 November, courtier Stanisław Dowojno, starosta of Merkinė, informed Sigismund Augustus that due to the difficult journey Barbara had a miscarriage. If that indeed was true, and not an elaborate intrigue by the Radziwiłłs, it would explain the secret marriage – an attempt to provide legitimacy to the child. Another explanation could be that the bleeding was caused by a rupture of an internal abscess, an early sign of her terminal illness.

Political struggle for recognition

Sigismund Augustus informed his parents of the marriage on 2 February 1548 in Piotrków Trybunalski. The news caused an uproar among Polish nobles as Sigismund Augustus wed without the approval of the Senate. What was worse, Barbara was his subject and lover. Queen mother Bona Sforza was one of the most vocal opponents. In the ensuing campaign against recognizing the marriage, Barbara was widely accused of promiscuous behavior and of using witchcraft or poison to seduce Sigismund Augustus. Various authors, including Stanisław Orzechowski and Mikołaj Rej, published and distributed various derogatory pamphlets. The charge of promiscuity often enters works of modern historians though it is not based on any actual evidence. Lithuanian nobles did not openly protest the marriage, but were distrustful of the Radziwiłłs and their rise to power.

King Sigismund I the Old died on 1 April 1548. Sigismund Augustus, who briefly returned to Vilnius, had to travel back to Kraków to attend the funeral and secure himself on the Polish throne. Barbara stayed in Vilnius. It seems that around the same time Barbara informed him of another pregnancy; it too ended in a miscarriage. Since it is known only from Radziwiłł reports, it is unknown whether it was a real pregnancy or another intrigue. In September 1548, Sigismund Augustus invited Barbara to Poland to show the strength of their marriage. The issue was discussed by the general sejm on 31 October – 12 December in Piotrków Trybunalski. The sessions were loud and rowdy. The nobles, including voivodes Piotr Kmita Sobieński, Jan Gabriel Tęczyński, and Piotr Boratyński, pleaded the King to abandon the marriage and even threatened to take up arms. Sigismund Augustus steadfastly refused and stood by his wife; reportedly he even considered abdication. The sejm ended in a stalemate.

After the sejm, Sigismund and Barbara entered Kraków on 13 February 1549. In Wawel, Barbara enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle and expensive gifts. In May 1549, she received large territories in the Trakai Voivodeship, including Kaunas Castle, Rumšiškės, Alytus, Merkinė, Nemunaitis, Birštonas, Žiežmariai, Stakliškės, Karmėlava, Vilkija, Skirsnemunė, Veliuona, Darsūniškis. While she had immense influence on Sigismund Augustus, she showed no interest in politics unlike her ambitious cousin Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł and brother Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł. While they worked with her husband to secure her the Polish crown, she made no gestures to win support from the nobles or favor from the people. When a compromise solution was offered – recognize Barbara as Sigismund Augustus' wife but not to crown her as Queen of Poland – Sigismund Augustus refused because that would cast a doubt on legitimacy of any future children. In summer 1549, to protect himself from a possible armed rebellion, Sigismund Augustus concluded an alliance with Ferdinand, King of Hungary, leaving his sister Isabella Jagiellon to fend for herself in the succession disputes in the Kingdom of Hungary. To obtain papal brief allowing Barbara's coronation, Sigismund Augustus issued an edict prohibiting heresy – a controversial move in a country that had many Eastern Orthodox believers in the east. He also worked to threaten, bribe, or otherwise persuade Polish nobles not to oppose the marriage. His mother and one of the most vocal opponents, dowager Queen Bona Sforza, was removed from the court and moved to Mazovia.

Illness and death

At the next sejm in May–July 1550, no one objected to the marriage. Therefore, while neither the sejm nor the senate gave an express permission, Barbara was crowned as Queen of Poland on 7 December 1550 in Wawel Cathedral by Mikołaj Dzierzgowski, Archbishop of Gniezno. However, her reign lasted only five months. Almost since her wedding in 1547, she complained of poor health, particularly of stomach pain or "internal stones". After the coronation her health took a turn for worse. She had fever, stomach pain, lost appetite. A lump appeared on her stomach full of pus. Sigismund Augustus asked to send women healers, including a Jewish woman, from Lithuania.

In March 1551, her condition improved somewhat and she was able to receive a messenger from Bona Sforza who informed her that Bona recognized her marriage to Sigismund Augustus. It was described as her last victory. Her health continued to decline and she had fever, diarrhea, nausea. Sigismund Augustus personally tended to his sick wife even though reportedly she stank of pus. He wanted to take her to Niepołomice where he hoped that spring weather would lessen her suffering. When there was a doubt whether a special wagon to transport Barbara could fit through the city gates, Sigismund Augustus ordered the gate demolished. Barbara died on 8 May 1551 in Kraków. She asked to be buried in Vilnius and her body was transported to Vilnius Cathedral, where she was buried on 23 June next to Sigismund Augustus' first wife Elizabeth of Austria. Her death was a severe loss to the King; it is said that for a good portion of the journey he followed her coffin on foot. It was said that Sigismund Augustus became more serious, avoided parties, and liked to dress black for the rest of his life.

The cause of her illness has been debated by contemporaries and historians. Secretary of Giovanni Francesco Commendone claimed that her illness was caused by her use of contraceptive measures. Radziwiłłs in their letters debated whether she had a sexually transmitted disease. There were persistent rumors that she was poisoned by Bona Sforza. Modern historians tend to think it was cervical or ovarian cancer.

Physical remains
Her remains were found in Vilnius Cathedral after a flood in 1931. To preserve her body during the long summer trip from Kraków to Vilnius, it was covered in a mixture of ash and burnt lime. While the wooden coffin rotted away, the lime hardened and formed a protective shell that preserved her bones rather well. She was buried with regal symbols (silver gilded crown, silver scepter, golden orb with a cross) and jewelry (long gold necklace, three gold rings; one of them, gifted to her by Sigismund Augustus, was covered with black vitreous enamel and had three stones – brilliant, ruby, and emerald). These and other artifacts were kept at Vilnius Cathedral, but they disappeared during World War II.

Her skeleton was cleaned, conserved, and glued together by Michał Reicher and Witold Sylwanowicz, professors at Stefan Batory University. They calculated her height at 160.2cm, which was rather tall for her times. Her teeth were white and straight; her body was slim; her face and nose were narrow. They also noted anatomical abnormalities – a cervical (extra) rib and particularly flat sacrum, which could indicate rickets, but the rest of her skeleton showed no signs of the disease. However, they were unable to complete their monograph on the subject due to World War II. Barbara's remains were moved to a crypt under the Chapel of Saint Casimir and remained untouched until 2001. Her height was recalculated at 162cm. Using methods developed by Mikhail Mikhaylovich Gerasimov, Vytautas Urbanavičius reconstructed her facial features and revealed that she had an aquiline nose, a feature absent from her portraits.

Personal correspondence
In total, there are 53 surviving letters from Barbara. 44 of them were published by Alexander Przezdziecki in Jagiellonki polskie x XVI wieku (1868). They are addressed to her family (41 letters to her brother Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł, two letters to her nephews, one letter to her father Jerzy Radziwiłł, one letter to her mother Barbara Kolanka), her husband (8 letters), and Albert, Duke of Prussia (one letter in Latin). It is known that she wrote many more letters to a wider circle of recipients, including Polish nobles and Isabella Jagiellon of Hungary. The surviving letters do not represent actual number or frequency: Sigismund Augustus in his last will asked his sister Anna Jagiellon to destroy his personal correspondence, while Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł was particularly careful to preserve all his correspondence. 52 letters are in Polish (15 of them written by Barbara herself; the rest were written by her secretary Stanisław Koszutski).

Her eight letters to Sigismund Augustus, all written between November 1547 and March 1548 from Dubingiai, are the only surviving love letters of the period. However, they are formulaic and use flowery language. Above all, her letters show her humility and subservience to her husband. Barbara habitually refers to herself as his most humble and smallest servant. She inquires about his health, thanks him for any sign of his good grace and favor, asks him not to forget her. Letters written to others, particularly those by her secretary, are similarly standard though she manages to include more honest and warm greetings and wishes. Initially, Sigismund Augustus lectured her on the proper use of the royal "we" after she sent letters with singular "I". She rarely writes about herself or politics. She often inquired about the recipients' health and wished them good health, trusting God and His good grace. Her correspondence with her brother was controlled by Sigismund Augustus; therefore she wrote several letters to him in secret from her husband.

In popular culture
Barbara's life and death have inspired legends, paintings, literary works and film. The popular legend of Pan Twardowski has that Faust-like figure summoning Barbara's ghost for King Sigismund August. In 1817 Alojzy Feliński wrote a tragedy, and in 1858 Antoni Edward Odyniec a drama, Barbara Radziwiłłówna. A 19th-century lithograph by Michał Kulesza depicting her with pearls is considered among the painter's notable works.

In 1936 director Józef Lejtes directed the film "Barbara Radziwiłłówna" starring Witold Zacharewicz as the King Sigismund and Jadwiga Smosarska as Barbrara. The film gained international fame and recognition during Venice and Cannes film festivals.

In 1983 Janusz Majewski directed a film, Epitafium dla Barbary Radziwiłłówny (Epitaph for Barbara Radziwiłł) about Barbara's romance with King Sigismund August, her death and her posthumous return to Vilnius. Anna Dymna starred as Barbara, and Jerzy Zelnik as King Sigismund August. Barbara has also appeared as a major character in Królowa Bona (Queen Bona), TV series on Telewizja Polska.

In Lithuania, two plays Barbora Radvilaitė were written, by Balys Sruoga in 1946 (unfinished) and Juozas Grušas in 1972. The latter was staged by the Kaunas State Drama Theater and directed by Jonas Jurašas. It was also turned into a film, directed by Vidmantas Bačiulis, in 1982. In 2012, musical Žygimanto Augusto ir Barboros Radvilaitės legenda by Anželika Cholina was described as the biggest and most expensive in Lithuania.

The story of Barbara Radziwiłł served as an inspiration for the title track from the 2013 album Czornaja Panna by the Belarusian folkmetal band Litvintroll, a lyrical account of Sigismund's pain and grief after Barbara's death. The band claims the song not only to have given the name to the album but also to have "set its whole outline."

On 6 October 2018, a musical titled "The Legend of Zygimantas Augustas and Barbora Radvilaite," was performed at the Auditorium Theater in Chicago. The musical was directed and choreographed by Anzelika Cholina, composed by Mantas Jankavicius, and the libretto was authored by Romas Lileikis. The Lithuanian Choral Ensemble "Dainava" was utilized as the chorus.

title: Barbara Radziwiłł


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Sendeanlage Bisamberg

The Sendeanlage Bisamberg (Bisamberg transmission facility) was an Austrian medium wave transmission facility built in 1933 and demolished on February 24, 2010.

The original transmitter was destroyed at the end of World War II, but was later rebuilt. It had two guyed steel framework masts, one with a height of 265 metres and another with a height of 120 metres. Both masts were insulated against ground. The higher mast, which was the tallest construction of Austria before demolition, was designed for use on 585 kHz, while the smaller one was designed for 1476 kHz.

From January 1, 1995 to July 1, 1997, the installation was shut down, with the 1476 kHz transmitter being reactivated on July 1, 1997. The masts were demolished with controlled explosions on February 24, 2010; this decision by the city of Vienna was based on the fact that maintenance of the technologically obsolete masts as historical monuments would have been too costly.

As of February 24, 2010, the Danube Tower is the tallest structure in Austria.

title: Sendeanlage Bisamberg


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Category:Former villages in Missouri

Formerly incorporated villages in the U.S. state of Missouri that no longer function as separately incorporated municipalities.

title: Category:Former villages in Missouri


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Stepping Stones Light

Stepping Stones Light is a Victorian-style lighthouse in Long Island Sound, in Nassau County, New York. The lighthouse is square-shaped and made of red brick, standing one-and-a-half stories high. The Hudson-Athens Lighthouse is a virtual twin of this structure. The light is in current use, under the management of the United States Coast Guard. It is not open to the public.

The reef upon which it sits was given its name by Siwanoy (Minnefords) Native American legends. According to the legend, the tribe used warriors, medicine, and magic to chase the devil out of present-day Westchester County, New York onto City Island (formerly Greater Minneford Island), surrounding him at Belden Point. The devil then picked up huge boulders lying there and tossed them into Long Island Sound, using them as stepping stones to make his escape. The natives named the rocks, "The Devil's Stepping Stones".

It was added to the National Register of Historic Places as Stepping Stones Light Station on September 15, 2005, reference number 05001026. The light station has been declared surplus, and the application for transfer under the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act of 2000 is under review. In 2008, the light station was transferred to the Town of North Hempstead. In 2014, the Town of North Hempstead entered into a partnership with the Great Neck Historical Society and the Great Neck Park District to raise funds to rehabilitate the Lighthouse. The National Park Service and New York State Senator Jack Martins provided $165,000 and $100,000 in grant funding, respectively, to support the restoration efforts.

title: Stepping Stones Light


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Talk:Ordered logic

See Talk:Noncommutative logic Charles Stewart 16:33, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

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Hoyerswerda

Hoyerswerda or Wojerecy  is a major district town in the district of Bautzen in the German state of Saxony. It is located in the Sorbian settlement area of Upper Lusatia, in which the Upper Sorbian language is spoken in addition to German.

Hoyerswerda is divided into the Old Town and the New Town, surrounded by village areas. The Old Town is the historical centre with many old houses and sight-seeing attractions, the New Town is more modern and varicoloured. Prior to the renovation of the town, prefabricated apartment blocks predominated in this area.

The town has many lakes, marshes and waterways in its surrounding area, because of its situation in Lusatia. This brings many tourists to spend their holidays there. It is attractive for cyclists and inline skaters who use recently created paths meandering among the lakes.

Geography
The town is situated in the north of the District of Bautzen, close to the borders of Saxony with Brandenburg. Major cities and towns in proximity are Cottbus 35 km in the north-west, Dresden 55 km in the south-west and Berlin 150 km in the north. Hoyerswerda is part of Upper Lusatia and lies on a rural plain characterised by the presence of several lakes and some marshes.

Districts
Hoyerswerda is divided beside the Old Town and New Town into the following districts (names given in German/Upper Sorbian):

 * Bröthen-Michalken (German), Brětnja/Michałki (Upper Sorbian)
 * Dörgenhausen/Němcy
 * Knappenrode/Hórnikecy
 * Schwarzkollm/Čorny Chołmc
 * Zeißig/Ćisk

Old Town
The old town of Hoyerswerda is divided into eleven districts:

Neida, Dresdner Vorstadt, Am Bahnhof ('At the Railway Station'), Am Stadtrand ('On the Outskirts'), an der Neupetershainer Bahn, An der Thrune, Innere Altstadt ('Inner Historic Centre'), Senftenberger Vorstadt, Spremberger Vorstadt, Nördliche Elsteraue, Südliche Elsteraue.

New Town
The new town of Hoyerswerda is divided into 14 districts:

Neustadt Zentrum ('New Town Centre'), Kühnicht, Grünewaldring, Gondelteich ('Gondola Lake'), Wohnkomplex I, Wohnkomplex II, Wohnkomplex III, Wohnkomplex IV, Wohnkomplex V/VE, Wohnkomplex VI, Wohnkomplex VII, Wohnkomplex VIII, Wohnkomplex IX, Wohnkomplex X.

Sources:

Early history
The first settlers arrived in this area in 700 AD. They were Milceni Slavs. Many artifacts from this old culture have been found in the Hoyerswerda area.

1000 AD saw the construction of the first church in the town; the Heilige Familie ('Holy Family') which is still standing today in the historic centre of Hoyerswerda.

In 1150, Hoyerswerda first appeared on a map of Lusatia.

The city was first mentioned in 1268. At the time the mayor was Hoyer von Vredeberg.

In 1371 it was designated an official market town. Before this Hoyerswerda was a very little town with few structures, but the city then grew under the leadership of the new mayor Karl IV.

It received municipal rights from Freiherr von Duba on 19 December 1423, as well as the right to elect its own council.

In the 17th century, the city experienced many problems due to the 30 Years War. The Number of inhabitants dropped drastically, but recovered by the end of the century.

In 1624, Hoyerswerda became the capital of the Spremberg district. A few years later the district took the name Hoyerswerda because of the growing importance of the city. In the middle of this century Hoyerswerda had become the largest town in the Lusatian region.

In the 18th century the Polish King and Elector of Saxony, Augustus II the Strong, gave the Duchy of Hoyerswerda to Ursula Katharina Lubomirska, who helped the town develop trade and manufacturing. In 1737, King Augustus III of Poland bought the town from Lubomirska. The King used to stop in the Hoyerswerda Castle during his travels from Dresden to Warsaw. The Battle of Hoyerswerda occurred nearby in 1759 during the Seven Years' War.

In 1815 Hoyerswerda became part of the Kingdom of Prussia. Initially it was administered as part of the Landkreis Spremberg (Lausitz) of the Province of Brandenburg, but in 1825 the southern part was split off to form Landkreis Hoyerswerda and attached to the Province of Silesia. In 1871, with Prussia, it became part of the German Empire. In 1873 a new railway between Hoyerswerda and Ruhland opened. It had a positive effect on the economic development of the city. In 1912, the Domowina, the organisation of the Sorbs, was founded in the city. In 1918, the Sorbs protested here against the policy of Germanisation. The town became part of the Prussian Province of Lower Silesia in 1919.

Recent history
At the end of the Second World War the town was declared a core centre of German defence and was therefore heavily damaged. The invading Soviet Red Army set the town on fire. It became part of Saxony again after the war, but from 1952, it was administered by the Bezirk (Region) of Cottbus, until 1990, when the states of East Germany were abolished.

During the GDR period, Hoyerswerda became an important industrial town. The lignite processing enterprise "Schwarze Pumpe" was established in 1955 (it is today in the federal state of Brandenburg). From 1957, the demand for new living space rose dramatically. In the following years, 10 new living areas were established with tens of thousands of apartments being built. In 1981, the city reached its maximum number of inhabitants, with 71,054 residents. At that time, more children per inhabitant were born in Hoyerswerda than anywhere else in the GDR. Upon reunification in 1990, the people of the city decided to become part of the reconstituted state of Saxony. With the end of the GDR and the reorganisation of the East German economy, many enterprises in the industrial region of Hoyerswerda were scaled down or closed.

In 1991 multiple xenophobic attacks targeted immigrant workers from the Far East as well as asylum seekers from Asia, Africa and Eastern Europe. A hostel accommodating asylum seekers was attacked and petrol bombs were thrown. Media coverage of the unrest shocked many in Germany and abroad, provoking much public debate.

Between 1993 and 1998, several smaller villages became part of the city, but the number of overall inhabitants declined rapidly, from about 70,000 people in the 1980s to about 35,000 people by the end of 2012. There have been attempts to renovate the city. Many of the apartment blocks built during the time of the GDR have been demolished or renovated. This project, like others, was financed with money from the EU and the Federal Republic of Germany.

Its role as an independently ruled town ("Kreisfreie Stadt") in Saxony disappeared in 2008 with the reshaping of the regional administration of Saxony.

Sights
Main sights include:
 * the Hoyerswerda castle
 * the Market Square (Markt) in the Old Town, including:
 * the Old Town Hall (Altes Rathaus)
 * an 18th-century Polish-Saxon post milestone with coats of arms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Electorate of Saxony and the monogram of King Augustus II the Strong
 * the Sorbian Fountain (Sorbenbrunnen) from 1980
 * the St. John's Church (Johanneskirche)
 * the former seat of the Domowina, built in 1885
 * the New Town Hall (Neues Rathaus), built in 1904
 * Planetarium Hoyerswerda, founded in the 1960s
 * the Lusatian Square (Lausitzer Platz) in the New Town with the Lusatian Hall (Lausitzhalle/Łužiska Hala)
 * the ZCOM Zuse-Computer-Museum

Seats in the Local council (Stadtrat)
Elections in 2014:
 * CDU: 10 seats
 * The Left: 8 seats
 * Free voters: 5 seats
 * SPD: 4 seats
 * AH: 2 seats
 * NPD: 1 seat
 * Total: 30 seats

Economic situation
While part of East Germany, employment in Hoyerswerda was provided by a power plant, glassworks, coal mines, and an army artillery range. With the reunification of Germany and the subsequent demise of a centrally planned economy, the city lost many jobs as the glassworks and artillery range were closed, and the power plant reduced its payroll. The industries on the secondary sector disappeared nearly completely. It is, however, expected that new houses must be built in Hoyerswerda, because of an anticipated increase in population due to copper mining at Schwarze Pumpe. There is also a thermal power plant planned for Hoyerswerda, because the district heating contract with Schwarze Pumpe will end in 2016.

Unemployment remains at 13%. Hoyerswerda holds third place regarding poverty of children according to a statistics of the Child Protection Alliance.

Notable people

 * Alfred Otto Herz (1856–1906), entomologist
 * Rudolf von Sebottendorf (1875–1945), founder of the anti-semitic and racial Thule Society
 * Günter Peters (1907–1987), painter and zoo director, museum curator from 1952 until 1975
 * Hermann Mau (1913–1952), historian, teacher and university lecturer
 * Kurt Klinkert (1927–2004), painter
 * Gertrud Winzer also Gertraud Winzer (born 1940), politician (CDU), MdL
 * Rainer Nachtigall (born 1941), footballer in the GDR
 * Heinz Kozur (1942–2013), paleontologist and stratigrapher
 * Rolf Babiel (1952–2009), well-known gastronome in New York City
 * Petra Pfaff (born 1960), track and field athlete
 * Frank Hirche (born 1961), politician (CDU), MdL
 * Roland Hennig (born 1967), racing cyclist
 * Mike Hauschild (born 1972), politician
 * Marcel Rozgonyi (born 1976), footballer
 * Krystyna Schreiber (born 1976), journalist
 * Matthias Heidrich (born 1977), footballer
 * Evelyn Schmidt (born 1983), German Wine Queen, 2007/08.
 * Stefanie Karg (born 1986), volleyball player
 * Tony Jantschke (born 1990), footballer
 * Marvin Stefaniak (born 1995), footballer

Lived in Hoyerswerda

 * Ursula Katharina Lubomirska (1680–1743), Polish noblewoman, mistress of King Augustus II the Strong (lived here, was owner of the castle for over 30 years)
 * Jan Michał Dąbrowski (1718–1779), colonel of the Polish Army (lived here)
 * Jan Henryk Dąbrowski (1755–1818), Polish general, national hero of Poland (grew up here)
 * Konrad Zuse (1910–1995), computer pioneer (did his Abitur here)
 * Rochus Misch (1917–2013), radio operator, bodyguard of Hitler (did his painter education here)
 * Brigitte Reimann (1933–1973), writer (lived here in the 1960s)
 * Gerhard Gundermann (1955–1998), songwriter and rock musician (Abitur, life and musical work until 1987, sepulchre on the graveyard of Hoyerswerda )

Twin towns – sister cities
Hoyerswerda is twinned with:
 * 🇩🇪 Dillingen, Germany (1988)
 * 🇫🇮 Huittinen, Finland (1998)
 * 🇵🇱 Środa Wielkopolska, Poland (2006)

title: Hoyerswerda