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Talk:Extreme value theorem

I propose the following as an informal introduction:

The extreme value theorem in mathematics is a way of stating that a smooth line has one or more highest and lowest points where no other point is higher than the highest point and no other point is lower than the lowest point. 213.55.136.205 01:28, 14 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Perhaps we should add to the first line " [...] if a real-valued non-constant function f is continuous in the closed and bounded interval [a,b], then f must attain a maximum and a minimum", if only for clarity. It is true that we can have a max(f)=min(f) (as is the case for constant functions), but the question "what if f is constant" is one that I hear in every class I have taught this in. I think the confusion lies in a misunderstanding that the minimum is necessarily smaller than the maximum, perhaps we ought to clarify this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Okran (talk • contribs) 14:27, 29 November 2014 (UTC)

The Boundedness Theorem
I was readig over this and remembered reading Uniform boundedness principle, I'm not sure it's the same theorem. Webhat 08:02, 13 May 2006 (UTC)

Boundedness is not weaker than having a max/min.
I disagree with the statement that the boundedness theorem is "A weaker version of this[Extreme Value] theorem". Every closed and bounded interval has a maximium and a minimum value, so the Extreme Value Theorem is a consequence of Boundedness--it is because the interval is bounded that we know it has a max/min. So, they are actually the same theorem, but Boundedness is more general--which (in my opinion) makes it stronger, not weaker: if an interval is closed and bounded we know that it has a max/min, but there are other properties of closed and bounded intervals in addition to just having a max/min.

I wish you people would just occasionally write a paragraph about what this sort of thing actually means. I came to this page from Laffer curve, hoping that it would be illuminating. But it isn't. I'd need to spend a while rereading this before I could grasp what it's actually saying. Much of our statistical and economics output is like this. Grace Note 00:54, 19 October 2007 (UTC)

Agreed About: "Boundedness is not weaker"
I absolutely agree with that statement. I believe that we should not allude to the fact that the boundedness theorem is a substitute or another weaker version of the EVT. I suggest we delete the word "weaker" and just mention that it's related.(Helios2k6 (talk) 00:52, 7 November 2008 (UTC))

Non standard proof
Is N a "infinite hyperinteger" (first occurence in the section) or a finite (later in the section N is called finite)?

 * OK, I may understand that the first N is indeed infinite, but it is fixed once for all. Then the second N is a generic finite integer, that should not be called the same way, or more caution is needed in the wording. Also, I would remove the parenthesis around the corresponding sentence "(Note that..."), as I understand that it announces the use of "transfer". Bdmy (talk) 10:54, 21 December 2008 (UTC)

I am not necessarily against hyper-arguments, but my feeling is that the section as it stands is rather counterproductive if the intention is to advocate for non-standard. I feel that some sentence like: "one shows here the power of the tools on a VERY simple result in Analysis, where of course the old method is shorter." One could try to make the reader feel why of course the proof is basically the same as old dichotomy. Bdmy (talk) 09:42, 21 December 2008 (UTC)

 * The parenthetical remark was supposed to motivate the application of the transfer principle. If you feel that it is confusing instead, perhaps we should remove it.  I am surprised you say the old method is shorter.  I was thinking on the contrary that the NSA method is more elegant and shorter.  The basic idea is that the somewhat cumbersome manipulations with sequences are replaced by the choice of a single hyperinteger.  Of course the latter are defined in terms of sequences; see Epilogue to Keisler's textbook.  That's in my mind the connection between the two.  What I just wrote seems a bit too wordy for inclusion in the article, though.  I tried it at uniform continuity but it got deleted a couple of times already, so I am ready to give up on this somewhat editorializing comment.  Katzmik (talk) 16:49, 21 December 2008 (UTC)

 * To the contrary, I feel that removing the parenthesis is more clearly a motivation before applying the transfer principle, but I would just rename the finite generic integer, perhaps just n instead of N that is fixed. Also I should agree that the classical proof is not really shorter, but we know it by heart after years of teaching. I don't agree with cumbersome though. Bdmy (talk) 17:19, 21 December 2008 (UTC)
 * An alternative would be to mention the standard setting inside the parenthesis, which is what I did in reaction to your justified criticism. Either way is OK as far as I am concerned.  Katzmik (talk) 17:23, 21 December 2008 (UTC)

Proof in the standard setting.
What we present is really much more complicated then it needs to be. For example, Spivak gives the following proof in his calculus text. (And there may be slicker proofs, this was just the first I looked at.)

Suppose ƒ is continuous on [a,b]. First we prove ƒ is bounded. Let A={x : a≤ x ≤ b and f is bounded on [a,x]}. The set A is non-empty because of the continuity of ƒ at a. The set A is bounded above by b. Let β=sup A. Suppose β<b, since ƒ is continuous at β it is bounded on an interval around β. Contradiction, hence β=b, which implies that ƒ is bounded on [a,x] for every x < b. But ƒ is continuous at b, and hence f is bounded on [a,b].

Now we prove that f achieves its maximum.

Let B={ƒ(x): a≤ x ≤ b}. B is clearly non-empty, and is bounded above by previous argument. Let α=sup B. Let g(x)=1/(α-ƒ(x)). Suppose there is no x in [a,b] so that f(x)=α. Then g(x) is continuous in [a,b] and hence bounded. On the other hand the values of ƒ are arbitrarily close to α, and hence g(x) is unbounded. Contradiction. So there must be some x in [a,b] so that f(x)=α.

The other comment about this proof is that if you find avoids sequences, if you like that sort of thing ;). Thenub314 (talk) 19:19, 21 December 2008 (UTC)

 * I don't totally agree with you, I find that the subsequence proof is (for my personal taste) the most intuitive. But it could be interesting to present in this basic article several points of view (I mean: include also this other classical proof you mention). Personally, I tend to think that some proofs by least upper bound have an appearance of "black box" (like non-standard proofs?).

 * Another interesting point, but I am not expert enough to deal with this, would be to point the fact that this theorem is not "calculable", and not admitted by Intuitionists. Bdmy (talk) 19:56, 21 December 2008 (UTC)
 * I find it more intuitive as well, but somehow I the one above involved less machinery. Somehow the result is so intuitive I am not sure the proofs help make it any clearer.  It is an interesting question, what to say about intuitionists.  There are there not quite identical constructivist schools of thought.  I know for a fact this fails in two of them, but I would need to check it out for the third (though I strongly suspect it does). Thenub314 (talk) 20:57, 21 December 2008 (UTC)

 * I don't know I am very undecided what we should have in the way of proofs. The manual of style makes the point that Wikipedia is not a textbook (the wikibooks project aims at that) and proofs should be included when, in our best judgment they make the article clearer.  I always try to keep in mind I write for a fictitious 10 year old (my image of myself back then) who wants to know more so he can write his school report.  That being said, the result seems so clear everything that is interesting about it lies in its proof.  So several proofs may not be as hazardous as I initially thought...  Thenub314 (talk) 22:51, 21 December 2008 (UTC)

Missing step in the non-standard proof.
When the steps were filled in from Keisler's book there was a small gap that was not filled in. That is, we need to know that $$f(x_{i_0})$$ is finite in order to be able to apply the standard part function. This to my mind requires boundedness theorem. Glancing back at Keisler he does not cover the boundedness theorem, and does not include a complete proof of the extreme value theorem. Does anyone have suggestions for a basic introductory text that proves these facts that we could reference? Thenub314 (talk) 18:52, 7 June 2011 (UTC)

Are examples misleading?
Examples in "Functions to which theorem does not apply" seem to mislead. They discuss about function not being bounded from above where as the theorem assumptions are only on the interval. And f(x) = tan x, x \in [0,pi/2] though the function is not bounded from above, interval is closed and compact and f(pi/2) = \infty is the maximum. Here, I am considering range of f to be extended real numbers. Vinay h (talk) 03:39, 23 June 2012 (UTC)

Extension to multi-dimensional spaces, metric spaces and arbitrary topological spaces
Can someone please describe the extension of the extreme value theorem to multi-dimensional functions, arbitrary metric spaces (if it exists) and general topological spaces? Thanks! --Erel Segal (talk) 17:31, 25 August 2014 (UTC)
 * We have "This implies the following generalization of the extreme value theorem: a continuous real-valued function on a nonempty compact space is bounded above and attains its supremum." "Bounded" and "extreme value" are problematic if the codomain of the function is not a linearly ordered space, and the result is unlikely to be true unless the codomain is complete.  In other words, the codomain should be the reals.   — Arthur Rubin  (talk) 21:36, 26 August 2014 (UTC)

Proof of the Generalized Case
The proof of the generalized case is very simple, short and instructive. I remember it but unfortunately, I don't remember any source reference, so I can't include it in the article. Here's the proof I mean:

 * Let $$V,\ W$$ be topological spaces, $$f:V\to W$$ a continuous function and $$K\subseteq V$$ compact. Let $$\bigcup \mathcal C \supseteq f(K)$$ be an arbitrary open cover of $$f(K)$$. Because f is continuous, $$\bigcup \left\{ f^{-1}(C) : C \in \mathcal C \right\} \supseteq K$$ is an open cover of $$K$$. By compactness of $$K$$, we can select a finite $$\mathcal F \subseteq \mathcal C$$ such that $$\bigcup \left\{ f^{-1}(C) : C \in \mathcal F \right\} \supseteq K$$ is still an open cover of $$K$$. But then $$\bigcup \left\{ C : C \in \mathcal F \right\} \supseteq \bigcup \left\{ f(f^{-1}(C)) : C \in \mathcal F \right\} = f\left(\bigcup \left\{ f^{-1}(C) : C \in \mathcal F \right\}\right) \supseteq f(K)$$ is a finite cover of $$f(K)$$. Because $$\mathcal F \subseteq \mathcal C$$, it is an open cover. As $$\bigcup \mathcal C \supseteq f(K)$$ was arbitrary, we can conclude that $$f(K)$$ is compact. #

Herein, $$f^{-1}$$ refers to the preimage as explained in Continuous_function. --Carsten Milkau (talk) 12:30, 13 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Extreme value theorem


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Soviet crewed lunar programs

The Soviet crewed lunar programs were a series of programs pursued by the Soviet Union to land humans on the Moon, in competition with the United States Apollo program. The Soviet government publicly denied participating in such a competition, but secretly pursued two programs in the 1960s: crewed lunar flyby missions using Soyuz 7K-L1 (Zond) spacecraft launched with the Proton-K rocket, and a crewed lunar landing using Soyuz 7K-LOK and LK spacecraft launched with the N1 rocket. Following the dual American successes of the first crewed lunar orbit on 24–25 December 1968 (Apollo 8) and the first Moon landing on July 20, 1969 (Apollo 11), and a series of catastrophic N1 failures, both Soviet programs were eventually brought to an end. The Proton-based Zond program was canceled in 1970, and the N1-L3 program was de facto terminated in 1974 and officially canceled in 1976. Details of both Soviet programs were kept secret until 1990 when the government allowed them to be published under the policy of glasnost.

Soviet cosmonauts neither orbited nor landed on the Moon.

Early concepts
As early as 1961, the Soviet leadership had made public pronouncements about landing a man on the Moon and establishing a lunar base; however, serious plans were not made until several years later. Sergei Korolev, the senior Soviet rocket engineer, was more interested in launching a heavy orbital station and in crewed flights to Mars and Venus. With this in mind, Korolev began the development of the super-heavy N-1 rocket with a 75-ton payload.

Soyuz-A-B-C and N1
In its preliminary Moon plans, Korolev's design bureau initially promoted the Soyuz A-B-C circumlunar complex (A-B-V in Russian) concept under which a two-crew spacecraft would rendezvous with other components in Earth orbit to assemble a lunar flyby excursion vehicle. The components would then be delivered by the proven middle-sized R-7 rocket. While developing the N1, since 1963, Korolev began to plan a Moon landing mission using two launches and docking. Later Korolev managed to increase the payload of the N1 to 92-93 tons (by switching to liquid hydrogen in the upper stage(s) and increasing the number of engines in its first stage from 24 to 30), providing enough power to accomplish the mission with a single launch.

UR-500K / LK-1 and UR-700 / LK-3
Another main space design bureau, headed by Vladimir Chelomei, proposed a competing cislunar orbiting mission using a heavy UR-500K rocket (later renamed the Proton rocket) and a two-crew LK-1 spacecraft. Later, Chelomei also proposed a Moon landing program with a super-heavy UR-700 rocket, an LK-700 lunar lander, and an LK-3 spacecraft.

R-56
The R-56 which was developed between April 1962 and June 1964 was considered for involvement with the lunar program.

Reaction to Apollo
In the early stage of the Soviet and US crewed lunar program, U.S. President John F. Kennedy proposed before the United Nations a joint Moon program, a proposal which was considered by Nikita Khrushchev. The proposal disappeared though with Kennedy's assassination two months later, but nevertheless foreshadowed the Apollo-Soyuz mission, which enabled subsequently the Shuttle-Mir program and the ISS.

The Soviet government issued a response to the American Apollo challenge after three years. According to the first government decree about the Soviet crewed Moon programs (Decree 655-268, ' On Work on the Exploration of the Moon and Mastery of Space '), adopted in August 1964, Chelomei was instructed to develop a Moon flyby program with a projected first flight by the end of 1966, and Korolev was instructed to develop the Moon landing program with a first flight by the end of 1967.

Following the change in Soviet leadership from Khrushchev to Leonid Brezhnev in 1964, the Soviet government in September 1965 assigned the flyby program to Korolev, who redesigned the cislunar mission to use his own Soyuz 7K-L1 spacecraft and Chelomei's Proton rocket.

Korolev organized full-scale development of both programs, but died after surgery in January 1966. According to a government decree of February 1967, the first crewed flyby was scheduled for mid-1967, and the first crewed landing for the end of 1968.

Moon flyby UR-500K(Proton)/L1(Zond) program
Launched by a 3-staged Proton rocket, the L1 (Zond) was a spacecraft from the Soyuz family and consisted of two or three modified modules of the main craft Soyuz 7K-OK with a total weight of 5.5 tons. The Apollo orbital spacecraft (command ship) for the lunar flyby also had two modules (command and service) but was five times heavier, carried a crew of three and entered lunar orbit, whereas the L1 (Zond) performed a flight around the Moon and came back on a return trajectory. In September 1968 Zond 5 carried the first Earth lifeforms, including two tortoises, to travel around the Moon and return safely. Planned for 8 December 1968 for priority over the US, a first crewed mission of the L1 (Zond) was canceled due to the insufficient readiness of the capsule and rocket. After Apollo 8 won the first (lunar orbit) phase of the Moon Race at the end of 1968, the Soviet leadership lost political interest in the L1 (Zond) program. A few reserve units of L1 (Zond) made unpiloted flights, but by the end of 1970, this program was canceled.

Moon landing N1/L3 program
The crewed landing plan adopted a similar method to the single launch and lunar orbit rendezvous of the Apollo project.

For mission safety, weeks before the crewed mission, an LK-R uncrewed L3 complex and two Lunokhod automated rovers would be sent to the Moon, to work as radio beacons for crewed LK, with the LK-R used as a reserve escape craft. The Lunokhods were also equipped with manual controls for the cosmonauts, both for transfer to LK-R in necessity and for regular research.

The N1 rocket would then carry the L3 Moon expedition complex, with two spacecraft (LOK and LK) and two (Block G and Block D) boosters. A variant of the Soyuz craft, the "Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl" (LOK) command module, would carry two men, with three modules like the regular Soyuz 7K-OK, but was heavier by a few tons. The 7K-OK was half the mass of the three-crew Apollo orbital command ship. The "Lunniy Korabl" (LK) accommodated only one cosmonaut, so in the Soviet plan, only one cosmonaut would land on the Moon. The mass of the LK was 40% of the mass of the Apollo lunar lander.

The L3 complex to be placed in LEO by the N1 was 93 tons (compared to Saturn V's 137 tons). The mass of the LOK and LK was 40% of the Apollo complex, but was equivalent to the L3 complex without Block G.

The booster for the LEO toward the Moon for the Apollo vehicle was provided by the last stage of the Saturn V, while for the Block D, LOK and LK, this was to be provided by Block G of the same L3 complex.

During the L3 complex's journey to the Moon, there would be no need to undock and re-dock the orbital and landing craft as was done in Apollo, because the cosmonaut would transfer from the LOK to LK by a 'spacewalk'. On the Apollo missions, the transfer was done using an internal passage.

Block D was to slow the LOK and LK into lunar orbit, while with Apollo this phase was undertaken by firing the engine on the service module to slow the complex and enter lunar orbit since the Apollo complex traveled with the Command Module and Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) facing back towards the Earth.

Once in orbit, the LK with Block D would separate from the LOK and descend toward the surface of the Moon using the Block D engine. After Block D exhausted its fuel, the LK was to separate and complete landing using its own Blok E engine.

On the Moon, the cosmonaut would take Moon walks, use Lunokhods, collect rocks, and plant the Soviet flag.

After a few hours on the lunar surface, the LK's engine would fire again using its landing structure as a launch pad, as with Apollo. To save weight, the engine used for landing would blast the LK back to lunar orbit for an automated docking with the LOK. The cosmonaut then would spacewalk back to the LOK carrying rock samples.

The LK would then be cast off, after which the LOK would fire its rocket for the return to Earth.

Launch schedules
As of 1967, the L1/L3 launch schedules were:

UR-500K(Proton)/L1(Zond) program
 * 2P: Develop Block D stage (February or March 1967)
 * 3P: Develop Block D stage (March 1967)
 * 4L: Uncrewed lunar flyby (May 1967)
 * 5L: Uncrewed lunar flyby (June 1967)
 * 6L: Crewed lunar flyby (June or July 1967)
 * 7L: Crewed lunar flybys (August 1967)
 * 8L: Crewed lunar flybys (August 1967)
 * 9L: Crewed lunar flybys (September 1967)
 * 10L: Crewed lunar flybys (September 1967)
 * 11L: Crewed lunar flybys (October 1967)
 * 12L: Crewed lunar flybys (October 1967)
 * 13L: Reserve spacecraft

N1/L3 program
 * 3L: Develop LV & Blocks G&D (September 1967)
 * 4L: Reserve
 * 5L: LOK/LK uncrewed (December 1967)
 * 6L: LOK/LK uncrewed (February 1968)
 * 7L: Crewed LOK/uncrewed LK (April 1968)
 * 8L: Crewed LOK/uncrewed LK (June 1968)
 * 9L: Crewed LOK/uncrewed LK with LK lunar landing (August 1968)
 * 10L: First crewed lunar landing (September 1968)
 * 11L: Reserve
 * 12L: Reserve

Korolev's death in 1966, along with various technical and administrative reasons, as well as a lack of financial support, resulted in both programs being delayed.

Cosmonauts
In 1966, two cosmonaut training groups were formed. One group was commanded by Vladimir Komarov and included Yuri Gagarin, and was to prepare for qualification flights of the Soyuz in Earth orbit and a Proton-launched cis-lunar mission (Gagarin, Nikolayev, Komarov, Bykovsky, Khrunov; Engineer-Cosmonauts: Gorbatko, Grechko, Sevastyanov, Kubasov, Volkov). Komarov later died in the Soyuz 1 spaceflight when his parachute malfunctioned causing his capsule to smash into the earth at high speed. The second group was led by Alexei Leonov and concentrated on the landing mission (Commanders: Leonov, Popovich, Belyayev, Volynov, Klimuk; Engineer-cosmonauts: Makarov, Voronov, Rukavishnikov, Artyukhin). As a result, Leonov has the strongest claim to have been the Soviets' first choice for the first man on the Moon.

After Komarov's death in Soyuz 1 in 1967, Gagarin was taken out of training and the groups were restructured. Despite the Soyuz 1 setback, the Soviets successfully rehearsed the automated docking of two uncrewed Soyuz craft in Earth orbit in 1968 and with the crewed Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 joint mission in early 1969 tested the other key mission elements.

A total of 18 missions were related to the N1-L3 project.

Later developments
After the US Moon landing in 1969, the justification for the Soviet lunar landing program largely evaporated, although development and testing continued into the early 1970s. In 1970–1971 the LK was ready after three uncrewed test flights in LEO (Kosmos 379, Kosmos 398, Kosmos 434). The LOK launched once (Kosmos 382 7K-L1E, a dummy of 7K-LOK). The Krechet lunar spacesuit and support systems were tested.

Four N1 test launches in 1969 (twice), 1971, and 1972 were failures, despite improvements after each crash. The second launch, on 3 July 1969 (an attempt to upstage Apollo 11 by 13 days), resulted in the destruction of the rocket and the entire launch complex, which delayed the N1-L3 program for two years.

In an automatic Moon flyby, these first two launches of the N1 carried the 7K-L1S spacecraft (modified 7K-L1). The dummy 7K-LOK (7K-L1E) and regular 7K-LOK with dummy LKs were used in the third and fourth launches.

The complete L3 lunar expedition complex with the 7K-LOK and LK for the Moon flyby and landing was prepared for a fifth launch, using a modified N1 rocket in August 1974. If this mission and the next had been successful, it would have led to the decision to launch up to five Soviet crewed N1-L3 expeditions in 1976–1980. To gain technical and scientific interest in the program, the modified multi-launched N1F-L3M missions were planned to have significantly more time on the Moon's surface than Apollo.

However, N1-L3 (as well as N1F-L3M) program was canceled in May 1974, and Soviet crewed space efforts subsequently concentrated on the development of space stations and on several designs and ground preparatory processes for a Mars mission, which continues to the present day, but has unclear objectives.

A Moon base, Zvezda, that was proposed later, developed mockups of expedition vehicles and surface modules, and "Vulkan-LEK" project were not adopted for economic reasons. As some recompense and as a replacement for the crewed landing program, the Soviets fulfilled a program of automated delivery of lunar soil and Lunokhod automated Moon rovers.

The launch pad and MIK of N1 were redesigned for the Energia-Buran shuttle program. Five LKs and three LOKs remain, at least, with some kept in the designer's and producer's company museums. Nearly 150 engines produced for first stages of N1F were kept by the manufacturer (Kuznetsov Design Bureau), then sold for use on other launchers beginning around 2000.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Soviet crewed lunar programs


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User talk:Holroy~enwiki

Welcome!

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User talk:ZakuSage

Archive of old talk messages

Goodbye, all
I've made the choice to no longer contribute to the Wikipedia project. I've preserved previous messages to me in an achieve located above for reference purposes, but please do not add anything to this page or that as I'll not be here to read it. It's been a good 2 year run, but I've made up my mind. - ZakuSage 03:08, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 12:55, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:ZakuSage


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USS Flusser (DD-20)

USS Flusser (DD–20) was a Smith-class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War I. She was the second ship named for Lieutenant commander Charles W. Flusser.

Construction
Flusser was launched on 20 July 1909, by Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine, sponsored by Miss Genevieve Virden, grandniece of Commander Flusser; and commissioned on 28 October 1909.

Pre-World War I
Flusser arrived at Charleston, South Carolina - her home port - on 17 December 1909, and began her participation in the regular operating schedule of the Atlantic Torpedo Fleet, an organization many times redesignated in the years that followed. She cruised from the Caribbean to the coast of New England until August 1916, when she began neutrality patrols off New York and in Long Island Sound.

World War I
After a repair period at New Orleans, Louisiana early in 1917, Flusser had escort duty on the east coast until 30 July 1917, when she departed Charleston for two months of ocean escort and patrol duty based on Ponta Delgada, Azores. She had similar duty out of Brest, France, operating across the English Channel from 22 October-9 December 1918, returning to Charleston on 31 December. She was decommissioned at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on 14 July 1919, and sold on 21 November.

Noteworthy commanding officers

 * Lieutenant William Henry Allen (12 October 1911-August 1912) (Later Rear admiral)
 * Lieutenant William Halsey, Jr. (August 1912-5 September 1913) (Later Fleet Admiral)

title: USS Flusser (DD-20)


text: User talk:12.65.78.11

title: User talk:12.65.78.11


text:
Barrel processor

A barrel processor is a CPU that switches between threads of execution on every cycle. This CPU design technique is also known as "interleaved" or "fine-grained" temporal multithreading. Unlike simultaneous multithreading in modern superscalar architectures, it generally does not allow execution of multiple instructions in one cycle.

Like preemptive multitasking, each thread of execution is assigned its own program counter and other hardware registers (each thread's architectural state). A barrel processor can guarantee that each thread will execute one instruction every n cycles, unlike a preemptive multitasking machine, that typically runs one thread of execution for tens of millions of cycles, while all other threads wait their turn.

A technique called C-slowing can automatically generate a corresponding barrel processor design from a single-tasking processor design. An n-way barrel processor generated this way acts much like n separate multiprocessing copies of the original single-tasking processor, each one running at roughly 1/n the original speed.

History
One of the earliest examples of a barrel processor was the I/O processing system in the CDC 6000 series supercomputers. These executed one instruction (or a portion of an instruction) from each of 10 different virtual processors (called peripheral processors) before returning to the first processor. From CDC 6000 series we read that "The peripheral processors are collectively implemented as a barrel processor. Each executes routines independently of the others. They are a loose predecessor of bus mastering or direct memory access."

One motivation for barrel processors was to reduce hardware costs. In the case of the CDC 6x00 PPUs, the digital logic of the processor was much faster than the core memory, so rather than having ten separate processors, there are ten separate core memory units for the PPUs, but they all share the single set of processor logic.

Another example is the Honeywell 800, which had 8 groups of registers, allowing up to 8 concurrent programs. After each instruction, the processor would (in most cases) switch to the next active program in sequence.

Barrel processors have also been used as large-scale central processors. The Tera MTA (1988) was a large-scale barrel processor design with 128 threads per core. The MTA architecture has seen continued development in successive products, such as the Cray Urika-GD, originally introduced in 2012 (as the YarcData uRiKA) and targeted at data-mining applications.

Barrel processors are also found in embedded systems, where they are particularly useful for their deterministic real-time thread performance.

An early example is the “Dual CPU” version of the four-bit COP400 that was introduced by National Semiconductor in 1981. This single-chip microcontroller contains two ostensibly independent CPUs that share instructions, memory, and most IO devices. In reality, the dual CPUs are a single two-thread barrel processor. It works by duplicating certain sections of the processor—those that store the architectural state—but not duplicating the main execution resources such as ALU, buses, and memory. Separate architectural states are established with duplicated A (accumulators), B (pointer registers), C (carry flags), N (stack pointers), and PC (program counters).

Another example is the XMOS XCore XS1 (2007), a four-stage barrel processor with eight threads per core. (Newer processors from XMOS also have the same type of architecture.) The XS1 is found in Ethernet, USB, audio, and control devices, and other applications where I/O performance is critical. When the XS1 is programmed in the 'XC' language, software controlled direct memory access may be implemented.

Barrel processors have also been used in specialized devices such as the eight-thread Ubicom IP3023 network I/O processor (2004). Some 8-bit microcontrollers by Padauk Technology feature barrel processors with up to 8 threads per core.

Advantages
A single-tasking processor spends a lot of time idle, not doing anything useful whenever a cache miss or pipeline stall occurs. Advantages to employing barrel processors over single-tasking processors include:
 * The ability to do useful work on the other threads while the stalled thread is waiting.
 * Designing an n-way barrel processor with an n-deep pipeline is much simpler than designing a single-tasking processor because a barrel processor never has a pipeline stall and doesn't need feed-forward circuits.
 * For real-time applications, a barrel processor can guarantee that a "real-time" thread can execute with precise timing, no matter what happens to the other threads, even if some other thread locks up in an infinite loop or is continuously interrupted by hardware interrupts.

Disadvantages
There are a few disadvantages to barrel processors.

 * The state of each thread must be kept on-chip, typically in registers, to avoid costly off-chip context switches. This requires a large number of registers compared to typical processors.
 * Either all threads must share the same cache, which slows overall system performance, or there must be one unit of cache for each execution thread, which can significantly increase the transistor count and thus the cost of such a CPU. However, in hard real-time embedded systems where barrel processors are often found, memory access costs are typically calculated assuming worst-case cache behavior, so this is a minor concern. Some barrel processors such as the XMOS XS1 do not have a cache at all.

title: Barrel processor


text: User talk:67.163.124.100

title: User talk:67.163.124.100


text:
Novak

Novak (in Serbo-Croatian and Slovene; Cyrillic: Новак), Novák (in Hungarian, Czech and Slovak), or Nowak (in Polish), is a surname and masculine given name, derived from the Slavic word for "new" (e.g. nowy,, nov / нов), which depending on the exact language and usage, translates as "novice", "new man", "newcomer", or "stranger".

It is pronounced almost the same way in most languages, with the stress on the first syllable. The main exceptions are Slovene, which places the stress on the last syllable and Hungarian, which stresses the "á".

It is the most common surname in the Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovenia, and the sixth most common in Croatia. It is also found in Romania and Moldova, in the Novac form, and among Ashkenazi Jews in various forms depending on their country of origin.

Spelling
The surname is usually spelled Novak in Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian, Novák in Czech, Slovak, and Hungarian and Nowak in Polish and German.

Poland
As of 2009, Nowak (Polish pronunciation: ) is the most common surname in Poland, having surpassed Kowalski. Its plural is Nowakowie. Nowak is used by both male and female individuals. The archaic feminine version is Nowakowa. Related surnames include Nowakowski (feminine: Nowakowska; plural: Nowakowscy), Nowacki (feminine: Nowacka; plural: Nowaccy), Nowakowicz (gender-neutral), and Nowakiewicz (gender-neutral).

Nowak is the most common surname in nine voivodeships (administrative units) of Poland, and second in another. It is ranked first in Greater Poland Voivodeship (35,011), Silesian Voivodeship (31,838), Lesser Poland Voivodeship (23,671), Łódź Voivodeship (15,460), Lower Silesian Voivodeship (13,217), West Pomeranian Voivodeship (7,444), Opole Voivodeship (5,538), Lubusz Voivodeship (5,444), and Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (5,538), and second in Subcarpathian Voivodeship (9,301).

There are two noble families of Polish origin with the surname Nowak:
 * One family appeared in Silesia in the 15th century. It included Anatol Nowak (died 1456), Archbishop of Wrocław. A branch of this family became barons in Bohemia in 1660.
 * One family appeared in Masovia around 1750. This family included Antoni and Józef Nowak, generals in the Polish army that served Napoleon, and Aleksander Nowak, a general of the Polish forces during the November Uprising in 1831 against Russia.

Czech Republic and Slovakia
Novák is widespread in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In both countries, the feminine form is Nováková. It is the most common surname in the Czech Republic.

Slovenia
Novak is the most common surname in Slovenia with more than 11,000 sharing it. There are however significant variations between regions: it is very common in central Slovenia (in the regions around Ljubljana and Celje), as well as in parts of southern Slovenia and eastern Slovenia (Lower Carniola, Prekmurje). It is much less common in northern and western Slovenia; in the Goriška region on the border with Italy, it is quite rare. The rank of the surname Novak in the Slovenian statistical regions: 1st in the Central Slovenia Statistical Region (3,422) and Savinja Statistical Region (1,380); 2nd in the Southeast Slovenia Statistical Region (1,231) and Mura Statistical Region (1,040); 3rd in the Drava Statistical Region (1,732); 5th in the Upper Carniola Statistical Region (963) and Lower Sava Statistical Region (380); 6th in the Coastal–Karst Statistical Region (228); 8th in the Central Sava Statistical Region (192); 10th in the Carinthia Statistical Region (238); 11th in the Inner Carniola–Karst Statistical Region (228); 131st in the Gorizia Statistical Region (171).

Other countries
In Croatia, Novak is the sixth most common surname.

In Serbia and Montenegro, Novak is a given name, while Novaković is found as a common surname.

In Germany, Nowak is 159th (c. 31,000) and Noack is 270th (c. 22,000), together with different spellings (c. 64,000), with some concentration in the Ruhr area, around Salzgitter and Lüchow-Dannenberg and as Noack in Lusatia.

A–J

 * Alexander Novak (born 1971), Russian politician
 * Anatole Novak (1937–2022), French bicycle racer
 * Andriy Novak (born 1988), Ukrainian footballer
 * Anthony Novak (born 1994), Canadian soccer player
 * Anthony Novak, plaintiff in Novak v. City of Parma
 * Arne Novák (1880–1939), Czech literary historian and critic
 * Augustin Novák, a World War I flying ace
 * B. J. Novak (born 1979), American writer, comedian and actor known for The Office
 * Barbara Novak (born 1922), American art historian
 * Brandon Novak (born 1978), American skateboarder
 * Brett Novak, an American filmmaker and director
 * Dalma Novak, Australian electrical engineer
 * David Novak (disambiguation), several persons
 * Dennis Novak (born 1993), Austrian tennis player
 * Dezső Novák (1939–2014), Hungarian footballer
 * Doug Novak, women's basketball coach for Mississippi State
 * Dragutin Novak (1892–1978), Croatian aviator
 * Džoni Novak (born 1969), Slovenian former footballer
 * Emil Novák, Czech snowboarder
 * Éva Novák-Gerard (1930–2005), Hungarian swimmer
 * Evelin Novak (born 1965), Croatian operatic soprano
 * Ewa Nowak (born 1966), Polish writer
 * Ferenc Novák (born 1969), Hungarian canoer and Olympic champion
 * Filip Novák (born 1982), Czech professional ice hockey defenceman
 * Franz Novak (1913–1983), Austrian SS-Hauptsturmführer
 * Gabi Novak (born 1936), Croatian pop singer
 * Gary Novak (born 1969), American session drummer
 * Grga Novak (1888–1978), Croatian historian, archaeologist and geographer
 * Grigory Novak (1919–1980), Ukrainian Olympic weightlifter
 * Ilona Novák (1925–2019), Hungarian swimmer and Olympic champion
 * Ján Novák (1921–1984), Czech composer
 * Ján Novák (born 1985), Slovak footballer
 * Ján Novák (born 1979), Czech professional ice hockey player
 * Jane Novak (1896–1990), actress in silent films
 * Jeff Novak (born 1967), former American footballer
 * Jim Novak (1955–2018), American comic book letterer
 * Jiří Novák (born 1975), Czech former tennis player
 * Joe Novak (born 1945), retired college football coach
 * John Novak (born 1955), actor
 * John Philip Novak (born 1946), American politician
 * Jorge Novak (1928–2001), Argentine bishop
 * Joseph D. Novak (born 1930), American educator

K–Z

 * Karel Novák, Czech slalom canoeist
 * Katalin Novák, former Hungarian president
 * Kate Novak, American fantasy writer
 * Kayvan Novak (born 1978), British-Iranian actor
 * Kevin Novak (born 1982), American soccer player
 * Kim Novak (born 1933), American actress
 * Krysia Nowak (born 1948), British artist
 * Ladislav Novák (1931–2011), Czech football player and manager
 * Laila Novak (born 1942), Swedish model and actress
 * Ljudmila Novak (born 1959), Slovenian politician and Member of the European Parliament
 * Martin Novák, Czech ice hockey player
 * Marzenka Novak (1945–2011), Argentine actress
 * Matěj Novák (born 1989), Czech figure skater
 * Mel Novak (born 1942), American actor
 * Michael Novak (1933–2017), conservative American Roman Catholic philosopher and diplomat
 * Michael Novak (footballer), Austrian footballer
 * Mike Novak (1915–1978), American National Basketball League player
 * Mirjam Novak (born 1981), German actress and screenwriter
 * Miroslav Novák (1907–2000), Czech Hussite bishop
 * Nick Novak (born 1981), National Football League placekicker
 * Otto Novák (1902–1984), Czech footballer
 * Petr Novák (disambiguation)
 * Robert Novak (1931–2009), American journalist and conservative political commentator
 * Rudolph Novak, American gymnast
 * Slobodan Novak (1924–2016), Croatian writer
 * Slobodan Prosperov Novak (born 1951), Croatian literary historian
 * Štefan Novák (1879–1932), Greek Catholic Bishop of the Eparchy of Prešov
 * Steve Novak (born 1983), basketball player
 * Tom Novak, marketing professor
 * Tommy Novak (born 1997), American Ice Hockey Player
 * Viktor Novak (1889–1977), Yugoslav historian
 * Vilmos Aba-Novák (1894–1941), Hungarian painter and graphic artist
 * Vítězslav Novák (1870–1949), Czech composer
 * Viveca Novak, American journalist
 * Vjenceslav Novak (1859–1905), Croatian writer
 * Vladimír Novák (painter) (born 1947), Czech painter
 * Vladimír Novák (skier) (1904–1986), Czechoslovak Nordic skier
 * Zbyněk Novák (born 1983), Czech ice hockey player

Novakov surname

 * Andrey Novakov (born 1988), Bulgarian politician
 * Anna Novakov, Serbian-American art historian and curator
 * Anton Novakov, Bessarabian industrialist and politician
 * Boncho Novakov (born 1935), Bulgarian cyclist
 * Tihomir Novakov (1929–2015), Serbian-born American physicist

Nováková surname

 * Daniela Trandžíková-Nováková (born 1956), Slovak handball player
 * Eva Nováková (born 1938), Czech politician
 * Ivana Nováková (born 1965), Czech basketball player
 * Kristýna Badinková Nováková (born 1983), Czech film and television actress
 * Petra Nováková (born 1993), Czech skier
 * Soňa Nováková (born 1975), Czech female beach volleyball player
 * Šárka Nováková (born 1971), Czech high jumper
 * Teréza Nováková (1853–1912), Czech feminist author, editor, and ethnographer
 * Vratislava Nováková, Czechoslovak slalom canoer

Nowak surname

 * Amram Nowak, Academy Award–nominated director of Isaac in America: A Journey with Isaac Bashevis Singer
 * Anton Nowak (1865–1932), Austrian artist
 * Bartosz Nowak, Polish footballer
 * Cécile Nowak (born 1967), French judoka
 * Henry J. Nowak (born 1935), member of United States House of Representatives (1975–1993)
 * Jan Nowak-Jeziorański (1914–2005), Polish journalist and World War II hero
 * Jerzy Nowak, Polish actor
 * Jerzy Robert Nowak, Polish historian
 * Józef Nowak (1925–1984), Polish actor
 * Julian Nowak (1865–1946), Polish physician, veterinarian, bacteriologist, and politician
 * Katarzyna Nowak, Polish tennis player
 * Kazimierz Nowak (1897–1937), Polish traveler
 * Leopold Nowak (1904–1991), Austrian musicologist
 * Lisa Nowak (born 1963), American astronaut
 * Łukasz Nowak (born 1988), Polish athlete
 * Marco Nowak, German ice hockey player
 * Mark Nowak (born 1964), American poet and writer
 * Manfred Nowak (born 1950), United Nations Special Rapporteur on Torture
 * Martin Nowak (born 1965), Austrian mathematical biologist
 * Mateusz Nowak, Polish cyclist
 * Oskar Nowak (1913–1989), Austrian ice hockey player
 * Piotr Nowak (born 1964), Polish footballer and manager
 * Sylwia Nowak, Polish ice dancer
 * Tadeusz Nowak, Polish footballer
 * Teresa Nowak (born 1942), Polish athlete
 * Tim Nowak, German decathlete
 * Wanda Nowak (1913–?), Austrian athlete
 * Zdzisław Nowak (1906–1996), Polish athlete
 * Zenon Nowak (1905–1980), Polish trade union activist and politician

Novak given name

 * Novak Djokovic (born 1987), Serbian tennis player
 * Starina Novak (1530–1601), Serbian brigand and rebel
 * Novak Grebostrek (fl. 1312), Serbian commander
 * Novak Karaljuk (fl. 1404), Serbian commander
 * Novak Kilibarda (1934–2023), Montenegrin politician
 * Novak Martinović (born 1985), Serbian footballer
 * Novak Novak (1928–1995), Serbian writer and journalist
 * Novak Radonić (1826–1890), Serbian painter
 * Novak Roganović (1932–2008), Serbian footballer
 * Novak Tomić (1936–2003), Serbian footballer

Characters

 * Allie Novak, character from the Australian drama series Wentworth
 * Arpad Novack, from Illatszertár (Parfumerie), the Hungarian play used as inspiration for The Shop Around the Corner
 * Barbara Novak, in the movie Down with Love played by Renée Zellweger
 * Billy Novak, in the Amazon television series The Collection
 * Bobby Novak, from the American television series Pearson
 * Casey Novak, in Law & Order: SVU
 * Dazzle Novak, in the television series Moonbeam City
 * Georg Nowack, a character from the musical She Loves Me inspired by The Shop Around the Corner
 * Holland and Dewey Novak, characters in the television series Eureka Seven
 * James Novak, a character on the television series Scandal
 * Jessica Novak, eponymous character of American drama television series
 * Jimmy Novak, his wife Amelia and his daughter Claire Novak, from the television series Supernatural
 * John Novak, protagonist of the television show Mr. Novak
 * Klara Novak, a character on The Shop Around the Corner, played by Margaret Sullavan
 * Lindsey Novak, recurring character in the Stargate Atlantis television series
 * Pat Novak, in The Novak Element in the movie RoboCop
 * Pat Novak, played by Jack Webb in the old-time radio program Pat Novak, for Hire
 * Sydney Novak, played by Sophia Lillis in the Netflix series I Am Not Okay With This
 * Tom Nowak, in the movie Test pilota Pirxa
 * Tommy Nowak, in the movie Pink Cadillac, played by Clint Eastwood
 * Trishka Novak, character in the 2011 video game Bulletstorm
 * Zig Novak, character on television series Degrassi

title: Novak


text:
Adverse drug reaction

An adverse drug reaction (ADR) is a harmful, unintended result caused by taking medication. ADRs may occur following a single dose or prolonged administration of a drug or may result from the combination of two or more drugs. The meaning of this term differs from the term "side effect" because side effects can be beneficial as well as detrimental. The study of ADRs is the concern of the field known as pharmacovigilance. An adverse event (AE) refers to any unexpected and inappropriate occurrence at the time a drug is used, whether or not the event is associated with the administration of the drug. An ADR is a special type of AE in which a causative relationship can be shown. ADRs are only one type of medication-related harm. Another type of medication-related harm type includes not taking prescribed medications, known as non-adherence. Non-adherence to medications can lead to death and other negative outcomes. Adverse drug reactions require the use of a medication.

Traditional

 * Type A: augmented pharmacological effects, which are dose-dependent and predictable
 * Type A reactions, which constitute approximately 80% of adverse drug reactions, are usually a consequence of the drug's primary pharmacological effect (e.g., bleeding when using the anticoagulant warfarin) or a low therapeutic index of the drug (e.g., nausea from digoxin), and they are therefore predictable. They are dose-related and usually mild, although they may be serious or even fatal (e.g. intracranial bleeding from warfarin). Such reactions are usually due to inappropriate dosage, especially when drug elimination is impaired. The term side effects may be applied to minor type A reactions.

 * Type B: Type B reactions are not dose-dependent and are not predictable, and so may be called idiosyncratic. These reactions can be due to particular elements within the person or the environment.

Types A and B were proposed in the 1970s, and the other types were proposed subsequently when the first two proved insufficient to classify ADRs.

Other types of adverse drug reactions are Type C, Type D, Type E, and Type F. Type C was categorized for chronic adverse drug reactions, Type D for delayed adverse drug reactions, Type E for withdrawal adverse drug reactions, and Type F for failure of therapy as an adverse drug reaction. Adverse drug reactions can also be categorized using time-relatedness, dose-relatedness, and susceptibility, which collectively are called the DoTS classification.

Seriousness
The U.S Food and Drug Administration defines a serious adverse event as one when the patient outcome is one of the following:
 * Death
 * Life-threatening
 * Hospitalization (initial or prolonged)
 * Disability — significant, persistent, or permanent change, impairment, damage or disruption in the patient's body function/structure, physical activities or quality of life.
 * Congenital abnormality
 * Requires intervention to prevent permanent impairment or damage

Severity is a measure of the intensity of the adverse event in question. The terms "severe" and "serious", when applied to adverse events, are technically very different. They are easily confused but can not be used interchangeably, requiring care in usage. Seriousness usually indicates patient outcome (such as negative outcomes including disability, long-term effects, and death).

In adverse drug reactions, the seriousness of the reaction is important for reporting.

Location
Some ocular antihypertensives cause systemic effects, although they are administered locally as eye drops, since a fraction escapes to the systemic circulation.

Comorbid disease states
Various diseases, especially those that cause renal or hepatic insufficiency, may alter drug metabolism. Resources are available that report changes in a drug's metabolism due to disease states.

The Medication Appropriateness Tool for Comorbid Health Conditions in Dementia (MATCH-D) criteria warns that people with dementia are more likely to experience adverse effects, and that they are less likely to be able to reliably report symptoms.

Genetic factors
Pharmacogenomics includes how genes can predict potential adverse drug reactions. However, pharmacogenomics is not limited to adverse events (of any type), but also looks at how genes may impact other responses to medications, such as low/no effect or expected/normal responses (especially based on drug metabolism).

Abnormal drug metabolism may be due to inherited factors of either Phase I oxidation or Phase II conjugation.

Phase I reactions
Phase I reactions include metabolism by cytochrome P450. Patients have abnormal metabolism by cytochrome P450 due to either inheriting abnormal alleles or due to drug interactions. Tables are available to check for drug interactions due to P450 interactions.

Inheriting abnormal butyrylcholinesterase (pseudocholinesterase) may affect metabolism of drugs such as succinylcholine.

Phase II reactions
Inheriting abnormal N-acetyltransferase which conjugated some drugs to facilitate excretion may affect the metabolism of drugs such as isoniazid, hydralazine, and procainamide.

Inheriting abnormal thiopurine S-methyltransferase may affect the metabolism of the thiopurine drugs mercaptopurine and azathioprine.

Protein binding
Protein binding interactions are usually transient and mild until a new steady state is achieved. These are mainly for drugs without much first-pass liver metabolism. The principal plasma proteins for drug binding are: Some drug interactions with warfarin are due to changes in protein binding.
 * 1) albumin
 * 2) α1-acid glycoprotein
 * 3) lipoproteins

Drug interactions
The risk of drug interactions is increased with polypharmacy, especially in older adults.

Additive drug effects
Two or more drugs that contribute to the same mechanism in the body can have additive toxic or adverse effects. One example of this is multiple medications administered concurrently that prolong the QT interval, such as antiarrhythmics like sotalol and some macrolide antibiotics, such as systemic azithromycin. Another example of additive effects for adverse drug reactions is in serotonin toxicity (serotonin syndrome). If medications that cause increased serotonin levels are combined, they can cause serotonin toxicity (though therapeutic doses of one agent that increases serotonin levels can cause serotonin toxicity in certain cases and individuals). Some of the medications that can contribute to serotonin toxicity include MAO inhibitors, SSRIs, and tricyclic antidepressants.

Altered metabolism
Some medications can either inhibit or induce key drug metabolizing enzymes or drug transporters, which when combined with other medications that utilize the same proteins can lead to either toxic or sub-therapeutic adverse effects. One example of this is a patient taking a cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) inhibitor such as the antibiotic clarithromycin, as well as another medication metabolized by CYP3A4 such as the anticoagulant apixaban, which results in elevated blood concentrations of apixaban and greater risk of serious bleeds. Additionally, Clarithromycin is a permeability glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux pump inhibitor, which when given with apixaban (a substrate for P-gp) will lead to increased absorption of apixaban, resulting in the same adverse effects as with CYP3A4 inhibition.

Assessing causality
Causality assessment is used to determine the likelihood that a drug caused a suspected ADR. There are a number of different methods used to judge causation, including the Naranjo algorithm, the Venulet algorithm and the WHO causality term assessment criteria. Each have pros and cons associated with their use and most require some level of expert judgement to apply. An ADR should not be labeled as 'certain' unless the ADR abates with a challenge-dechallenge-rechallenge protocol (stopping and starting the agent in question). The chronology of the onset of the suspected ADR is important, as another substance or factor may be implicated as a cause; co-prescribed medications and underlying psychiatric conditions may be factors in the ADR.

Assigning causality to a specific agent often proves difficult, unless the event is found during a clinical study or large databases are used. Both methods have difficulties and can be fraught with error. Even in clinical studies, some ADRs may be missed as large numbers of test individuals are required to find a specific adverse drug reaction, especially for rare ADRs. Psychiatric ADRs are often missed as they are grouped together in the questionnaires used to assess the population.

Monitoring bodies
Many countries have official bodies that monitor drug safety and reactions. On an international level, the WHO runs the Uppsala Monitoring Centre. The European Union runs the European Medicines Agency (EMA). In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for monitoring post-marketing studies. The FDA has a reporting system called the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System, where individuals can report adverse drug events. Healthcare professionals, consumers, and the pharmaceutical industry can all submit information to this system. For health products marketed in Canada, a branch of Health Canada called The Canada Vigilance Program is responsible for surveillance. Both healthcare professionals and consumers can report to this program. In Australia, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) conducts postmarket monitoring of therapeutic products. In the UK, a monitoring system called the Yellow Card Scheme was established in 1964. The Yellow Card Scheme was set up to surveil medications and other health products.

Epidemiology
A study by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found that in 2011, sedatives and hypnotics were a leading source for adverse drug events seen in the hospital setting. Approximately 2.8% of all ADEs present on admission and 4.4% of ADEs that originated during a hospital stay were caused by a sedative or hypnotic drug. A second study by AHRQ found that in 2011, the most common specifically identified causes of adverse drug events that originated during hospital stays in the U.S. were steroids, antibiotics, opiates/narcotics, and anticoagulants. Patients treated in urban teaching hospitals had higher rates of ADEs involving antibiotics and opiates/narcotics compared to those treated in urban nonteaching hospitals. Those treated in private, nonprofit hospitals had higher rates of most ADE causes compared to patients treated in public or private, for-profit hospitals.

Medication related harm (MRH) is common after hospital discharge in older adults, but methodological inconsistencies between studies and a paucity of data on risk factors limits clear understanding of the epidemiology. There was a wide range in incidence, from 0.4% to 51.2% of participants, and 35% to 59% of harm was preventable. Medication related harm incidence within 30 days after discharge ranged from 167 to 500 events per 1,000 individuals discharged (17–51% of individuals).

In the U.S., females had a higher rate of ADEs involving opiates and narcotics than males in 2011, while male patients had a higher rate of anticoagulant ADEs. Nearly 8 in 1,000 adults aged 65 years or older experienced one of the four most common ADEs (steroids, antibiotics, opiates/narcotics, and anticoagulants) during hospitalization. A study showed that 48% of patients had an adverse drug reaction to at least one drug, and pharmacist involvement helps to pick up adverse drug reactions.

In 2012, McKinsey & Company concluded that the cost of the 50-100 million preventable error-related adverse drug events would be between US$18–115 billion.

An article published in The Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in 2016 reported adverse drug event statistics from emergency departments around the United States in 2013-2014. From this article, an estimated prevalence of adverse drug events that were presented to the emergency department (ED) was 4 events out of every 1000 people. This article reported that 57.1% of these adverse drug events presented to the ED were in females. As well, out of all of the adverse drug events presented to the emergency department documented in this article, 17.6% were from anticoagulants, 16.1% were from antibiotics, and 13.3% from diabetic agents.

title: Adverse drug reaction


text:
Rat Defense, English Rat

The Rat Defense, English Rat is an irregular Queen's Pawn Game chess opening characterised by the initial moves:
 * 1. d4 d6
 * 2. c4 e5

The position can also arise from an English Opening move order 1.c4 d6 2.d4 e5.

Another possible move order can be reached via the Englund Gambit: 1. d4 e5 2. c4 d6.

The "English Rat" has been played by top players such as Aronian, Anand, Svidler, Rapport, and Smirin.

While 3.dxe5 dxe5 4. Qxd8 transposing into an endgame may initially appear to be favourable for white as black king won't be able to castle, the pawn on c4 will be restricting mobility of the white square bishop so the endgame is comfortable for black to maintain equality.

Gambit lines

 * Lisbon Gambit: 1.d4 d6 2.c4 e5 3. dxe5 Nc6, which usually continues 4. exd6 Bxd6 or (4...Qxd6).
 * Pounds Gambit: 1. d4 d6 2. c4 e5 3. dxe5 Be6

title: Rat Defense, English Rat


text:
Fíorscéal

Fíor Scéal is an Irish language documentary series broadcast on Irish language television channel TG4 about aspects of world current affairs and other topics. The series is based on programming funded by SBS in Australia and by a French production company, this series in Ireland has been repackaged for an Irish audience.

The etymology of the name comes from fíor, meaning "true" and scéal meaning "story". The audio is spoken in the Irish language and any applicable native languages and there are subtitles in English. Among the presenters are Eibhlín Ní Choistealbha, Máire T. Ní Mhadaoin, Maolra Mac Donnchadha, and Alex Hijmans. Programmes typically run for 60 minutes.

title: Fíorscéal


text:
Pennsylvania Railroad class B6

The Pennsylvania Railroad's class B6 was its most successful class of switcher locomotive, or as the PRR termed them "shifter". The PRR preferred the 0-6-0 wheel arrangement for larger switchers, whereas on other railroads the 0-8-0 gained preference. The PRR generally used 2-8-0s when larger power was required.

History
Altoona Works constructed the prototype B6 in 1902. The B6 had the Pennsylvania's trademark square-shouldered Belpaire firebox and 56 in drivers. They were constructed as saturated steam engines, rebuilt with superheaters later as class B6s, and had Piston valves and Stephenson valve gear. A total of 79 were built by Baldwin and Lima, in addition to Altoona, between 1902 and 1913.

The next version built was the B6sa, 55 of which were built at Altoona during 1913–1914. These had radial-stay fireboxes, common elsewhere but rare on the Pennsylvania, and they replaced the Stephenson gear with the more modern Walschaerts valve gear. Steam delivery pipes were outside, like all other PRR modern power. All were built superheated.

Finally, during 1916–1920, 238 of class B6sb were built. These were the final, definitive type, and had a Belpaire firebox, but were otherwise little changed from the B6sa. The final 97 locomotives had piston valves mounted outboard of the cylinders, instead of inbound as previously built, giving the cylinder assemblies an outward cant at the top, rather than inward.

All B6sa and B6sb locomotives were retrofitted with power reverse to make the frequent back-and-forth of switching quicker and easier.

The last PRR locomotive in active service was #5244, leased to Union Transportation of New Egypt, New Jersey until July 1959. This was considered quite an achievement considering the Pennsylvania Railroad's extensive steam program.

In 1939, toy train manufacturer Lionel introduced their version of Pennsy's B6 in several variations including a scale version (scale couplers and smaller flanges to operate on special track) along with six versions of what would later become known as "semi-scale."

Two B6s survive:

- B6sb #1670 was saved in the PRR's historic collection at Northumberland, Pennsylvania and was donated to the Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania along with the majority of that collection.

- B6sa #60 was on a siding in Hockessin, Delaware, along the Wilmington and Western Railroad. It has a larger tender, from a 2-8-0 Consolidation, but it is intact, albeit in poor condition. In 2019–2020, it was donated to the Historic Red Clay Valley Inc., and the locomotive remains on a siding near Mt. Cuba. B6sa #60 then was moved to the Wilmington and Western's railroad shops in Wilmington, Delaware on May, 9, 2024 where it will be cosmetically restored and then put on display as an exhibit in Lewes, Delaware.

title: Pennsylvania Railroad class B6


text: User talk:63.227.26.101

title: User talk:63.227.26.101


text: User talk:70.179.18.218

title: User talk:70.179.18.218


text:
Greenleaf

Greenleaf may refer to:

Inhabited places

 * Greenleaf, California, former name of Gregg, California
 * Greenleaf, Idaho
 * Greenleaf, Kansas
 * Greenleaf, Minnesota
 * Greenleaf, Oregon
 * Greenleaf, Wisconsin
 * Greenleaf Township (disambiguation)

Other places in the US

 * Greenleaf at Cheltenham, an outdoor shopping center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 * Greenleaf Hut, an Appalachian Mountain Club hut in the White Mountains of New Hampshire
 * Greenleaf Peak, a mountain in the Cascade Range, Washington
 * Greenleaf Point, former name of Buzzard Point, Washington, D.C.
 * Greenleaf Lake (disambiguation)
 * Greenleaf Lake State Recreation Area, Minnesota
 * Greenleaf State Park, Oklahoma

Publishers

 * Greenleaf Book Group, a publisher and book distributor (founded 1997), Austin, Texas, US
 * Greenleaf Publishing, a publisher of academic and professional books and journals (founded 1992), Yorkshire, UK
 * Greenleaf Publishing (1950s–1970s), a publishing house founded by William Lawrence Hamling, Chicago, Illinois, US

Other uses

 * Greenleaf (automobile), American automobile produced in 1900s
 * Greenleaf (band), Swedish rock band
 * Greenleaf (name)
 * "Greenleaf" (short story), a 1956 short story by Flannery O'Connor
 * Greenleaf (TV series), a 2016 television drama series on OWN
 * Greenleaf, Indiana, the fictional setting of the film In & Out
 * Greenleaf five eyes (Chamaesaracha coronopus), a plant in the nightshade family
 * Greenleaf Friends Academy, Greenleaf, Idaho
 * Greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula), a North American shrub
 * Greenleaf Music, an independent American record label
 * Legolas, a character of The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien, whose name is translated as "Greenleaf"
 * Mills & Greenleaf, an American architectural firm in the early 20th New York City, New York, US

title: Greenleaf


text:
Arthur (Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire)

Arthur or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire, often referred to simply as Arthur, is the seventh studio album by the English rock band the Kinks, released on 10 October 1969. It was the first Kinks album to feature bassist John Dalton, who replaced Pete Quaife. Kinks frontman Ray Davies constructed the concept album as the soundtrack to a Granada Television play and developed the storyline with novelist Julian Mitchell; the television programme was never produced. The rough plot revolved around Arthur Morgan, a carpet-layer, who was based on Ray and guitarist Dave Davies' brother-in-law Arthur Anning. A stereo version was released internationally with a mono version being released in the UK, but not in the US.

The album was met with poor sales but nearly unanimous acclaim, especially among the American music press. Although Arthur and its first two singles, "Drivin and "Shangri-La", failed to chart in the UK, the Kinks returned to the Billboard charts after a two-year absence with "Victoria", the lead single in the US, peaking at number 62. The album itself reached number 105 on the Billboard Top LPs chart, their highest position for three years. Arthur paved the way for the further success of the Kinks' 1970 comeback album Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround, Part One.

Background
British production company Granada TV approached Ray Davies in early January 1969, expressing interest in developing a film or play for television. Davies was to collaborate with writer Julian Mitchell on the "experimental" programme, with a soundtrack by the Kinks to be released on an accompanying LP. Agreements were finalised on 8 January, and the project was revealed at a press release on 10 March. Separately, the Kinks began work on the programme's companion record, entitled Arthur (Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire).

Development of Arthur occurred during a rough period for the band, due to the commercial failure of their previous album The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society and the subsequent single, "Plastic Man", as well as the departure of founding member and bassist Pete Quaife. In early 1969, Quaife had told the band he was leaving, though the other members did not take the remark seriously because Quaife had left the band in 1966, only to have a change of heart and rejoin shortly afterwards. When an article in the New Musical Express mentioned Maple Oak, the band he had formed without the rest of the Kinks' knowledge, Davies unsuccessfully asked Quaife to return for the upcoming sessions of Arthur. Bassist John Dalton, who had briefly replaced Quaife when the latter had quit three years prior, was asked by drummer Mick Avory to rejoin the band.

Ray Davies travelled to United Recording Studios in Los Angeles on 11 April 1969, to produce American band the Turtles' LP Turtle Soup with engineer Chuck Britz. While in Los Angeles, Davies helped negotiate an end to the concert ban placed on the Kinks by the American Federation of Musicians in 1965. Although neither the Kinks nor the union gave a specific reason for the ban, at the time it was widely attributed to their rowdy on-stage behaviour. After negotiations with Davies, the Federation allowed the group to return to touring in America. Once the main sessions for the Turtles LP were completed, Davies returned to England.

While Davies was abroad, the other members of the band had been rehearsing and practising for the upcoming album, as well as lead guitarist Dave Davies' solo album, nicknamed A Hole in the Sock of. When Ray returned, the Kinks regrouped at his house in Borehamwood, Hertfordshire, to rehearse Arthur.

Recording
The group turned to the recording proper on 1 May 1969. The first tracks worked on were "Drivin, intended as their next single release, and "Mindless Child of Motherhood", written by Dave Davies (the latter would eventually be used as the B-side to "Drivin, and was not included on the LP). The Kinks began a two-week series of focused sessions on 5 May, laying down an early version of the entire Arthur album. Recording was interrupted when the Kinks travelled to Beirut, Lebanon on 17 May to play three dates at the Melkart Hotel; sessions for Arthur resumed the day after their return, and most of the recording for the album was finished by the end of the month. Mixing and dubbing began in early June, with arranger Lew Warburton handling string overdubs. The Kinks played a few small gigs in England throughout the remainder of the month, but devoted most of their time to finishing Dave Davies' solo album.

Writing for the TV play progressed through May and June, and on 15 June mixing for Dave Davies' solo LP was completed (tapes for this record were eventually delivered to Pye and Reprise Records, although it never saw official release). A press release announced that the Arthur LP was scheduled for a late July release. As Davies and Mitchell completed their script, the Arthur TV play began to crystallise, and British filmmaker Leslie Woodhead was assigned the role of director. By early September production was scheduled to begin, with a planned broadcast of late September, but these plans were continually delayed. As problems with the TV play got progressively worse—and, consequently, distracted the Kinks from completing the post-production of the album—the release dates for both projects were pushed further and further back. In early October Ray Davies moved from Borehamwood back to his old family home on Fortis Green, in Muswell Hill, and travelled to Los Angeles, where he delivered the tapes to Reprise for Arthur's American release. The album's release date was set for 10 October, and the Kinks began gearing up for an upcoming US tour to support the album, for which they would depart on 17 October. Shooting for the TV play was set for 1 December. Roy Stonehouse was hired as a designer, and the casting was completed, but the show was cancelled at the last minute when the producer was unable to secure financial backing. Davies and Mitchell were frustrated at an entire year's work wasted: Doug Hinman said Davies witnessed "his grand artistic visions once again dashed by bureaucracy and internal politics".

Story and theme
The story is partially inspired by the Davies brothers' older sister Rose, who emigrated to Australia in 1964 with her husband Arthur Anning. Her departure devastated Ray Davies, and it inspired him to write the song "Rosy Won't You Please Come Home", included on the 1966 album Face to Face. The lead character in the album, the fictional Arthur Morgan—modelled after Anning—is a carpet layer whose family's plight in the opportunity-poor setting of post-war England is depicted. Writer Julian Mitchell detailed the story line and characters in depth, explaining in the liner notes for the album's LP release:

"Arthur Morgan... lives in a London suburb in a house called Shangri-La, with a garden and a car and a wife called Rose and a son called Derek who's married to Liz, and they have these two very nice kids, Terry and Marilyn. Derek and Liz and Terry and Marilyn are emigrating to Australia. Arthur did have another son, called Eddie. He was named after Arthur's brother, who was killed in the battle of the Somme. Arthur's Eddie was killed, too—in Korea."

Davies later commented in his autobiography, X-Ray, that Anning later "told me that he... knew it [Arthur] had been partly inspired by him... [it] reminded him of home... I told Arthur that I felt guilty for using him as a subject for a song, but he shrugged off my apology, saying that he was flattered." With an underlying theme of nostalgia, the songs describe the England Arthur once knew ("Victoria", "Young and Innocent Days"), the promise of life in Australia for one of his sons ("Australia"), the emptiness of his superficially comfortable life in his home ("Shangri-La"), the resolve of the British people during the Second World War ("Mr. Churchill Says"), the privations that marked the austerity period after the war ("She's Bought a Hat Like Princess Marina"), and the death of his brother in World War I ("Yes Sir, No Sir", "Some Mother's Son").

Release
Arthur (Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire) was released in the UK and US on 10 October 1969. It was the last Kinks album to be released in mono, and the mono edition was not released in the US. The album set the stage for the Kinks' return to touring the United States in late 1969, and paved the way for even greater commercial success with the hit song "Lola" in 1970.

Singles and chart performance
While the sessions for Arthur (Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire) were nearing completion in June 1969, the track "Drivin was released as a single in the UK, backed with "Mindless Child of Motherhood". For the first time since their breakthrough in 1964, a Kinks single failed to make an impression on the UK charts —Johnny Rogan notes that "This was the first of two pilot singles for... Arthur and its failure did not augur well". The group followed with another single in September, "Shangri-La", which again failed to chart in the UK. As with Village Green, the album itself failed to chart when released in October.

In the US, "Victoria" was the lead single, backed with the album track "Brainwashed", and was released the same week as the LP. The single reached number 62 on the Billboard Hot 100—their highest position since their Top 20 hit "Sunny Afternoon" in 1966. The success of the single led to its release in the UK; backed with "Mr. Churchill Says", it reached a peak of number 30. Arthur itself was a moderate commercial success in the US, where it peaked at number 105 (the highest for a Kinks album since 1966) and remained on the charts for 20 weeks.

Promotion
Reprise Records, the Kinks' US label, devised an elaborate, multi-levelled promotional campaign for Arthur in early 1969. The most famous branch of the programme involved a promo package entitled God Save the Kinks. The set featured various items, including a consumer's guide to the band's albums, a bag of "grass" from the "Daviesland village green", and an LP entitled Then, Now and Inbetween. The set was accompanied by a positive letter from Hal Halverstadt of creative services at Warner/Reprise, part of which read, "...[We are led] to believe that the Kinks may not have had it at all... The Kinks are to be supported, encouraged, cheered. And saved." The campaign was officially launched on 3 July, at a meeting between Ray Davies and Reprise executives in Burbank, California. Reprise considered seeding false stories in the press to create an "outlaw" image for the group as part of the campaign, including pieces about marijuana possession and income tax evasion. Ray called the idea "mad", and the programme was dropped. Several pieces were used in the press kit for Arthur's release, with titles including "English Pop Group Arrested on Rape Rap".

Packaging and liner notes
Artwork for Arthur was created by Bob Lawrie. The album was packaged in a gatefold sleeve, and included a shaped insert depicting Queen Victoria (holding a house containing Arthur Morgan), with lyrics on the reverse. Liner notes in the UK were written by Geoffrey Cannon and Julian Mitchell; in the US, notes by rock critic John Mendelsohn replaced Cannon's.

Critical reception
The album was critically acclaimed at the time of release, especially in the US rock press. It was favourably compared to Tommy by the Who, released earlier in the year. In Rolling Stone magazine, Arthur was spotlighted in its lead section, with back-to-back reviews by Mike Daly and Greil Marcus. Daly called it "an album that is a masterpiece on every level: Ray Davies' finest hour, the Kinks' supreme achievement". Marcus also praised the album, calling it "Less ambitious than Tommy, and far more musical... Arthur is by all odds the best British album of 1969. It shows that Pete Townshend still has worlds to conquer and that the Beatles have a lot of catching up to do." A review by Sal Imam ran in Boston's Fusion magazine read that "If Tommy was the greatest rock opera, then Arthur most surely is the greatest rock musical." Writing in his Consumer Guide column of The Village Voice, Robert Christgau gave the record a positive review, saying that although Ray Davies' lyrics could get "petulant and preachy at times", the album featured "excellent music and production".

Reception in the UK was not as warm, although reviews were still generally positive. Disc & Music Echo commented that "Arthur works as a complete score because it is basic and simple and pleasing to the ear, and powerfully conjures up pictures in the eye." Melody Maker seconded Mike Daly's comments in Rolling Stone, again calling it "Ray Davies' finest hour", and adding that it was "beautifully British to the core". Doug Hinman later commented on the album's reception in Britain: "In the British music press there [was] less celebration, and coverage [was] relatively routine, though everyone saw the rock opera angle."

Reappraisal
Today the album receives generally positive reviews. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said Arthur was "one of the most effective concept albums in rock history, as well as one of the best and most influential British pop records of its era", and in 2003 Matt Golden of Stylus called it "the best rock opera ever". Switch magazine included Arthur on their "100 Best Albums of the 20th Century" in 1999, and in 2003 Mojo featured the album on their list of the "Top 50 Most Eccentric Albums".

The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.

Personnel
The Kinks Bonus tracks
 * Ray Davies – lead and backing vocals, rhythm guitar, keyboards (harpsichord and piano), production
 * Dave Davies – lead guitar, backing vocals, co-lead vocals on "Australia" and "Arthur", lead vocals on his own tracks
 * John Dalton – bass guitar, backing vocals
 * Mick Avory – drums, percussion
 * Pete Quaife – bass guitar, backing vocals on tracks: "Plastic Man", "King Kong", "This Man He Weeps Tonight", "Lincoln County", "Hold My Hand" and "Creeping Jean"

Production
 * Lew Warburton – horn and string arrangements
 * Andrew Hendriksen – engineering
 * Brian Humphries – engineering on "Drivin
 * Bob Lawrie – album art
 * Austin Sneller – credited as "album 'tester


text:
Talk:Pella, Iowa

Pella Dutch
If anyone has easy access to the book Pella Dutch: The Portrait of a Language and Its Use in One of Iowa's Ethnic Communities, it would be an excellent source to create a section on the Dutch language as spoken by people in Pella. If not, I might purchase a copy for myself later and create the section myself. --68.109.185.29 19:30, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

Speaking as somebody that grew up in Pella, I'd say that the Dutch language is not really spoken as a whole in Pella. You might make the argument that we use a lot of Dutch loanwords, but thats about as far as it goes. 205.237.160.194 09:45, 2 February 2007 (UTC)

Earthpark Indoor Rainforest
It has just been announced that Pella is going to be the location of the Earthpark Indoor Rainforest project, with construction planned to begin next year.

Just visited a friend in Pella, and was given the impression the Earthpark was still just likely, not definite. This was the first week in December 2007. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.192.215.140 (talk) 11:08, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

The Earth Park idea is off. The required funding was not secured so they canceled the project. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.221.215.54 (talk) 20:55, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

Famous People
We need to implement some sort of quality control with the "famous people" section. What's the litmus test of faminosity? Should there be some sort of citation?
 * Having or potentially being eligible for a Wikipedia article is a pretty common standard I believe; see the main Iowa article for some examples. Local celebrities with 15 minutes of fame because of doing something clever/stupid should be worked into other sections (and not redlinked, usually), if there's not enough information to give them their own article. -- nae'blis 16:03, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I concur. See WP:N. RenaissongsMan 15:18, 30 September 2016 (UTC)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Renaissongsman (talk • contribs)

Pictures
I took some pictures in Pella today, so I added a few to the articles. I have a number of others, so if people would like there to be more in the article, I could add some more. However, I think that many more pictures will likely make the article too image heavy. The article would be able to better accomodate more images if more text were added.Dekkanar 02:42, 14 August 2007 (UTC)

Please no "Yodaspeak"
See my last edit. ;-) RenaissongsMan 15:19, 30 September 2016 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Renaissongsman (talk • contribs)

title: Talk:Pella, Iowa