text:
Buddhist calendar

The Buddhist calendar is a set of lunisolar calendars primarily used in Tibet, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam as well as in Malaysia and Singapore and by Chinese populations for religious or official occasions. While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a year numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunar calendar and by the Thai solar calendar.

The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are largely based on an older version of the Hindu calendar, which uses the sidereal year as the solar year. One major difference is that the Southeast Asian systems, unlike their Indian cousins, do not use apparent reckoning to stay in sync with the sidereal year. Instead, they employ their versions of the Metonic cycle. However, since the Metonic cycle is not very accurate for sidereal years, the Southeast Asian calendar is slowly drifting out of sync with the sidereal, approximately one day every 100 years. Yet no coordinated structural reforms of the lunisolar calendar have been undertaken.

Today, the traditional Buddhist lunisolar calendar is used mainly for Theravada Buddhist festivals. The Thai Buddhist Era, a renumbered Gregorian calendar, is the official calendar in Thailand.

Structure

The calculation methodology of the current versions of Southeast Asian Buddhist calendars is largely based on that of the Burmese calendar, which was in use in various Southeast Asian kingdoms down to the 19th century under the names of Chula Sakarat and Jolak Sakaraj. The Burmese calendar in turn was based on the "original" Surya Siddhanta system of ancient India (believed to be Ardharatrika school). One key difference with Indian systems is that the Burmese system has followed a variation of the Metonic cycle. It is unclear from where, when or how the Metonic system was introduced; hypotheses range from China to Europe. The Burmese system, and indeed the Southeast Asian systems, thus use a "strange" combination of sidereal years from the Indian calendar in combination with the Metonic cycle better for tropical years.

Epochal date
In all Theravada traditions, the calendar's epochal year 0 date was the day in which the Buddha attained parinibbāna. However, not all traditions agree on when it actually took place. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, it was 13 May 544 BCE (Tuesday, Full moon of Kason 148 Anjanasakaraj). But in Thailand, it was 11 March 545 BCE, the date which the current Thai lunisolar and solar calendars use as the epochal date. Yet, the Thai calendars for some reason have fixed the difference between their Buddhist Era (BE) numbering and the Christian/Common Era (CE) numbering at 543, which points to an epochal year of 544 BCE, not 545 BCE. In Myanmar, the difference between BE and CE can be 543 or 544 for CE dates, and 544 or 543 for BCE dates, depending on the month of the Buddhist Era (as the Buddhist calendar straddles the Gregorian calendar—currently from April to April).

Types
The calendar recognizes two types of months: synodic month and sidereal month. The Synodic months are used to compose the years while the 27 lunar sidereal days (Sanskrit: nakshatra), alongside the 12 signs of the zodiac, are used for astrological calculations. (The Burmese calendar also recognizes a solar month called Thuriya Matha, which is defined as 1/12th of a year. But the solar month varies by the type of year such as tropical year, sidereal year, etc.)

Waxing and waning
The days of the month are counted in two halves, waxing and waning. The 15th of the waxing is the civil full moon day. The civil new moon day is the last day of the month (14th or 15th waning). Because of the inaccuracy of the calendrical calculation systems, the mean and real (true) New Moons rarely coincide. The mean New Moon often precedes the real New Moon.

Number of days per month
As the Synodic lunar month is approximately 29.5 days, the calendar uses alternating months of 29 and 30 days.

Month numbering
Various regional versions of Chula Sakarat/Burmese calendar existed across various regions of mainland Southeast Asia. Unlike Burmese systems, Kengtung, Sipsongpanna, Lan Na, Lan Xang and Sukhothai systems refer to the months by numbers, not by names. This means reading ancient texts and inscriptions in Thailand requires constant vigilance, not just in making sure one is correctly operating for the correct region, but also for variations within regions itself when incursions cause a variation in practice.

Year
The Buddhist calendar is a lunisolar calendar in which the months are based on lunar months and years are based on solar years. One of its primary objectives is to synchronize the lunar part with the solar part. The lunar months, normally twelve of them, consist alternately of 29 days and 30 days, such that a normal lunar year will contain 354 days, as opposed to the solar year of ~365.25 days. Therefore, some form of addition to the lunar year (of intercalation) is necessary. The overall basis for it is provided by cycles of 57 years. Eleven extra days are inserted in every 57 years, and seven extra months of 30 days are inserted in every 19 years (21 months in 57 years). This provides 20819 complete days to both calendars. This 57-year cycle would provide a mean year of about 365.2456 days and a mean month of about 29.530496 days, if not corrected.

As such, the calendar adds an intercalary month in leap years and sometimes also an intercalary day in great leap years. The intercalary month not only corrects the length of the year but also corrects the accumulating error of the month to extent of half a day. The average length of the month is further corrected by adding a day to Nayon at irregular intervals—a little more than seven times in two cycles (39 years). The intercalary day is never inserted except in a year which has an intercalary month. The Hindu calendar inserts an intercalary month at any time of year as soon as the accumulated fractions amount to one month. The Burmese calendar however always inserts the intercalary month at the same time of the year, after the summer solstice while the Arakanese calendar inserts it after the vernal equinox.

Burmese
The Burmese calendar year consists of 354, 384 or 385 days.

Note: The Arakanese calendar adds the intercalary day in Tagu, not in Nayon.

Cambodian, Lao and Thai
The Cambodian, Lao and Thai lunisolar calendars use a slightly different method to place the intercalary day. Instead of it in a leap year as in the Burmese system, the Thai system places it in a separate year. Thus, the Thai small leap year has 355 days while the Thai great leap year has 384 days.

New Year's Day
Since the main purpose of Buddhist calendar is to keep pace with the solar year, the new year is always marked by the solar year, which falls at the time when the Sun enters Aries. The date, which at the present falls on the 17th of April, has slowly drifted over the centuries. In the 20th century, the New Year's Day fell on April 15 or 16th but in the 17th century, it fell on April 9 or 10th. Thailand and Cambodia no longer use the traditional lunisolar calendar to mark the New Year's Day.

Cycle
The Cambodian, Lao and Thai systems give animal names to the years from a cycle of 12. The practice also existed in Burma in the Pagan period but later died out.

The Cambodian calendar also maintains a 10-year naming cycle (numbered one to ten). Cambodians use multiple systems to identify a given year. For instance, 2017 is identified as 2561 Buddhist Era, the year of Rooster, Nuppasak (Year 9). The Thai lunar calendar also uses a similar numbered 10-year cycle. Each number in the cycle corresponds to the last digit of the year in the Chula Sakarat calendar.

Accuracy
The Southeast Asian Buddhist calendars use lunar months but try to keep pace with the solar year, by inserting intercalary months and days on the Metonic cycle (in the case of the Burmese calendar, on a modified Metonic cycle). However, the solar year as defined by the Buddhist calendars is really a sidereal year, which is nearly 24 minutes longer than the actual mean tropical year. Therefore, like all sidereal-based calendars, the lunisolar calendars are slowly drifting away from the seasons. The calendars are drifting one day approximately every 60 years and 4 months.

The accumulating drift against the seasons means the New Year's Day which used to fall on 22 March (near the vernal equinox) in 638 CE now falls on 17 April in 2013 CE. There is no known internationally concerted effort to stop this drift. Thailand has moved its "Buddhist Era" to the Gregorian calendar under the name of Thai solar calendar. In Myanmar, Burmese calendarists have tried to deal with the issue by periodically modifying the intercalation schedule in the Metonic cycle. One major downside of this approach is that it is not possible to publish future calendars more than a few years (often even a year) ahead.

History
The Buddhist Era was first introduced to Southeast Asia along with Buddhism in the early centuries CE. It was not a separate calendar but simply a year numbering system that employed the organization and calculation methods of the prevailing lunisolar calendars in use throughout the region. In the early centuries CE, the reference civil calendar of the Buddhist calendar prevalent in Southeast Asia was the Saka Era (Mahāsakaraj Era), which is said to have been adopted by the Pyu state of Sri Ksetra in 80 CE. The Saka Era was gradually replaced by the Burmese Era or Culāsakaraj, first in Myanmar in 640 CE, and in other Theravada kingdoms of Southeast Asia between the 13th and 16th centuries. Theravada Buddhist tradition also recognizes pre-Buddhist Anjana Sakaraj (Añjana's Era) since the events of the Buddha's life are recorded in that era.

The tradition of using different reference calendars continued in Siam in 1912 when King Vajiravudh decreed that the Buddhist Era would now track the Thai solar calendar, the Siamese version of the Gregorian calendar with the New Year's Day of 1 April. Therefore, the Thai Buddhist Era year of 2455 began on 1 April 1912 (as opposed to 15 April 1912 according to the lunisolar calendar ). The Thai Buddhist Era was further realigned to the Gregorian calendar on 6 September 1940 when Prime Minister Phibunsongkhram decreed 1 January 1941 as the start of the year 2484 BE. As a result, the Year 2483 was only 9 months long, and the Thai Buddhist Era equals that of the Common Era plus 543 years.

Current usage
The lunisolar calendar is used to mark important Buddhist holidays. Many of the holidays are celebrated as public holidays.

Computer support
The Thai-style "Buddhist calendar", which is the Gregorian calendar with the Buddhist era, is supported in Java 8, iOS, and macOS.

title: Buddhist calendar


text:
User talk:Semprini

Nominations for the 2020 Military history WikiProject Newcomer and Historian of the Year awards now open
G'day all, the nominations for the 2020 Military history WikiProject newcomer and Historian of the Year are open, all editors are encouraged to nominate candidates for the awards before until 23:59 (GMT) on 15 December 2020, after which voting will occur for 14 days. There is not much time left to nominate worthy recipients, so get to it! Peacemaker67 (click to talk to me) 06:45, 10 December 2020 (UTC)

Voting for "Military Historian of the Year" and "Military history newcomer of the year" closing
G'day all, voting for the WikiProject Military history "Military Historian of the Year" and "Military history newcomer of the year" is about to close, so if you haven't already, click on the links and have your say before 23:59 (GMT) on 30 December! Peacemaker67 (click to talk to me) 23:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC) for the coord team

April 2021 WikiProject Military History Reviewing Drive
Hey y'all, the April 2021 WikiProject Military History Reviewing Drive begins at 00:01 UTC on April 1, 2021 and runs through 23:59 UTC on April 31, 2021. Points can be earned through reviewing articles on the AutoCheck report, reviewing articles listed at WP:MILHIST/ASSESS, reviewing MILHIST-tagged articles at WP:GAN or WP:FAC, and reviewing articles submitted at WP:MILHIST/ACR. Service awards and barnstars are given for set points thresholds, and the top three finishers will receive further awards. To participate, sign up at WikiProject_Military_History/April 2021 Reviewing Drive and create a worklist at WikiProject Military history/April 2021 Reviewing Drive/Worklists (examples are given). Further details can be found at the drive page. Questions can be asked at the drive talk page. MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 17:26, 31 March 2021 (UTC)

Wikiproject Military history coordinator election nominations open
Nominations for the upcoming project coordinator election are now open. A team of up to ten coordinators will be elected for the next year. The project coordinators are the designated points of contact for issues concerning the project, and are responsible for maintaining our internal structure and processes. They do not, however, have any authority over article content or editor conduct, or any other special powers. More information on being a coordinator is available here. If you are interested in running, please sign up here by 23:59 UTC on 14 September! Voting doesn't commence until 15 September. If you have any questions, you can contact any member of the coord team. MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 01:59, 1 September 2021 (UTC)

Wikiproject Military history coordinator election nomination period closing soon
Nominations for the upcoming project coordinator election are still open, but not for long. A team of up to ten coordinators will be elected for the next year. The project coordinators are the designated points of contact for issues concerning the project, and are responsible for maintaining our internal structure and processes. They do not, however, have any authority over article content or editor conduct, or any other special powers. More information on being a coordinator is available here. If you are interested in running, please sign up here by 23:59 UTC on 14 September! No further nominations will be accepted after that time. Voting will commence on 15 September. If you have any questions, you can contact any member of the current coord team. MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 02:43, 10 September 2021 (UTC)

WikiProject Military history coordinator election voting has commenced
Hey y'all, voting for the 2021 Wikiproject Military history coordinator tranche is now open. This is a simple approval vote; only "support" votes should be made. Project members should vote for any candidates they support by 23:59 (UTC) on 28 September 2021. Voting will be conducted at the 2021 tranche page itself. Appropriate questions for the candidates can also be asked. Thanks, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 04:40, 15 September 2021 (UTC)

Wikiproject Military history coordinator election voting period closing soon
Hey y'all, voting for the 2021 Wikiproject Military history coordinator tranche will be closing soon. This is a simple approval vote; only "support" votes should be made. Project members should vote for any candidates they support by 23:59 (UTC) on 28 September 2021. Voting will be conducted at the 2021 tranche page itself. Thanks, MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 02:33, 26 September 2021 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Semprini


text:
Protected areas of Romania

This is a list of protected areas of Romania.

About 5.18% of the area of Romania has a protected status (12,360 km2), including the Danube Delta, which makes half of these areas (2.43% of Romania's area).

National parks
There are 14 national parks totaling 3,223 km2: {{Legend|beige|National park listed in UNESCO World Heritage}} {{Legend|gainsboro|National park included in UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme}}

Proposed hunting
The Romanian parliament discussed in September 2008 a bill aiming to open 13 national parks to sustainable hunting, in order to manage the wildlife biodiversity in these areas and promote greater tourism and the accompanying revenue necessary to support and maintain the parks. However, after several protests from environmental organizations, the law was rejected by President Traian Băsescu. Nowadays, hunting is prohibited in national parks of Romania.

Natural parks
There are 17 natural parks totaling 5,492.33 km2: {{Legend|#E1F7E6|Prizewinning natural park during the EDEN Awards Gala (8 October 2009)}} {{Legend|#F0FFFF|Natural park included in the European Network and member of the Global Geoparks Network under the auspices of UNESCO}} {{Legend|gainsboro|Biosphere reserve}}

Natural reserves
Natural reserves are natural areas protected by law in order to protect and conserve important habitats and natural species. The dimensions of natural reserves vary and depend on the area needed by protected natural elements. Besides scientific activities, the administrations of natural reserves encourage traditional activities and ecotourism that do not affect the natural landscape. Here is not permitted to use natural resources.

There are 617 natural reservations totaling 2,043.55 km2.

Scientific reserves
Scientific reserves are also protected areas that, like the previous ones, aim at protection and preservation of natural habitats. The difference is that scientific reserves can not be visited by tourists. These areas typically contain rare plant and animal species or particular natural elements, reason why here are prohibited any human activities, excepting research and education activities. Entry without permission in scientific reserves is punishable by considerable fines.

There are 55 such reservations totaling 1,112.77 km2.

Natural monuments
There are 234 natural monuments totaling 77.05 km2.

title: Protected areas of Romania


text:
Bir Hakeim

Bir Hakeim (بئر حكيم,, sometimes written Bir Hacheim) is the site of a former Ottoman fort in the Libyan desert. The fort was built around the site of an ancient Roman well, dating to the period when the oasis was part of Ottoman Tripolitania. It is about 160 km west of Sollum on the Libyan coast and 80 km south-east of Gazala. Bir Hakeim is best known for the battle of Bir Hakeim, which took place there during World War II.

The battle occurred during the Battle of Gazala (26 May – 21 June 1942) when the 1st Free French Brigade of Général de brigade, future Maréchal de France Marie-Pierre Kœnig defended the site from 26 May – 11 June against much larger German and Italian forces, commanded by Generaloberst Erwin Rommel.

Capitaine Pierre Messmer was one of the French officers of the 13th half-brigade of the French Foreign Legion. Messmer had graduated from St Cyr Military School. He was commanding the 3rd battalion of the Legion. Plenty of his soldiers were from Spanish and German origin, and many of them Jews. The Kaddish was said most evenings at Bir-Hakeim. The other half-brigade of the 1st Free French Division included units that did not belong to the French Foreign Legion, like the Bataillon de Marche n°2 de l'Afrique équatoriale française (BM2), the Bataillon du Pacifique (French Polynesia, New Caledonia and New Hebrides), the 1st Bataillon of Infanterie de Marine, the 1st Regiment of Artillerie, the 1st Bataillon of Fusiliers Marins in association with the troop D of the 43rd Battery of the 11th City of London Yeomanry Regiment, and the 22nd North-African French Armored Company.

Pierre Messmer was the first French Foreign Legion soldier to be elected to the Académie Française. He would later become Prime Minister of the French Republic under President Georges Pompidou.

During these 14 days, 3700 French soldiers immobilized 40 000 Axis soldiers. Out of these 3700, 800 died or went missing. This half-brigade had already fought the German Army at Narvik on 27 May 1940.

Although the Afrika Corps captured Tobruk ten days later, the delay imposed on the Axis offensive by the defence of Bir Hakeim influenced the cancellation of Operation Herkules, the planned German invasion of the Suez Canal and Malta. The stand by the Free French gave the defeated and retreating British Eighth Army enough time to recover from its heavy losses, and to reorganize. The British then stopped the German advance at the First Battle of El Alamein. The Algerian and Moroccan units of the 1st Free French Division gave birth to the French Expeditionary Corps under the command of Général Alphonse Juin, future Maréchal de France, and Général Joseph de Goislard de Monsabert. They were also instrumental in the Battle of Monte Cassino. There, the 3rd Division d'Infanterie Algérienne (3rd DIA), and the Groupement des Tabors Marocains of Général Augustin Guillaume were recognized in breaking through the German defences of the Gustav Line.

This battle would serve as the namesake for Bir-Hakeim (Paris Métro), a station on the Paris Métro, and Pont de Bir-Hakeim, a bridge.

Bir Hakeim was also the site of a daring rescue during World War I. On 14 March 1916, Major Hugh Grosvenor led an armoured car squadron, part of the Western Frontier Force, to Bir Hakeim after having traveled 120 miles across the desert from Sollum. There they rescued 91 British POWs from HMS Tara and HMT Moorina. German U-boats had captured the British sailors after torpedoing their vessels and had turned their prisoners over to the local Senussi, who were allied with the Germans.

As a result of the Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912), Italy captured the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet (province), which became known as Italian Libya. The Italian army stationed a unit of its Zaptié Meharista at Bir Hakeim.

title: Bir Hakeim


text:
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis is a species of Nyctanthes native to South Asia and Southeast Asia. It is commonly known as night-blooming jasmine, tree of sadness, tree of sorrow, hengra bubar, coral jasmine and in Singapore seri gading. Despite its common name, the species is not a "true jasmine" and not of the genus Jasminum.

Names
The tree is called the "tree of sorrow" because the foliage becomes droopy as blooming flowers fall off during early morning. The Latin specific epithet arbor-tristis means "sad tree". In Nepal, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis is known as pārijāta (पारिजात), harsinghar, sephalika, pavalamallikai, manjapumaram, mannappumaram and siharu. In Malaysia it is known as seri gading and in China it is referred to as nai hua or hung mo li.

Description
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis is a shrub or a small tree growing to 10 m tall, with flaky grey bark. The leaves are opposite, simple, 6–12 cm long and 2–6.5 cm broad, with an entire margin. The flowers are fragrant, with a five- to eight-lobed white corolla with an orange-red centre; they are produced in clusters of two to seven together, with individual flowers opening at dusk and finishing at dawn. The fruit is a bilobed, flat brown heart-shaped to round capsule 2 cm diameter, each lobe containing a single seed.

Distribution and habitat
N. arbor-tristis is native to Indo-China, Himalaya and Sumatera to Jawa. It grows in dry deciduous forests and hillsides.

Uses
The leaves have been used in Ayurvedic medicine and Homoeopathy for sciatica, arthritis, and fevers, and as a laxative. An orange dye from the corolla, nyctanthin, is used to dye silk. In India, flowers are used to make garlands and used for worship.

Culture
The flower of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis is the official state flower of West Bengal and is called shiuli or shefali. The "shiuli" flowers bloom during the autumn season in Bengal and are offered to goddess Durga on the festival of Durga Puja. The flowers are associated with the autumn season and Durga Puja in Bengal. Many Durga puja songs and poems have mentions of this flower.

The native people of Tripura use the plant to help predict weather and rainfall.

Literature
The parijata is a divine tree featured in Hindu mythology. The Mahabharata and the Puranas describe the parijata tree, as one of five trees, to have emerged during the legend of the Samudra Manthana. Krishna is described to have battled with Indra to uproot the parijata from his capital of Amaravati and plant it in his own city of Dvaraka. In regional tradition, Satyabhama grew aggrieved when Krishna offered his chief consort Rukmini a parijata flower. To placate her envy, Krishna confronted Indra and had the parijata tree planted near Satyabhama's door. Despite having the tree planted near her dwelling, the flowers of the tree fell in the adjacent backyard of Rukmini, the favourite wife of Krishna, because of her superior devotion and humility.

The tree is the subject of a work named Parijatapaharanamu in Telugu literature, written by Nandi Thimmana, the court-poet of Krishnadevaraya. The poet Kalidasa sings about the flower in his Sanskrit poem Ritu samhara.

title: Nyctanthes arbor-tristis


text:
File:WWI US hospital train.jpg

A hospital train serving the United States military in World War I in Europe

Photo from Photos of the Great War

title: File:WWI US hospital train.jpg


text:
Stig Strömholm

Stig Fredrik Strömholm (born 16 September 1931 in Boden, Sweden), Swedish, former rector magnificus of Uppsala University and past president of Academia Europaea.

Strömholm received his education in Uppsala (B.A. 1952; LL.B. 1957, Licentiate 1957). He completed a doctorate in Law in Uppsala in 1966. He was Professor in Jurisprudence in Uppsala from 1969, and Professor in Private Law and Conflict of Laws there 1982–1997. After an appointment as prorector (deputy vice-chancellor) of Uppsala University 1978–1989, he was rector magnificus (vice-chancellor) of the university 1989–1997. On 5 June 1992 Strömholm received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Humanities at Uppsala University, Sweden.

On his retirement from the rectorial chair in 1997, he received a Festschrift, Festskrift till Stig Strömholm (Uppsala 1997), in two volumes and 925 pages, including a partial bibliography (ISBN 91-7678-341-3).

Strömholm was awarded the Illis quorum by the Swedish government in 1997. He holds the Gunnerus Medal. He was elected foreign member of the Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters in 1981 and an honorary member of the Society in 1988. In 1990 he was awarded the title of Foreign Academician of Science of the Academy of Finland. Strömholm is also a foreign member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. Strömholm was elected member of Academia Europaea in 1989; he served as its president from 1997 to 2002.

title: Stig Strömholm


text:
Prime Directive (disambiguation)

Prime Directive is a guiding principle of Star Trek ' s Starfleet.

Prime Directive may refer to:

 * Prime Directive (role-playing game), by the Amarillo Design Bureau
 * Prime Directive (album), an album by the Dave Holland Quintet
 * Prime Directive (novel), a Star Trek novel by Judith and Garfield Reeves-Stevens
 * Prime directive (RoboCop), four rules governing the behavior of RoboCop
 * A fake working title of the Transformers (film series)
 * Prime Directive, a concept in the 1947 science fiction novelette With Folded Hands by Jack Williamson

title: Prime Directive (disambiguation)


text:
Darwood Kaye

Darwood Kenneth Smith (September 8, 1929 – May 15, 2002), also known as Darwood Kaye, was an American child actor most notable for his semi-regular role as the bookish rich kid Waldo in the Our Gang short subjects series from 1937 to 1940. As an adult, Smith became a Seventh-day Adventist pastor, ministering at several churches until his death in 2002.

Kaye was discovered in 1935 while his family was on vacation in Hollywood, California; he was asked to come to the studios for a screen test, and made some uncredited appearances in films in 1936.

Our Gang
Kaye had a small role in Hal Roach's 1937 Our Gang comedy Glove Taps. His first speaking part was in Hearts Are Thumps, released the same year. In most of his Our Gang appearances, Kaye portrayed "Waldo", a rich kid with an officious, studious nature who competed with schoolmates "Alfalfa" Switzer and "Butch" Bond for the affections of little Darla Hood.

Kaye appeared with other Our Gang cast members in live performances in the early 1940s. A 1940 Fort Worth Star-Telegram article about the Our Gang cast said that Kaye and another cast member "display the most essential characteristics of actors in that neither is affected by the constantly unsympathetic roles they must play. Darwood is easily recognizable as a 'regular guy' in any juvenile company and conducts himself with good manners and lack of effrontery which distinguish him from Waldo." According to Variety, he and Switzer performed "an eccentric tap routine which registered well for nice laughs and applause" in San Antonio in late December 1940.

Kaye remained a semi-regular in Our Gang through 1940, by which time production of the series had moved from the Hal Roach studio to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. He appeared in a total of 21 Our Gang films. After leaving the Our Gang series Kaye appeared as "Waldo" in Barnyard Follies at Republic Pictures in late 1940. Minor roles in other films included the musical Best Foot Forward (1943) and Kansas City Kitty (1944); in both he played "Killer".

Pastor Smith
After serving in the U.S. Army for a year and a half, Smith attended La Sierra University, a Seventh-day Adventist college in Riverside, California. He married another student attending La Sierra, Jean Venden, in June 1951, with whom he had four sons: Dan, David, Richard, and Donald.

Smith became a minister in the Seventh-day Adventist Church, ministering at churches in the nearby cities of San Diego, Palm Springs, Escondido, Santa Maria, Oceanside. and in northern California at the Saint Helena SDA church.

In 1957, the Smiths moved to Siam (present day Thailand), where Darwood, now known as Pastor Ken Smith, did missionary work. Three years later, the couple's fourth son, Donald, was born in Bangkok. The Smiths remained in Thailand for fourteen years before going back to the U.S. permanently. Smith continued his clerical career, ministering in several Southern California churches and supervising missionary work.

Death and legacy
On May 15, 2002, Smith was severely injured in a hit and run crash on Arlington Avenue in Riverside, California. He died later that evening at Riverside Community Hospital, surrounded by his family. He was buried at the Crestlawn Memorial Park in Riverside.

His son David wrote the biography Finding Waldo: From Little Rascal to Adventist Pastor by Darwood Kaye (Pacific Press, 2009).

title: Darwood Kaye


text:
Kevin Godley

Kevin Michael Godley (born 7 October 1945) is a British singer-songwriter, drummer and music video director. He is known as the singer and drummer of the art rock band 10cc and later as part of collaboration duo Godley & Creme with Lol Creme.

Early life
Kevin Michael Godley was born on 7 October 1945 in Prestwich, Lancashire, England, to a Jewish family, and went to North Cestrian Grammar School in Altrincham.

While attending art college in Manchester Godley met future creative partner Lol Creme. Godley and Creme joined the R&B combo the Sabres.

10cc and Godley & Creme
They became involved in a number of bands such as the Mockingbirds, Hotlegs and later 10cc. As part of the bands Godley was a songwriter, lead vocalist, played drums, percussion and keyboards. Godley and Creme recorded four studio albums with 10cc. In 1977, early in the recording of the band's fifth studio album Deceptive Bends, unimpressed with the songs by bandmates Eric Stewart and Graham Gouldman and eager to work on other projects outside of the band, Godley and Creme left. Both Godley and Creme briefly 'reunited' with their former 10cc bandmates Stewart and Gouldman on the band's tenth studio album ...Meanwhile (1992). Following ...Meanwhile, Godley and Creme went their separate ways again, having experienced difficulties together as early as 1988.

Later work
Godley later again reunited with Gouldman to form the band GG/06. Together they recorded a self-titled extended play (EP), which was made available for free via their website. Since then Godley has several times joined Gouldman's iteration of 10cc in concert, and was featured on the live and video album Clever Clogs (2008).

More recently Godley moved into developing a music platform for the iPad, one that combines audio and video to create a global recording studio in the cloud called "WholeWorldBand". The company was nominated for the SXSW Music Accelerator Award in 2013, and was one of eight finalists selected from a pool of over 500.

In 2017, Godley publicly invited musicians to send him music to work on his debut solo studio album, titled Muscle Memory with the idea being that he would take the rough ideas and turn them into a finished song. The album was originally supposed to be released in 2018 through campaign on pledgemusic.com, but due to its closure the release was postponed. In 2021, Kevin Godley's album Muscle Memory was completed and released by The state51 Conspiracy after the project stalled as a PledgeMusic campaign.

In 2018, Godley was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Arts by Staffordshire University. In 2021, Godley joined "Group of Humans" a globally distributed community of creative leaders and change architects as Creative Director. He currently lives and works in Wicklow, Ireland with his wife Sue, and hopes to direct a film based on Orson Welles' time in Ireland.

Discography
Studio albums As featured artist
 * Muscle Memory (2020)
 * "The Bad & the Beautiful" – Hog Fever (2016)
 * "Confessions" – Hog Fever (2016)
 * "Expecting a Message" – Before During After: The Story of 10cc (2017)

With GG/06 10cc (See full discography at 10cc discography) Godley & Creme (See full discography at Godley & Creme)
 * GG/06: EP - 1 (2008)

title: Kevin Godley


text:
TAC

TAC, or tac, may refer to:

People

 * Pablo Tac, US scholar
 * Pham Cong Tac, a leader of the Cao Dai religion

Places

 * Tác, a village in Fejér County, Hungary

Organisations

 * TAC (building automation), a Swedish building automation company
 * Tactical Air Command, a former command of the US Air Force
 * Technical Advisory Council, a committee advising the US FCC
 * Technical Assistance Center, a company's internal support group for external customers
 * The Aleut Corporation, Alaska, United States, a Native Regional Corporation
 * The Analysis Corporation, a private intelligence firm
 * The Ant Commandos, a company which produces video game console peripherals
 * The Asatru Community, an inclusive Norse Pagan/Heathen sect; see Kindred (Heathenism)
 * The Athletics Congress, US sports governing body, became USATF in 1992
 * The Architects Collaborative, Cambridge, Massachusetts, US
 * Thomas Aquinas College, a college with multiple campuses in the US
 * Treatment Action Campaign, a South African AIDS organisation
 * Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia
 * Traditional Anglican Communion
 * Transatlantic Council, Boy Scouts of America

Transport

 * TAC Colombia, a charter airline based in Bogotá, Colombia
 * TAC, the IATA code for Daniel Z. Romualdez Airport on Leyte island, Philippines
 * TAC, the National Rail code for Tackley railway station in the county of Oxfordshire, UK
 * TAC - Transportes Aéreos Catarinense, a former Brazilian airline
 * Tecnologia Automotiva Catarinense (TAC) a Brazilian automotive company
 * Terminal area chart, an aeronautical chart of the area surrounding a major airport
 * Thai Airways Company, a former Thai airline
 * Trans Air Congo, a Congolese airline
 * Transport Accident Commission, an insurer in Victoria, Australia

Military and law enforcement

 * Demro TAC-1, a pistol calibre carbine/submachine gun
 * McMillan TAC-50, an American sniper rifle
 * Tactical Air Command, a former major command of the United States Air Force
 * TAC 30, the official name of a SWAT unit belonging to the King County Sheriff's Office

Science and technology

 * Motorola TAC, brand used by Motorola for their early mobile phones (Total Area Coverage)
 * TAC, a codon for the amino acid Tyrosine
 * TAC, a mixture of tetracaine, adrenaline and cocaine, a liquid sometimes given as a soothing gel to children
 * TaC, chemical formula for Tantalum carbide
 * , a Linux command that concatenates lines in reverse, named by analogy with
 * TAC (software), an instant messaging and chat client program
 * TAC-2, game controller compatible with Atari 2600 video game systems
 * Terminal Access Controller, a host computer that accepts terminal connections
 * Thermally Advantaged Chassis, an Intel computer specification
 * Three-address code, a representation of intermediate code used by compilers
 * Time-activity curve, tracer concentration within a region of interest within dynamic image plotted over time
 * Triacetyl cellulose, a polymer used in display applications
 * Trigeminal autonomic cephalgia, a type of headache that occurs on one side of the head
 * Type Allocation Code, part of a mobile device's IMEI identifying maker and model

Media

 * Group TAC, a Japanese anime and computer graphics studio
 * The Accessible Channel, a Canadian digital television channel
 * The American Conservative, a paleoconservative magazine published by the American Ideas Institute

Other

 * tac, the ISO 639-3 code for the Tarahumara language spoken in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico
 * Terrible-Monster Attacking Crew, a fictional pilot squadron in Ultraman Ace

 * The Arts Centre or TAC, former name of Home of the Arts, Gold Coast
 * Total allowable catch, in commercial fishing under the European Union's Common Fisheries Policy

title: TAC


text:
Talk:Banja Luka

New disputed - historical population
I contacted people from Faculty of Philosophy University of Banja Luka and Faculty of Geography, University of Belgrade. Several graduate student had to check historical population in books of Austria-Hungary and Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The research was done with the help of Serbian Academy of Science and Art. The text I received in original which heavily disputed previous contents I will copy here (text in original in Serbian language, a lot of people here is familiar with the Serbian language, for those who aren't translation will be provided soon).

Попис из 1879. године:

 * Котар Бањалука
 * Особа 86 209
 * мухамеданци 12 350 (14.33%)
 * грчко източњаци 64 186 (74.45%)
 * латино католици 9 486 (11.00%)
 * израличани 187 (0.21%)
 * слиедбеници иних вјерозаконах –

 * Мјесто Бањалука
 * укупно 9 560 ст.
 * мухамеданци 6 474 (67.72%)
 * гр.-източњаци 1 893 (19.80%)
 * римо-католици 1 006 (10.52%)
 * израличани 187 (1.95%)

Напомене: Није исти територијални обухват мјеста Бања Лука из 1879. и 1991.,ао ни котара Бања Лука (1879.) и општине Бања Лука (1991.).Нпр у котару Бања Лука је постојала политичка испостава Прњавор,а обухватао је и Лакташе,Масловаре,Челинац (Пчелинац)...Поред мјеста Бања Лука, 1879.г. постојала су и мјеста Буџак,Петричевац,Ребровац...

 * Попис из 1910. године:

 * Присутно цивилно житељство

 * Бањалука,град. котар (48км2)
 * Укупно 14 800
 * Српско-православни 3 694 (24.96%)
 * Муслимани 6 588 (44.51%)
 * Римо-католици 3 930 (26.55)

...

 * Бањалука, сеоски котар (1 614км2)
 * Укупно 58 360
 * Српско-православни 41 414 (70.96%)
 * Муслимани 2 436 (4.17%)
 * Римо-католици 14 052 (24.08%)

...

 * Попис из 1921. године:

 * Бања Лука, град
 * Укупно 18 001
 * Православних 5 324 (29.58%)
 * Римо-католика 4 718 (26.21%)
 * Муслимана 7 201 (40.00%)
 * Израелићана 484 (2.69%)

...

 * Котар Бања Лука
 * Укупно 59 578
 * Православних 41 511 (69.68%)
 * Римо-католика 15 159 (25.44%)
 * Муслимана 2 364 (3.97%)
 * Израелићана 1 (0.01%)

...

 * Попис из 1948. године:

 * Град Бања Лука
 * Укупно 31 223
 * Срби 10 861 (34,78%)
 * Хрвати 8 662 (27.74%)
 * Неопредјељени муслимани 9 951 (31.87%)

...

 * Срез Бања Лука
 * Укупно 89 248
 * Срби 64 599 (72.38%)
 * Хрвати 21 150 (23.70%)
 * Неопредјељени муслимани 2 622 (2.93%)

 * Попис из 1971. године:
 * Општина Бања Лука
 * Укупно 158 736 становника,
 * Срби 92 465, (58.25%)
 * Хрвати 33 371, (21.02%)
 * Муслимани 24 268, (15.29%)
 * Југословени 4 684 (2.95%)

...

 * Попис из 1981. године:
 * Општина Бања Лука
 * Укупно 183 618 становника,
 * Срби 93 389, (50.86%)
 * Југословени 31 347, (17.07%)
 * Хрвати 30 442, (16.58%)
 * Муслимани 21 726 (11.83%)

...

Од ових 183 618 становника,
 * у насељу Бања Лука је било 123 937
 * Срби 51 839, (41.83%)
 * Југословени 29 176, (23.54%)
 * Муслимани 20 916, (16.88%)
 * Хрвати 16 314 (13.16%)

...

 * Попис из 1991. године:
 * Општина Бања Лука Укупно 195 692 становника
 * Срби 106 826 (54,58%),
 * Хрвати 29 026, (14.83%)
 * Муслимани 28 558, (14.59%)
 * Југословени 23 656 (12.09%)

...

 * Од ових 195 692 становника, у насељу Бања Лука било је 143 079,
 * Срби 70 155, (49.03%)
 * Муслимани 27 689, (19.35%)
 * Југословени 22 645, (15.82%)
 * Хрвати 15 700 (10.97%)

...

-Ово за 25 000 нових Срба по основу војног особља је шупља.

-Они узимају да је 1948. Срба 34,78%, а 1991. 54,60%. Медјутим, ових 34,78% се односи на тадашње подручје града, а 54,6% на цијело подручје општине (град и околина) из 1991. године, а не само град.Ако се заједно посматрају срез и град за 1948. (дакле град са околином) онда је и тада проценат Срба знатно већи од 34,78%.Такође, подручје општине из 1991. године није исто као подручје града и среза из 1948. године. -Сасвим је нормално да се становништво из околине (у овом случају претежно српске) у протеклих 60 година досељавало у град због индустријализације итд. -Или није требало да се досељава да би структура града остала као у турском периоду?А зна се ко је тада био по градовима и по ком основу.

-На крају крајева, по свим аустроугарским пописима (четири) православци су у БиХ бројнији од муслимана, па ето... --195.139.24.170 28 June 2005 06:32 (UTC)

Preliminary Analysis
Based on info provide above and information from the article given that "Seoski Kotar", "Srez" and "Opstina" generally means Municipality (given minor teritorial fluctuations, replaning and political reorganizations) and that "Mjesto", "Naselje" and "Grad" generally means City (given its teritorial fluctuations and urban expansions)

City of Banja Luka

Bosnian Muslim (Bosniaks)

 * 1879 – 67.72%
 * 1910 – 44.51%
 * 1921 – 40.00%
 * 1948 – 31.87%
 * 1981 - 16.88%
 * 1991 – 19.35%

Serbs

 * 1879 – 19.80%
 * 1910 – 24.96%
 * 1921 – 29.58%
 * 1948 – 34.78%
 * 1981 – 41.83%
 * 1991 – 49.03%

Croats

 * 1879 – 11.00%
 * 1910 – 26.55%
 * 1921 – 26.21%
 * 1948 – 27.74%
 * 1981 – 16.58%
 * 1991 – 13.16%

Yugoslavs

 * 1981 – 16.88%
 * 1991 – 15.82%

Municipality of Banja Luka

Bosnian Muslim (Bosniaks)

 * 1879 – 14.33%
 * 1910 – 4.17%
 * 1921 – 3.97%
 * 1948 – 2.93%
 * 1971 – 15.29%
 * 1981 – 11.83%
 * 1991 – 14.59%

Serbs

 * 1879 – 74.45%
 * 1910 – 70.96%
 * 1921 – 69.68%
 * 1948 – 72.38%
 * 1971 – 58.25%
 * 1981 – 50.86%
 * 1991 – 54.58%

Croats

 * 1879 – 10.52%
 * 1910 – 26.55%
 * 1921 – 25.44%
 * 1948 – 23.70%
 * 1971 – 21.02%
 * 1981 – 16.58%
 * 1991 – 14.83%

Yugoslavs

 * 1971 – 2.95%
 * 1981 – 17.07%
 * 1991 – 12.09%

Generally speaking it is clear that there was a sharp drop in Bosniak population natality in the City of Banja Luka since 1879 until 1991 with only slight recovery in period from 1981 to 1991. It is also clear that there was a sharp and consistant increase of Serb population in the City of Banja Luka from 1879 to 1991. Croat population remained relatively the same in the City of Banja Luka with a gradual decline starting after WWII.

On the municipal level numbers tend to stay relativelly the same. It is noted that Serb population has declined as some of the rural parts were included in the City of Banja Luka proper and also because of in-migration after the 1969 earthquake. There is a sharp drop in Bosniak population on the municipal level noted on 1910 what can be attributed to several factors, including massive emigration (partly due to Agrarian Reform) and includeing the fact that many Bosniaks had to declare themselves as Croats, Serbs or undecided Muslims until 1971 when their national identity was restored.

This is just a preliminary analysis.--Dado 2 July 2005 15:11 (UTC)

Translation of population of Banja Luka parapgraph
1879. Banja Luka district Population 86209, Muslims 12350, Orthodox 64 186, Catholics 9 486, Jews 187

1879. Town Banja Luka, Population 9 560, Muslims 6 474, Orthodox 1 893, Catholics 1 006, Jews 187

1910. Banja Luka, city (48 km2) Overall population 14800, Orthodox 3 694, Muslims 6 588, Catholics 3 930

1910. Banja Luka, villige distrikt (1 614 km2), Overall 58 360, orthodox 41 414, Muslims 2 436, Catholics 14 052

1921. Banja Luka, city Overall: 18 001, orthodox: 5 324, Catholics:  4 718, Muslims: 7 201, Jews:  484

1921. Banja Luka, district Overall: 59 578, orthodox: 41 511, Catholics: 15 159, Muslims: 2 364, Jews: 1

1948. Banja Luka, city Overall: 31 223, Serbs: 10 861(34, 78%), Croatian: 8 662, Muslims: 9 951

1948. Banja Luka, canton Overall: 89 248, Serbs: 64 599, Croats:  21 150, Muslims: 2 622

1971. Municipally of Banja Luka Overall: 158 736, Serbs 92 465, Croats 33 371, Muslims 24 268, Yugoslav 4 684

1981. Municipally of Banja Luka, Overall: 183 618, Serbs 93 389, Yugoslav 31 347, Croats 30 442, Muslims 21 726...

1981. City of Banja Luka Overall: 123 937, Serbs: 51 839, Yugoslavs 29 176, Muslims 20 916, Croats 16 314

1991. Municipally of Banja Luka, Overall: 195 692, Serbs: 106 826(54, 58%), Croats 29 026, Muslims 28 558, Yugoslavs 23 656

1991. City of Banja Luka Overall 143 079, Serbs 70 155, Muslims 27 689, Yugoslavs 22 645, Croats 15 700 --Oldadamml 7 July 2005 13:03 (UTC)

Area
1 mi² is not 1.609 km² but 1.609km*1,609km = 2,589km². — Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.114.44.96 (talk) 13:29, 11 February 2007

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 09:23, 2 September 2021 (UTC)
 * Споменик палим борцима Босанске крајине на Бањ Брду (на Шехитлуцима).jpg

title: Talk:Banja Luka


text:
Illinois Route 22

Illinois Route 22, also known as Half Day Road for part of its length, is an east–west state highway in northeastern Illinois. It runs from U.S. Route 14 (Northwest Highway) in Fox River Grove to U.S. Route 41 (Skokie Highway) in Highland Park. It travels a distance of 19.7 mi and is one of the few roads that runs almost entirely across southern Lake County while also providing access to southeastern McHenry County. Throughout its length, it shifts between two and four lanes as it passes through a frequently changing setting of scenic forestry and smaller populations, as well as busy intersections and larger developments.

It originally started as a massive loop around the Chicago area, however it has retained its current, much shorter route ever since 1937. During the 1990s, it became the subject of much concern for local residents regarding expansion which slowed capacity expansion. By the late 2000s, the delays have come and gone and it has emerged as a state route that has been built to deal with heavy traffic.

Route description

Beginning at its western terminus at a commercially developed intersection with U.S. Route 14 (Northwest Highway), Illinois 22 starts out as a two lane road in Fox River Grove, just inside the McHenry County line. It quickly becomes much more rural as it enters the city of Lake Barrington and Lake County about a half mile east. The Advocate Good Shepherd Hospital and Stonehenge Golf Club on the north side are all that lie in this wooded area of sporadic residential development. Heading into North Barrington, the road continues its journey as it crosses paths with Illinois Route 59 (Hough Street) until soon after, when it nears the more densely populated area of Lake Zurich.

It becomes a four lane road as it approaches commercial development and the busy intersection of U.S. Route 12 (Rand Road). Shortly after, it proceeds to briefly take a northeast direction while it bypasses the narrow, downtown area of Lake Zurich, including a grade separation at the Elgin, Joliet and Eastern Railway (EJ&E). Returning due east, the road travels through a mix of light industrial and commercial developments to the north, and residential to the south before intersecting with Quentin Road. This is where, for a short distance, Illinois 22 runs past the southern edge of Forest Lake on the north side and heads into Kildeer which is largely on the south side. This all takes place while it narrows back down to two lanes near two housing developments and returns to a rural setting with light forestry. The road then passes by the Kemper Lakes Business Center, Kemper Lakes Golf Club, and the Egret Marsh and then enters Long Grove. Soon after passing a mixed-use development on the northwest corner at an intersection with Old McHenry Road, it briefly enters a denser forest area before widening back to four lanes while again passing by residential developments.

After a major intersection with Illinois Route 83, the route takes on the name Half Day Road and enters Buffalo Grove. It passes by more neighborhoods, a shopping plaza on the northeast corner of Buffalo Grove Road, the Arboretum Club, and the Prairie View Metra Station next to the at-grade North Central Service tracks. The road then enters Lincolnshire and heads nearby the Stevenson High School and an office complex before intersecting with Illinois Route 21/U.S. Route 45 (Milwaukee Avenue), with northwest corner containing a gas station, the northeast a grocery store, and the other two being undeveloped. It then travels by Crane's Landing Golf Course, near the Half Day and Wright Woods Forest Preserves, and goes over the Des Plaines River as it once again encounters a wooded area which surrounds nearby homes. Soon the road intersects and forms a diamond interchange with Interstate 94 (Tri-State Tollway); many office complexes and corporate buildings, such as Hewitt Associates, are located nearby. On the east side of the interchange, Illinois 22 enters Bannockburn as it passes near Trinity International University as well as some upper class real estate areas. The road next approaches the at-grade Milwaukee District/North Line tracks and major junction with Illinois Route 43 (Waukegan Road) while passing a shopping area on the southeast corner of that intersection. It then arrives in the last city on its journey, Highland Park, where it heads near the Prairie Wolf Slough Forest Preserve. Shortly after, it nears its end as it goes under the grade separated Union Pacific/North Line tracks and a pedestrian crossing before terminating at the well traveled, at-grade intersection of U.S. Route 41 (Skokie Highway); Half Day Road continues east without a state route designation.

Early history
Half Day Road takes its name from Aptakisic, a local Potawatomi chief who allied himself with White settlers in the area. The chief's name meant "sun at the meridian" or "half day". After his removal to the vicinity of Elmont, Kansas after the 1833 Treaty of Chicago, settlers applied his name first to an inn, then to the unincorporated town of Half Day, and finally to the road passing through the town. A widespread local legend states that prior to the 1900s, it supposedly took a half day to travel from the area to Chicago, and that this is the source of the name; however, this story has no support in the historical record.

In 1918, State Bond Issue (SBI) Route 22 started off as an outer beltway around the Chicago area, similar to the shape of Interstate 294. It was even referred to in Illinois road maps, as early as 1931, as the "22 Loop". In those days, it traveled in a "C" formation from the city of Lake Forest to Crystal Lake to Aurora to Joliet, and then east to the border near Indiana. If it took the same path today, it would travel the routes of U.S. 41, modern Illinois 22, U.S. 14, Illinois 31, and U.S. 30. By 1935 it had largely been changed to its current route, except for a small section extending east of U.S. 41.

Recent history
Until the early 2000s and despite heavy traffic, Illinois 22 generally remained a two lane road. The only sections that were four lanes were the intersections of Illinois 83, Buffalo Grove Road, Milwaukee Avenue, Interstate 94, Illinois 43, and U.S. 41. The lengthy two lane gaps in between those intersections, as well as the rest of Illinois 22 were heavily discussed for expansion starting in the early 1990s. These discussions included plans that called for additional lanes on its entire length from U.S. 14 to U.S. 41, including widening a section from U.S. 12 to Milwaukee Avenue to six lanes. Also mentioned was a bypass around the narrow, downtown area of Lake Zurich.

It became apparent that a major hold up with these projects was the citizens and local officials of Lincolnshire. Going back to 1971, the section of road from Illinois 83 to Interstate 94 had been known to be opposed for widening by the residents of Lincolnshire. The dispute continued even after funding was secured for the project. This continued until 2002 when an agreement was finally reached between Lincolnshire and the Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) that led the way for expansion to proceed. Notice was also given around then that plans to widen Illinois 22 west of U.S. 12, through North Barrington and Lake Barrington had been dropped. In December 2003, the $12.5 million of roadwork which consisted of approximately 1.5 miles of widened concrete lanes from west of Interstate 94 to east of Milwaukee Avenue was officially over and the lanes were opened to traffic.

In 1994, the Lake Zurich Village Board approved a bypass around its narrow downtown. This project followed a similar time frame as the Lincolnshire work, however, it was met with a much less intense opposition. The entire process of planning through securing funding was complete by 2003 when state budget cutbacks delayed construction by a year. Construction was completed by 2006, and on October 20, 2006, Illinois 22 was rerouted from Main Street onto the four lane $27 million bypass around Lake Zurich. Several homes and business were removed for the new roadway, which now featured a grade separation at the Elgin, Joliet and Eastern Railway. By the end of 2006, all surrounding major roadwork had been completed; with landscaping continuing into 2007. After years of delay, the entire project was complete, with four concrete lanes from west of U.S. 12 to east of Quentin Road. This included intersection expansions along the way, highlighted by the five lane approaches with dual left turn lanes in both directions at Quentin Road.

An additional three-mile section of Illinois 22 from Illinois 83 to Milwaukee Avenue, primarily located in Buffalo Grove, was another closely related project that was once again met with similar delays and concerns. Long Grove got on board in May 2005 and approved any widening between its eastern city limits and Illinois 83. Roadwork began in the fall on the two-year project, and in September 2007 it was finished; complete with four concrete lanes and a center grassy median. Again, intersection expansions were also made, this time adding dual left turn lanes to both east–west approaches at Illinois 83 and Buffalo Grove Road.

There was one final widening project that was worked on in 2005, this time located mostly in Bannockburn. East of Illinois 43 for about a half mile, Illinois 22 was widened to four lanes while in the process a nearby bridge was replaced.

Beginning in 2008, a bridge replacement and expansion project got underway on Illinois 22 at the interchange with Interstate 94. This was necessary for the tollway which travels underneath to be widened to eight lanes. The old bridge, which was five lanes wide, was rebuilt with one that is eight lanes and includes full length dual left turn lanes in both directions. The bulk of the work was completed by December 2009, however both sets of dual left turn lanes were not in operation until the following spring.

In August 2009, construction began on an intersection expansion project at Milwaukee Avenue in Lincolnshire. Its outdated design was a gap in the stretch of recently completed roadwork in the surrounding area. The improvements on Illinois 22 have widened the east–west approaches at this major intersection to five lanes, with the new additions being dual left turn lanes as well as right turn lanes. The new lanes were opened for the first time on October 15, 2010.

In 2011, a 2.1 mile, $13.2 million project in Bannockburn and Highland Park got underway. It extended from east of I-94 to west of US-41, with the exception of the small section that was previously worked on in 2005. IL-22 was reconstructed and widened to four lanes. The new lanes were initially opened by the end of 2012, with landscaping and finishing work carrying into 2013.

Future
Most of Illinois 22 has been expanded to four lanes, but there are several gaps remaining. As of 2002, plans for the section west of U.S. 12 have been put on hold indefinitely. Finally, the remaining section located primarily in Long Grove from east of Quentin Road to west of Illinois 83 is also in the works for the near future at an estimated cost of $38.5 million. This project, which is now supported by Long Grove, has suffered similarly mentioned delays, but is also closely related to yet another long delayed project; the Illinois Route 53 extension. If the extension, which is a limited-access expressway and currently terminates three miles south at Lake-Cook Road, were ever built, it would pass through this area, where there would likely be an interchange. The project has been long delayed over the decades so it appears that this section of Illinois 22 may get widened as part of a separate project.

title: Illinois Route 22


text:
File:Rape-of-nanking-cover.gif

Summary

 * Source: Penguin Group USA
 * Cover of Iris Chang's The Rape of Nanking, 1998 edition published by Penguin Books, ISBN 9780140277449.
 * Book cover is copyrighted, so no free alternative may be reproduced. Image qualifies as fair use.
 * Image was uploaded to better illustrate the article for this book. This is a second edition of the book, where corrections were made of the first edition, and after the book had become a New York Times Bestseller.

title: File:Rape-of-nanking-cover.gif


text:
Galerina

Galerina is a genus of small brown-spore saprobic fungi (colloquially often mushrooms), with over 300 species found throughout the world from the far north to remote Macquarie Island in the Southern Ocean. The genus is most noted for some extremely poisonous species which are occasionally confused with hallucinogenic species of Psilocybe. Species are typically small and hygrophanous, with a slender and brittle stem. They are often found growing on wood, and when on the ground have a preference for mossy habitats.

Galerina means helmet-like.

Taxonomic definition
The genus Galerina is defined as small mushrooms of mycenoid stature, that is, roughly similar in form to Mycena species: a small conical to bell-shaped cap, and gills attached to a long and slender cartilaginous stem. Species have a pileipellis that is a cutis, and ornamented spores that are brown in deposit, where the spore ornamentation comes from an extra spore covering.

Description
Galerina fruiting bodies are typically small, undistinguished mushrooms with a typical "little brown mushroom" morphology and a yellow-brown, light brown to cinnamon-brown spore print. The pileus is typically glabrous and often hygrophanous, and a cortina-type veil is present in young specimens of roughly half of recognized species, though it sometimes disappears as the mushroom ages in many of these species. Microscopically, they are highly variable as well, though most species have spores that are ornamented, lack a germ pore, and have a plage. Many species also have characteristic tibiiform cystidia. However, there are many exceptions, and many species of Galerina lack one or more of these microscopic characteristics. Ecologically, all Galerina are saprobic, growing in habitats like rotting wood or in moss.

The spores of Galerina feature an ornamentation that comes from the outer layer of the spore breaking up on maturity to produce either warts, wrinkles or "ears", flaps of material loosened from where the spore was attached to the basidia. This outer layer of the spore often is not complete, but has a clear patch in many species just above the attachment, this clear patch is called a plage. This plage is not evident in all species, and the spore covering does not always breakup in all species, making it sometimes difficult to correctly determine a mushroom of this genus.

The specific features that define the genus require a microscope to confirm. In the wild it can be difficult to determine a Galerina from a number of similar genera, such as Pholiota, Tubaria, Conocybe, Pholiotina, Agrocybe, Gymnopilus, Phaeogalera and Psilocybe. For the most part, Galerinas will be found associated with moss, and this can separate out the genus in nature fairly well. But this identification is more difficult in the section Naucoriopsis, which does not associate with moss, and is a decomposer of wood.

Phaeogalera is a genus that was segregated from Galerina by Robert Kühner.

Phylogenetics
The genus Galerina has recently been found to be polyphyletic, consisting of at least three unrelated clades, although not all species were studied and for most currently recognized species is uncertain still in which they belong. Each of these clades corresponds to a subgenus of Galerina, as outlined by Kühner. The great diversity of micromorphology found in Galerina is probably due to the polyphyly of the genus.

Selected species
Galerina vittiformis is the type species of the genus Galerina. This species is common in beds of damp moss (along with many other species of Galerina). There are a number of variations of this species that have been named over the years: var. vittiformis f. vittiformis is a 2-spored species; var. vittiformis f. tetrasporis is a 4-spored form; var. pachyspora has been collected on Macquarie Island.

Galerina patagonica has a Gondwanan distribution. Galerina hypnorum is a widespread species.

Galerina graminea can survive in moss-free grass, unlike many Galerina mushrooms. It was known for many years as 'Galerina laevis', proposed by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon.

Several Galerina species are listed by the US Forest Service as "species of special concern" in the Northwest Forest Plan. These species are considered indicator species for old growth coniferous forest in the Pacific Northwest: Galerina atkinsonia, Galerina cerina, Galerina heterocystis, Galerina sphagnicola, and Galerina vittiformis.

Toxicity of some species
Many (though not all) Galerina contain alpha-amanitin and other amatoxins.

Galerina marginata (also known as "autumn skullcap", "deadly galerina", etc.) is a poisonous species found throughout the temperate regions of the world, in habitats as diverse as forests and urban parklands, wherever rotting wood is found. DNA studies found that Galerina autumnalis and five other species of Galerina with similar morphologies were, in fact, synonyms of Galerina marginata.

Galerina sulciceps, is a lethal species found in Indonesia and responsible for deaths there. One study found it more toxic than Amanita phalloides.

Galerina steglichii is very rare, bruises blue and contains the hallucinogen psilocybin.

Identification
The extreme toxicity of some Galerina species means that recognition of Galerina is of great importance to mushroom hunters who are seeking hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushrooms. Species like Galerina marginata may bear a superficial resemblance to Psilocybe cyanescens and other Psilocybe species, and has often been found growing amongst and around Psilocybe cyanescens and other Psilocybe species, making identification all the more confusing to the uninitiated. Galerina can be distinguished from psilocybin Psilocybe by the following characteristics:

 * Spore print color: blackish-brown to lilac-brown in Psilocybe, light brown to rusty brown in Galerina. Spore color can be seen by taking a spore print or by looking for evidence of spore drop on the stipe or on surrounding mushrooms.
 * Staining reaction: Psilocybin Psilocybe fruiting bodies stain blue to varying degrees when bruised, while Galerina do not. The strength of this reaction varies with the amount of psilocin present in the tissues of the mushroom. Fruiting bodies with little psilocin (such as Psilocybe semilanceata, with high psilocybin and low psilocin content) will stain weakly if at all, while sporocarps with a high psilocin content will stain strongly blue. Only one rare Galerina has blue-staining tissue, though in some cases the flesh will blacken when handled, and this may be misinterpreted as a bluing reaction.

Although these rules are specific to the separation of Galerina from certain Psilocybe, since mixed patches of Psilocybe and Galerina can occur, it is essential to be sure of the identity of each sporocarp collected.

Galerina also present some risk of confusion with several species of small edible mushrooms, notably Kuehneromyces mutabilis and candy caps (L. camphoratus and allies).

title: Galerina


text: Category:Archaeological sites in Peru

title: Category:Archaeological sites in Peru


text:
File:WWI hospital train interior.jpg

The interior of a hospital train used during World War I in Europe

photo from Photos of the Great War.

title: File:WWI hospital train interior.jpg


text:
Quintus Antistius Adventus

Quintus Antistius Adventus (c. 120 AD – after 175 AD) was a Roman politician and general. He commanded a legion, the II Adiutrix in the war against the Parthian Empire (161-166), and was appointed suffect consul around 166.

His full name, as attested in two inscriptions from modern Algeria, was Quintus Antistius Adventus Postumius Aquilinus. Olli Salomies opines that his brother was Lucius Antistius Mundicius Burrus, and his nephew was likely Lucius Antistius Burrus, ordinary consul in 181. Where the name elements "Postumus Aquilinus" in Adventus' name came from is something of a mystery: Salomies points out that it is "quite inconceivable that he could have been a Postumus adopted by a Q. Antistius", yet notes it could have come from his mother's side because another inscription attests his mother's name as Antonia Prisca.

Career
Professor Edward Champlin includes Adventus as a member of "a Cirtan community at Rome" he infers existed there, whose members included: Quintus Lollius Urbicus, consul in either 135 or 136; Gaius Arrius Antoninus, consul c. 170; and the orator Fronto. Champlin notes that Lollius Urbicus and Pactumeius Clemens themselves "could provide powerful support for Cirtan interests, and such support is attested by strong circumstantial evidence."

An inscription recovered from Thibilis in Numidia, combined with a second from another Numidian town Cirta, allows us to reconstruct his career from its beginning. Adventus began his career with membership in the quattuorviri viarum curandarum, which was the board that oversaw maintenance of the streets and public places in Rome; it was one of the four magistracies that comprised the vigintiviri, and membership in one of these boards was a preliminary and required first step toward a gaining entry into the Roman Senate. Next he was commissioned as the tribunus laticlavius in Legio I Minervia. Upon returning to Rome, he was elected quaestor, and in this office he went to Macedonia to manage its finances. Upon completing this office, Adventus was enrolled into the Senate. Next followed the office of sevir equitum Romanorum or presiding at the annual review of the equites at Rome, then the traditional Republican magistracy of plebeian tribune. Adventus was picked to serve as legatus or assistant to the proconsular governor of Africa, where he was for a year, until returning to Rome once again to hold a third traditional Republican magistracy, praetor. Géza Alföldy dates his praetorship to around 158.

After the praetorship Adventus was commissioned commander of Legio VI Ferrata, and while he was at this post he held at the advent of the Parthian War. He was then transferred to the command of the II Adiutrix probably in 162. From the dona militaria, or military honors, he was awarded fighting against Parthia, it is clear Antistius Adventus saw active service. He was appointed c. 164 governor of Arabia; an inscription from Bostra describes Antistius Adventus as consul designate, and Anthony Birley presumes he held that office while in Arabia. His next appointment was again in Rome as Curator of public buildings and works.

At this point Antistius Adventus was given an extraordinary command, as a general in the German Expedition (leg. Aug. at praetenturam Italiae et Alpium expeditione Germanica), which was launched by Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus in 168. His command was included the two newly raised Legiones II and III Italicae, protecting the passes through the Julian Alps from the invading German tribes. Although the tribes did penetrate the Julian Alps and attempted to capture Aquileia in 170, Birley believes by that time Antistius Adventus had moved on to the position of governor of Germania Inferior, the last post listed for him in the inscription from Thibilis.

Another inscription from Lanchester near Hadrian's Wall (RIB 1083) attests that Antistius Adventus was governor of Roman Britain. Birley believes his tenure there should be "very tentatively" dated to c. 173–6. This was the period that 5,500 Sarmatian cavalry troops arrived in Britain, so one of his tasks in Britain was providing lands for these troops to settle on. His activities after he was governor of Britain are unknown, although it is possible Antistius Adventus was the Adventus to whom Solinus dedicated his Collectanea rerum memorabilium, which includes the well-known reference to the use of coal in a temple to Minerva in Britain.

Marriage and children
He was married to Novia Crispina, whom Birley identifies as the daughter of Lucius Novius Crispinus Martialis Saturninus, consul in either 150 or 151; this marriage, Birley suspects, allowed Antistius Adventus entry into his senatorial career. Birley also identifies Lucius Antistius Burrus, consul ordinarius for 181 and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius, as his son.

title: Quintus Antistius Adventus