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Middlesex Canal

The Middlesex Canal was a 27-mile (44-kilometer) barge canal connecting the Merrimack River with the port of Boston. When operational it was 30 feet (9.1 m) wide, and 3 feet (0.9 m) deep, with 20 locks, each 80 feet (24 m) long and between 10 and 11 feet (3.0 and 3.4 m) wide. It also had eight aqueducts.

Built from 1793 to 1803, the canal was one of the first civil engineering projects of its type in the United States, and was studied by engineers working on other major canal projects such as the Erie Canal. A number of innovations made the canal possible, including hydraulic cement, which was used to mortar its locks, and an ingenious floating towpath to span the Concord River. The canal operated until 1851, when more efficient means of transportation of bulk goods, largely railroads, meant it was no longer competitive.

In 1967, the canal was designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Remnants of the canal still survive and were the subject of a 1972 listing on the National Register of Historic Places, while the entire route, including parts that have been overbuilt, is the subject of a second listing in 2009.

Conception
By 1790, England had thirty years and all of continental Europe's many canals to draw on for the experience. In the years after the American Revolutionary War, the young United States began a period of economic expansion away from the coast. American men of influence had always kept an eye on news from Europe, especially from Great Britain, so when in the years from 1790–1794 the British Parliament passed eighty-one canal and navigation acts, American leaders were paying attention.

Because of extremely poor roads, the cost of bringing goods such as lumber, ashes, grain, and fur to the coast could be quite high if water transport was unavailable. Most American rivers were made unnavigable by rapids and waterfalls. Up and down the Atlantic coast, companies were formed to build canals as cheaper ways to move goods between the interior of the country and the coast. Well aware that to stay independent the nation needed to grow strong and develop industries, the news from Europe rekindled a number of previously dropped canal or navigations projects and began discussions leading in the next decades to many others. The year 1790 is credited as the start of the American Canal Age.

In Massachusetts, several ideas were proposed for bringing goods to the principal port, Boston, and connecting to the interior.Roberts, Chapters I and Chapter II For about three years there were plans to connect the upper reaches of the Connecticut River, above the falls at Enfield Connecticut, to Boston through a canal to the Charles. Connecticut was believed to rise at similar elevations to the Merrimack River's, which could be reached by a string of streams, ponds, lakes, and manmade canals—if the canals were built. In the first two years, rough surveys sought the best route up to the Connecticut Valley; but no route was obviously best, and nobody championed a specific one. A few true believers, but lesser socialites, needed a champion and pestered the Secretary of War, Henry Knox to ignite the project. After the collapse of stocks in early 1793 put paid to a scheme to join the Charles River with Connecticut, championed by Henry Knox, a group of leading Massachusetts businessmen and politicians led by States Attorney General James Sullivan proposed a connection from the Merrimack River to Boston Harbor in 1793. This became the Middlesex (County) Canal system.

The Middlesex Canal Corporation was chartered on June 22, 1793, with a signature by Governor John Hancock, who purchased shares with other political figures including John Adams, John Quincy Adams, James Sullivan, and Christopher Gore. The incorporators were James Sullivan; Oliver Prescott; James Winthrop; Loammi Baldwin; Benjamin Hall; Jonathan Porter; Andrew Hall; Ebenezer Hall; Samuel Tufts, Jr.; Willis Hall; Samuel Swan, Jr.; and Ebenezer Hall, Jr. Sullivan was made the company's president; its vice president and eventually chief engineer was Loammi Baldwin, a native of Woburn, who had attended science lectures at Harvard College and was a friend of physicist Benjamin Thompson.

Construction
The route of the canal was first surveyed in August 1793. Local lore is that it is on this expedition that Baldwin was introduced to a particular apple variety that now bears his name. The route survey, however, was sufficiently uncertain that a second survey was made in October. Due to discrepancies in their results, Baldwin was authorized by the proprietors to travel to Philadelphia in an effort to secure the services of William Weston, a British engineer working on several canal and turnpike projects in Pennsylvania under contract to the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Navigation Company. Baldwin's application to the Navigation company was successful: Weston was authorized to travel to Massachusetts. In July and August 1794, Weston, accompanied by Baldwin and several of the latter's sons surveyed and identified two possible routes for the proposed canal. The proprietors then secured contracts to acquire the land for the canal, some of which was donated by its owners; in sixteen cases the proprietors used eminent domain proceedings to take the land.

The basic plan was for the canal's principal water source to be the Concord River at its highest point in North Billerica, with additional water to be drawn as needed from Horn Pond in Woburn. The site where the canal met the Concord River had been the site of a grist mill since the 17th century, which the proprietors purchased along with all of its water rights. From this point, the canal descended six miles to the Merrimack River in East Chelmsford (now western Lowell) and 22 miles to the Charles River in Charlestown.

In late September 1794 ground was broken in North Billerica. Work on the canal was performed by a number of contractors. In some instances, local workers were contracted to dig sections, while in other areas contract labor was brought in from Massachusetts and New Hampshire for the construction work. A variety of engineering challenges were overcome, leading to innovations in construction materials and equipment. A form of hydraulic cement (made in part from volcanic materials imported at great expense from Sint Eustatius in the West Indies) was used to make the stone locks watertight. Because of its cost and the cost of working in stone, a number of the locks were made of wood instead. An innovation was made in earth-moving equipment with the development of a precursor of the dump truck, where one side of the carrier was hinged to allow the rapid dumping of material at the desired location.

Water was diverted into the canal in December 1800, and by 1803 the canal was filled to Charlestown. The first boat operated on part of the canal on April 22, 1802.

Merrimack canals
A variety of enterprises by all or a few of "the proprietors of the Middlesex Canal" which were the corporations' principal stockholders and the board came together with other third parties or acted in a few cases as a combined whole to fund the development of other stretches of the canal up the Merrimack above Chelmsford. By the completion of construction between Medford and Chelmsford, several extensions envisioned all along were also nearing completion. The whole system was complete in 1814, and with just a few exceptions, overall came to operate with prices and regulations as set by the proprietors of the (main) Middlesex Canal. The following extensions opened up the balance of the Merrimack River to the New Hampshire capital, Concord, which acted as a staging point for riverine traffic deep into the river system penetrating the White and Green Mountains of New Hampshire and Vermont respectively.

Operation
By 1808 the completed canal had reached Merrimack, New Hampshire, from the Charles (the downstream terminus) and was carrying two-thirds of the down freight and one-third of the up freight to Western New Hampshire and Eastern Vermont. The other direction, the canal ran from 'Middlesex Village' or East Chelmsford, Massachusetts (The Town of Chelmsford was later divided and East Chelmsford was renamed Lowell, Massachusetts, now the fourth most populous city in Massachusetts, primarily because of the Lowell textile industry spawned by the transportation infrastructure and water power along the Middlesex Canal and the Nashua and Merrimack Rivers), through several sparser settled Middlesex County outlier suburbs such as Billerica, and Tewksbury, then closer-in suburban towns with the lower course running towards Boston generally along water courses nearly paralleling the routes of MA 38 from Wilmington, thence in Woburn along the Aberjona River from Horn Pond through Winchester (or Waterfield) into the Mystic Lakes and down the Mystic River between Arlington and Somerville on the west bank and Medford along the east (left) bank, until the river and canal ran into the Boston Harbor tidewater in the Charlestown basin.

At first, it terminated in Medford, but was later extended to Charlestown, Massachusetts, with a branch near Medford Center to the Mystic River. Over time, the canal was connected to by a series of other canal companies, and many of those were owned in part by the canal proprietors, which constructed spurs up through New Hampshire upstream along the Nashua and Merrimack Rivers, enabling freight to be transported as far inland as Concord, New Hampshire. Within two years of commencing operations, regular boat traffic operated by independent companies was reaching upriver over 50 mi. Three main companies operated on the canal system. The water source for the canal was the Concord River at North Billerica. This was also the highest point of the canal and is the present location of the Middlesex Canal Association's museum.

Freight boats required 18 hours from Boston up to Lowell, and 12 hours down, thus averaging 2.5 miles per hour; passenger boats were faster, at 12 and 8 hours, respectively (4 miles per hour). As seen on later American canals, use was not restricted to freight and transit: people from the city would ride passenger boats on daylong tourism excursions to the countryside and take vacations in luxuriously fitted out canal boats, whole families spending a week or two lazing along the waterways in the heat of summer.

Freight statistics compiled for twenty years cited in the Harvard Economic study by Roberts indicate the downriver trips from Concord to Boston took four days, and the reverse trip upriver took on average five days. A round trip between Boston and Concord, New Hampshire usually took 7–10 days. These speed limits were set and maintained by the board of proprietors to prevent wakes from damaging the canal sides. Roberts noted they were unlikely to be enforced, and generation of a shore damaging wake would require sails or animals to drive a canal boat in excess of 7 mph, which would require dangerously stiff breezes in the correct direction.

The canal was one of the main thoroughfares in eastern New England until a few decades after the advent of the railroad. The Boston and Lowell Railroad (now a part of the MBTA Commuter Rail system) was built using the plans from the original surveys for the canal. Portions of the line follow the canal route closely, and the canal was used to transport construction materials and also an engine for the railroad.

The canal was no longer economically viable after the introduction of railroad competition, and the company collected its last tolls in 1851. The Middlesex Turnpike, incorporated in 1805, also contributed to its downfall. Investors who held their shares in the company lost money: shareholders invested a total of $740 per share but only reaped $559.50 in dividends. Those who sold their shares at an appropriate time made money: shares valued at $25 in 1794 reached a value of $500 in 1804 and were worth $300 in 1816.

Before the corporation was dissolved, the proprietors proposed to convert the canal into an aqueduct to bring drinking water to Boston, but this effort was unsuccessful. After the canal ceased operation its infrastructure quickly fell into disrepair. In 1852 the company ordered dilapidated bridges over the canal torn down and the canal underneath filled in. Permission was given for the company to liquidate and pay the proceeds to the stockholders, and its 1793 charter was revoked in 1860. The company's records were given over to the state for preservation. The canal corporation's land and dam in North Billerica, as well as the water rights on the Concord River, were sold to Charles and Thomas Talbot, who erected the Talbot Mills complex that now stands in the Billerica Mills Historic District.

Parts of the canal bed were covered by roads in the 20th century, including parts of the Mystic Valley Parkway in Medford and Winchester, and parts of Boston Avenue in Somerville and Medford. Boston Avenue crosses the Mystic River where the canal did. Parts of the canal in eastern Somerville were filled in by leveling Ploughed Hill in the late 19th century. Ploughed Hill was the site of notorious anti-Catholic riots in 1832 and had subsequently been abandoned.

Impact
The opening of the canal diminished the commercial viability of the port of Newburyport, Massachusetts, the outlet of the Merrimack River, since all trade from the Merrimack Valley in New Hampshire now went via the canal to Boston, rather than through the sometimes difficult to navigate river.

The canal also played a prominent role in the eventual growth of Lowell as a major industrial center. Its opening brought on a decline in business at the Pawtucket Canal, a transit canal opened in the 1790s which bypassed the Pawtucket Falls just downstream from the Middlesex Canal's northern end. Its owners converted the Pawtucket Canal for use as a power provider, leading to the growth of the mill businesses on its banks beginning in the 1820s. The Middlesex Canal was used for the transport of raw materials, finished goods, and personnel to and from Lowell.

The canal's use of the Concord River had significant long-term environmental consequences. The raising of the dam height at North Billerica was believed to cause flooding of seasonal hay meadows upstream and prompted numerous lawsuits against the canal proprietors. These were all ultimately unsuccessful, due in part to the uncertainty of the science, and also in part to the political power of the proprietors. As the canal was in decline in its later years, the state legislature finally ordered the dam height to be lowered, but then repealed the order before it was executed. Analysis done in the 20th century suggests that the dam, which still stands (although no longer at its greatest height), probably had a flooding effect on hay meadows as far as 25 miles up the watershed. Many of these meadows had to be abandoned, and some now form portions of the Great Meadows National Wildlife Refuge; they are classified as wetlands.

The canal featured a number of innovations and was referred to as an example for later engineering projects. The use of hydraulic cement to mortar the locks is the first known use of the material in North America. The route was surveyed using a Wye level (an early version of a dumpy level), again the first recorded use in America. At North Billerica, where the canal met the Concord River at the millpond, a floating towpath was devised to handle the needs of crossing traffic patterns.

Today
Though significant portions of the Middlesex Canal are still visible, urban and suburban sprawl is quickly overcoming many of the remains. The Middlesex Canal Association, founded in 1962, has erected markers along portions of the canal's path. Prominent portions of the canal that are still visible include water-filled portions in Wilmington, Billerica, and near the Baldwin House in Woburn. Dry walkable sections can be found in Winchester, most notably a section at the Mystic Lakes where an aqueduct was situated, and Wilmington, where aqueduct remnants are also visible in the town park off Route 38. Most of the canal south of Winchester has been overbuilt by roads and residential construction, although traces may still be discerned in a few places.

In 1967 the canal was designated a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark (one of the first such designations made) by the American Society of Civil Engineers. The surviving elements of the canal are the subject of a 1972 listing on the National Register of Historic Places, while the entire route, including parts that have been overbuilt, is the subject of a second listing in 2009.

The Middlesex Canal Association maintains a museum in North Billerica, Massachusetts, at the Faulkner Mills. Directions and additional information are available on the Middlesex Canal Association website.

title: Middlesex Canal


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Talk:Perfection (disambiguation)

Limited
I don't think perfection should be limited to some quality assurance place. Perhaps a disambiguation page, and then a perfection page analyzing the idea of perfection.

As a person ... David Henry Bonneville ... this man is believed to be the perfect version of perfection. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.152.204.193 (talk) 15:57, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

Good article, too large
this is a great article in my opinion. but a bit too long...

Agreed. 81.170.101.236 07:36, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

fotos are inappropiate..there are lots of portraits but no perfection? should be some photos of simmetry perphaps, utopia, ideals,etc —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Special:Contributions/ (talk)

Something missing?
I see a lot of discussion of how Christians view the perfectness (or lack thereof) of man. Where are the Islamic insights in this area? Did I just miss them? JimScott 01:50, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

Vandalism
The article on "Perfection" appears irresistible to perfect idiots, and continually needs to be cleaned of their grafitti. Wouldn't it be a good idea to protect the article by blocking edits by unregistered users, or by some other means? logologist|Talk 08:55, 28 January 2007 (UTC)

You're not kidding. Look at the obsessive love "poem" someone's spent all day replacing the article with. Lulu Jannings 11:18, 9 September 2007 (UTC)

Boethius
I think there should be something in here about Boethius' perfection argument in the Consolation, Book III, Prosa X. It seems to be a glaring gap between Plato and the medieval period on the notion of God's perfection, which the article seems to go back and forth on (as do the thinkers). I like this article though, I don't think it's too long. Other traditional ideas of perfection should certainly be added somehow. AshleyOz 09:13, 11 April 2007 (UTC)

Disambiguation
Just asking (I am not quite sure about this), but this appears to be the Perfection(Disambiguation)/Talk page. Is there a page Perfection/Talk, (and such pages for other articles mentioned on the Disambiguation page?) Or just this one page? Yes, I am confused, and it is only a small point so maybe I can figure out the answer myself.Newbyguesses 07:45, 3 May 2007 (UTC)

I think this article needs to have some external links : http://spotgeek.com/content/view/163/32/ like this one.

Musical perfection
I think this page sould at least mention the idea of perfect intervals and cadences in music theoryDiddydoobop 21:10, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

Ethics
There seems to be a bit of confusion regarding this page and the page on perfectionism with a suggestion that the two pages be merged. Perfection is larger than perfectionism, and the ethics section of this page should link to the perfectionism page. Any thoughts? User:Tristen 196.209.34.75 09:48, 2 October 2007 (UTC).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Perfection (disambiguation)


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Irofulven

Irofulven or 6-hydroxymethylacylfulvene (also known as HMAF of MGI-114) is an experimental antitumor agent. It belongs to the family of drugs called alkylating agents.

It inhibits the DNA replication of cells deficient in nucleotide excision repair in culture.

Irofulven is an analogue of illudin S, a sesquiterpene toxin found in the Jack 'o' Lantern mushroom (Omphalotus illudens). The compound was originally synthesized by Dr. Trevor McMorris and found to have anticancer properties in mice by Dr. Michael J Kelner.

Licensing and Clinical development
The drug was created and patented by the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), and subsequently licensed to the US biotech company MGI Pharma. Eisai acquired MGI in 2007, and the license was returned to UCSD, which then re-licensed the potential cancer drug to Lantern Pharma in 2015. Soon after, the drug was again sub-licensed to Oncology Venture.

The drug has undergone a number of clinical trials, mostly for late-stage tumors as well as ovarian and prostate cancers, usually preceded by treatment with carboplatin and paclitaxel. A multi-center phase 2 trial involving patients with Recurrent or Persistent Ovarian Epithelial or Primary Peritoneal Cancer was well tolerated but irofluven demonstrated modest activity as a single agent. Previously, a European Phase I study in combination with cisplatin showed substantial evidence for anti-tumor activity. In that study, irofulven showed rapid elimination and high interpatient variability. Platinum and irofulven pharmacokinetics did not suggest drug-drug interactions.

Despite modest successes demonstrating limited efficacy for late stage tumors that were statistically not significant enough to support broader clinical trials, Oncology Venture has decided to stratify patient populations with companion diagnostic tools (biomarkers) to predict outcomes, and thus select that sub-set of patients through DRP (Drug Response Predictors), for whom treatment with irofulven would be most effective. Oncology Venture Sweden AB has initiated two Phase 2 drug-screening studies at two Danish University Hospitals for late-stage prostate cancers, wherein 300 patients have been included to be screened, of which only 27 are to be selected for the Phase 2 trial. This clinical trial is still ongoing with an expected completion date of mid 2024.

Since it was first synthesized, research with irofulven has decreased dramatically over the past decade with only one clinical trial currently being run. A study published in 2021 showed cells with nucleotide excision repair (NER) deficiencies were susceptible to iroflaven while cells without these NER deficiencies were not overly affected. The deficiency of tumors in NER was seen as a potential identifier for patient candidates. Since this discovery, research has increased with researchers calling irofulven a "previously abandoned" anticancer drug.

Synthesis
A synthesis of irofulven has been reported.
 * Irofulven.png

authors: حسن علي البط

title: Irofulven


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Bhonsle (clan)

The Bhonsle (or Bhonsale, Bhosale, Bhosle) are a prominent group within the Maratha clan system.

Earliest members
The earliest accepted members of the Bhonsles are Mudhoji Bhonsle and his kin Rupaji Bhonsle, who were the village headman (pāṭīl) of Hingani — this branch has been since known as Hinganikar Bhonsles. A branch seem to have split soon, who went on to claim an ancestral right to the post of district steward (deśmukhī) of Kadewalit: Suryaji Bhonsle during the reign of Ahmad Nizam Shah I (early 1490s), and his son Sharafji Bhonsle during the conquest of the region by Daniyal Mirza (1599). This branch has been since known as Kadewalit Bhonsles.

The next significant Bhonsle was probably Maloji Bhosale from the Hinganikar branch. He was the great-grandson of one Kheloji (c. 1490).

Origins
In the opinion of Jadunath Sarkar and other scholars, Bhonsles were predominantly Deccani tiller-plainsmen from the Shudra caste; they were part of the Marathas/Kunbis, an amorphous class-group. Scholars have however disagreed about the agricultural status of Bhosles. Rosalind O'Hanlon notes that the historical evolution of castes grouped under the Maratha-Kunbis is sketchy. Ananya Vajpeyi rejects the designation of Shudra, since the category has remained in a state of flux across centuries; she instead notes them to be a Marathi lineage, who enjoyed "reasonably high" social status as landholders and warlords, being in the service of Deccan Sultanate or Mughals.

According to R. C. Dhere's interpretation of local oral history and ethnography, Bhonsles descend from the Hoysalas and Yadavas of Devagiri, who were cow-herding Gavli sovereigns. In early thirteenth century, "Baliyeppa Gopati Sirsat", a Hoysala cousin of Simhana migrated from Gadag to Satara along with his pastoral herd and kul-devta; the Sambhu Mahadev was thus installed at a hill-top in Singhnapur. Historical records indicate that this shrine received extensive patronage from Maloji onwards. Further, there exists a branch of the Bhosles named "Sirsat Bhosles" and Bhosle (or "Bhosale") is linguistically similar to "Hoysala". M. K. Dhavalikar found the work to convincingly explain the foundation of the Bhosle clan (as well as Sambhu Mahadev cult). Vajpeyi too advocates that Dhere's theory be probed in greater detail — "[f]rom pastoralist big men to warlords on horseback, is not an impossible distance to cover in two to three centuries."

Shivaji and invented origins
By 1670s, Shivaji had acquired extensive territory and wealth from his campaigns. But, lacking a formal crown, he had no operational legitimacy to rule his de facto domain and technically, remained subject to his Mughal (or Deccan Sultanate) overlords; in the hierarchy of power, Shivaji's position remained similar to fellow Maratha chieftains. Also, he was often opposed by the orthodox Brahmin community of Maharashtra. A coronation sanctioned by the Brahmins was thus planned, in a bid to proclaim sovereignty and legitimize his rule.

On proposing the Brahmins of his court to have him proclaimed as the rightful king, a controversy erupted: the regnal status was reserved for those belonging to the kshatriya varna. Not only was there a fundamental dispute among scholars on whether any true Kshatriya survived in the Kali Yuga, having been all destroyed by Parashurama but also Shivaji's grandfather was a tiller-headman, Shivaji did not wear the sacred thread, and his marriage was not in accordance with the Kshatriya customs. Thus, the Brahmins had him categorised as a shudra.

Compelled to postpone his coronation, Shivaji had his secretary Balaji Avji Chitnis sent to the Sisodiyas of Mewar for inspection of the royal genealogies; Avji returned with a favorable finding — Shahji turned out to be a descendant of Chacho Sisodiya, a half-Rajput uncle of Mokal Singh. Gaga Bhatt, a famed Brahmin of Banaras, was then hired to ratify Chitnis' find, and the Bhonsles were now permitted to stake a claim to Kshatriya caste. The coronation would be re-executed in June 1674 but only after going through a long list of preludes.

Led by Bhatt, who employed traditional Hindu imagery in an unprecedented scale, the first phase had Shivaji penance for having lived as a Maratha despite being a Kshatriya. Then came the sacred thread ceremony ('maunjibandhanam') followed by remarriage according to Kshatriya customs ('mantra-vivah') and a sequence of Vedic rituals before the eventual coronation ('abhisheka') — a public spectacle of enormous expense that heralded the rebirth of Shivaji as a Kshatriya king. Panegyrics composed by court-poets during these spans (and afterward) reinforced onto the public memory that Shivaji (and the Bhonsles) indeed belonged from the Sisodiyas.

However, the Kshatriyization was not unanimous; a section of Brahmins continued to deny the Kshatriya status. Brahmins of the Peshwa period rejected Bhatt's acceptance of Shivaji's claims and blamed the non-dharmic coronation for all ills that plagued Shivaji and his heirs—in tune with the general Brahminical sentiment to categorize all Marathas as Shudras, carte-blanche; there have been even claims that Bhatt was excommunicated by Maratha Brahmins for his role in the coronation of Shivaji! Interestingly, all claims to Rajput ancestry had largely vanished from the family's subsequent projections of identity.

Accuracy
Vajpeyi notes the "veridical status" of Chitnis' finds to be not determinable to "historical certainty" — the links were tenuous at best and inventive at worst. Shivaji was not a Rajput and the sole purpose of the lineage was to guarantee Shivaji's consecration as a Kshatriya, in a tactic that had clear parallels to Rajputisation. Jadunath Sarkar deemed that the genealogy was cleverly fabricated by Balaji Awji and after some reluctance accepted by Gaga Bhatt, who in turn was "rewarded with a huge fee". V. K. Rajwade, Dhere, Allison Busch, John Keay and Audrey Truschke also agree with Sarkar about the fabrication. G. S. Sardesai notes that the descent is "not authentically proved". Stewart N. Gordon does not pass any judgement but notes Bhatt to be a "creative Brahmin". André Wink deems that the Sisodia genealogical claim is destined to remain disputed forever.

Princely States
Satara State, Kolhapur State, Thanjavur State, Nagpur State, Akkalkot State, Sawantwadi State and Barshi were amongst the prominent states ruled by the Bhonsles.

title: Bhonsle (clan)


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Talk:Light switch

Lamp switch types
Someone include diagram of lamp switch diagrams. The twist knob and push type switch are not covered anywhere.--68.91.95.151 (talk) 05:34, 15 January 2012 (UTC)
 * The twist knob (see this picture) has been commonly used in the past in The Netherlands, and probably in many European countries. It has to be covered in this article. Deresser (talk) 11:52, 17 May 2013 (UTC)

VFD
Has anyone else noticed that the best way to get an article expanded is to list it for vfd? How Ironic. (and apologies for listing it for vfd, I really didn't see any more scope).RJFJR 02:29, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * It feels nice to be able to add any old thing to expand the article, knowing it can be cleaned later if it passes VfD. --Dbenbenn 02:44, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Dimmers
Dimmers do not currently use a variable resistor, they are too inefficient in terms of power because they are basically throwing away some of the energy (as heat) that would have been used for producing light. We should perhaps include something on making sure the dimmer used is rated for the power requirement (usually the problem is you can't use a light dimmer to dim a fan without it burning out). RJFJR 02:25, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks for correcting me; I never knew that. --Dbenbenn 02:44, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * The article at dimmer is really about the kind of lighting controls used in theatrical performances, but it has some nice information on how dimmers work. RJFJR 03:05, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Yeah i've tried to generalise it a bit. Ofc professional (theartical and similar) dimmers still dominate the article as there is far more to be said about them than the little domestic units. Plugwash 01:12, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

things to add
The top-of-the-page pic lacks the definition of the type of switch: Toggle, push-button, etc. Obviously, it's a 'rocker-style', but from my experience from the day they were introduced in the 70's, everyone has called them 'Decora' switches. Funny, when looking into this article, I only just now found out it's a trade name of Leviton, like Kleenex(tm) or Styrofoam(tm). FYI: I've been an electrician near Grandfather Mountain my whole life. REF:https://www.leviton.com/en/products/brands/decora — Preceding unsigned comment added by Threecaster (talk • contribs) 16:27, 8 June 2018 (UTC)

So in short: add to picture description the switch style: two each Decora(tm), 'rocker style' switches.

How do y'all feel about the term "Wire Nuts"? (I could tell a funny story about a carpet guy and his 'wire turds' LOL) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Threecaster (talk • contribs) 16:23, 8 June 2018 (UTC)

We should add some information on how to use two SPDT switches so either can turn on or off the light independant of the other. RJFJR 02:25, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

When I put it up for vfd someone suggested that decorated switch plates might be in order. RJFJR 02:25, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Seems a light switch could include features like a light bulb in the switch so it is easier to find in the dark. Not sure such features really need to be discussed here. RJFJR 02:25, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Right, I remember seeing switches that are illuminated when the light itself is off. Also, variable-switches come in at least three types:
 * A knob that rotates continuously.
 * A knob with a discreet number of settings (ex. 3).
 * A "touchpad". Touching high on the pad brightens the light, touching low dims, and tapping the pad turns it off.  My neighbors had one of these when I was young, and it was really crappy.
 * --Dbenbenn 02:34, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Added a crappy picture. Someone with access to a good decorative lightswitch cover should photograph it. --Dbenbenn 02:44, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * --Agreed. And you mispelled "hideous" - it looks like it says "decorative" but this is clearly a mistake. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.231.227.103 (talk) 18:11, 9 February 2011 (UTC)

One thing I came to the article looking for, but didn't find, was info on the standard dimensions of switches. There must be different standards in different countries depending on the dimensions of outlet boxes, etc. - Blueguy 65.0.212.9 (talk) 19:27, 11 May 2009 (UTC)

There ARE different standards in different countries and the standard dimensions of the wall mounting hardware (boxes, plates etc.) used in each country are important. Obviously, the wall plates used must cover this hardware. In Australia (and North America) the minimum size of a standard wall box is 97 mm x 57 mm ( Approximately 3 13/16" x 2 1/4"). However, the MOST important dimension is the "Mounting Centres" provided for mounting Wall-Plates/Switches. This is 84 mm (3 5/16") in all of these countries. In North America (with Indirect Mounting) the Switch mounts on the Wall Hardware and the Wall-Plate mounts on the Switch. The Wall-Plate mounting centres (on the Switch) are 60 mm (2 3/8"). In Australia, the Wall-Plate assembly - including the Switches - mounts on the Wall Hardware, using the 84 mm mounting centres directly. Fredquint (talk) 03:10, 9 April 2013 (UTC)

Re the "14:36, 9 April 2013 Wtshymanski (talk | contribs) . . (20,309 bytes) (-1,426) . . (painful explanation of minutia removed; this is an overview, not the how-to manual for house wiring)" removal of the update concerning dimensions. The addition of these dimensions was in response to the need expressed by the use r(Bluguy) above. Fredquint (talk) 04:21, 15 April 2013 (UTC)

Cultural question: which position is on, which is off?
In the U. S. up is on, down is off.

My recollection is that in the 1950s when I visited England, up was off and down was on, and I think this was generally true. I have a query in at Talk:American_and_British_English_differences asking if this is still current (pun unintentional).

 * US Survival Tips for Aussies says "Light switches are upside down compared to ours (ie down is off and up is on)." Apparently Australia follows British custom.

Other countries? Dpbsmith (talk) 01:38, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)

The UK, Australia and France are all the same. Down=On, Up=Off. A lot of UK switches have the word "TOP" on the inside to help the person fitting it. I would expect that all ex-British colonies use the same positions as the UK. Most of these countries use or have used same sockets, and almost all British sockets have switches built in to them which are the same way around as light switches. For push switches (where you can see a difference) In=On and Out=Off. Does that differ anywhere? --Ziltro 00:44, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

Finland has Up=ON, Down=OFF. I have a feeling German, Switzerland and Italy have it same way. (5.1.2014)

Archived deletion debate
For the archived deletion debate related to this article see Talk:Light switch/delete -- Graham ☺ | Talk 22:13, 27 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I've heard that North American practice (up is ON, down is OFF) is considered safer than the European norm which is the reverse: something/someone falling against the switch will turn the power off. In this regard, although European and British electrical circuit practice is considered better, this is something that appears to have logic!

At a slight tangent, as a Brit now living in Canada, North American switch/socket design appears much better by being able to remove the faceplate without exposing the wiring when redecorating.

Toggle Action
There is some really good material on toggel switches that should be copied to tooggle switch too. That article is a stub.

Conservative design?
The article seems to suggest that light switches come in one uniform design, with changes mostly limited to the faceplates, and that people never bother changing them.

Uh... in the US, this is definitely the case. I've only ever seen two kinds of light switches in anything close to common use here, with one in the overwhelming majority.

Back in The Netherlands, there are many different designs sold by many different companies, making it almost impossible to find a matching faceplate if the switches were installed by a contractor that likes to use a strange brand that is not available in home improvement stores.

I personally find that an apalling situation, seeing as the differences are frivolous, but aside from my personal opinion, I'm just saying maybe a more international scope is called for.

Too American
This page currently concentrates on the United States far far too much. It needs to be expanded to cover international designs like Domestic AC power plugs & sockets Jooler 23:13, 9 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Definatly. For example: "being in reality a metal or plastic box with a switch in it, commonly have switch plate covers called wall plates" this only applies to light switches in the USA (and other countries who use the USA standards) as far as I have seen. Everywhere else the switch and the plate are one in the same. In the UK a circuit where the light is controlled by two switches is called a two-way switch. The description suggests this would be called a three-way switch in USA? --Ziltro 17:10, 17 November 2005 (UTC)

Other countries (e.g. Australia & South Africa) have wall-plates which can have one or many switch (or other) mechanisms installed.Fredquint (talk) 02:24, 22 March 2013 (UTC)

 * yep we also need to reconcile somehow with switch which currently has a lot of info on multiway switching, not sure how best to handle the split between switch and lightswitch though. Plugwash 14:45, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

Rename
On the note of the person above, I suggest moving it to a more appropriate name. The switches the article describes can switch any mains circuit, not just lighting. I'm suggesting Domestic AC electrical switches. Any takers or comments? Thanx 68.39.174.150 04:42, 28 May 2005 (UTC)
 * i'm in the uk and there is certainly a differnce between a lightswitch which is usually only single pole and rated at 5A or 10A and switches used for most other uses (generally either a 20A double pole switch or a 13A fused connection unit. Plugwash 12:19, 29 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Alright, but it'd be a royal pain to have to have a seperate page for each country that did it differently. Also, the page name I suggest could cover both. If it was organized right, it could cover both kinds in britian, as Domestic AC power plugs & sockets covers both kinds of plugs used there. 68.39.174.150 04:00, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Operation
The section on contact action seems out of place in an otherwise not very technical article. Possibly it would be better treated by a separate article, and simply referenced here ?

In any case if contact action is discussed to the level it is in the present article its may be sensible to add a couple of extra points.

 * The switch is usually designed to have a wipe action such that the contact corrosion is cleaned off the area of the contact that forms the low resistance path when the switch is closed.

 * The switch is usually designed so that the initial point of contact and thus the majority of the contact corrosion occurs at a sacrificial part of the contact, rather than the face that is in contact when the switch is fully closed.

 * Usually the contact area of the switch is a sophisticated construction of brass contact, silver contact button and plated finish to minimise the amount of contact corrosion and thus extend the life of the switch.

 * The switch is also usually designed so that the arc that forms as the contacts separate drifts off the contact area rapidly as the switch opens.

 * That the switch design often relies on the separation arc to disperse the contact corrosion, and that a switch designed for high current/high voltage use may become unreliable if operated at very low currents and low voltages because the contact corrosion builds up excessively without an arc to disperse it.

--Shoka 22:29, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * That's good stuff, I think it should go in the article. Go for it.
 * I see no reason at all to split out a separate article for the technical details; there's plenty of room in this one. There might be some point in reorganizing the article; for example, "internal operation" might go better at the end as a two-equals-sign section. Dpbsmith (talk) 10:31, 14 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Pull cords
Are these a British thing? I do not recall seeing them anywhere else. It appears to be illegal to have light switches or sockets (except the shaver socket) in bathrooms/toilets. This means there are two choices for a light switch. 1 is to put the switch outside the bathroom. Two down sides to this are that when leaving the bathroom you have to turn the light off and might still have wet hands and 2 is that kids will turn the light off on eachother! The other option is a pull cord. This is a light switch attached to the cieling inside the bathroom/toilet, it is a pull switch and has a short piece of cord coming out of the switch, usually about 10-20cm long. This is then joined through a small plastic connector to a longer cord so the length can be adjusted. There is then an object (I can't think of a better description) attached to the bottom to act as a weight and keep the cord straight. These are usually plastic and shaped like the end of a trumpet facing downwards. This allows the knot to be hidden. Some people change these for other decerative objects which it is possible to buy. The basic design of these is to have a small hole in the top and a larger hole in the bottom. This allows the cord to be pushed all the way through the object, tied in a knot and the knot pulled back up and hidden inside the large hole.
 * They exist in new zealand, although generally in older houses (and in any room). Some countries have regulations about how close to a water fixture plugs/switches can be (so some small bathrooms end up with switches outside). Some may even date back to houses that were retrofitted with electricity (having been built before it was available), but I'm only speculating.Limegreen 02:26, 9 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Its not illegal to have lightswitches in bathrooms (despite many peoples impressions) provided they are in zone 3 or outside the zones (which can be awkward or impossible if the bathroom is small). The main reason for pull cords is it means the switch itself is placed in an allowed location whilst the pull cord drops down into zone 2 or even zone 1. Plugwash 15:00, 8 December 2005 (UTC)
 * In areas that use the American system, the pull-chain (because we use a metal chain with bead links that goes to a plastic actuator inside) switch is commonly integral to the lampholder. These are a single unit for porcelain cieling-mount rosettes and table lamps; or sometimes the switch is a replaceable component fitted into the canopy of a more elaborate light fitting.Stephanie Weil 16:20, 15 March 2007 (UTC)
 * In Canada, my house and my parents house have pull chain switches on ceiling lights in rarely used spaces, such as basements or closets. A pull chain unit does not involve wiring back to a wall switch, so they were probably cheaper and quicker to install.  That is you can run a single wire from any nearby junction box to put in a single unit with combined light and switch. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.206.115.167 (talk • contribs)

Rocker switch
The current text is not describing a rocker switch, but some manufacturer's range! I don't know how to re-word it, anyone else care to? I guess it could do with photos too. European ones tend to be quite large, Australian ones quite small and UK ones somewhere in the middle. :) Ziltro 19:58, 22 August 2007 (UTC)

3-way dimmer switches
I would like to know more about how 3-way dimmer switches work, especially when two of them are in use for the same lamp (wouldn't the dimmer with the lowest setting win out?).

To start with, "3-way switching" is an American term for 2-way switching, because the TWO (single pole, double throw) switches used have 3 terminals! One should install only ONE dimmer in such a setup because (with a dimmer at each 'end') the TWO dimmers, effectively, would be in series. Since a dimmer works by starting conduction at some time after the start of each cycle, if the setup DID work then the dimmer with the lowest setting WOULD 'win'. However, it may not work at all, since only half the supply voltage would be across each dimmer. Fredquint (talk) 08:46, 29 March 2013 (UTC)

More info for the history
This is a google patent of the inventers of the Light Switch that was after the two-push button, the one you just flick up and down. Light switch 1916. It was invented by Morris Goldberg, who did not take the fame or the money, and William J. Newton who did. ATC. Talk 01:23, 30 May 2009 (UTC)

Illustration of switches
Tension kables are marked with red colour. Activated buttons are marked with black, inner frames:

— Preceding unsigned comment added by Kornowski (talk • contribs) 20:16, 30 January 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Light switch


text:
Channel 1 (North American TV)

In North American broadcast television frequencies, channel 1 was a former broadcast (over-the-air) television channel which was removed from service in 1948.

During the experimental era of TV operation, Channel 1 was moved around the lower VHF spectrum repeatedly, with the entire band displaced upward at one point due to an early 40 MHz allocation for the FM broadcast band. After FM was moved to its current frequencies in 1946, TV Channel 1's last assigned band was 44 to 50 MHz. This allocation was short-lived.

Until 1948, Land Mobile Radio and television broadcasters shared the same frequencies, which caused interference. This shared allocation was eventually found to be unworkable, so the FCC reallocated the Channel 1 frequencies for public safety and land mobile use and assigned TV channels 2–13 exclusively to broadcasters. Aside from the shared frequency issue, this part of the VHF band was (and to some extent still is) prone to higher levels of radio-frequency interference (RFI) than even Channel 2 (System M).

As Mexico signed on its first station in 1950 and Canada's first station went on-air in 1952, the historical Channel 1 (System M) is exclusively a U.S. allocation artifact.

History
Channel 1 was allocated at 44–50 MHz between 1937 and 1940. Visual and aural carrier frequencies within the channel fluctuated with changes in overall TV broadcast standards prior to the establishment of permanent standards by the National Television Systems Committee.

In 1940, the FCC reassigned 42–50 MHz to the FM broadcast band. Television's channel 1 frequency range was moved to 50–56 MHz (see table below). Experimental television stations in New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles were affected.

Commercial TV allocations were made by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) under the NTSC system on July 1, 1941. Channel 1 was located at 50–56 MHz, with visual carrier at 51.25 MHz and aural carrier at 55.75 MHz. At the same time, the spectrum from 42 to 50 MHz was allocated to FM radio. Several commercial and experimental television stations operated on the 50–56 MHz Channel 1 between 1941 and 1946, including one station, WNBT (now WNBC, channel 4) in New York City, which had a full commercial operating license.

In the first postwar allocation in the spring of 1946, Channel 1 was moved back to 44–50 MHz, with visual at 45.25 MHz and aural at 49.75 MHz. FM was moved to its current 88–108 MHz band. But WNBT and all other existing stations were moved to other channels, because the final Channel 1 was reserved for low-power community stations covering a limited area. While a handful of construction permits were issued for this final version of Channel 1, no station ever actually broadcast on it before it was removed from use in 1948.

When the FCC initially allocated broadcast television frequencies, channel 1 was logically the first channel. These U.S. TV stations originally broadcast on the 50–56 MHz channel 1: By September 1945, additional stations temporarily granted construction permits to operate on channel 1 included:
 * W2XBS/WNBT/WRCA (today's WNBC), New York City (1941–1946), reassigned in 1946 to channel 4;
 * W6XAO/KTSL/KNXT (today's KCBS-TV), Los Angeles, reassigned post-war to channel 2;
 * W9XZV Chicago, Zenith's experimental station, billed as the first all-electric TV station in 1939. Reassigned post-war to Channel 2, it broadcast an early form of monochrome pay-TV in 1951 as K2XBS Phonevision and conducted early color television experiments before ultimately going dark in 1953. Its transmitters were donated to WTTW (PBS 11 Chicago) and its channel 2 assignment was taken by CBS O&O WBBM-TV.
 * KARO, Riverside, California; never began broadcasting, no current VHF allocation;
 * WSBE, South Bend, Indiana; never began broadcasting on channel 1, but was reallocated to UHF channel 34 in the 1952 revised channel allocation table, where it went on the air as WSBT-TV that year. As part of a consolidation of the Elkhart and South Bend communities into a single television market, WSBT-TV was moved in 1958 to UHF channel 22, where it remains as a digital CBS affiliate today; channel 34 became the home of PBS member station WNIT. No full-service VHF TV allocations were made available to South Bend due to its proximity to Chicago, making the city a UHF island.
 * W8XCT (WLW) Cincinnati, Ohio ultimately built on channel 4 as commercial station WLWT, later moved to channel 5.
 * W9RUI Iowa City, Iowa held an unbuilt construction permit, and additionally given a channel 12 assignment.
 * W8XGZ Charleston, West Virginia, licensed to a chemical company, also held a channel one construction permit; there is no indication the stations ever got on the air.

See also list of experimental television stations for additional channel one pioneers.

As a virtual channel, however, KAXT-CD in San Francisco (broadcasting on physical UHF channel 22) was assigned virtual channel 1 in July 2009, becoming the first American station to be assigned virtual channel 1 via the digital television PSIP standard, which shows the channel as such on a digital television set. KAXT-CD's physical broadcasts on UHF channel 22 cause no interference for Channel 1 physically. XHDF-TDT and all Azteca Uno stations broadcast on Virtual 1.

Community television
In 1946, prior to cable TV and the invention of public-access television channels, the FCC decided to reserve channel 1 for low-power Community television stations, and moved existing channel 1 stations to higher frequencies. Community television stations covered smaller cities and were allowed to use less radiated power. None of these stations were built before the FCC imposed a freeze on all television station construction permits in mid-1948, and removed the channel one allocations.

A shared (non-primary) allocation
From 1945 to 1948 TV stations in the U.S. shared Channel 1 and other channels with fixed and mobile services. The FCC decided in 1948 that a primary (non-shared) allocation of the VHF radio spectrum was needed for television broadcasting. Except for selected VHF frequencies in Alaska and Hawaii (and some overseas territories) the FCC-administered VHF band is primarily allocated for television broadcasting to this day.

The FCC in May 1948 formally changed the rules on TV band allocations based on propagation knowledge gained during the era of shared-user allocations. The 44–50 MHz band used by Channel 1 was replaced by lower-power narrowband users.

Channel 1 was reassigned to fixed and mobile services (44–50 MHz) in order to end their former shared use of other VHF TV frequencies. Rather than renumber the TV channel table, it was decided to merely remove Channel 1 from the table.

Cable television
On cable television systems, channel 1 was optionally used by some providers in between channels 4 and 5 at the frequencies of 72–78 MHz (moving channel 5 and 6 allocations up by 2 MHz; however, this would prevent channels 5 and 6 from being viewed on non-cable-ready television sets). Channel 1, where available, has also been mapped to 99 (frequency range 114–120 MHz) on some cable boxes.

Modern allocations 43–50 MHz
As of September 2000, the Federal Spectrum Use of the band (which is regulated by the NTIA and not the FCC) was as follows:

 * 43.69–46.6 Non-Military Land Mobile Radio (LMR): Primarily used by Federal agencies for mutual aid response with local communities. Military LMR: Used by the military services for tactical and training operations on a non-interference basis. (Band is otherwise non-government exclusive).
 * 46.6–47 Govt. FIXED MOBILE Allocation: Non-Military LMR: Extensive use of this band is for contingency response to various national disasters. Others uses are for national resources management, law enforcement, tornado tracking, and various meteorological research support. Military LMR: This band is used primarily for tactical and training operations by U.S. military units for combat net radio operations that provide command and control for combat, combat support, and combat service support units. Frequencies also used for air-to-ground communications for military close air support requirements as well as some other tactical air-ground and air-air communications.
 * 47–49.6 Experimental: Used for experimental research to observe and measure currents in harbor areas in support of vessel safety. Military LMR: Used by the military services for tactical and training operations on a non-interference basis. (Band is otherwise non-government exclusive).
 * 49.6–50 Govt. FIXED MOBILE Allocation: Non-Military LMR: This band is used extensively to support contingencies or ecological emergencies, some public safety requirements, MARS system, and air-quality measurements. Experimental: Research is performed in various regions of the atmosphere as well as experimental development of portable space orbital debris ground radars. Military LMR: This band is used primarily for tactical and training operations by U.S. military units for combat net radio operations that provide command and control for combat, combat support, and combat service support units. Frequencies also used for air-to-ground communications for military close air support requirements as well as some other tactical air-ground and air-air communications.

FCC (NON-Federal) allocations for the band:
 * Primarily Land Mobile use from 43-46.6.
 * 46.61-46.89 is used by older cordless phone base stations. The handsets use the 49.61 - 49.89 range for transmitting to the base unit.
 * 47.0-49.60 is used by LMR and then the cordless phone range. Early experiments with meteor scatter one way messaging was in the 49 - 50 range back in the early 1990s but it no longer exists due to reliable and cheaper satellite communications.

There is also a conflict with the de facto intermediate frequency for system M television, where receiver tuners shift and flip the incoming signal onto 41.25 MHz (analogue audio) and 45.75 MHz (analogue video) after the initial RF amplifier. This standard was adopted due to image frequency problems when UHF television broadcasting initially struggled to life in 1952.

Any receivers capable of tuning VHF TV 1, by necessity, operated on a lower intermediate frequency as 45.75 MHz video IF would overlap the incoming signal at 44-50 MHz.

Channel 1 in other NTSC-using countries
Canada did not start regular television broadcasts until after the U.S. had decommissioned Channel 1 (44–50 MHz) for television use; CBFT and CBLT signed on in 1952. This TV channel was never used in Latin America, South Korea and the Philippines excluding Japan as TV broadcasting did not start in these areas until the 1950s.

Japanese public broadcaster NHK General TV broadcast on Channel 1 in Tokyo and other cities. The Japanese Channel 1 was assigned to the frequency 90 to 96 MHz, just above the Japanese FM band which is 76 to 90 MHz. Frequencies corresponding to Japan's channel 1 through 3 (90–108 MHz) are used primarily for FM radio broadcasting (88–108 MHz) outside Japan and correspond to cable 95–97 in North America. With the advent of digital television, these frequencies are being vacated by TV broadcasters and allocated to "wide FM" broadcasters, relocating from mediumwave AM to an extended FM band above 90 MHz.

The following commercial television stations operated on channel 1 on analog: On digital television, their virtual channel number is 1 for historical reasons.
 * Hokkaido Broadcasting (HBC) in Sapporo, Hokkaido
 * Aomori Broadcasting Corporation (RAB) in Aomori, Aomori Prefecture
 * Tohoku Broadcasting Company (TBC) in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture
 * Tokai Television Broadcasting (THK) in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture
 * Kitanihon Broadcasting (KNB) in Toyama, Toyama Prefecture
 * Shikoku Broadcasting (JRT) in Tokushima, Tokushima Prefecture
 * Nihonkai Television (NKT) in Tottori, Tottori Prefecture (also serving Matsue, Shimane Prefecture)
 * Kyushu Asahi Broadcasting (KBC) in Fukuoka, Fukuoka Prefecture
 * Minaminihon Broadcasting (MBC) in Kagoshima, Kagoshima Prefecture

title: Channel 1 (North American TV)


text:
Hugh of Cyfeiliog, 5th Earl of Chester

Hugh of Cyfeiliog, 5th Earl of Chester (, ; 1147 – 30 June 1181), also written Hugh de Kevilioc, was an Anglo-French magnate who was active in England, Wales, Ireland and France during the reign of King Henry II of England.

Origins
Born in 1147, he was the son of Ranulf II, 4th Earl of Chester, and his wife Maud, daughter of Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester, who was an illegitimate son of King Henry I of England. A later tradition claims he was born in the Cyfeiliog district of Wales.

Career
On his father's death in 1153, he became heir to extensive estates. In France, these included the hereditary viscountcies of Avranches, Bessin, and Val de Vire, as well as the honours of St Sever and Briquessart. In England and Wales, there was the earldom of Chester with its associated honours. Together, they made him one of the most important Anglo-Norman landholders when he was declared of age in 1162 and took possession. He quickly took his place among King Henry II's magnates, being present at Dover in 1163 for the renewal of the Anglo-Flemish alliance and in 1164 at the Council of Clarendon.

In 1173, however, he joined the revolt of the king's sons and led the rebels in Brittany. After sending an army of Brabantines, who forced the rebels to retreat into the castle of Dol, in August 1174 Henry arrived in person to lead the siege. Hugh and his companions, with no food left, surrendered after being promised no executions or mutilations. Held prisoner in various castles, he made his peace with Henry and was one of the witnesses of the Treaty of Falaise in October 1174 that ended hostilities.

At the Council of Northampton in January 1177 his lands were restored, but not his castles, and in March he was a witness to Henry's arbitration between the kings of Castile and Navarre. Then in May, at the Council of Windsor, Henry restored his castles and ordered him to Ireland. There is no record of him gaining any military successes or grants of land there.

He died on 30 June 1181 at Leek in Staffordshire and was buried beside his father on the south side of the chapter house of St Werburgh's Abbey in Chester, now Chester Cathedral. His successor was his only legitimate son.

Benefactions
During his life he made grants to St Werburgh's Abbey at Chester, to Stanlow Abbey, to St Mary's Priory at Coventry, to Bullington Priory, to Greenfield Priory, to Trentham Priory, and to Bordesley Abbey. He also confirmed grants of his parents to Calke Abbey, to St Mary-on-the-Hill, Chester, and to the Abbey of Saint-Étienne, Caen, in Normandy.

Family
In 1169 he married Bertrade, daughter of Simon III de Montfort, Count of Évreux, who in turn was the son of Amaury III of Montfort. Their children were:

Known illegitimate children were: Pagan; Roger; Amice, who married Ranulf Mainwaring, justice of Chester; and an unknown daughter who married Richard Bacon, founder of Rocester Abbey. Other illegitimate daughters have been claimed: one called Beatrix was alleged to have married a William Belward, while another unnamed daughter was said to have married Llywelyn the Great.
 * Ranulf III, who became 6th Earl of Chester but died childless in 1232, when his four legitimate sisters became his heirs.
 * Maud, who married David of Scotland, 8th Earl of Huntingdon.
 * Mabel, who married William d'Aubigny, 3rd Earl of Arundel.
 * Agnes, who married William de Ferrers, 4th Earl of Derby.
 * Hawise, who married Robert II de Quincy.

title: Hugh of Cyfeiliog, 5th Earl of Chester


text:
User talk:ChrisU

Hi Chris, I just wanted to let you know, I think the bit you added to Battle of Thermopylae is from the story of Croesus and Cyrus, not Leonidas. Adam Bishop 19:32, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Ah...of course, I can find it clearly in Herodotus now that you've added it again, but couldn't find that passage at all when I looked the first time. Oh well...sorry about that. Adam Bishop 20:56, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Echelon
Hi Chris: I had not appreciated that Echelon formation was solely a military topic. I thought that the paragraph about migratory birds showed it to be about echelon formations in general. Echelon faults are just one example of echelon formations in geology, however, so I have revised your version of Echelon (disambiguation). Is the ornithological information appropriate to a military article? Should that too be moved elsewhere? --Theo (Talk) 08:46, 9 May 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:ChrisU


text:
User talk:Logalot

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title: User talk:Logalot