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Canon FD lens mount

The Canon FD lens mount is a physical standard for connecting a photographic lens to a 35mm single-lens reflex camera body. The standard was developed by Canon of Japan and was introduced in March 1971 with the Canon F-1 camera. It served as the Canon SLR interchangeable lens mounting system until the 1987 introduction of the Canon EOS series cameras, which use the newer EF lens mount. The FD mount lingered through the release of the 1990 Canon T60, the last camera introduced in the FD system, and the end of the Canon New F-1 product cycle in 1992.

The FD mount was based upon and replaced Canon's earlier FL mount (which in turn had replaced the R mount); FD-mount cameras can use FL lenses in stop-down metering mode. Though never officially explained by Canon, others have attempted to assign a meaning to the "FD" designation. One such attempt states that the "FD" notation stands for "Focal-plane shutter with Dual linkage for diaphragm control"; in actuality, there were two linkages and two signals: the automatic aperture lever, aperture signal lever, full aperture signal pin, and automatic exposure lock pin. This is twice the previous lens series, which used the "FL" designation, said to mean "Focal-plane shutter, Linked mount."

Over the 21-plus years of production, Canon introduced 134 different FD lenses ranging from 7.5mm through 1,200mm in seventeen different fixed focal lengths and nineteen different zoom ranges, one of the most, if not the most, extensive manual focus lens lines ever produced.

The Canon FD system enjoyed huge popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, when it established and grew a market share with professional photographers as well as having equipped over a million consumer users. Indeed, sales of the Canon AE-1 camera alone exceeded one million.

Canon obsoleted the FD mount by its decision to create the all-electronic EF mount. Thus, the FD mount system, with limited provision for auto-focus, is now commercially obsolete, and Canon FD cameras and lenses are available for low prices on the second-hand market. This makes the system very attractive to 35mm film photographers who demand the highest optical quality, while not needing auto focus capability.

FD lenses can be used on many mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras with a suitable adapter. They are a popular alternative to modern lenses among some users, though they lack autofocus.

Background
The FD lens mount is a breech-lock mount, which is a variation of the common triple-flanged bayonet attachment. The advantage of the breech-lock over the bayonet is that neither the contact surfaces between the body and lens, nor the signalling mechanisms, rotate against each other when the lens is mounted. This prevents any mechanical wear, which could conceivably reduce the very precise lens-to-film distance or introduce communication errors between lens and body.

Canon's first iteration of the FD breech-lock, extended forward from the earlier R- and FL-series lenses, used a rotating mounting ring at the rear of the lens; the lens body itself did not rotate for mounting. Its minor disadvantage was a somewhat slower lens change than a bayonet.

There are three different versions of breech ring FD lenses:

 * 1) The first version had a chrome plated front barrel (nicknamed "chrome nose") and a green "o" for auto exposure.
 * 2) The second version had a black front barrel and still had a green "o" for auto exposure.
 * 3) The third version had a black front barrel, and a green "A" for auto exposure. These different versions are detailed below under variants.

Second-generation FD lenses, first marketed in 1979 as New FD, are mounted like bayonet-mount lenses in that the photographer twists the entire lens body to mount and dismount, though the actual mating surfaces still remain fixed. This retained the advantages of the breech-lock mount while enabling the convenience of a bayonet. The letters SC or SSC, to indicate the lens coating, were no longer put on the lenses. Canon documents stated that All new FD lenses except for the new FD 50mm F1.8 had SSC coatings. Canon later chose a bayonet-style mount for its EOS system's EF lenses, where there is no precision mechanical coupling.

Like its FL predecessor, the FD mount system allowed automatic diaphragm function, but in addition, a new signal pin supported full-aperture metering. A second signal pin for the "auto" setting of the aperture dial, plus a linkage to allow the camera to set the degree of diaphragm opening, enabled integral auto-exposure. The first camera to use this was the 1971 Canon F-1, when equipped with the Servo EE Finder. Later, the Canon EF of 1973 had automatic exposure built-in, as did the very popular Canon A-series cameras (save the AT-1) beginning in 1976.

Thus, starting with the first FD lenses produced in late 1970, all FD lenses had the capability of supporting full-aperture metering and multiple Automatic Exposure (AE) modes using both shutter-preferred and aperture-preferred modes. Even Programmed AE was possible with no modifications to the lens mount, though at the time of its introduction Canon did not have an AE camera body in the FD line. This was a design triumph for Canon that no other camera or lens maker was able to equal in 1970. Every other camera manufacturer had to make one or more alterations to its lens mount to enable full aperture metering, and later AE and or Programmed AE operation.

The FD mount has no support for either electrical or mechanical lens-body communication required for autofocus, which was a primary reason for its retirement. (The three AC series lenses, extended from the FD lens mount, described below, are an exception). While Canon could have adapted its mount to support auto-focus, as did other manufacturers, the company instead chose to make a clean break with the past and design a completely new interface with support for electrical signaling and control.

Lens coatings, design variants
The earliest breech-lock Canon FD lenses (1970-1973) are generally recognizable by a chrome (silver) filter ring at the front (this ring includes its own bayonet used to mount an appropriate lens hood). Nicknamed 'chrome nose' lenses, these used two new proprietary lens coatings, designated "S.C." (Spectra Coating) and "S.S.C." (Super Spectra Coating), but neither coating was signified on the front of the lens. These were both multi-coatings, but indicated two quality grades. In the 'chrome nose' series, only the large-aperture 55mm f/1.2, and 55mm F1.2 AL (Aspherical) and the 7.5mm Fish-Eye lenses used S.S.C. coating. This first series of FD lenses shared other characteristics that would later change; the breech-lock ring can be rotated freely without mounting it on a camera body, and the aperture ring had a green "o" at the end of the scale to indicate automatic aperture operation, which at the time was only possible with an F-1 body that had the Servo EE Finder attached. The aperture ring could be rotated freely on and off of "o", although the small AE switch pin in the back of the lens (which came out when the aperture ring was rotated to "o") prevented one from doing this unless the body has the appropriate small hole in the proper location. There are chrome nose first generation FD lenses without chrome front barrels: several wide angle lenses and some telephoto lenses have black barrels, but their date code, lack of an aperture lock button and freely rotating breech ring place them into the first version FD lens group.

The second series of breech-lock FD lenses (1973-1976), which discontinued the chrome barrel front, is engraved "S.C." in white or "S.S.C." in red on the front of the lens. The S.S.C. coating was extended to most lenses in this series. The basic S.C. coating was, for the most part, limited to the least expensive lenses. These 2nd breech ring generation FD lenses still had a green "o", but now there was a chrome lock button on the aperture ring that had to be depressed to put the lens on or take the lens off of "o". One still could not put the lens on "o" unless the camera body had the AE switch pin hole. And the lens could not be mounted on a non-EE / AE body if the lens was set on "o". The breech ring now featured a lock which prevented it from rotating unless a rear cap was put on or the lens was mounted to a body. Further, the breech ring rotated slightly when the lens was mounted to aid in getting the lens securely mounted. The aperture diaphragm was opened fully when the breech ring was in the locked position.

The third variant, made from 1976 to the end of production of breech ring FD lenses (around 1980) changed the green "o" to a green "A" and the chrome aperture ring lock button was changed from chrome to black. The breech ring was still locked unless mounted and it still had the spring loaded twist to make it easier to mount the lens. The third version FD 50mm F1.8 lens also received a plastic front barrel to reduce size and weight. This corresponded with the introduction of the Canon A-series cameras which were smaller and lighter than the older, larger and heavier "F-series" bodies.

In 1978, with the introduction of the New FD series (nicknamed 'FDn'), the coating type was no longer specified on the lens front. All of these lenses received S.S.C. coating, with the sole exception of the 50mm lens. New FD lenses are easily identifiable by the replacement of the breech ring with a square metal release button at the base of the lens. When installing the lens, the entire body rotates except for the mating surfaces. This design allowed for the benefits of the precision breech lock and the ease of a bayonet mount.

The original breech-lock FD lenses and the New FD lenses are completely functionally interchangeable, and may each be used on any FD camera body. A minor operational difference between New FD and earlier lenses occurs only when using a Canon New F-1 body with the AE Finder FN in aperture preferred AE mode. The New FD lenses' aperture rings were placed closer to the rear of the lens so that the aperture value is visible in the new F-1's viewfinder, via an optical prism. Earlier lenses' aperture scales do not align properly with the prism, and are therefore not visible.

Aspherical, Fluorite or 'L' lenses
An enhanced range of FD lenses was available to photographers who required the highest optical and mechanical performance. In addition to more robust mechanical construction, these lenses used a variety of special technologies, including ground aspherical surfaces, calcium fluorite optical elements, and ultra-low-dispersion glass. Canon used these means to achieve outstanding optical performance at the extremes of lens design: wide apertures and extreme focal lengths. Aspherical surfaces improved performance of wide-angle and standard lenses at very wide apertures. Ultra-low dispersion and fluorite elements virtually eliminated chromatic aberration at long focal lengths.

The earlier versions of these lenses carried "AL", "Aspherical", or "Fluorite" indications on the front of the lens. The post-1979 'New FD' versions acknowledged all the exotic technologies under the single designation "L" (commonly believed to indicate 'luxury' or 'asphericaL'). Canon has continued the "L" designation, and the famous red ring around the lens front, in the current EF and RF autofocus lenses for EOS cameras, where the symbol now officially stands for "Luxury."

Macro lenses
The FD series included a number of zoom lenses with close-focusing mechanisms, targeted at amateur photographers. The series also included three true macro lenses at 50mm, 100mm, and 200mm. These offered exceptionally close focusing and were corrected for flatness of field at close shooting distances. The 50mm and 100mm were marketed with extension tubes that allowed life-size reproduction. The 200mm can reach life size without additional extension.

Special-purpose lenses
Canon offered seven specialty lenses for the FD mount. The 35mm 2.8 Tilt-Shift lens is a perspective control lens. It may be tilted ±8 degrees for depth of field control, or shifted 11mm for perspective control. Though it uses the breech-lock mount, it is not literally an FD lens since its diaphragm is operated manually and it must be used with stop-down metering.

The 85mm 2.8 Soft Focus lens is designed for portraiture. The photographer may introduce three levels of spherical aberration via a push-pull ring. Since aperture also affects the magnitude of the soft-focus effect, a wide range of results are possible. The lens may also be used as a standard short telephoto. It offers all FD features.

The Reflex 500mm 8 lens is a supertelephoto mirror lens of high optical quality which shares the unique characteristics of all mirror lenses with a central obstruction. Since its aperture is fixed at 8, it lacks FD signals and controls. It must be used in manual or stopped-down metering mode.

Two other specialty lenses are the fisheyes. Two versions were produced. The 7.5mm 5.6 is a circular fisheye, rendering a 180 degree field of view in a 23mm image circle. It requires manual operation and stopped-down metering. The 15mm 2.8 is a full-frame fisheye, rendering a 180 degree field of view across the diagonal of the 35mm frame with the considerable barrel distortion of a fisheye lens. It includes all FD features and may be used with automatic exposure. Both lenses include internal filters.

The remaining specialty lenses are the 20mm 3.5 and 35mm 2.8 Macrophoto lenses. Similar to microscope objectives, they provide magnifications of 4X-10X and 2X-6X respectively when mounted on the FD Auto Bellows. They can only be used with a bellows, via an FD adapter; while the adapter can mechanically mount them directly to a camera, they cannot function optically. They are not properly FD lenses, but are listed here because they are part of the whole system.

FD autofocusing lenses
Before the FD mount was obsoleted by the EOS system, Canon built four autofocus lenses. Of these, only the FD 35-70mm f/4 AF was capable of autofocus on all FD cameras. The others, known as AC lenses, offered autofocus only on the T80 camera.

The FD 35-70mm f/4 AF contained an entirely independent autofocus system and was among the world's first autofocus zoom lenses (the Pentax ME F was the first ). The autofocus system was activated by a button on the side of the lens, and involved no communication with the camera body. It was reasonably accurate with still subjects, but was too slow to be a practical solution for moving subjects such as sports.

Further development produced the AC derivative of the FD mount. Three AC lenses were manufactured, the AC 50mm 1.8, AC 35-70mm 3.5-4.5, and AC 75-200mm 4.5. All were released in April, 1985 alongside the Canon T80 camera, which was the only camera ever manufactured to take advantage of the AC lenses' AF capabilities. The lenses communicated with the T80 via a modified FD mount with added electrical contacts. They lacked an aperture ring, and were therefore usable only in automatic-exposure modes. They were otherwise identical to the FD mount and could be manually focused on those FD-mount cameras that could control the aperture. The AC line proved to be a dead-end development in light of the EF series development, and Canon would abandon the capability in the three remaining FD-mount cameras it produced, the New F-1, T90, and T60.

Using FD lenses on other mounts
The 42mm flange focal distance of the FD mount is shorter than that of most other lens mounts. Therefore, some lenses from other period cameras with longer flange focal distance can be mounted on Canon FD-mount cameras with appropriate adapters and still retain infinity focus. FD lenses can be adapted to other cameras with longer flange focal distances, though the lenses cannot focus to infinity unless the adapter contains an optical correction element which may compromise image quality, as it is not part of the original FD lens optical design.

Following the introduction of the EOS camera line, whose EF lens mount has a 44 mm flange focal distance, Canon briefly marketed an adapter which enabled certain FD telephoto lenses to be used on EOS bodies. The adapter contained high-quality corrective optics and functioned as a 1.26x tele-converter; it could not be used on lenses shorter than 200mm in focal length, nor any lens that interfered with its protruding optics. The adapter was produced in limited numbers, with the intent of easing the initial cost of conversion for professional users who owned expensive FD telephoto lenses. Originally priced at $250, these adapters are now scarce and highly valued, selling for around $1,000 on the second-hand market. Other inexpensive aftermarket FD to EOS adapters are available and can be used at the cost of severely reduced image quality, particularly at large apertures.

Mechanically skilled photographers and technicians have successfully retrofitted FD lenses with alternative mounts, including the Arri PL mount and Canon EF mount.

FD lenses can be mounted on Canon rangefinder cameras or other Leica screw mount cameras using the Canon Lens Mount Adapter B, but rangefinder-coupled focusing is lost.

FD lenses have been regularly used with the Micro Four Thirds system since its introduction in 2008. It has a flange focal distance of only 20mm and a 2× crop factor, halving the field of view compared to the original 24x36mm film frame.

As of 2012, with the introduction of the Canon EOS M mirrorless camera, almost all FD or FL lenses can be successfully adapted with infinity focus available without the need for a compensating lens, thus not compromising resolution, contrast and distortion performance. The EOS-M has an 18 megapixel APS-C sensor, offering image quality and resolution equivalent to other Canon EF-S APS-C sized sensors, retaining their 1.6× crop factor. The FD/FL lens must be manually focused and metering is done with aperture priority.

FD lenses can also be mounted to current mirrorless digital cameras with short flange focal distance, using simple mechanical adapters without optical correction. FD lenses, especially wide and ultra-wide f/2.8, f/2 and f/1.4 variants, have proven popular options for videography for these mirrorless formats.

FD cameras

 * Canon F-1 (1971)
 * Canon FTb (1971)
 * Canon FTbn (1973)
 * Canon EF (1973)
 * Canon TLb (1974)
 * Canon TX (1975)
 * Canon F-1n (slight revision of 1971 F-1) (1976)
 * Canon AE-1 (1976)
 * Canon AT-1 (1976)
 * Canon A-1 (1978)
 * Canon AV-1 (1979)
 * Canon New F-1 (total redesign of the F-1) (1981)
 * Canon AE-1 Program (1981)
 * Canon AL-1 (1982)
 * Canon T50 (1983)
 * Canon T70 (1984)
 * Canon T80 (1985)
 * Canon T90 (1986)
 * Canon T60 (1990)

FD lenses
The FD series includes lenses of all standard focal lengths ranging from 7.5mm to 800mm. At least two different maximum apertures were offered at each focal length from 24mm to 500mm.

The original generation of FD lenses featured a silver colored locking ring at the base. Only the locking ring turns to lock the lens to the camera body; the lens body remains stationary. The later New FD lenses have a black mount which includes a lens release button.

Note that some lenses listed below were marketed in only one generation. Lenses of identical focal lengths and maximum apertures that spanned both generations, in addition to their altered mounts, were typically smaller and lighter in the New FD generation, and usually used smaller diameter filters.

Fisheye

 * 7.5mm 5.6
 * 7.5mm 5.6 S.S.C.
 * New Fisheye 7.5mm f/5.6
 * 15mm 2.8 S.S.C.
 * New Fisheye 15mm f/2.8
 * New Fisheye 15mm f/2.8

Ultra wide-angle

 * New FD 14mm 2.8L
 * 17mm 4
 * 17mm 4 S.S.C.
 * New FD 17mm 4
 * 20mm 2.8 S.S.C.
 * New FD 20mm 2.8

Wide-angle

 * 24mm 1.4 S.S.C. Aspherical
 * New FD 24mm 1.4L
 * New FD 24mm 2.0
 * 24mm 2.8
 * 24mm 2.8 S.S.C.
 * New FD 24mm 2.8
 * New FD 28mm 2.0
 * 28mm 2 S.S.C.
 * 28mm 2.8 S.C.
 * New FD 28mm 2.8
 * 28mm 3.5
 * 28mm 3.5 S.C.
 * 35mm 2
 * 35mm 2 I
 * 35mm 2 II
 * 35mm 2 III
 * 35mm 2 S.S.C. I
 * 35mm 2 S.S.C. II
 * New FD 35mm 2.0
 * New FD 35mm 2.8
 * TS 35mm 2.8 S.S.C. (tilt-shift perspective correction)
 * 35mm 3.5
 * 35mm 3.5 S.C. I
 * 35mm 3.5 S.C. II
 * 35mm 3.5 S.C. III

Normal

 * New FD 50mm 1.2
 * New FD 50mm 1.2L
 * 50mm 1.4
 * 50mm 1.4 S.S.C. (I)
 * 50mm 1.4 S.S.C. (II)
 * New FD 50mm 1.4
 * 50mm 1.8 (I)
 * 50mm 1.8 (II)
 * 50mm 1.8 S.C. (I)
 * 50mm 1.8 S.C. (II)
 * New FD 50mm 1.8
 * New FD 50mm 2.0
 * Macro 50mm 3.5 S.S.C.
 * New FD 50mm 3.5 Macro
 * 55mm 1.2
 * 55mm 1.2 AL
 * 55mm 1.2 S.S.C.
 * 55mm 1.2 S.S.C. AL
 * 55mm 1.2 S.S.C. Aspherical

Telephoto

 * 85mm 1.2 S.S.C. Aspherical
 * New FD 85mm 1.2L
 * 85mm 1.8 S.S.C.
 * New FD 85mm 1.8
 * New FD 85mm 2.8 Soft Focus
 * New FD 100mm 2.0
 * 100mm 2.8
 * 100mm 2.8 S.S.C.
 * New FD 100mm 2.8
 * Macro 100mm 4 S.C.
 * New FD 100mm 4 Macro
 * New FD 135mm 2
 * 135mm 2.5
 * 135mm 2.5 S.C.
 * New FD 135mm 2.8
 * 135mm 3.5
 * 135mm 3.5 S.C. (I)
 * 135mm 3.5 S.C. (II)
 * New FD 135mm 3.5
 * New FD 200mm 1.8L
 * 200mm 2.8 S.S.C.
 * New FD 200mm 2.8
 * New FD 200mm 2.8 Rear Focusing/Internal Focus
 * 200mm 4
 * 200mm 4 S.S.C.
 * New FD 200mm 4
 * New FD 200mm 4 Macro
 * 300mm 2.8 S.S.C. Fluorite
 * New FD 300mm 2.8L
 * 300mm 4 S.S.C.
 * New FD 300mm 4
 * New FD 300mm 4L
 * 300mm 5.6
 * 300mm 5.6 S.C.
 * 300mm 5.6 S.S.C.
 * New FD 300mm 5.6

Supertelephoto

 * 400mm 4.5 S.S.C.
 * New FD 400mm 4.5
 * Canon FD 400mm f/2.8L
 * 500mm 4.5L
 * New FD 500mm 4.5L
 * Reflex 500mm 8 S.S.C.

Special limited production:
 * 600mm 4.5 S.S.C.
 * New FD 600mm 4.5
 * 800mm 5.6 S.S.C.
 * New FD 800mm 5.6L
 * 800mm 3.8 Mirror
 * 2000mm 11 Mirror
 * 5200mm 14 Mirror
 * In addition, a 1200mm 5.6L lens was developed and used at the 1984 Summer Olympics, but never marketed as an FD lens. All copies of that lens were shipped back to Canon headquarters in Japan, converted to the EF mount, and sold as EF lenses.

Zoom

 * New FD 20-35mm 3.5L
 * 24-35mm 3.5 S.S.C. Aspherical
 * New FD 24-35mm 3.5L
 * 28-50mm 3.5 S.S.C.
 * New FD 28-50mm 2.8-3.5
 * New FD 28-55mm 3.5-4.5
 * New FD 28-85mm 4
 * 35-70mm 2.8-3.5 S.S.C.
 * New FD 35-70mm 2.8-3.5
 * New FD 35-70mm 3.5-4.5
 * New FD 35-70mm 4
 * New FD 35-70mm 4 Autofocus
 * New FD 35-105mm 3.5
 * New FD 35-105mm 3.5-4.5
 * New FD 50-135mm 4.5
 * New FD 50-300mm 4.5L
 * New FD 70-150mm 4.5
 * New FD 70-210mm 4
 * New FD 75-200mm 4.5
 * Soligor 80-200mm f/3.5
 * 80-200mm 4 S.S.C.
 * New FD 80-200mm 4
 * New FD 80-200mm 4L
 * 85-300mm 4.5 S.S.C
 * New FD 85-300mm 4.5
 * 100-200mm 5.6
 * 100-200mm 5.6 S.S.C.
 * New FD 100-200mm 5.6
 * New FD 100-300mm 5.6
 * New FD 100-300mm 5.6 (second version)
 * New FD 100-300mm 5.6L
 * New FD 150-600mm 5.6L

Macrophoto lenses

 * Macrophoto Lens 20mm f/2.8
 * Macrophoto Lens 35mm f/2.8

title: Canon FD lens mount


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Variance (accounting)

In budgeting, and management accounting in general, a variance is the difference between a budgeted, planned, or standard cost and the actual amount incurred/sold. Variances can be computed for both costs and revenues.

The concept of variance is intrinsically connected with planned and actual results and effects of the difference between those two on the performance of the entity or company.

Types of variances
Variances can be divided according to their effect or nature of the underlying amounts.

When effect of variance is concerned, there are two types of variances:
 * When actual results are better than expected results given variance is described as favorable variance. In common use favorable variance is denoted by the letter F - usually in parentheses (F).
 * When actual results are worse than expected results given variance is described as adverse variance, or unfavourable variance. In common use adverse variance is denoted by the letter U or the letter A - usually in parentheses (A).

The second typology (according to the nature of the underlying amount) is determined by the needs of users of the variance information and may include e.g.:
 * Variable cost variances
 * Direct material variances
 * Direct labour variances
 * Variable production overhead variances
 * Fixed production overhead variances
 * Sales variances

Variance analysis
Variance analysis, in budgeting or management accounting in general, is a tool of budgetary control and performance evaluation, assessing any variances between the budgeted, planned, or standard amount, and the actual amount realized. Variance analysis can be carried out for both costs and revenues.

Variance analysis is usually associated with explaining the difference (or variance) between actual costs and the standard costs allowed for the good output. For example, the difference in materials costs can be divided into a materials price variance and a materials usage variance. The difference between the actual direct labor costs and the standard direct labor costs can be divided into a rate variance and an efficiency variance. The difference in manufacturing overhead can be divided into spending, efficiency, and volume variances. Mix and yield variances can also be calculated.

Variance analysis helps management to understand the present costs and then to control future costs. Variance calculation should always be calculated by taking the planned or budgeted amount and subtracting the actual/forecasted value. Thus a positive number is favorable and a negative number is unfavorable.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Variance (accounting)


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Askim, Sweden

Askim is a district (stadsdelsnämndsområde) of the Gothenburg Municipality in Sweden, about 10 km south-west of the city centre. To the northwest of Askim is Västra Frölunda, to the east is Mölndal, and the sea is to the west.

As a district, Askim has a local board composed of the same proportions ruling Gothenburg as a whole. The voting base in Askim is predominantly bourgeoisie, while Gothenburg as a whole has a social democratic, socialist and environmentalist majority. This has caused some local tensions due to the strong liberal movement, and a strong local movement works to once again make Askim a separate municipality (kommun).

Askim was traditionally inhabited by fishermen. It is now a predominantly upper-middle class area with golf clubs, yacht clubs, and large houses. The less expensive areas are popular with families with children due to a reputation for safety and good schools.

The district of Askim is divided into smaller parts, including Askim, Hovås, Billdal and Skintebo. Beneath Askim lies many historical artifacts dating back to the Stone Age. Many worked pieces of rock show evidence of these times.

It is on the Askim coast, a part of Kattegatt, and has a mountainous terrain. Most of the buildings, which comprise mainly privately owned homes, are concentrated along the coast. The people living here have a much higher income compared to other average citizens of both Gothenburg and Sweden. The football team is Askims IK, whose coach is the famous ex-player Pontus Kåmark, who played in the Sweden national team in 1994.

title: Askim, Sweden


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Judy Craig

Judy Craig (born June 11, 1944, New York City) is the lead singer of the American girl group, The Chiffons. She left the group in 1969, but returned in 1992 after the death of Barbara Lee. Fronted by Judy Craig Mann along with her daughter and niece, The Chiffons resurfaced in 2009 and continue to tour and perform in North America and Europe.

Early life
Craig is a native of The Bronx. She was a senior in high school when "He's So Fine" hit. Craig attended James Monroe High School.

title: Judy Craig


text:
File:Mike Bassett cover.jpg

Summary
Mike Bassett: England Manager DVD cover.

title: File:Mike Bassett cover.jpg


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Ken Adam

Sir Kenneth Adam (born Klaus Hugo George Fritz Adam; 5 February 1921 – 10 March 2016) was a German-British movie production designer, best known for his set designs for the James Bond films of the 1960s and 1970s, as well as for Dr. Strangelove and Salon Kitty.

Adam won two Academy Awards for Best Art Direction. Born in Berlin, he relocated to England with his Jewish family at the age of 13 soon after the Nazis came to power. Together with his younger brother, Denis Adam, he was one of only three German-born pilots to serve in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War.

Early life
Adam was born in 1921 in Berlin to an upper-middle-class secular Jewish family, the third child of Lilli and Fritz Adam, a former Prussian cavalry officer who had served with the Zieten Hussars. Fritz had been awarded the Iron Cross Second Class and the Iron Cross First Class for his service in the First World War.

Fritz co-owned a well-known high-fashion clothing and sporting goods store called S. Adam (Berlin, Leipziger Straße/Friedrichstraße) together with his three brothers, George, Siegfried and Otto Adam. The company had been established in 1863 by Saul Adam. Klaus (Ken) had two older siblings, Peter, Loni and a younger brother Dieter (1 February 1924 – 17 October 2018).

The family lived an almost idyllic, privileged existence until the Nazi Party came to power.

His older brother Peter was good friends with Gottfried Reinhardt the son of theatre and film director Max Reinhardt and they would often take the young Klaus out with them. As a result, he got to know Max Reinhardt and many other people in the German theatre. Gottfried Reinhardt later became a film director and producer.

England
The combination of his brother Dieter at the age of nine having a fight with a playground bully wearing a Hitler Youth uniform and the increasing discrimination against Jews convinced their parents to send Klaus and Dieter to Craigend Park boarding school in Edinburgh. Upon arrival Klaus anglicised his name to Kenneth and eventually Ken while his brother Dieter changed his to Denis. Their oldest brother Peter was at the time studying law at the University of Clermont-Ferrand in France and decided to move to England and complete his studies there.

The rest of the Adam family stayed in Germany as Adam's father felt that the Nazis were only a temporary aberration and they would wait it out. Things however continued to deteriorate with Jewish stores being boycotted and targeted for attacks in April 1933.

During the summer of 1933, Max Reich, a senior employee of the family business, and then Fritz Adam were arrested. Reich was a member of the SS and leader of the business's Nazi cell. Reich was eventually released and Fritz Adam was released and put under house arrest for three days. Inquiries determined that a former employee who had been dismissed for dishonesty had accused the two men of unfair dismissal and conspiring to maintain undeclared funds in Switzerland. It took two weeks to disprove both allegations and no charges were laid against either man. Reluctantly coming to the conclusion that Jews had no future in Germany, Fritz, Lilli and Loni, as well as some of Ken's aunts and uncles, fled to England in the summer of 1934. The family eventually settled in the Hampstead area of London the following year.

The family were declared refugees on their arrival to England and identified as "friendly aliens" with the exception of Denis who was too young to be classified. The family arrived in England with nothing other than some gold coins Lilli had smuggled out. His mother who had never previously worked in her life used the little money they had to establish and run a boarding house. His father struggled with his change in status and starting over in a new country. His father started an import-export business selling gloves but his health deteriorated and he died in 1936 when he was 56 years old.

Adam left the boarding school in Edinburgh to rejoin his parents in London and continued his education at St. Paul's School in London. At his mother's boarding house Adam became increasingly interested in cinema after coming into contact with a number of artists among the Jewish refugees who were boarding there. He was introduced to Vincent Korda, a Hungarian art director, when he was working on Knight Without Armour at Denham Film Studios. Korda not only nurtured Adam's passion for films, but encouraged him to train as an architect if he was interested in becoming a production designer. Leaving school he became an apprentice at the firm of CW Glover & Partners (which specialized in making bomb shelters) and he signed up for evening classes at the Bartlett School of Architecture at University College London. Among his tutors was a part-time teacher who had been an assistant of famed German architect Erich Mendelsohn from whom Adam learned valuable architectural drawing techniques.

World War II
When World War II began, Adam was working on designs for air-raid shelters and illustrated books on air-raid protection and gas masks. As German citizens, the Adam family could have been interned as enemy aliens, but in October 1940 Adam was able to join the Pioneer Corps, a support unit of the British Army open to citizens of Axis countries resident in the UK and other Commonwealth countries, provided they were not considered a risk to security. Adam was seconded to design bomb shelters.

After eight months service in the Pioneer Corps, Adam's application to join the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve as a pilot was accepted. After initial flight training on de Havilland Tiger Moth biplanes in Scotland, he was sent to Canada and the United States for additional training. Among his instructors was British actor Michael Rennie.

Flight Lieutenant Adam joined No. 609 Squadron at RAF Lympne on 1 October 1943. He was nicknamed "Heinie the tank-buster" by his comrades for his daring exploits. The squadron flew the Hawker Typhoon, initially in support of USAAF long-range bombing missions over Europe. Later they were employed in support of ground troops, including at the battle of the Falaise Gap, in Normandy after D-Day. In 1944, his brother Denis joined No. 183 Squadron, joining Adam in No. 123 Wing. There were four squadrons in the wing: 164, 183, 198 and 609.

Together with his brother Denis, Adam was one of three German-born pilots to serve in the Royal Air Force during the Second World War, the third being Peter Stevens. As such, if they had been captured by the Germans, they were liable to execution as traitors rather than being treated as prisoners of war.

Following the end of the war Adam was the Allied officer in charge of German labour rebuilding Wunstorf Air Base. Adam naturalised as a British subject on 27 December 1946 and left the RAF upon his demobilisation in 1947.

Film career

Adam entered the film industry as a draughtsman on This Was a Woman (1948) at Riverside Studios in Hammersmith. His first major screen credit was as production designer on the British thriller Soho Incident (1956). Working in 1952 for art director Paul Sheriff on the Burt Lancaster film The Crimson Pirate, Adam designed an 18th-century hot-air balloon, a flame-throwing tank, and a rowing boat that transformed into a submarine.

In the mid-1950s, he worked (uncredited) on the epics Around the World in 80 Days (also 1956) and Ben-Hur (1959), directed by William Wyler.

In 1956 he assisted art director Edward Carrere with the sets for Helen of Troy.

His first major credit was for the horror film Night of the Demon (1957), directed by Jacques Tourneur, and he was also the production designer on several films directed by Robert Aldrich. The first public knowledge of his expertise came when he won an award for the sets of The Trials of Oscar Wilde at the Moscow Film Festival in 1960.

He was hired for the first James Bond film, Dr. No (1962). Adam did not work in the second James Bond film, From Russia with Love (1963), because he was working on Stanley Kubrick's Dr. Strangelove (1964). His work on this film was described by the British Film Institute (BFI) as "gleaming and sinister". Steven Spielberg even called it "the best set that's ever been designed". He turned down the opportunity to work on Kubrick's next project, 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), after he found out that Kubrick had been working with NASA for a year on space exploration, and that it would put him at a disadvantage in developing his art.

This enabled Adam to make his name with his innovative, semi-futuristic sets for further James Bond films, such as Goldfinger (1964), Thunderball (1965), You Only Live Twice (1967), and Diamonds Are Forever (1971). The supertanker set for The Spy Who Loved Me (1977) was constructed in the largest soundstage in the world at the time. Adam claims it was lit by Stanley Kubrick in secret. His last Bond film was Moonraker (1979). Writing for The Guardian in 2005, journalist Johnny Dee claimed: "His sets for the seven Bond films he worked on [...] are as iconic as the movies themselves and set the benchmark for every blockbuster".

Adam's other film credits include The Trials of Oscar Wilde (1960), the Michael Caine espionage thriller The Ipcress File (1965) and its sequel Funeral in Berlin (1966), the Peter O'Toole version of Goodbye, Mr. Chips (1969), Sleuth (1972), Salon Kitty (1976), Agnes of God (1985), Addams Family Values (1993), and The Madness of King George (1994). He was also a visual consultant on the film version of Pennies from Heaven (1981), adapted from Dennis Potter's television serial.

Adam returned to work with Kubrick on Barry Lyndon (1975), for which he won his first Oscar. The BFI noted the film's "contrastingly mellow Technicolor beauties" in its depiction of the 18th century. He also designed the famous car for the film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968), which was produced by the same team as the James Bond film series. During the late 1970s, he worked on storyboards and concept art for Star Trek: Planet of the Titans, then in pre-production. The film was eventually shelved by Paramount Pictures.

Adam was a jury member at the 1980 Cannes Film Festival and the 49th Berlin International Film Festival. In 1999, during the Victoria and Albert Museum exhibition "Ken Adam – Designing the Cold War", Adam spoke on his role in the design of film sets associated with the 1960s through the 1980s.

Death
Adam died on 10 March 2016 at his home in London, following a short illness. He was 95 years old.

Personal life
He met his wife Maria-Letizia Moauro while filming The Crimson Pirate on location on the Italian island of Ischia and they married on 16 August 1952.

Legacy
In September 2012, Adam handed over his entire body of work to the Deutsche Kinemathek. The Ken Adam collection comprises approximately 4,000 sketches for films from all periods, photo albums to individual films, storyboards of his employees, memorabilia, military medals, and identity documents, as well as all cinematic awards, including Adam's two Academy Awards.

The Ken Adam Building, a large lot at Pinewood Studios's Buckingham location, bears Adam's name and houses multiple theatres and businesses as well as the Kodak Film Lab and an office of the trade union Bectu.

Honours
Adam was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1996 New Year Honours for services to the film industry and Knight Bachelor in the 2003 Birthday Honours for services to film production design and to UK–German relations. Adam was appointed a Royal Designer for Industry in 2009.

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Ron Yeats

Ronald Yeats (born 15 November 1937) is a Scottish former association footballer. He was a key defender in the rejuvenation of Dundee United in the early 1960s. He then spent a decade at Liverpool captaining them to six trophies in the mid-1960s. He later had three years as player/manager at Tranmere Rovers. Yeats was also player/manager at Barrow and Santa Barbara Condors. He also made appearances for the Scotland national team.

Early years and Dundee United
Yeats was an Under-15 schoolboy international who played for Aberdeen Lads' Club, a Junior club in his home town of Aberdeen. In 1956, following a leg break, Yeats had a trial with Elgin City, then a Highland League club, but was not offered a contract. In 1957 he was signed by Dundee United, then a part-time club of Scottish Division Two. Previous to signing for the club, he worked in a slaughter house in Aberdeen.

Yeats's career took an upward turn following Jerry Kerr's appointment: Kerr regarded Yeats as so vital to the fortunes of the team he sought his release to play each Saturday from the military authorities while Yeats served his National Service. In 1959–60, Kerr's first full season in charge, St Johnstone finished as Division Two champions. United's challengers for the second promotion spot were Hamilton Academical and Queen of the South. Hamilton were beaten 5–1 at Tannadice with seven games to go before a crowd of over 11,000, putting Hamilton firmly in United's rear view. United went to Palmerston Park to play the Ivor Broadis inspired Queen of the South with three games to go. United returned home with a 4–4 draw to maintain their one-point advantage over QoS. Promotion was clinched with a last game of the season 1–0 home win against Berwick Rangers before a crowd of near 17,000. This brought top division football back to Tannadice Park for the first time since they had been relegated in 1932.

In the following 1960–61 season, United retained their top division place, finishing in ninth. Other players to flourish like Yeats were the forward pair Dennis Gillespie and Jim Irvine. Yeats played 118 matches (95 in the league) for Dundee United.

Liverpool
Yeats, a stockily-built 6 ft 2 in central defender, was bought by manager Bill Shankly in 1961 from United for a fee of around £20,000 and was immediately installed as captain. When Yeats was signed, Shankly was so impressed with the physical presence of his new player that he told waiting journalists "The man is a mountain, go into the dressing room and walk around him". Shankly later described Yeats's arrival, along with that of striker Ian St John also in the 1961 close season, as the "turning point" as Liverpool began their quest to compete with — and beat — the best in England and in Europe. Yeats made his debut in a 2–0 league victory over Bristol Rovers at Eastville on 19 August 1961. After Yeats's first season, Liverpool gained promotion from the Second Division with a runaway eight point margin over their nearest rivals (two points for a win) after eight seasons away from English football's top flight. His first goal came on 23 November 1963 in the 75th minute of the 1–0 First Division victory over Manchester United at Old Trafford. Yeats lived up to the reputation and the nickname ("The Colossus") his huge frame gave him, playing at the heart of Liverpool's defence for a decade and winning the club's first major honours in nearly 20 years.

Liverpool were the 1963–64 Football League Champions. The next season, they won the 1964–65 FA Cup beating Leeds United 2–1 after extra time in the final at Wembley. This was the club's first ever win of that trophy. However Liverpool lost in the European Cup semi-final to Inter Milan that season.

The next season Yeats skippered Liverpool to the 1965–66 Football League title. In Europe Liverpool reached the 1966 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final at Hampden Park in Yeats native Scotland. However Liverpool lost out after extra time to Borussia Dortmund.

In the 1966–67 European Cup second round, Yeats and co were given a torrid time by a Johan Cruyff inspired Ajax who won 5–1 in Amsterdam and 7–3 on aggregate.

The success of Liverpool then dried up, and he was one of the high-profile victims of a massive cull of the older players which Shankly ruthlessly undertook in 1970 in an effort to rebuild the side for a new decade. After 454 games, Yeats left in 1971.

Yeats won both his full caps for Scotland during the three seasons when the Liverpool team of the 1960s were at their peak. The first came on 3 October 1964 in a 3–2 defeat to Wales at Ninian Park Cardiff. His second was a year later in December 1965 in a world cup qualification decider away to Italy. The Scots had beaten the Italians 1–0 at Hampden Park. However Jock Stein's side missing the absent Denis Law went out when losing 3–0 in Naples.

Tranmere Rovers
Yeats served Tranmere Rovers for three years as player manager.

Stalybridge and Barrow
Yeats had a short spell playing for Stalybridge Celtic. He then served Barrow as player manager.

Career in America
In 1976 at age 38, he joined the Los Angeles Skyhawks of the American Soccer League at the request of Skyhawk coach Ron Newman. In his only season there, he played sweeper and anchored the defence of the A.S.L. champion Skyhawks.

In 1977, he became the player coach of the American Soccer League's Santa Barbara Condors expansion team.

Formby and Rhyl
Returning to Liverpool, he had a short spell at the start of the 1977–78 season playing for Formby before moving to Rhyl in November 1977.

Liverpool (scouting)
In 1986 Yeats returned to Anfield as the club's chief scout responsible for delegating duties to the club's talent spotters. He remained in that role until his retirement in May 2006.

Legacy
Yeats was voted 29th in the official Liverpool website poll '100 Players Who Shook The Kop'.

In April 2009, Yeats was made an 'Honorary Scouser' by the Lord Mayor of Liverpool.

He is referenced in the Everton song "Royal Blue Mersey" in the line "We hate Bill Shankly and we hate St. John, but most of all we hate Big Ron."

Personal life
In January 2024, it was announced that Yeats is living with Alzheimer's disease.

Honours
Dundee United
 * Scottish Division Two promotion: 1959–60

Liverpool
 * Football League First Division: 1963–64, 1965–66
 * Football League Second Division: 1961–62
 * FA Cup: 1964–65
 * FA Charity Shield: 1964, 1965, 1966

L.A. Skyhawks
 * American Soccer League: 1975–76

title: Ron Yeats


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Alexander Henderson (theologian)

Alexander Henderson (c. 1583 – 19 August 1646) was a Scottish theologian, and an important ecclesiastical statesman of his period. He is considered the second founder of the Reformed Church in Scotland. He was one of the most eminent ministers of the Church of Scotland in the most important period of her history, namely, previous to the middle of the seventeenth century.

Alexander Henderson was born in 1583, and studied at the University of St. Andrews. He was, through the influence of Archbishop Gladstanes, presented to the church living of Leuchars, Fifeshire, and was in 1615 inducted forcibly into the charge. He was then a supporter of episcopacy; he subsequently changed his views and became a zealous upholder of Presbyterianism. He opposed the adoption of the five Articles of Perth in 1618, and resisted the use of the Service Book in 1637.

He drafted both the National Covenant of 1638 with Johnstone of Warriston, and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643. He preached in the Greyfriars church on 28 February 1638, when the National Covenant was signed, and presided as Moderator of the memorable General Assembly held at Glasgow in the following November. On two subsequent occasions he was chosen Moderator of Assembly. He was Rector of Edinburgh University, and instituted a Professorship of Oriental Languages in that seat of learning. With a view to conciliate the Presbyterians, Charles I. appointed him his chaplain on his visit to Scotland in 1641.

Henderson was entrusted with various important missions; he was one of the commissioners who represented the Scottish Church at the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, and he was honoured with several interviews by Charles I., when he endeavoured, though unsuccessfully, to bring the king over to Presbyterianism. He died at Edinburgh on 19 August 1646. At the Restoration the inscriptions on his tombstone were obliterated; they were restored at the Revolution.

Early life
Alexander Henderson was born at Guthrie, in the Fife parish of Creich, in 1583. Of his parentage and family history hardly anything is known. Tradition, following from Wodrow, says he was the son of a feuar, and a cadet of the Hendersons of Fordel. In support of the latter statement, his remains lie in the burying-ground of that family in Greyfriars Churchyard, and a contemporary portrait of him is still in possession of a representative of that house. His birthplace was between the villages of Luthrie and Branton. To the maintenance of a school at Luthrie he left two thousand marks Scots in his will. On 19 December 1599, at the age of sixteen, he matriculated at St Salvator's College, St Andrews, and took his degree of M.A. in 1603. From 1603 to 1611 he was a Regent of Philosophy, and during that period he completed his course in divinity.

Early career
He adopted strong prelatic principles, and was a staunch upholder of Archbishop Gledstanes, who afterwards became his patron, and presented him to the parish of Leuchars. His settlement was so unpopular that on the day of his ordination, probably in January 1614, the church doors were found securely nailed up, and he and his friends were obliged to enter by the window. Mr. Henderson at first showed but little concern for the spiritual interests of his people; but his sentiments and character soon underwent a complete change. A Communion sermon preached in a neighbouring parish by Robert Bruce of Kinnaird, was the means of changing Henderson's spiritual outlook. Attracted by the fame of the preacher, he slipped (so goes the story) into the darkest corner of the church, hoping to steal out again unrecognised. Bruce chose for his text the words : "He that entereth not by the door," etc.

This passage, so applicable to his situation, and the sermon which followed, made such an impression on his mind as led to an entire change in his views and conduct. Bruce, nevertheless, seems to have been aware of his presence; or, if not, there was a singular coincidence in the applicability of the text which he chose, to the remarkable circumstances which attended Henderson's induction to his charge. Be this as it may, the sermon which followed made such a powerful impression upon him as effected an entire change in his religious conduct and sentiments; and from being a careless and indifferent pastor over his flock, and an upholder of a system odious in the highest degree to the people, he became a watchful and earnest minister, and a resolute champion in the cause of presbyterianism. He now became thoroughly convinced that the proceedings of the prelatical party were injurious to the interests of religion, and he resolved at once to take part with the Presbyterians. His first appearance in that connection was at the Perth Assembly of 1618, when he strenuously opposed the Five Articles, notwithstanding the threats of the Government.

Henderson stood among the foremost of those who opposed, though unsuccessfully, the obnoxious measure; and this too, in defiance of the king's utmost wrath, with which all who resisted the adoption of the Five articles were threatened. "In case of your refusal," said the archbishop of St Andrews, addressing the assembled clergymen, "the whole order and estate of your church will be overthrown, some ministers will be banished, others will be deprived of their stipends and office, and all will be brought under the wrath of authority."

In August 1619 he appeared before the Court of High Commission charged with the publication of a pamphlet denouncing the Perth Assembly. On their appearance, Mr. Henderson answered the accusation with so much eloquence and truth, that the bishops could gain no advantage over him and his friends, and were obliged to dismiss them with threatenings, and Henderson returned to his parish. Of the next eighteen years we know little or nothing.

The National Covenant - Contending against Episcopacy
With the memorable year 1637 Henderson reappears on the scene, a keen opponent of "Laud's Liturgy," which King Charles was determined to foist on the Church.

In common with other ministers, he had been charged to purchase two copies of the liturgy for the use of his parish within fifteen days, under the pain of rebellion. He immediately went to Edinburgh, and, 23 August, presented a petition to the privy council, representing that the service book had not received the sanction of the General Assembly, nor was recognised by an act of parliament, and praying a suspension of the charge. To this remonstrance the council returned a favourable answer, and the reading of the liturgy was ordered to be suspended until the king's farther pleasure should be known.

Charles, however, only the more peremptorily insisted that the service book should be received; and from this time forward Mr. Henderson took a prominent share in all the proceedings of the nonconformists. A great number of the nobility, gentry, clergymen, and representatives of burghs, with others, had assembled in Edinburgh from all parts of the country; and after another supplication had been presented to the privy council, praying them to bring the matter again before the king, a proclamation from his majesty was made, requiring all persons to depart to their homes within twenty-four hours, on pain of being denounced rebels. Instead of dispersing, the leaders of the popular party, after some farther ineffectual petitions to the king, resolved to appeal to the people, and the result was the renewal of the National Covenant of 1580 and 1581, with only some slight changes adapted to the circumstances of the times. It was prepared by Mr. Henderson, assisted by Archibald Johnston, afterwards of Warriston, an advocate in whom, we are told, the suppliants chiefly confided, and was sworn and subscribed in the Greyfriars' church of Edinburgh, on 28 February 1638, by thousands of the nobility, gentry, ministers of the gospel, burgesses, and others. Mr. Henderson addressed the vast multitude assembled with great fervour and eloquence, aud the enthusiasm of the people knew no bounds. He was subsequently sent with several noblemen, and Messrs. Cant and Dickson, to Aberdeen, to prevail on the inhabitants of that city to take the Covenant, and, after urging upon them the strongest arguments in favour of the document, no less than 500 persons subscribed it, many of them being of the highest respectability.

Mainly through Henderson's influence the National League and Covenant was signed, 21 February 1638, and he was Moderator of the Assembly which met at Glasgow, 21 November of the same year.

On 1 March 1638 the public signing of the National Covenant began in Greyfriars Kirk, Edinburgh. Henderson was mainly responsible for the final form of this document, which consisted of

 * 1) the king's confession drawn up in 1581 by John Craig
 * 2) a recital of the acts of parliament against superstitious and papistical rites
 * 3) an elaborate oath to maintain the true reformed religion.

Owing to the skill shown on this occasion he seems to have been applied to when any manifesto of unusual ability was required. In July of the same year he proceeded to the north to debate on the Covenant with the famous Aberdeen doctors but he was not well received. Robert Baillie wrote: "The Voyd church was made fast, and the keys kept by the magistrate".

Henderson's next public opportunity was in the famous Assembly which met in Glasgow on 21 November 1638. He was chosen moderator by acclamation, being, as Baillie says, incomparable the ablest man of us all for all things. James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton, was the king's commissioner; and when the Assembly insisted on proceeding with the trial of the bishops, he formally dissolved the meeting under pain of treason. Acting on the constitutional principle that the king's right to convene did not interfere with the church's independent right to hold assemblies, they sat till 20 December, deposed all the Scottish bishops, excommunicated a number of them, repealed all acts favouring episcopacy, and reconstituted the Scottish Kirk on thorough Presbyterian principles. During the sitting of this Assembly it was carried by a majority of seventy-five votes that Henderson should be transferred to Edinburgh. He had been at Leuchars for about twenty-three years and was extremely reluctant to leave it.

While Scotland and England were preparing for the First Bishops' War, Henderson drew up two papers, entitled respectively The Remonstrance of the Nobility and Instructions for Defensive Arms. The first of these documents he published himself; the second was published against his wish by John Corbet, a deposed minister. The text was written in haste in 1639 and is reported to have been lifted from a work by Johannes Althusius to provide justification for bearing arms.

The First Bishops' War did not last long. At the Pacification of Birks the king virtually granted all the demands of the Scots. In the negotiations for peace Henderson was one of the Scottish commissioners, and made a very favourable impression on the king. At the memorable General Assembly which met at Glasgow the same year, 21 November 1638, the first that had been held for a long period, Mr. Henderson, now the acknowledged leader of the clergy, was unanimously chosen moderator. And in that difficult and trying situation, he conducted himself with a resolution and prudence, and at the same time with a forbearance and moderation, befitting the occasion. After the deposition and excommunication of the bishops, and the formal abolition of Episcopacy, Mr. Henderson terminated the proceedings with an eloquent and impressive address to the members of the Assembly, concluding with these striking words: — "We have now cast down the walls of Jericho; let him that re-buildeth them beware of the curse of Hiel the Bethelite!"

Before the rising of the Assembly two supplications were given in, the one containing a call to Mr. Henderson from St. Andrews, and the other from Edinburgh. Being much attached to his own parish of Leuchars, of which he had been minister for eighteen years, he expressed his unwillingness to remove from it, pleading that he was now too old a plant to take root in another soil. It was carried, however, by seventy-five votes, that he should be translated to Edinburgh; to which he consented, on condition that when old age should overtake him, he should again be removed to a country charge.

Dealings with the king
He received calls to St Andrews, and Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and was translated to St. Giles, Edinburgh on 10 January 1639, replacing James Hannay. He was appointed a Commissioner for framing a treaty of peace with England.

In 1639 he was one of the commissioners appointed by the Church to treat regarding the articles of pacification with the king; and during the whole of the difficult negotiations that ensued, he behaved with great prudence and candour. At the subsequent meeting of the Assembly, in August of that year, the earl of Traquair, commissioner from his majesty, earnestly desired that Mr. Henderson might be re-elected moderator, a proposition strenuously opposed by Mr. Henderson himself, and rejected by the Assembly, a constant moderatorship being contrary to the constitution of the Church. On the 31st of the same month, he was called upon to preach at the opening of parliament, on which occasion he delivered an excellent discourse, in which he treated, with consummate ability, of the end, duties, and utility of magistrates. He was again Moderator in 1639.

The king having refused to ratify some of the points agreed upon at the late pacification, suddenly prorogued the parliament, denounced the Covenanters as rebels, and prepared again to invade Scotland. But the successes of the Scots army, which entered England in August 1640, compelled him to accede to another proposition for peace; and a conference was begun at Rippon, which, in a short time after, was transferred to London. Mr. Henderson was appointed one of the commissioners, on the part of the Church, to conclude the treaty, and during all the time of his residence in London, which was protracted for nine months, he exerted himself, by preaching and otherwise, to promote the views of the commissioners; and wrote a variety of able tracts and papers, some of which were published without his name, while others were laid before the commissioners and parliament of England. Before he left London he was admitted to a private conference with the king, the special object of which was to procure assistance to the Scottish universities from the rents formerly appropriated to the bishops, when he was graciously received by his majesty.

University appointment
In January 1640 he was Rector of the University of Edinburgh, and held office for the rest of his life. In 1640 the town council of Edinburgh, with the view of rendering the system of education at the university more efficient, resolved to appoint annually a rector of that institution, and unanimously elected Mr. Henderson to the situation. He was empowered to superintend all matters connected with the conduct of the principal and professors, the education of the students, and the disposal of the revenues. In this office, which he appears to have enjoyed, by re-election, to his death, he exerted himself sedulously to promote the interests of that learned seminary. Besides devoting his especial attention to the education of candidates for the ministry, he instituted a professorship of oriental languages, a department previously much neglected.

In 1640 Henderson was elected by the town council rector of Edinburgh University, an office to which he was annually re-elected till his death. The Pacification of Birks had been wrung from the king and the Scots, seeing that he was preparing for the Second Bishops' War, took the initiative and pressed into England so vigorously that Charles had again to yield. The maturing of the treaty of peace took a considerable time and Henderson was again active in the negotiations, first at Ripon (1 October) and afterwards in London. While he was in London he had a personal interview with the king with the view of obtaining assistance for the Scottish universities from money formerly applied to the support of the bishops.

Moderatorial activities
On Henderson's return to Edinburgh in July 1641 the Assembly was sitting at St Andrews. To suit the convenience of the parliament, however, it removed to Edinburgh.On his return to Edinburgh, in July 1641, he was again chosen moderator of the General Assembly. In this Assembly he proposed that a confession of faith, a catechism, a directory for all the parts of the public worship, and a platform of government wherein possibly England and we might agree, should be drawn up. This was unanimously approved and the laborious undertaking was left in Henderson's hands but the notable motion did not lead to any immediate results.

During Charles's second state visit to Scotland in the autumn of 1641, Henderson acted as his chaplain and managed to get the funds, formerly belonging to the bishopric of Edinburgh, applied to the metropolitan university. The following year Henderson, whose policy was to keep Scotland neutral in the war which had now broken out between the king and the parliament, was engaged in corresponding with England on ecclesiastical topics; and shortly afterwards he was sent to Oxford to mediate between the king and his parliament but his mission proved a failure.

Having delivered in a letter from a number of ministers in London, requesting advice as to the proper form of church government to be adopted, several of their brethren being inclined towards Independency, the Assembly instructed him to answer it; and in his reply he earnestly urged a uniformity of church government in the two kingdoms. The Assembly unanimously approved of a motion which he brought forward, to the effect that they should take steps for drawing up a Confession of Faith, Catechism, Directory of Worship, and Form of Government; and remitted to him to prepare the necessary drafts of these documents. On 14 August the king arrived at Edinburgh to be present at the parliament; on which occasion, wishing to conciliate the presbyterian party, he appointed Mr. Henderson his chaplain. During his majesty's residence in Edinburgh he performed family worship every morning and evening at the palace, and frequently preached before him in the chapel-royal at Holyroodhouse. At this parliament the revenues of the bishoprics were divided; and by Mr. Henderson's exertions, what belonged to the bishopric and priory of Edinburgh were bestowed on the university. As a recompence for his own laborious and expensive services in the cause of the public, the emoluments of the chapel-royal, amounting to about 4,000 merks a-year, were conferred upon him.

Some reports injurious to his character having been industriously circulated, in the ensuing Assembly he entered into a long and impassioned vindication of his conduct. His brethren unanimously expressed their sympathy, and assured him of their continued confidence; on which we are told he recovered his cheerfulness.

In 1641 he preached before King Charles at Holyrood, and was made Dean of the Chapel Royal. A third time he was Moderator, 2 August 1643, and was elected a member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines. He declined the principalship of St Mary's College, St Andrews, and died unmarried 19 August 1646. Next to the Church, Henderson's greatest service was devoted to the University of Edinburgh. "He was the ablest educationist and the man of clearest insight of all who had to do with the college since its foundation. He saw what was wanted, and had the energy and the tact necessary for securing it. It would have been an inestimable advantage for the universities of Scotland if his life could have been prolonged for twenty years " (Grant's Univ. of Edinburgh, i., 209).

Civil War
During the year 1642, the time of the English Civil War, Henderson was employed in managing the correspondence with England respecting ecclesiastical reformation and union. He was soon after chosen one of the commissioners appointed to proceed to that country, but was for some time delayed by the civil war. Anxious to effect a reconciliation between Charles and his English subjects, he joined with some other leading men in an invitation to the queen to come to Scotland; but this proposition was rejected by the king.

Accompanied by the other commissioners, he next went to Oxford, where his majesty then was, to offer him the mediation of Scotland; but the infatuated monarch, instead of making some concessions for the sake of peace, endeavoured to convince him of the justice of his cause, defended all his proceedings, and expressed his high indignation at the interest which the Scots took in the reformation of the church in England. On Henderson's return to Edinburgh, his conduct throughout this delicate negotiation was pronounced by the General Assembly to have been "faithful and wise."

Westminster Assembly
In 1643 he was, for the third time, chosen moderator of the General Assembly — an occasion which was rendered remarkable by the presence of the English commissioners sent down by the parliament to crave their aid and connsel in the then critical circumstances of both kingdoms. He was appointed one of the commissioners who soon after went to London to attend the Assembly of divines at Westminster, to represent there the Church of Scotland, and to obtain the ratification of the Solemn League and Covenant by that Assembly and by both houses of parliament; which was accordingly done on 25 September. During the three following years he remained in London, unremittingly engaged in assisting the Westminster Assembly in preparing the public formularies for the religious union between the three kingdoms.

A memorable meeting of the General Assembly was held in August 1643. Henderson was elected moderator for the third time. He presented a draft of the famous Solemn League and Covenant, which was received with great enthusiasm. Unlike the National Covenant of 1638, which applied to Scotland only, this document was common to the two kingdoms. Henderson, Baillie, Rutherford and others were sent up to London to represent Scotland in the Assembly at Westminster. The Solemn League and Covenant, which pledged both countries to the extirpation of prelacy, leaving further decision as to church government to be decided by the example of the best reformed churches, after undergoing some slight alterations passed both parliaments, the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England, and thus became law for the two kingdoms. By means of it Henderson has had considerable influence on the history of Great Britain.

As Scottish commissioner to the Westminster Assembly he was in England from August 1643 till August 1646 and his principal work was the drafting of the Directory for Public Worship.

Last days
Early in 1645 Henderson was sent to the Treaty of Uxbridge to aid the commissioners of the two parliaments in negotiating with the king but nothing came of the conference. In 1646 the king joined the Scottish Army; and, after retiring with them to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, he sent for Henderson, and discussed with him the two systems of church government in a number of papers. Meanwhile, Henderson was failing in health. He sailed to Scotland, and eight days after his arrival died, on 19 August 1646. He was buried in Greyfriars Kirkyard, Edinburgh; the grave lies in the southwest section near the Adam mausoleum. His death was an occasion of national mourning in Scotland.

On 7 August Baillie had written that he had heard that Henderson was dying of heartbreak. A document was published in London purporting to be a declaration of Mr Alexander Henderson made upon his death-bed and, although this paper was disowned, denounced and shown to be false in the General Assembly of August 1648, the document was used by Clarendon as giving the impression that Henderson had recanted. Its foundation was probably certain expressions lamenting Scottish interference in English affairs.

The failure of this last enterprise was fatal to Henderson's already broken health. In June 1645 he had suffered from gravel, and tried the Epsom waters; he now showed symptoms of decline. Baillie, on 7 August, wrote that he heard he was 'dying most of heartbreak.' He sailed from Newcastle to Leith, and got home to Edinburgh. Here he dined with Sir James Stewart, and was extremely cheerful and hearty, but said, 'there was never a schoolboy more desirous to have the play than I am to have leave of this world.' He made his will on 17 August, and died on 19 August 1646.

In the beginning of 1645 he was appointed to assist the commissioners of the parliaments of England and Scotland in conducting the treaty between them and the king at Uxbridge. On the breaking off of the treaty he returned to London. In the spring of 1646, when the king had thrown himself into the hands of the Scottish army, he sent for Mr. Henderson, who was considered the most competent person to deal with his majesty in his then circumstances. He arrived at Newcastle about the middle of May, and received a welcome reception from the king, but soon perceived that Charles was as unwilling as ever to consent to the establishment of presbyterianism. It was agreed that the scruples which the king entertained should be discussed in a series of papers between his majesty and Mr. Henderson. These continued from 29 May to 15 July. They are eight in number, five by the king, who was assisted by Sir Robert Murray, and three by his reverend opponent. Mr. Henderson's health being much impaired, he was obliged to remove by sea to Edinburgh, where he died, 19 August 1646, in the 63d year of his age. His body was interred in the Greyfriars churchyard, where a monument was erected by his nephew to his memory.

Works

 * The Government and Order of the Church of Scotland (1641) https://archive.org/details/govordero00hend
 * The answeres of some brethren of the ministerie : to the replyes of the ministers and professours of divinitie in Aberdeene, concerning the late covenent (1638) https://archive.org/details/answeresofsomebr00hend
 * Reformation of church-government in Scotland : cleered from some mistakes and prejudices (1644) https://archive.org/details/reformationofchu00hend
 * A sermon preached to the honourable House of Commons at their late solemne fast, Wednesday, 27 December 1643 [electronic resource] https://archive.org/details/asermonpreached00commgoog
 * Generall demands concerning the late covenant propounded by the ministers and professors of divinity in Aberdene : to some reverend brethren who came thither to recommend the late covenant to them ... : together with the answers of those reverend brethren to the said demands .. (1662) https://archive.org/details/gendem00univ
 * Sermons, prayers and pulpit addresses (1867 printing) https://archive.org/details/sermonsprayerspu00hend
 * The Remonstrance of the Nobility, etc., within the Kingdom of Scotland, vindicating them and their Proceedings from the Crimes wherewith they are charged by the late Proclamation in England (1639)
 * The Government and Order of the Church of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1641 ; another edition, 1690)
 * Speech delivered immediately before the taking of the Covenant by the House of Commons and Assembly of Divines (Edinburgh, 1643)
 * Three single Sermons preached before the Houses of Parliament (London, 1644, 1644, 1645)
 * The Bishops' Doc/m (Edinburgh, 1762)
 * Declaration upon his Deathbed [concerning King Charles'] (1648)
 * Sermons, Prayers, and Pulpit Addresses, edited from the original MSS. by E. Thomson Martin (Edinburgh, 1867).

title: Alexander Henderson (theologian)


text: User:An-gabhar

title: User:An-gabhar


text:
Hellzapoppin (musical)

Hellzapoppin is a musical revue written by the comedy team of Olsen and Johnson, consisting of John "Ole" Olsen and Harold "Chic" Johnson, with music and lyrics by Sammy Fain and Charles Tobias. The revue was a hit, running for over three years, and was at the time the longest-running Broadway musical, with 1,404 performances, making it one of only three plays to run more than 500 performances in the 1930s.

Production
In 1938, after opening at the Shubert Theatre in Boston on September 10, Hellzapoppin opened on Broadway at the original 46th Street Theatre on September 22, transferred to the Winter Garden Theatre on November 26, and finally moved to the Majestic Theatre on November 25, 1941. It closed on December 17, 1941, after a total of 1,404 performances.

Olsen & Johnson led a large cast of entertainers: the comedy team of Barto and Mann (Dewey Barto and George Mann); Charles Whithers; celebrity impersonators, the Radio Rogues; Hal Sherman; Walter Nilsson; singing group The Charioteers; identical-twin dancers Betty Mae and Beverly Crane; stage magician Theo Hardeen (better known as Harry Houdini's younger brother); the Hawaiian music of Ray Kinney and the Aloha Maids; Bergh and Moore; J. C. Olsen; Reed, Dean and Reed (Bonnie Reed, Syd Dean, and Mel Reed); Roberta and Ray; The Starlings; Dorothy Thomas; Shirley Wayne; Cyrel Roodney and June Winters; Billy Adams; and Whitey's Steppers (also known as Whitey's Lindy Hoppers). Olsen & Johnson were succeeded by Jay C. Flippen and Happy Felton in June 1940.

On the road
In late 1940 and during 1941, while Hellzapoppin was still playing at the Winter Garden Theatre and later the Majestic Theatre, a second edition of Hellzapoppin with Billy House and Eddie Garr toured the country. The cast included Grace & Nokko, The Oxford Boys, Sterner Sisters, Ben Dova, Paul Gordon, Billy Potter and Bobby Jarvis.

Following the close of Hellzapoppin at the Majestic Theatre on December 18, 1941, many in the Broadway cast went on the road during 1942 with Jay C. Flippen and Happy Felton. This road edition of Hellzapoppin included Barto and Mann, Charles Withers, the Radio Rogues, Harry Reso, Walter Nilsson, The Charioteers, Lyda Sue, Theo Hardeen, June Winters, Bonnie Reed, Shirley Wayne, Ruth Faber, Stephanie Olsen, Bergh and Moore, Dippy Diers, Bobby Barry, Billy Adams, and Sid Dean. The road shows continued in the same style of sight gags, risqué humor, and audience involvement.

In late 1942, a New 1943 Hellzapoppin revue with Jackie Gleason and Lew Parker was staged at the Nixon Theatre, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; the Hanna Theatre, Cleveland, Ohio; and the Erlanger Theatre, Chicago, Illinois. The cast included many of the original and road show performers (Barto and Mann, the Radio Rogues, Charles Withers, Theo Hardeen, Harry Reso, Stephen Olsen, Bergh and Moore, Dippy Diers and Billy Adams) and several newcomers to the show (the Biltmorettes, the Commandos, the Kim Loo Sisters, Mary McNamee, and Jean Baker).

In 1949, Olsen & Johnson went back on the road with Hellzapoppin of 1949. The all new cast featured family members J. C. Olsen (Ole's son), June Johnson (Chic's daughter), and Marty May (Chic's son-in-law), along with vaudevillians Harrison & Fisher; Shirley, Sharon & Wanda; Nirska; Jose Duval; Gloria LeRoy; Frank Cook; The 6 Mighty Atoms; Shannon Dean; Helen Magna; Andy Ratouscheff; Hank Whitehouse; John Howes; Billy Kay; Maurice Millard; and Frank Hardy.

Sketches
A comedy hodgepodge full of sight gags and slapstick, the show was constantly improvised every night throughout its run to remain topical; it opened with newsreel clips of Adolf Hitler speaking in a Yiddish accent, Benito Mussolini speaking in blackface minstrel dialect, and Franklin D. Roosevelt speaking gibberish, before the real-life Olsen & Johnson burst through the image (actually, a transparent sheet in front of the screen). A circus atmosphere prevailed, with dwarfs, clowns, trained pigeons and audience participation adding to the merriment. Chorus girls left the stage to dance with audience members or sit in their laps. Laundry-filled clotheslines were strung across the theater over the audiences' heads, and some seats were wired with electric buzzers that were triggered during the performance.

The sketches were a "smorgasbord of explode-the-fourth-wall nuttiness:... comedy songs; skits abandoned partway through; cameos by audience stooges; an absurdist raffle; and in a trademark stunt, a man who wandered through the theater hawking an ever-larger potted tree". The comedy continued even after the show had ended, as departing audience members discovered the man who'd been carrying the increasingly tall plant waiting for them in the lobby, trapped and shouting atop a 20-foot tree.

Seeing a painting of a warship, Olsen & Johnson began firing weapons at it until it sank inside the frame. At this point, a soaking wet man in a uniform walked onstage, but was shot to death by the pair because "a captain always goes down with his ship!" As a matron (usually Chic's wife Catherine) walked the aisles yelling, "Oscar!", another loudly said that she was just going to use the bathroom. When this started to overwhelm, an actor started loudly selling tickets to the competing Broadway show I Married an Angel.

One gag had a man and his wife arguing continually in a box seat overlooking the stage. After a particularly violent round of insults, they wrestled to the floor and he would pop up and throw his wife(a mannequin) into the downstairs aisle.

Another joke--early in the show an "escape artist" would be locked into a strait-jacket and promise to escape in seconds. The man, still in the strait-jacket, would appear at odd moments in the show and when the show was over he'd be rolling around the floor in the lobby, still in the strait-jacket.

Theater owners weren't entirely happy with the show, because at least two dozen prime seats had to be reserved for audience "plants and stooges", rather than being sold for money.

Songs
Lyrics and music by Sammy Fain and Charles Tobias (unless otherwise noted).
 * Act 1
 * "Blow a Balloon Up to the Moon"
 * "Fuddle-Dee-Duddle"
 * "A Bedtime Story"
 * "Strolling Thru the Park"
 * "Abe Lincoln" (Music and Lyrics By Earl Robinson and Alfred Hayes)
 * "Shaganola"
 * "It's Time To Say Aloha"
 * Act 2
 * "Harem on the Loose"
 * "Ol' Man Mose'" (Music and Lyrics By Louis Armstrong and Zilner T. Randolph)
 * "When You Look in Your Looking Glass" (Lyrics By Sam M. Lewis, Music By Paul Mann and Stephen Weiss)
 * "When McGregor Sings Off Key"
 * "Boomps-a-Daisy (I Like a Bustle that Bends)"
 * "We Won't Let It Happen Here"

Songs featured during the run also include work by Don George, Teddy Hall, Annette Mills, Gonzalo Curiel, and Oscar Hammerstein II.

Revivals
A production of Hellzapoppin toured Australia in 1949-50 playing in Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth, and Sydney. The Australian shows were produced by J. C. Williamson, and featured a predominantly American cast including Don de Leo and George Mayo (as 'Olsen and Johnson'), Gloria Gilbert, Tom Toby, Marlene Lilyponds, Dorothy Jean, Snowball Whittier, Charlie Pope, trombonist Reg Thorpe, and David Hogarth. Various 'locals' joined the cast in some cities: Bob Dyer in Perth, and Roy Rene in Sydney. A production also played in Sydney in 1954, including female impersonator Maurice Millard.

In 1954, Hellzapoppin of 1954 played The Palladium in Sydney, Australia. In addition to Olsen & Johnson, this international production featured Marty May (Chic's son-in-law), singer Joan Elms, Hawaiian dancer Dell-Fin Thursday, juggler Lloyd Nairn, and banjoist and comedian Ken Card. Reviews were mixed, with The Sydney Morning Herald stating, "Noise was the predominant theme of Olsen and Johnson's "Hellzapoppin' of 1954," which opened at the Palladium on Saturday night. Desperate efforts were made, by means of fantastic tricks and freakish capers, to whip up some sort of comic frenzy. For all that, the show lacked enough touches of verve, sparkle, and spontaneity to put it into the top vaudeville class."

Theatrical producer Alexander H. Cohen had long remembered Hellzapoppin: "I was an 18-year-old stagestruck college student when Hellzapoppin opened, and I studied it like a textbook. I saw it 19 times during its run on Broadway." It was Cohen's fond hope to produce Hellzapoppin himself, and he purchased the rights "from the estate of Olsen and Johnson" in 1966. Within the year Cohen mounted a revival at Expo 67, the World's Fair at Montreal, featuring comedians Soupy Sales and Will B. Able (Willard Achorn), but it ran only a few performances. Cohen's plans for a Broadway opening were tabled in favor of a network-television special. A one-hour Hellzapoppin starring Jack Cassidy, Ronnie Schell, and Lynn Redgrave was aired by ABC-TV in 1972.

Cohen renewed his Broadway plans in 1976, as quoted by syndicated columnist Jack O'Brian: "I do think that to succeed today, a comedy revue requires a larger-than-life comic. That is why I have engaged Jerry Lewis to star in the new production of Hellzapoppin, which I'm preparing for the coming season." Cohen had been impressed by Lynn Redgrave in the TV revival, and signed her to appear opposite Lewis. The Broadway debut was scheduled for Sunday night, February 13, 1977. NBC-TV had committed $1,000,000 to Cohen for broadcasting the show's first act on national television. This was to be a TV first: live coverage of a Broadway opening night.

Out-of-town tryouts were staged in Washington, DC, Baltimore, and Boston to excellent business but mixed reviews. Things were just as chaotic backstage, as comedy star Lewis dominated the production and had serious arguments with producer Cohen, co-star Redgrave, and writer-adaptor Abe Burrows. "Lewis and Miss Redgrave had been having a much publicized feud," according to an account in the Pittsburgh Press. "He would neither rehearse nor perform any songs with her, reports said." The frantic activity extended to several sudden cast changes during the Boston run, including dancer Tommy Tune being called in on Saturday, January 15 to debut in a specialty act on the following Monday. The next day (Tuesday, January 18), NBC executives flew to Boston to see the show, and were so upset by what they saw that they expressed grave concerns to Cohen. The following day, Cohen abruptly closed the show and canceled both the Broadway engagement and the TV spectacular, forfeiting the million-dollar payment from NBC. "It's not ready for Broadway and cannot be made so in three remaining weeks before the opening," Cohen said. Cohen's spokesman subsequently announced that the stars would be replaced: "Recasting means recasting, and that's it." As reported by columnist Dan Lewis, "Those close to the producer expressed doubt that he would recast or revive the project -- that it was indeed a dead issue." NBC replaced the scheduled Hellzapoppin opening with the 1968 movie hit 2001: A Space Odyssey.

Film
Olsen & Johnson starred in the screen adaptation of Hellzapoppin', produced by Universal Pictures in 1941. Although the Broadway cast was initially slated to appear in the film, no one from any of the stage productions appeared in the film except Olsen & Johnson, Catherine Johnson, and the dance ensemble Whitey's Lindy Hoppers.

Hellzapoppin' was reissued to theaters in 1948 (by Realart Pictures) and released to local television stations in 1956. Universal withdrew the film in 1968 after Alexander H. Cohen bought the rights to the Olsen & Johnson show. The film is no longer available for revivals in theaters, on television, or on home video in the United States, although Universal released a European DVD edition in 2007.

title: Hellzapoppin (musical)


text:
User talk:An-gabhar

a

title: User talk:An-gabhar


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Talk:World Trade Center Mexico City

I chose to redirect Hotel de México to this page and use this one to put the history of the building complex. Hopefully this will be OK; if not, I suppose the hotel's history could be moved to the Hotel de México page.

Roadmr 19:34, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

bae loona
can loona be added as their highest grossing concert 24.155.196.50 (talk) 19:24, 27 April 2023 (UTC)

Template Removal
Can the template for the Functions section be removed? Imo, it's no longer subjective Imbluey2 (talk) 23:48, 29 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:World Trade Center Mexico City


text: Category:Channel Islands of California

title: Category:Channel Islands of California


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Neutrality of money

Neutrality of money is the idea that a change in the stock of money affects only nominal variables in the economy such as prices, wages, and exchange rates, with no effect on real variables, like employment, real GDP, and real consumption. Neutrality of money is an important idea in classical economics and is related to the classical dichotomy. It implies that the central bank does not affect the real economy (e.g., the number of jobs, the size of real GDP, the amount of real investment) by creating money. Instead, any increase in the supply of money would be offset by a proportional rise in prices and wages. This assumption underlies some mainstream macroeconomic models (e.g., real business cycle models). Others like monetarism view money as being neutral only in the long run.

When neutrality of money coincides with zero population growth, the economy is said to rest in steady-state equilibrium.

Superneutrality of money is a stronger property than neutrality of money. It holds that not only is the real economy unaffected by the level of the money supply but also that the rate of money supply growth has no effect on real variables. In this case, nominal wages and prices remain proportional to the nominal money supply not only in response to one-time permanent changes in the nominal money supply but also in response to permanent changes in the growth rate of the nominal money supply. Typically superneutrality is addressed in the context of long-run models.

History of the concept
According to Don Patinkin, the concept of monetary neutrality goes back as far as David Hume. The term itself was first used by continental economists beginning at the turn of the 20th century, and exploded as a special topic in the English language economic literature upon Friedrich Hayek's introduction of the term and concept in his famous 1931 LSE lectures published as Prices and Production. Keynes rejected neutrality of money both in the short term and in the long term.

Views and counterviews
Many economists maintain that money neutrality is a good approximation for how the economy behaves over long periods of time but that in the short run monetary-disequilibrium theory applies, such that the nominal money supply would affect output. One argument is that prices and especially wages are sticky (because of menu costs, etc.), and cannot be adjusted immediately to an unexpected change in the money supply. An alternative explanation for real economic effects of money supply changes is not that people cannot change prices but that they do not realize that it is in their interest to do so. The bounded rationality approach suggests that small contractions in the money supply are not taken into account when individuals sell their houses or look for work, and that they will therefore spend longer searching for a completed contract than without the monetary contraction. Furthermore, the floor on nominal wages changes imposed by most companies is observed to be zero: an arbitrary number by the theory of monetary neutrality but a psychological threshold due to money illusion.

Neutrality of money has been a central question for monetarism. The most important answers were elaborated within the framework of the Phillips curve. Milton Friedman, assuming adaptive expectations, distinguished a series of short-run Phillips curves and a long-run one, where the short-run curves were supposed to be the conventional, negatively sloped curves, while the long-run curve was actually a vertical line indicating the natural rate of unemployment. According to Friedman, money was not neutral in the short run, because economic agents, confused by the money illusion, always respond to changes in the money supply. If the monetary authority chooses to increase the stock of money and, hence, the price level, agents will be never able to distinguish real and nominal changes, so they will regard the increase in nominal wages as real modifications, so labour supply will also be boosted. However, this change is only temporary, since agents will soon realize the actual state of affairs. As the higher wages were accompanied by higher prices, no real changes in income occurred, that is, it was no need to increase the labour supply. In the end, the economy, after this short detour, will return to the starting point, or in other words, to the natural rate of unemployment.

New classical macroeconomics, led by Robert E. Lucas, also has its own Phillips curve. However, things are far more complicated in these models, since rational expectations were presumed. For Lucas, the islands model made up the general framework in which the mechanisms underlying the Phillips curve could be scrutinized. The purpose of the first Lucasian island model (1972) was to establish a framework to support the understanding of the nature of the relationship between inflation and real economic performance by assuming that this relation offers no trade-off exploitable by economic policy. Lucas' intention was to prove that the Phillips curve exists without existing. It has been a heritage that there is a trade-off between inflation and unemployment or real economic performance, so it is undoubted that there is a short run Phillips curve (or there are short run Phillips curves). Although there are fewer possible actions available for the monetary policy to conceit people in order to increase the labour supply, unexpected changes can always trigger real changes. But what is the ultimate purpose of the central bank when changing the money supply? For example, and mostly: exerting countercyclical control. Doing so, monetary policy would increase the money supply in order to eliminate the negative effects of an unfavourable macroeconomic shock. However, monetary policy is not able to utilize the trade-off between inflation and real economic performance, because there is no information available in advance about the shocks to eliminate. Under these conditions, the central bank is unable to plan a course of action, that is, a countercyclical monetary policy. Rational agents can be conceited only by unexpected changes, so a well-known economic policy is completely in vain. However, and this is the point, the central bank cannot outline unforeseeable interventions in advance, because it has no informational advantage over the agents. The central bank has no information about what to eliminiate through countercyclical actions. The trade-off between inflation and unemployment exists, but it cannot be utilized by the monetary policy for countercyclical purposes.

The New Keynesian research program in particular emphasizes models in which money is not neutral in the short run, and therefore monetary policy can affect the real economy.

Post-Keynesian economics and monetary circuit theory reject the neutrality of money, instead emphasizing the role that bank lending and credit play in the creation of bank money. Post-Keynesians also emphasize the role that nominal debt plays: since the nominal amount of debt is not in general linked to inflation, inflation erodes the real value of nominal debt, and deflation increases it, causing real economic effects, as in debt-deflation.

Reasons for departure from superneutrality
Even if money is neutral, so that the level of the money supply at any time has no influence on real magnitudes, money could still be non-superneutral: the growth rate of the money supply could affect real variables. A rise in the monetary growth rate, and the resulting rise in the inflation rate, lead to a decline in the real return on narrowly defined (zero-nominal-interest-bearing) money. Therefore, people choose to re-allocate their asset holdings away from money (that is, there is a decrease in real money demand) and into real assets such as goods inventories or even productive assets. The shift in money demand can affect the supply of loanable funds, and the combined changes in the nominal interest rate and the inflation rate may leave real interest rates changed from previously. If so, real expenditure on physical capital and durable consumer goods can be affected.

title: Neutrality of money


text:
2004 Mozambican general election

General elections were held in Mozambique on 1 and 2 December 2004 to elect a president and the Assembly of the Republic. Incumbent president Joaquim Chissano stepped down after 18 years in power, with five candidates running to succeed him. Armando Guebuza of the ruling FRELIMO party won, with over 60% of the vote. FRELIMO also won the Assembly elections, taking 160 of the 250 seats. Turnout for both elections was just over 36%.

President
Officials expected the winner to be formally announced on 17 December, but it was delayed until 21 December. Guebuza won with 63.7% of the vote, and took office in February 2005. Afonso Dhlakama of RENAMO came second with 31.7% of the vote, and announced that he did not recognize the results.

title: 2004 Mozambican general election


text:
Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Persecution of Hindus

Persecution of Hindus
Persecution of Hindus was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete.

Abstain. The VfD notice in the article was added by an anon at. I fixed the article so it used the proper vfd template and then did the posting here, which the anon seems to have failed to do.--Lucky13pjn 19:39, Dec 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * A very weak keep. The article is a substub on a vast, difficult, real, and encyclopedic topic by a newbie.  As it stands now, there is an external link that will indeed help somebody write a better article.  My understanding is also that anon VfDs don't count.  -- Smerdis of Tlön 01:56, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Weak Delete. Seems like this belongs as a subtopic in an article about Hindus. Unless the Hindu article has gotten too big, in which case this should be listed for expansion. Chuck 22:07, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Weak Delete. Basically for the above reasons.  The topic is valid, but I am not sure the artcle is.  The substub is certainly not useful as it stands now.  I am open to having my mind changed. Indrian 04:43, Dec 4, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Or make a subheading under hinduism. Not an article. --Vik 19:56, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.