text:
Dariga Nazarbayeva

Dariga Nursultanqyzy Nazarbayeva (Дариға Нұрсұлтанқызы Назарбаева, Dariğa Nūrsūltanqyzy Nazarbaeva; born 7 May 1963) is a Kazakh businesswoman and politician who is the daughter of Nursultan Nazarbayev who was the President of Kazakhstan from 1990 to 2019. She was a member of the Mäjilis from 2004 to 2007, 2012 to 2015 and 2021 to 2022. She was Deputy Chairwoman of Mäjilis from 2014 to 2015 until being appointed as a Deputy Prime Minister under Massimov's cabinet. She was a member of the Kazakh Senate from 2016 to 2020, serving as Senate Chairwoman from 2019 to 2020. She is one of the richest women in Kazakhstan.

Nazarbayeva began her career in 1994 in media business as she headed Khabar, the largest national television agency in Kazakhstan. In 2003, she founded the Asar party and the following year later in 2004 for the first time, Nazarbayeva was elected to the Mäjilis. While serving the post there, the Asar in 2006 merged with the Amanat, a ruling party that was led by her father Nazarbayev. Following the dissolution of the Mäjilis in 2007, Nazarbayeva did not run for re-election and remained out of politics until her eventual return in 2012 to the Mäjilis seat where she was the deputy chairwoman and parliamentary leader of Amanat. In 2015, Nazarbayeva was appointed by her father as Deputy Prime Minister under PM Karim Massimov before then returning to the Parliament in 2016 as a Senator. After her father's resignation from presidency in 2019, Nazarbayeva took over Kassym-Jomart Tokayev's role as the Senate Chairwoman, while Tokayev in turn, became the President of Kazakhstan. In 2020, she was unexpectedly removed from the post by Tokayev shortly before returning to the Mäjilis once more in 2021.

Because of Nazarbayeva's high-ranking official positions and relations with her father, it had been widely speculated that she was potentially being prepared for presidency as a way to succeed Nazarbayev's legacy in a nepotist fashion despite the dismissed claims by Nazarbayev himself.

Early life and education
Nazarbayeva was born at Temirtau on 7 May 1963. In 1981–1982, she completed her secondary education at K. Satpayev Gymnasium No. 56 in Alma-Ata. From 1980 to 1983, she studied at the history department at Moscow State University. She graduated from the S. M. Kirov Kazakh State University in 1985, and in 1991, defending her thesis for a candidate degree in historical sciences at the Moscow State University. In 1998, Nazarbayeva defended her thesis for Ph.D degree in political sciences at the Russian Academy of State Service.

Career
Nazarbayeva became the vice president of her mother Sara Nazarbayeva's Bobek Children's Charity Fund.

In 1994, Nazarbayeva became the vice president of the Television and Radio of Kazakhstan Republican Corporation. In 1995, the Khabar TV channel was created. The organizations associated to Nazarbayeva purchased the Europa Plus Radio Station, KTK and NTK television companies and popular newspaper Сaravan. TV-Media and Alma-Media companies were established to manage the new media holding. In 1998, Khabar was transformed into a closed joint-stock company, and Nazarbayeva became President of the Company, and in 2001, the Chairperson of the Board of Directors.

Since the late 1990s, Nazarbayeva has regularly appeared on Kazakh TV as a singer. Her repertoire includes Kazakh folk songs, Russian romances, opera arias and songs by Joe Dassin. In 2011, Nazarbayeva gave a recital “Salem, Russia” in Moscow on the new stage in the Bolshoi Theater, and the Organ Hall of Astana. A Russian company Universal Music filmed her concert performances at various venues for the musical television movie My Star. The two-part film was presented in 2012. In 2013, she gave a concert, co-organized by Count Pierre Sheremetev, at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris, with the Orchestre Lamoureux directed by Dmitry Yablonsky and the Sazgen sazi group directed by Baghdat Tilegenov, and with some artists as the pianist Timur Urmancheev, Sundet Baigozhin or Medet Chotabaev.

Chair of the Asar (2003–2006)
In October 2002, Nazarbayeva became the Chairperson of the Board of Trustees of the Choice of the Young People block; it was proposed to create the Congress of Youth of Kazakhstan at the first conference of the block.

In October 2003, Nazarbayeva organized and became the leader of the Asar Republican Party. In a few months, more than 167,000 applications were collected from those wishing to join Asar; 139,000 applications were processed and authenticated, and 77,000 signatures were submitted to the Ministry of Justice for registration. In December 2003, the party was registered.

According to the results of the elections to the Mäjilis in 2004, the party polled 541,239 (11.38%) votes on a party list basis and ranked the third; Nazarbayeva became an elected member from the Asar party-list in the Mäjilis, along with three deputies from the party who were elected in single-member constituencies.

On 4 July 2006, an extraordinary party convention was held where they decided to merge with the Otan Republican Political Party (later Nur Otan from December 2006), with Nazarbayeva being elected as the deputy chairwoman of Amanat under her father's chairmanship.

Member of the Mäjilis (2004–2007, 2012–2015, 2021–present)
In February 2005, a new Deputy Group of Aimak formed in the Parliament, consisting of 36 deputies (28 deputies from the Mäjilis and 8 deputies from the Senate). Nazarbayeva was elected as the group leader. The main goals of the Aimak Deputy Group were to promote and monitor the implementation of existing state and industry programs aimed at regional development, take an active part in the development and legislative support of administrative reform and local self-government and develop entrepreneurship. She remained as a member of the Mäjilis until its dissolution on 20 June 2007.

In the 2012 Kazakh legislative election, Nazarbayeva ran again in the Amanat party list which won 83 seats. She headed the Mäjilis Committee on Socio-Cultural Development.

On 3 April 2014, Nazarbayeva was unanimously chosen as a Mäjilis deputy chairwoman and the parliamentary leader of Amanat. On 11 September 2015, she was appointed as a Deputy Prime Minister.

Nazarbayeva reappeared on the Amanat party-list at a congress on 25 November 2020 where she made her first public appearance since being dismissed from the Senate Chairwoman post, bringing her candidacy to the Mäjilis seat again. The Amanat maintained its control over the Mäjilis following the 2021 legislative elections, sweeping 76 seats. From there, she became a member of the Committee for Economic Reforms and Regional Development.

Member of the Senate (2016–2020)
On 13 September 2016, Nazarbayeva was appointed to the Senate; she was designated as the head of the Senate's International Affairs, Defense, and Security Committee on 16 September.

Chairwoman of the Senate
On the same day her father stepped down as the President of Kazakhstan, Nazarbayeva was appointed as the Senate Chair in a unanimous secret ballot on 20 March 2019. She succeeded Kassym-Jomart Tokayev in that role, who became the acting president of the country. According to The New York Times, this may have been a signal that Nazarbayeva was being groomed to become president herself. Several speculations arose that Nazarbayeva was preparing her presidential bid for the 2019 presidential elections in which the allegations were revealed to be false according to her close aide on 9 April 2019.

On 2 May 2020, she was removed from the Senate and her role as the Chair by Tokayev. Many theories arose that either Tokayev was expanding his political influence or a sign of growing feud between the Kazakhstan's ruling elite. Others claimed that the reason was due to public scandals regarding her son Aisultan and the British court case which ruined Nazarbayeva's reputation and her fathers image.

Awards and decorations

 * 🇰🇿 Kazakhstan:
 * OrdenBars_1kl_rib.png Order of the Leopard, 1st class (2 December 2021)
 * OrdenBars_1kl_rib.png Order of the Leopard, 2nd class (December 2013)
 * OrdenParasat.png Order of Parasat (December 2004)
 * MedalAstana.png Astana Medal (17 August 1998)
 * Medal10RK.png Medal "10 Years of Independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan" (2001)
 * Medal10Parlm.png Medal "10 Years of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan" (7 November 2005)
 * Medal10Astana.png Medal "10 Years of Astana" (6 May 2008)
 * Medal20RK.png Medal "20 Years of Independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan" (2011)
 * Decoration_without_ribbon_-_en.svg Medal "20 Years of Tenge" (September 2013)
 * Medal20Konstitution.png Medal "20 Years of the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan" (5 August 2015)
 * Medal_Nur_Otan_Rib.png Medal of Nur Otan (3 May 2013)
 * Decoration_without_ribbon_-_en.svg Medal of the Constitutional Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan (30 August 2013)
 * Medal_20yer_Assambley_rib.png Medal "20th Anniversary of the Assembly of the People of Kazakhstan" (14 March 2015)
 * Medal25RK.png Medal "25 Years of Independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan" (2016)
 * Medal20Astana.png Medal "20 Years of Astana" (30 June 2018)
 * CIS:
 * Decoration_without_ribbon_-_en.svg Order of the Commonwealth (2017)
 * Decoration_without_ribbon_-_en.svg Silver medal of the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly of the Commonwealth of Independent States, 20 years (27 March 2012)
 * Decoration_without_ribbon_-_en.svg Medal of the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly of the Commonwealth of Independent States, 25 years (27 March 2017)
 * 🇫🇷 France:
 * Ordre_des_Arts_et_des_Lettres_Chevalier_ribbon.svg Chevalier of the National Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (April 2009)

Family
Nazarbayeva had a long marriage to Kazakh businessman and politician Rakhat Aliyev until their divorce in June 2007. Aliyev held senior posts in Kazakhstan's domestic intelligence agency and foreign ministry, and later as ambassador to Austria. In 2004, a woman alleged to be Aliyev's mistress was found dead, having fallen from a tall apartment building in Beirut. He was stripped of his titles in 2007 after critiquing President Nazarbayev for altering the nation's constitution to allow him to be president for life. Aliyev claimed that his divorce was executed without his consent, and that it was forced by Nazarbayev.

Aliyev was convicted in absentia for various crimes in Kazakhstan. Austria refused to extradite him, but were preparing to try him for the kidnapping and murder of two Kazakh bank officials. Before the trial, he was found dead in his Austrian jail cell due to alleged suicide.

Nazarbayeva has two sons with Aliyev, Nurali and Aisultan, and a daughter Venera. She is also a grandmother. Nurali's wife gave birth to Laura Aliyeva in 2013.

On 23 January 2020, Nazarbayeva's son, Aisultan, made a public statement on his Facebook page, claiming that his grandfather Nazarbayev was allegedly his dad and that his mother Nazarbayeva has been attempting to kill him while living in London. Nazarbayeva made no responses regarding the case made by her son. The next day on 24 January, a female correspondent from the RFE/RL attempted to receive response from Nazarbayeva regarding her son's claims as she was walking by in the Parliament building hallway where one of Nazarbayeva's security guards ended up grabbing the reporter by the arm and covering her mouth. On 16 August 2020, Aisultan was found dead in London with the cause of his death being allegedly due to cardiac arrest. In response to the incident, Nazarbayeva stated that "my family is devastated at the loss of our beloved Aisultan and we ask for privacy at this very difficult time."

Offshore activities
In 2018, it was revealed by the Panama Papers that Nazarbayeva was the sole shareholder of an off-shore sugar company based in the British Virgin Islands which did business in Kazakhstan. Her son, Nurali, was also named in the papers as being a client of Mossack Fonseca in Panama, and having two companies and luxury yacht also registered in the British Virgin Islands. According to Newsweek, "this is a sharp contradiction from Nazarbayev's frequent appeals to entrepreneurs in the oil-rich country to pay taxes in Kazakhstan." The Panama Papers also suggest she may be the owner, through an off-shore company, of 221B Baker Street, the $183 million property famous as being the fictional address of Sherlock Holmes.

On 10 March 2020, a British court announced the names of the owners of properties worth $100 million, which were issued an UWO in the spring of 2019. The owners turned out to be Nazarbayeva and her eldest son, Nurali Aliyev, with his wife Aida. The representative of the defendants at the hearing explained that the owners can confirm the source of the funds, since at that time they were engaged in business. In April, the High Court of Justice declared the claims by the British law enforcement agencies unfounded and as a result, the case was overturned.

Wealth
According to Forbes Magazine in 2013 her wealth was about $595 million. It was through her involvement in the companies such as Europe Plus Kazakhstan JSC, NTK, AlmaInvestHolding, Almatystroysnab LLP, and ALMA TV. She also founded Kazakhstan's main TV network, Khabar Agency.

title: Dariga Nazarbayeva


text: Category:Pejorative terms for people

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category:Pejorative terms for people


text:
Mykines, Greece

Mykines (Μυκήνες), known before 1916 as Charvati (Χαρβάτι), is a village and a former municipality in Argolis, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 159.033 km2. It is located 1 km west of the ancient site of Mycenae and 2 km east of the highway linking Argos and Corinth. It is 9 km north of Argos.

Name
The name Mykines is the modern Greek version of Mycenae. The village is near the archaeological site of Mycenae.

Historical population
Mykines was historically an Arvanite town.

title: Mykines, Greece


text:
Topeka Constitution

The Topeka Constitutional Convention met from October 23 to November 11, 1855 in Topeka, Kansas Territory, in a building afterwards called Constitution Hall. It drafted the Topeka Constitution, which banned slavery in Kansas, though it would also have prevented free blacks from living in Kansas. The convention was organized by Free-Staters to counter the pro-slavery Territorial Legislature elected March 5, 1855, in polling tainted significantly by electoral fraud and the intimidation of Free State voters.

The Topeka Constitution marked the first effort to form a Kansas governmental structure and define its basis in law. Free-State delegates passed the constitution on December 15, 1855. The Territorial election for officers and approval of the constitution on January 15, 1856, was boycotted by most pro-slavery men. Among those elected was Charles L. Robinson as governor. The constitution was forwarded to Washington with a plea to the U.S. Congress for admitting Kansas as a free state, under this constitution. President Pierce, anxious to placate Southerners and keep them in the Union, condemned the document. It was presented in the Senate by Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan and in the House by Representative Daniel of Indiana. It passed the House by two votes on July 2, but was held in committee by the Senate. On July 8, Senator Stephen A. Douglas took up the Topeka Constitution in a bill counter to Senator Cass, which threw the issue back upon the people of Kansas in accordance with the provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska Act.

Following the model of Oregon, citizens of the 2nd Territorial District petitioned the 1855 Free State convention to incorporate a "black exclusion" clause in the Topeka Constitution. This would have prevented not only the enslaved, but also free African Americans from residing in the state. It was rejected by convention president James H. Lane and others, who allowed the issue to be voted on separately in the January 1856 referendum; the results favored exclusion.

"Yet the constitutional convention called by the radical free state element, meeting at Topeka in September, 1855, was in favor of excluding free Negroes from the new state. ...The free state party was anxious to clear itself of "the stale and ridiculous charge of Abolitionism." The Negro exclusion policy of the Topeka meeting was upheld, in a large majority, by the free state voters. "Three-fourths of the Free State settlers were in favor of a free white State," says Villard, "and the heaviest voting against the free Negro was" in Lawrence and Topeka."

With renewed determination, the Free State legislature reconvened in Constitution Hall on January 5, 1858. Governor Robinson urged keeping the State government intact, and laws were passed. The Topeka Constitution was again sent to the Congress, but no action was taken. The South controlled Congress, and it was not going to admit Kansas as a free state if it could help it. It was not so much that slavery was benign, as most of them believed, it was that a new free state would change the balance of power in the polarized Senate.

The Topeka Constitution was followed by the equally unsuccessful, pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution of 1857 and the Free-State Leavenworth Constitution of 1858. Finally the Wyandotte Constitution (1859) led to Kansas being admitted into the Union as a free state in 1861, five years after it first applied, the Southern legislators blocking it having departed en masse. The Civil War began four months later.

The conflict between the Free State legislature and the Territorial legislature, each seeking control of Kansas's destiny, was carried out with guns and the ballot box. These conditions and surrounding national implications inspired the term Bleeding Kansas. Following the Free State elections, in a lengthy address on January 24, 1856, President Franklin Pierce proclaimed the Topeka government to be illegitimate and ordered the arrest of its leaders: Despite this proclamation, the Topeka Legislature convened on March 4, 1856, and again on the Fourth of July to ask the Congress for admittance of the state. The legislature was dispersed on July 4, 1856, by three squadrons of federal troops under the command of Colonel Edwin Vose Sumner. Sumner later called this the most painful duty of his career. Never before had a body of U.S. citizens, meeting to exercise their right to vote, been broken up by federal forces.

title: Topeka Constitution


text:
Clearness committee

A clearness committee is a process for discernment within the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers). It is often used when a member of the meeting seeks to reach clarity on how to respond to a concern or dilemma.

Like Quaker business meetings, meetings of clearness committees are considered a form of meeting for worship and are based on the principle that the inner light is present in all people. The process thus is one of aiding the person seeking clearness in finding the answer within, rather than offering outside advice or guidance. A clearness committee can be requested by anyone for any reason and will usually be appointed by one of the standing committees of a Monthly Meeting.

In addition to those requested by individuals, clearness committees are appointed by most meetings when a person applies for membership and when a couple seeks marriage under the care of the meeting. In these cases, the committee serves the dual purpose of helping the person or couple find clearness that this is the proper step and ensuring that the meeting is ready to take the member or couple under their care.

Clearness committees were frequently used by the Quaker-influenced Movement for a New Society and occasionally show up in other progressive organizations in the Philadelphia area, especially those with pacifist or nonviolence orientations.

title: Clearness committee


text:
Category:Monarchs in Ethiopia

For more information see Politics of Ethiopia or Emperor of Ethiopia.

title: Category:Monarchs in Ethiopia


text:
Mykines, Faroe Islands

Mykines (Danish: Myggenæs) is the westernmost of the 18 main islands of the Faroese Archipelago.

It lies west of 7.5 degrees W, effectively putting it in the UTC-1 region. However, Mykines uses Greenwich Mean Time like the rest of the Faroes. The only settlement on the island is also called Mykines.

Description
On the northern side of the island is the valley of Korkadalur, where there are great columns of basalt, called the Stone-wood. To the west of Mykines is the 1 km long islet Mykineshólmur, with several sea stacks clustered at its western end, where a lighthouse was built in 1909. A 40m-long footbridge connects its eastern end with Mykines.

Geology
Mykines belongs to the oldest part of the Faroe Islands and was formed about 60 million years ago. The Faroese basalt is divided into three phases of eruption: the lower and oldest, the middle, and the upper and youngest; the lowest formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava through long fissures, forming flat volcanoes. In the sound between Mykines and Mykineshólmur, Holmgjogv, one can see one of the most abundant of such flows on the Faroes, with a depth of about 50 m. The interspersed layers of softer volcanic tuff between the layers of basalt are differentially eroded, so forming, especially on the steep northern side of the islet, some of the richest bird cliffs in the world. The highest peak on the island is Knúkur at 560 metres above sea level.

Flora and fauna
Mountain hares (Lepus timidus) have been introduced, and inhabit the mountain area and surrounding valleys. The Mykines house mouse (Mus musculus mykinessiensis) is endemic for Mykines, and this might suggest an early introduction, maybe as early as in the 6th century by the Irish monks, who cultivated this island. Its closest relative was the now extinct St Kilda house mouse (Mus musculus muralis).

Important Bird Area
Large numbers of puffins and gannets inhabit Mykines and Mykineshólmur. On the rocks at the water's edge there are colonies of cormorants, while the eroded tuff layers in the cliffs make perfect nesting ledges for guillemots and razorbills. On the grassy slopes above the bird cliffs, thousands of puffins have their burrows, and their guano fertilizes the slopes. Access to the puffin colony is subject to a fee.

Mykines, including Mykineshólmur, has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because of its significance as a breeding site for seabirds, especially northern fulmars (50,000 pairs), Manx shearwaters (2500 pairs), European storm petrels (50,000 pairs), northern gannets (200 pairs), European shags (250 pairs), black-legged kittiwakes (23,000 Pairs), Atlantic puffins (125,000 pairs), common guillemots (9500 individuals) and black guillemots (200 pairs).

History
It has been suggested that the name Mykines is pre-Norse in origin, coming from muc-innis, an Irish term for pig island. This may be a reference to whales, which are known as muc-mhara (sea sows) in Irish.

 * 625 – Palynology indicates oats and barley were grown on Mykines, possibly by early settlers such as monks and hermits.
 * 1592 – Peter Claussøn Friis, a Norwegian priest, described the Faroese mouse as a distinct species, and the Mykines mouse as a subgroup having especially long powerful hind legs.
 * 1595 – (approx) on 25 April, fifty boats from around the country were shipwrecked in a sudden storm, and all the working men of Mykines lost their lives (estimated 20 to 30 men).
 * 1667 – the Dutch ship Walcheren was wrecked on Mykines and the islanders salvaged goods from the ship.
 * 1909 – the building of the Lighthouse on Mykines Holm and construction of the first bridge over Holmgjogv, the narrow strait between Mykines and Mykines Holm.
 * 1928 – radio beacons were installed at Nólsoy and Mykines lighthouses, making radio navigation possible for the first time, and Mykines got a telephone connection to the outside world.
 * 1942 – in spring British forces completed a radar station.
 * 1953 – the second bridge over Holm Gjogv was built.
 * 1970 - A Fokker F27 Friendship, with registration TF-FIL, from Flugfélag Íslands on flight from Bergen to Vágar Airport, crashed in bad weather on Mykines on 26 September. The captain and 7 passengers, all seated on the left side of the plane, were killed. 26 passengers and crew survived, some with serious injuries. Three passengers hiked for an hour to reach Mykines village to alert the authorities. Most of the villagers went up the mountain to aid the survivors before the arrival of the Danish patrol vessel F348 Hvidbjørnen. A marble memorial was placed in the church.
 * 1970 – Mykines lighthouse was automated and the last man moved from the Holm, which had been occupied continuously from 1909 by a varying population of up to 22 people (including children).
 * 1989 – the third bridge between Mykines and Mykineshólmur came into use in June.

Population
The population of the island declined over the 20th century, with 11 permanent residents of Mykines village in 2004; the oldest inhabitant was 75 and the youngest six years old. Although there are 40 houses in the village, only six are inhabited year-round. Earlier Mykines was one of the largest villages in the Faroes, with a population of 170 people in 1940. From 1911 to 2004 Mykines was a separate community but in 2005 it merged administratively with Sørvagur kommune. Famous people from Mykines include the painter Sámal Joensen-Mikines (1906-1979).

 * Population of Mykines from 1769

title: Mykines, Faroe Islands


text:
Rick White (musician)

Rick White (born 5 December 1970) is a Canadian musician and singer-songwriter. Born in Moncton, New Brunswick, he was a member of indie bands Eric's Trip, Elevator, Perplexus, and The Unintended. White first played music, in a band called "Bloodstain", in 1984, before starting his own band "in 1986", called "T.C.I.B", which later transitioned into the band name, "The Underdogs", which lasted from the summer of 1987, until June 1988. By the summer of 1989, The Underdogs had broken up, and Rick had joined another band, "The Forest", which lasted from the 1989, until June 1990, with a one-off recording session happening in December, 1990. Prior to Eric's Trip, and while in Eric's Trip, White also recorded two solo-produced albums, one in March 1990, and another in August 1991, but both were not released until 2022. Known for lo-fi recording, he has also recorded and produced music for The Sadies, Orange Glass, Joel Plaskett, One Hundred Dollars, Dog Day, HotKid and his former Eric's Trip bandmate Julie Doiron.

White released his first solo album, The Rick White Album, in late 2005. He followed it with Memoreaper in 2007. White's next album, 137, is a double album which was released in 2009 on Blue Fog Recordings. He released a record in 2019, The Opening, and was recorded with Eiyn Sof. His latest release, with all original material, is Music Box, which was released in 2023.

The Underdogs

 * The Underdogs – (Compilation & live tracks, recorded Summer 1987–Jun. 1988) - Bandcamp, April 2020

The Forest

 * The Forest – (Compilation, recorded Nov. 1989–Dec. 1990) - Bandcamp, Nov. 3, 2019.

EPs

 * Forward to Snow – 7-inch EP, Sappy Records, April 1995
 * Backwards May – 7-inch EP, Sappy, September 1996
 * Onwards and Away – 7-inch EP, Squirtgun, March 1997

Cassettes

 * Elevator to Hell (demo) – cassette, September 1994
 * Parts Four and Five – cassette, Astronavigation, September 1997; CDR, Great Beyond, December 2001
 * Recorded Live in Halifax on 2 August 1997 – cassette, September 1997

Albums

 * Elevator to Hell – LP, Sub Pop, February 1995
 * Part 3 – mini-LP, Sub Pop, July 1996
 * Parts 1–3 – CD, Sub Pop, August 1996
 * Eerieconsiliation – CD/LP Sub Pop, August 1997
 * Original Music from the Motion Picture The Such – CD, Murderecords, May 1998
 * Vague Premonition – CD, Sub Pop, April 1999; LP, Sonic Unyon, June 1999
 * Live in Concert 24 April 99 – LP, Great Beyond, June 1999
 * A Taste of Complete Perspective – CD/LP, Teenage USA, September 2000
 * Early Band Recordings: February 1995 – June 1997 – CDR, Great Beyond, December 2001
 * Live in Concert 2001 – CDR, Great Beyond, December 2001
 * Lost During Headquake – CDR, Great Beyond, December 2001
 * 4D – CDR, Great Beyond, February 2002
 * Darkness → Light – CD, Blue Fog, October 2002
 * The Sightseer Project – CDR, Great Beyond, February 2003
 * Parts Six and Seven – CDR, Great Beyond, Spring 2004
 * Live in Toronto, 24 October 2003 – CDR, Great Beyond, Spring 2004
 * August – CD, Blue Fog, 2005

Archival Releases

 * LiveTaste (Oct.2000) (2012)
 * The Headquake Tapes (2001) (2013)
 * Vague Demos (1998) (2018)
 * More Taste of Complete Perspective (1999–2000) (2019)
 * August "Extra" (2004) (2020)
 * August LP Demos (2003) (2023)

OLD

 * OLD EP (Bluefog) - 2021
 * OLD LP (Bluefog) - 2023

Solo/Rick White Album

 * Live at the Paramount Lounge. 13 August 2003 (Great Beyond) – 2003
 * The Rick White Album (Bluefog) – 2005
 * Memoreaper LP (Bluefog) – 2007
 * 137 LP (Bluefog) – 2009
 * The Rick White Album Demos 2004 – 2013
 * The Opening LP w/ Eiyn Sof (Bluefog) – 2019
 * Where It's Fine LP (Bluefog) – 2021
 * 4 O'Clock In The Morning Sessions (March 1990) - (recorded March 1990) - March 4, 2022
 * Pop Hits 91 (Aug. 1991) - (recorded Aug. 1991) - April 1, 2022
 * Rick White plays The Sadies (2022)
 * 20 Golden Hits of the 60's (2023)
 * 20 Golden Hits of the 80's (2023)
 * De-Evolution EP (2023)
 * Music Box (2023)
 * 20 Golden Hits of the 70's (2024)

Rick White and The Sadies

 * Rick White and The Sadies (2024) (CD, 12" LP, Digital Download) (Bluefog)

title: Rick White (musician)


text:
Ruoholahti

Ruoholahti (Gräsviken; both meaning "Grass Bay") is a quarter in Helsinki, part of the Länsisatama neighbourhood and Kampinmalmi district. It is located in the southwestern part of the central city area of Helsinki, close to the Lauttasaari island, and it functions as the principal connection between the Helsinki city centre and the city of Espoo to the west. Ruoholahti is inhabited by approx. 3300 people. The Länsisatama port is also situated in Ruoholahti.

History
The Ruoholahti area was created in the 1910s by connecting several small islands with earth fill. Its purpose was to accommodate the above-mentioned port. In the 1940s there also developed a small industrial district whose most notable buildings were the cable factory (Kaapelitehdas) of Nokia (which later became a cultural centre when Nokia gave up cable manufacturing and moved on to telecommunications), the headquarters of the Finnish government-owned alcohol enterprise Alko (transformed in 2002 into the Ruoholahti shopping centre), and the legendary Lepakko or Lepakkoluola (Bat cave), an old warehouse building used in 1967-1979 as emergency accommodation for homeless alcoholics and then, from 1979 to 1999 as an independent centre of youth culture from 1979 to 1999 (it was demolished to make way for an office building). In the 1960s the Länsiväylä highway (part of the Finnish national road 51) was built through Ruoholahti to connect Helsinki to southern Espoo via Lauttasaari.

A planning competition for the future of the area had been held in the middle 1980s. The area started changing significantly in 1991 when the construction of a new residential and office area began. The most striking of the office buildings was the High Tech Centre (HTC), designed by architect Kai Wartiainen and completed in 2001. The Helsinki Metro was extended to Ruoholahti in 1993. A short canal was built through the area to reinforce the image of a maritime district. Nokia returned to the area in 1999, when a new research centre was opened, designed by architect Tuomo Siitonen.

Future
As a part of the Kampinmalmi area and for its great location near the Helsinki city center, Ruoholahti is a vivid and easy area to live and work. There are lot of parks and kindergartens, so the area is very popular among the families. Ruoholahti has its own school: Ruoholahden Ala-aste which is now facing a positive challenge to fulfil the needs of its expanding neighbourhood Jätkäsaari. Jätkäsaari got its own school in autumn 2017 - first it only served first and second graders, but in 2019 there was a promise of Jätkäsaari primary and secondary school.

Ruoholahti now competes with Jätkäsaari area and there are many everyday services, shops, restaurants, coffee shops and one can participate in sports, study music in Ruoholahden Konservatorio or explore arts in Kaapelitehdas. Ruoholahti-Jätkäsaari has its own choir, own football teams (operated by PPJ) and many local activities. Ruoholahti and Jätkäsaari area is an optimal area to live for people in all ages.

Ruoholahti is also known as a business center, many succeed brands have an office in Ruoholahti - just to mention Supercell and Huawei.

In the 2017 municipal elections, the Greens party led in Ruoholahti.

title: Ruoholahti


text:
Chryse Planitia

Chryse Planitia (Greek, "Golden Plain") is a smooth circular plain in the northern equatorial region of Mars close to the Tharsis region to the west, centered at 28.4°N, 319.7°W. Chryse Planitia lies partially in the Lunae Palus quadrangle, partially in the Oxia Palus quadrangle, partially in the Mare Acidalium quadrangle. It is 1600 km or 994 mi in diameter and with a floor 2.5 km below the average planetary surface altitude, and has been suggested to be an ancient buried impact basin, though this is contested. It has several features in common with lunar maria, such as wrinkle ridges. The density of impact craters in the 100 to 2000 m range is close to half the average for lunar maria.

Chryse Planitia shows evidence of water erosion in the past, and is the bottom end for many outflow channels from the southern highlands as well as from Valles Marineris and the flanks of the Tharsis bulge. It is one of the lowest regions on Mars (2 to 3 km below the mean surface elevation of Mars), so water would tend to flow into it The elevation generally goes down from the Tharsis Ridge to Chryse. Kasei Valles, Maja Valles, and Nanedi Valles appear to run from high areas (Tharsis Ridge) to Chryse Planitia. On the other side of Chryse, to the east, the land gets higher. Ares Vallis travels from this high region, then empties into Chryse. Much of Tiu Valles and Simud Valles move toward Chryse as well. Several ancient river valleys discovered in Chryse Planitia by the Viking Orbiters, as part of the Viking program, provided strong evidence for a great deal of running water on the surface of Mars.

It has been theorized that the Chryse basin may have contained a large lake or an ocean during the Hesperian or early Amazonian periods since all of the large outflow channels entering it end at the same elevation, at which some surface features suggest an ancient shoreline may be present. Chryse basin opens into the North Polar Basin, so if an ocean was present Chryse would have been a large bay.

Viking 1 landed in Chryse Planitia in 1976, but its landing site was not near the outflow channels and no fluvial features were visible; the terrain at that point appeared primarily volcanic in origin. The Mars Pathfinder landed in Ares Vallis, at the end of one of the outflow channels emptying into Chryse.

title: Chryse Planitia


text:
File:A Hard Day's Night modal frame.PNG

"A Hard Day's Night" modal frame.

Created by Hyacinth on 14:33, 5 December 2004 using Sibelius 5 at <75 dots/inch.

Source

 * Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music, p.203. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0335152759.

Fair use for Modal frame
The image linked here is claimed to be used under fair use as:
 * 1) it is a very short portion of one part of the entire piece;
 * 2) the transcription is only being used for informational purposes;
 * 3) it is inferior to the original piece;
 * 4) Its inclusion in the article adds significantly to the article because it shows an example of a modal frame.

title: File:A Hard Day's Night modal frame.PNG


text:
Vignetting

In photography and optics, vignetting is a reduction of an image's brightness or saturation toward the periphery compared to the image center. The word vignette, from the same root as vine, originally referred to a decorative border in a book. Later, the word came to be used for a photographic portrait that is clear at the center and fades off toward the edges. A similar effect is visible in photographs of projected images or videos off a projection screen, resulting in a so-called "hotspot" effect.

Vignetting is often an unintended and undesired effect caused by camera settings or lens limitations. However, it is sometimes deliberately introduced for creative effect, such as to draw attention to the center of the frame. A photographer may deliberately choose a lens that is known to produce vignetting to obtain the effect, or it may be introduced with the use of special filters or post-processing procedures.

When using zoom lenses, vignetting may occur all along the zoom range, depending on the aperture and the focal length. However, it may not always be visible, except at the widest end (the shortest focal length). In these cases, vignetting may cause an exposure value (EV) difference of up to 3EV.

Causes
There are several causes of vignetting. Sidney F. Ray distinguishes the following types:

 * Mechanical vignetting
 * Optical vignetting
 * Natural vignetting

A fourth cause is unique to digital imaging:
 * Pixel vignetting

A fifth cause is unique to analog imaging:
 * Photographic film vignetting

Mechanical vignetting
Mechanical vignetting occurs when light beams emanating from object points located off-axis (laterally or vertically off from the optical axis of an optical system under consideration) are partially blocked by external objects of the optical system such as thick or stacked filters, secondary lenses, and improper lens hoods. This has the effect of changing the entrance pupil shape as a function of angle (resulting in the path of light being partially blocked). Darkening can be gradual or abrupt – the smaller the aperture, the more abrupt the vignetting as a function of angle.

When some points on an image receives no light at all due to mechanical vignetting (the paths of light to these image points is completely blocked), then this results in a restriction of the Field of View (FOV) – parts of the image are then completely black.

Optical vignetting
This type of vignetting is caused by the physical dimensions of a multiple element lens. Rear elements of the lens are shaded by elements in front of them, which reduces the effective lens opening for off-axis incident light. The result is a gradual decrease in light intensity towards the image periphery. Optical vignetting is sensitive to the lens aperture and can often be cured by a reduction in aperture of 2–3 stops. (An increase in the F-number.)

Natural vignetting
Unlike the previous types, natural vignetting (also known as natural illumination falloff) is not due to the blocking of light rays. The falloff is approximated by the cos4 or "cosine fourth" law of illumination fall off. Here, the light fall off is proportional to the fourth power of the cosine of the angle at which the light impinges on the film or sensor array. Wide angle rangefinder designs and the lens designs used in compact cameras are particularly prone to natural vignetting. Telephoto lenses, retrofocus wide angle lenses used on SLR cameras, and telecentric designs in general are less troubled by natural vignetting. A gradual grey filter or postprocessing techniques may be used to compensate for natural vignetting, as it cannot be cured by stopping down the lens. Some modern lenses are specifically designed so that the light strikes the image perpendicular or nearly so, eliminating or greatly reducing vignetting.

Pixel vignetting
Pixel vignetting only affects digital cameras and is caused by angle-dependence of the digital sensors. Light incident on the sensor at normal incident produces a stronger signal than light hitting it at an oblique angle. Most digital cameras use built-in image processing to compensate for optical vignetting and pixel vignetting when converting raw sensor data to standard image formats such as JPEG or TIFF. The use of offset microlenses over the image sensor can also reduce the effect of pixel vignetting.

Post-shoot
For artistic effect, vignetting is sometimes applied to an otherwise un-vignetted photograph and can be achieved by burning the outer edges of the photograph (with film stock) or using digital imaging techniques, such as masking darkened edges. The Lens Correction filter in Photoshop can also achieve the same effect.

In digital imaging, this technique is used to create a low fidelity appearance in the picture.

To give a photo a 'retro' look - that it was made with an old camera or lens - one could add an obvious 'vignette' using 'lens correction' or burning in margins by any of several techniques.

There is a much more general use.

Viewers' eyes are attracted to brightness so if the areas to the corners or edges are brighter than the desired center of interest, eyes may wander towards that brightness. To direct the viewers' attention, the bright corners or margins are barely perceptibly darkened. This darkening 'fences off' the bright area and keeps the viewer's eyes where the photographer wants.

The object is to keep the view inside the image but, at the same time, not be obvious.

title: Vignetting


text:
Derveni

Derveni may refer to:

Albania

 * , a village in the municipality of Krujë

Greece

 * Derveni, Achaea, part of the municipal unit of Diakopto, Achaea
 * Derveni, Arcadia, part of the municipality of Megalopoli, Arcadia
 * Derveni, Corinthia, a town in the municipal unit Evrostina, Corinthia
 * Derveni, Thessaloniki, a location north-east of Thessaloniki
 * Derveni (mountain), a mountain in the southern part of the Evros
 * Chani Derveni, a place located near Megara, Attica

Other

 * Derveni Krater, found at Derveni, Thessaloniki, near ancient Lete, Macedon
 * Derveni papyrus, found at Derveni, Thessaloniki, near ancient Lete, Macedon

title: Derveni


text:
User talk:Janmv04~enwiki

Hi, my name is Jan Höfer, I'm 16 and I'm currently enrolled in a one year high school exchange program. I'm from Germany but I'm living with a host family in Mount Vernon, Washington State, USA at the moment.

I'm a member since 12/5/04, thus a real noob. PLease give me some tips or correct me wherever I should be corrected, thanks Jan

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Janmv04. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Janmv04~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:47, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 14:14, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Janmv04~enwiki


text:
Wikipedia talk:Requests for arbitration/HistoryBuffEr and Jayjg/Evidence/Full version

Refactoring out negative comments
Since there has been no objection on the part of the arbitrators to HistoryBuffEr's moving evidence both out of and into my sections, including removing counter-comments to his evidence, I will take this as an indication that each participant can present the evidence for his own side in the manner in which he prefers. Jayjg 20:36, 5 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Ummm... no. There is a way of setting out evidence. See the way I've set it out, that's the required format. - Ta bu shi da yu 07:03, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Try

(use 17:03, 6 Dec 2004 )


text:
Walter Millis

Walter Millis (March 16, 1899 – March 17, 1968) was an editorial and staff writer for the New York Herald Tribune from 1924 to 1954. Millis was a staff member of the Fund for the Republic from 1954 to 1968. He later became the director of the Fund for the Republic's study of demilitarization in 1954.

Millis, widely recognized as a historical writer, wrote eight books including: Road to War: America 1914-1917, ''This is Pearl! The United States and Japan—1941, Why Europe Fights, Viewed Without Alarm: Europe Today, Arms and Men: A Study of American Military History, The Martial Spirit: A Study of Our War with Spain, and An End to Arms''. He also edited The Forrestal Diaries.

Early life
Millis was born in Atlanta, GA, the son of John Millis, a regular army officer, and Mrs. Mary Raoul Millis. He graduated from Yale University, although his studies were interrupted by World War I, when he joined the Army and became a second lieutenant in the field artillery. He received his A.B. degree from Yale in 1920.

Family
His first marriage, to the former Norah Thompson, ended in divorce. They had two children, Walter Millis, Jr. and Sarah (Millis) McCoy. His second marriage, to fashion journalist Eugenia Sheppard in 1944, ended with his death. He was survived by six grandchildren.

title: Walter Millis


text: User talk:12.152.148.2

title: User talk:12.152.148.2


text:
User:Jnc/DelRedirMissingTarget

Hi, you created a redirect from to, but there is currently no article at. (It seems to have been deleted since the redirect was created.) Wikipedia policy is to get rid of redirects to non-existent pages, and someone listed on WP:RfD If you want the redirect to stay, you will need to create something at  (even a stub will do), or else the redirect will go away. If you do create the target, you don't have to do anything on WP:RfD (we'll eventually notice the target is there), but if you do, just delete the entry for. Thanks!

title: User:Jnc/DelRedirMissingTarget


text:
Equilin

Equilin is a naturally occurring estrogen sex hormone found in horses as well as a medication. It is one of the estrogens present in the estrogen combination drug preparations known as conjugated estrogens (CEEs; e.g. Premarin) and esterified estrogens (EEs; e.g. Estratab, Menest). CEEs is the most commonly used form of estrogen medications in hormone replacement therapy (HRT) for menopausal symptoms in the United States. Estrone sulfate is the major estrogen in CEEs (about 50%) while equilin sulfate is the second major estrogen in the formulation, present as about 25% of the total.

Pharmacodynamics
Equilin is an estrogen, or an agonist of the estrogen receptors (ERs), the ERα and ERβ. In terms of relative binding affinity for the ERs, equilin has about 13% and 49% of that of estradiol for the ERα and ERβ, respectively. Analogously to the reversible transformation of estrone into estradiol by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, equilin can be converted into the more potent estrogen 17β-dihydroequilin in the body. This estrogen has about 113% and 108% of the relative binding affinities of estradiol for the ERα and ERβ, respectively. Equilin is present in CEEs in the form of equilin sulfate, which itself is inactive and acts as a prodrug of equilin via steroid sulfatase.

Similarly to synthetic estrogens like ethinylestradiol, equilin and CEEs have disproportionate effects in certain tissues such as the liver and uterus relative to bioidentical human estrogens like estradiol and estrone. Because of their disproportionate potency in the liver, equilin and CEEs have relatively increased effects on liver protein synthesis compared to estradiol.

A dosage of 0.25 mg/day equilin sulfate is equivalent to 0.625 mg/day CEEs in terms of relief from hot flashes. At a dosage of 0.625 mg/day equilin sulfate, the increases in circulating levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), corticosteroid-binding globulin, and angiotensinogen were 1.5 to 8 times those observed with estrone sulfate. Equilin has about 42% of the relative potency of CEEs in the vagina and 80% of the relative potency of CEEs in the uterus, while its more active form, 17β-dihydroequilin, has about 83% of the relative potency of CEEs in the vagina and 200% of the relative potency of CEEs in the uterus.

Pharmacokinetics
Equilin has about 8% of the relative binding affinity of testosterone for SHBG, relative to 12% in the case of estrone. In terms of plasma protein binding, it is bound 26% to SHBG and 13% to albumin. The metabolic clearance rates of equilin and equilin sulfate are 2,640 L/day/m2 and 175 L/day/m2, respectively. In accordance, the biological half-life of equilin sulfate is substantially longer than that of equilin. Equilin is converted into 17β-dihydroequilin in the liver and in other tissues. Equilin and 17β-dihydroequilin can also be transformed into equilenin and 17β-dihydroequilenin. Equilin is excreted in the form of glucuronide conjugates.

Chemistry
Equilin, also known as δ7-estrone or as 7-dehydroestrone, as well as estra-1,3,5(10),7-tetraen-3-ol-17-one, is a naturally occurring estrane steroid and an analogue of estrone. In terms of chemical structure and pharmacology, equilin is to 17β-dihydroequilin (δ7-17β-estradiol) as estrone is to estradiol.

title: Equilin


text:
Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary

The Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary (formerly Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary) protects the wildlife, habitats, and cultural resources of one of the most diverse and bountiful marine environments in the world, an area of 3,295 square miles off the northern and central California coast. The waters within Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary are part of a nationally significant marine ecosystem, and support an abundance of life, including many threatened or endangered species.

About
In 1972, in response to a growing awareness of the value of the coastal waters of the United States, the United States Congress passed the National Marine Sanctuaries Act. The Act authorized the designation of National Marine Sanctuaries to protect significant waters and secure habitat for aquatic species, shelter historically significant shipwrecks and other cultural resources, and serve as valuable spots for research, fishing, wildlife viewing, boating, and tourism.

Designated in 1981, Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary (GFNMS) spanned 1,279 square miles (966 square nautical miles) just north and west of San Francisco Bay, and protected open ocean, nearshore tidal flats, rocky intertidal areas, estuarine wetlands, subtidal reefs, and coastal beaches within its boundaries. In 2015, GFNMS expanded north and west of their original boundaries to encompass 3,295 square miles, and changed their name to Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary. GFNMS has administrative jurisdiction over the northern portion of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, from the San Mateo/Santa Cruz County line northward to the existing boundary between the two sanctuaries. GFNMS maintains an administrative office and public Visitor Center on Crissy Field in the Presidio of San Francisco.

GFNMS is located within the California Current ecosystem, one of four major eastern boundary currents in the world, that stretches along the western coast of North America from southern Canada to northern Mexico. Due to a high degree of wind-driven upwelling, there is a ready supply of nutrients to surface waters and the California Current ecosystem is one of the most biologically productive regions in the world.

GFNMS is a globally significant, extraordinarily diverse, and productive marine ecosystem that supports abundant wildlife and valuable fisheries. It provides breeding and feeding grounds for at least twenty-five endangered or threatened species; thirty-six marine mammal species, including blue, gray, and humpback whales, harbor seals, elephant seals, Pacific white-sided dolphins, and one of the southernmost U.S. populations of threatened Steller sea lions; over a quarter-million breeding seabirds; and one of the most significant white shark populations on the planet.

GFNMS adjoins two other National Marine Sanctuaries, Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary and Cordell Bank National Marine Sanctuary. It comprises part of the United Nations' Golden Gate Biosphere Reserve. Within the sanctuary are the Farallon Islands and associated National Wildlife Refuge.


text:
User:Jnc/NeverRedirMissingTarget

Hi, you created a redirect from to, but there is currently no article at. (As far as I can tell, there was never an article at that name.) Wikipedia policy is to get rid of redirects to non-existent pages, and someone listed on WP:RfD If you want the redirect to stay, you will need to create something at  (even a stub will do), or else the redirect will go away. If you do create the target, you don't have to do anything on WP:RfD (we'll eventually notice the target is there), but if you do, just delete the entry for. Thanks!

title: User:Jnc/NeverRedirMissingTarget


text:
Robert L. Eichelberger

Robert Lawrence Eichelberger (9 March 1886 – 26 September 1961) was a general officer in the United States Army who commanded the Eighth United States Army in the Southwest Pacific Area during World War II.

A 1909 graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point, he saw service in Panama and on the Mexican border before joining the American Expeditionary Force Siberia in 1918. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for repeated acts of bravery in Siberia. After the war, he transferred to the Adjutant General's Corps. He attended the Command and General Staff College and the Army War College, and was Secretary of the War Department General Staff, working for the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General Douglas MacArthur.

In 1940, Eichelberger became the Superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point. He instituted a number of reforms, cutting back activities such as horseback riding and close order drill, and substituting modern combat training, in which cadets participated in military exercises alongside National Guard units. He acquired Stewart Field as a training facility, which gave cadets a chance to qualify as pilots while still at West Point. He became commander of the 77th Infantry Division in March 1942, and I Corps in June.

In August 1942, Eichelberger was abruptly sent to the Southwest Pacific Area, where he led American and Australian troops in the bloody Battle of Buna–Gona. In 1944, he had notable victories at Hollandia and the Battle of Biak. As Commanding General of the newly formed Eighth Army, Eichelberger led the invasion of the Southern Philippines, clearing the islands of Mindoro, Marinduque, Panay, Negros, Cebu, and Bohol. By July 1945, his forces had defeated the Japanese on Mindanao. In August 1945, Eichelberger's Eighth Army began a three-year stint as part of the Occupation of Japan. He retired from the Army at the end of 1948.

Early life
Robert Lawrence Eichelberger was born at Urbana, Ohio on 9 March 1886, the youngest of five children of George Maley Eichelberger, a farmer and lawyer, and Emma Ring Eichelberger. He grew up on the 235 acre family farm that had been established by his grandfather. He graduated from Urbana High School in 1903, and entered Ohio State University, where he joined Phi Gamma Delta fraternity.

In 1904, Eichelberger persuaded his father's former law partner, William R. Warnock, now the congressman for Ohio's 8th congressional district, to appoint him to the United States Military Academy at West Point. He entered West Point in June 1905. His class of 1909 was a distinguished one. Some 28 of them ultimately wore the stars of general officers, including Jacob L. Devers, John C. H. Lee, Edwin F. Harding, George S. Patton and William H. Simpson. Eichelberger was a poor student, as he had been at high school and Ohio State, but did become a cadet lieutenant, and graduated 68th in his class of 103.

Eichelberger was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 25th Infantry on 11 June 1909, but was transferred to the 10th Infantry at Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indiana, on 22 July. In March 1911, the 10th Infantry was despatched to San Antonio, Texas, where it became part of the Maneuver Division, which was formed to undertake offensive operations during the Border War with Mexico. Then, in September, it was sent to the Panama Canal Zone. It was in Panama that Eichelberger met Emmaline (Em) Gudger, the daughter of Hezekiah A. Gudger, the Chief Justice of the Panama Canal Zone Supreme Court. After a brief courtship, they were married on 3 April 1913.

On returning to the United States in March 1915, Eichelberger was posted to the 22nd Infantry at Fort Porter, New York. It too was sent to the Mexican border, and was based at Douglas, Arizona, where Eichelberger was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 July 1916. In September, he became Professor of Military Science and Tactics at Kemper Military School in Boonville, Missouri.

World War I and Russian Civil War

Following the American entry into World War I in April 1917, Eichelberger was promoted to captain on 15 May. In June he was posted to the 20th Infantry at Fort Douglas, Utah, and commanded a battalion until September, when he was transferred to the newly formed 43rd Infantry at Camp Pike, Arkansas. He was Senior Infantry Instructor at the 3rd Officers' Training Camp at Camp Pike until February 1918, when he was assigned to the War Department General Staff in Washington, D.C., where he became an assistant to Brigadier General William S. Graves, and was promoted to major on 3 June 1918.

In July 1918, Graves was appointed commander of the 8th Division, which was then based at Palo Alto, California, and scheduled to be sent to France in 30 days. Graves took Eichelberger with him, initially as his Assistant Chief of Staff, G-3 (Operations). While he was en route to California, Eichelberger learned from Graves that the 8th Division's destination had changed, and it was now bound for Siberia instead. President Woodrow Wilson had agreed to support the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, and Graves would command the American Expeditionary Force Siberia (AEFS). The AEFS departed San Francisco on 15 August, with Eichelberger as its Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2 (Intelligence).

Graves was instructed that his mission was political rather than military, and accordingly he was to "maintain strict neutrality". Eichelberger found himself thrust into a complex political, diplomatic, and military environment. Soon after arriving, he was appointed to the ten-nation Inter-Allied Military Council, which was responsible for Allied strategy. Eichelberger became convinced that America's objectives in Siberia were not necessarily the same as those of her French and British allies, but it was far from clear what they actually were, especially when the State Department and the War Department did not always agree. American policy called for protecting the Trans-Siberian Railway, but this was under the control of Admiral Alexander Kolchak's White Army forces, whom Eichelberger considered to be "murderers" and "cutthroats".

Eichelberger was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for repeated acts of bravery while assigned to the Expeditionary Force. His citation read:

"For extraordinary heroism in action June 28 – July 3, 1919, while serving as assistant chief of staff, G-2, American Expeditionary Forces, Siberia. On July 2, 1919, after the capture, by American troops of Novitskaya, an American platoon detailed to clear hostile patrols from a commanding ridge was halted by enemy enfilading fire, seriously wounding the members of the patrol. Colonel Eichelberger, without regard to his own safety and armed with a rifle, voluntarily covered the withdrawal of the platoon. On June 28, at the imminent danger of his own life, he entered the partisan lines and effected the release of one American officer and three enlisted men in exchange for a Russian prisoner. On July 3 an American column being fired upon when debouching from a mountain pass, Colonel Eichelberger voluntarily assisted in establishing the firing line, prevented confusion, and, by his total disregard for his own safety, raised the morale of the American forces to a high pitch."

For his services in Siberia, Eichelberger was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 28 March 1919. Graves prevented him from receiving the British Distinguished Service Order and the French Legion of Honor, as had other members of the Inter-Allied Military Council. Eichelberger did, however, receive the Japanese Imperial Order of Meiji, Order of the Sacred Treasure, and Order of the Rising Sun. Siberia gave Eichelberger a chance to observe the Japanese Army at first hand, and he was impressed by what he saw of their training and discipline. He concluded that, if properly led, they would be more than a match for American troops. The AEFS was withdrawn in April 1920.

Between the wars
Instead of returning to the United States following his service in Siberia, Eichelberger became Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2 (Intelligence), of the Philippine Department on 4 May 1920. Like many officers in the aftermath of World War I, he was reduced in rank to his permanent rank of captain on 30 June 1920, but was immediately promoted to major again the next day. Em had joined him in Vladivostok in March 1920, and the two first travelled to Japan before moving on to the Philippines. In March 1921, Eichelberger became head of the Intelligence Mission to China. He established intelligence offices in Peking and Tientsin, and met the President of the Republic of China, Sun Yat-sen. He finally returned to the United States in May 1921, where he was assigned to the Far Eastern Section of the G-2 (Intelligence) Division of the War Department General Staff.

A major disappointment for Eichelberger was his failure to make the General Staff Eligibility List (GSEL). Under the National Defense Act of 1920, only officers on this list could be promoted to brigadier general. Concluding that his prospects for promotion in the infantry were poor, at the urging of the Adjutant General, Major General Robert C. Davis, he transferred to the Adjutant General's Corps on 14 July 1925. He continued to work with the War Department General Staff, but now in the Adjutant General's Office. In April 1925, he was posted to Fort Hayes, Ohio, as Assistant Adjutant General, 5th Corps Area.

Davis had offered to nominate Eichelberger for a place at the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth. Eichelberger joined 247 other officers there in July 1924. Since the students were seated alphabetically, he sat next to the officer who topped the class, Major Dwight D. Eisenhower. Other students in the class included Joseph Stilwell, Leonard Gerow, and Joseph T. McNarney. Eichelberger graduated as a Distinguished Graduate, one of the top quarter of the class, and stayed on at the college as its Adjutant General. In 1929, he became a student at the Army War College. On graduation, he was posted back to the Adjutant General's Office in Washington, D.C.

In 1931, Eichelberger was sent to West Point as its adjutant. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 August 1934. In April 1935, he became Secretary of the War Department General Staff, working for the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General Douglas MacArthur. Eichelberger transferred back to the infantry in July 1937, although he remained Secretary of the War Department General Staff until October 1938, in the rank of colonel from 1 August.

The new Chief of Staff, General Malin Craig offered Eichelberger command of the 29th Infantry, the demonstration regiment based at Fort Benning, Georgia. Eichelberger turned this down, as he had been away from the infantry for many years, and some infantry officers might be jealous. Instead, he accepted command of the 30th Infantry, a less prestigious unit stationed at the Presidio of San Francisco, but there were still officers who resented someone attaining command of a regiment at the age of 52. Before departing, he took a brief course at the Infantry School at Fort Benning to reacquaint himself with the infantry. As part of the 3rd Infantry Division, the 30th Infantry took part in a series of major training exercises over the next two years.

Training in the United States
Eichelberger was promoted to brigadier general in October 1940, and the next month received orders to become deputy division commander of the 7th Infantry Division under Stilwell. At the last minute, these orders were changed. Major General Edwin "Pa" Watson interceded with President Franklin Roosevelt to have Eichelberger appointed the Superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point. Before taking up the position, Eichelberger met with Craig's successor as Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall, who warned him that the courses at the Command and General Staff College and Army War College had been drastically shortened in order to meet the needs of the expanding Army, and that West Point would suffer a similar fate unless Eichelberger could make the course more relevant to the Army's immediate needs.

As superintendent, Eichelberger attempted "to bring West Point into the twentieth century" . He cut back activities such as horseback riding and close order drill, and substituted modern combat training, in which cadets participated in military exercises alongside National Guard units. He acquired Stewart Field as a training facility, and required cadets to undergo basic flight training. This gave cadets a chance to qualify as pilots while still at West Point. Yet he also concerned himself with the dismal state of the West Point football team. Through Pa Watson, he was able to persuade the Surgeon General of the United States Army to waive weight restrictions to allow heavier players to be recruited, and hired Earl Blaik to coach the team.

Over time, Marshall came to believe that Eichelberger's talents were wasted at West Point, but he was opposed by Pa Watson, who wanted Eichelberger to remain at the academy. When Marshall told Watson that Eichelberger's chances for promotion to major general were being adversely affected by being denied the chance to command a division, Watson added Eichelberger's name to the top of a promotion list and had the President sign it. In this manner, Eichelberger was promoted to major general in July 1941.

After the United States declaration of war upon Japan in December 1941, Eichelberger applied for a transfer to an active command. He was given the choice of three new divisions, and chose the 77th Infantry Division, which was activated at Fort Jackson, South Carolina, in March 1942. The other two divisions were given to Major Generals Omar Bradley and Henry Terrell, Jr. The three generals and their staffs attended a training course at Fort Leavenworth. For his chief of staff, Eichelberger chose Clovis Byers, an officer who had also attended Ohio State and West Point, and had been a fellow member of the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity.

Eichelberger's period in command of the 77th Infantry Division was brief, for on 18 June 1942 he became commander of I Corps, with Byers as his chief of staff. He was awarded the Legion of Merit for his service with the 77th Infantry Division. I Corps consisted of the 8th, 30th, and 77th Infantry Divisions. Eichelberger was given the initial task of arranging a demonstration for dignitaries including Winston Churchill, Marshall, Henry Stimson, Sir John Dill, and Sir Alan Brooke. The demonstration was judged a success, although the trained eyes of Brooke and Lesley McNair noted flaws. Within days, two of the division commanders were relieved of their commands. Eichelberger was nominated to command American forces in Operation Torch, and he was ordered to conduct training in amphibious warfare with the 3rd, 9th, and 30th Infantry Divisions in Chesapeake Bay in cooperation with Rear Admiral Kent Hewitt.

Battle of Buna-Gona
On 9 August 1942, his orders were abruptly changed. MacArthur, now Supreme Commander of the Southwest Pacific Area, had requested that a corps headquarters be sent to his command. Major General Robert C. Richardson, Jr., had originally been detailed for the assignment, but as Marshall informed MacArthur, "Richardson's intense feelings regarding service under Australian command made his assignment appear unwise." Eichelberger's I Corps headquarters was ready for overseas service and had training in amphibious warfare, and Eichelberger had experience working with MacArthur, so Marshall selected him for the job instead. Eichelberger was not happy with the assignment, especially when he found out about Richardson, and "knew General MacArthur well enough to know that he was going to be difficult to get along with".

Eichelberger departed for Australia on 20 August with 22 members of his staff in a B-24 Liberator. I Corps controlled the two American divisions in Australia: Major General Forrest Harding's 32nd Infantry Division, based at Camp Cable near Brisbane; and Major General Horace Fuller's 41st Infantry Division at Rockhampton, Queensland, where Eichelberger, who was promoted to lieutenant general on 21 October, decided to establish his I Corps headquarters. His I Corps came under the command of Lieutenant General Sir John Lavarack's Australian First Army. On meeting Australian commanders, Eichelberger noted that many of them "had already been in combat with the British in North Africa, and, though they were usually too polite to say so, considered the Americans to be—at best—inexperienced theorists." He was disturbed at the level of training received by the two American divisions. Instead of training for jungle warfare, they were following the same syllabus used in the United States. He warned MacArthur and MacArthur's chief of staff, Major General Richard K. Sutherland, that the divisions could not be expected to meet veteran Japanese troops on equal terms. He decided in September that the 32nd Infantry Division should proceed to New Guinea first, as Camp Cable was inferior to the 41st Infantry Division's camp at Rockhampton.

Eichelberger's fears were realized when the overconfident 32nd Infantry Division suffered a serious reverse in the Battle of Buna-Gona. Harding was confident that he could capture Buna "without too much difficulty", but poor staff work, inaccurate intelligence, inadequate training and, above all, Japanese resistance, frustrated the American efforts. The Americans found themselves confronted by a network of well-sited and expertly prepared Japanese positions, accessible only through a swamp. The Americans' failure damaged their relationship with the Australians and threatened to derail MacArthur's entire campaign. Eichelberger and a small party from I Corps headquarters were hurriedly flown up to Port Moresby in a pair of C-47 Dakotas on 30 November. MacArthur ordered Eichelberger to assume control of the battle at Buna. According to Byers and Eichelberger, MacArthur told him "in a grim voice":

"'I'm putting you in command at Buna. Relieve Harding. I am sending you in, Bob, and I want you to remove all officers who won't fight. Relieve regimental and battalion commanders; if necessary, put sergeants in charge of battalions and corporals in charge of companies—anyone who will fight. Time is of the essence; the Japanese may land reinforcements any night.'

General MacArthur strode down the breezy veranda again. He said he had reports that American soldiers were throwing away their weapons and running from the enemy. Then he stopped short and spoke with emphasis. He wanted no misunderstandings about my assignment.

'Bob,' he said, 'I want you to take Buna, or not come back alive.' He paused a moment, and then, without looking at Byers, pointed a finger. 'And that goes for your chief of staff, too.'"

The next day, Eichelberger's party was flown to Dobodura, where he assumed command of US troops in the Buna area. He relieved Harding, and replaced him with the division's artillery commander, Brigadier General Albert W. Waldron. He relieved other officers too, appointing a 26-year-old captain to command a battalion. Some of the 32nd Infantry Division's officers privately denounced Eichelberger as ruthless and "Prussian". He set an example by moving among the troops on the front lines, sharing their hardships and danger. Despite the risk, he purposefully wore his three silver stars while at the front, even though he knew Japanese snipers targeted officers, because he wanted his troops to know their commander was present. After the snipers seriously wounded Waldron in the shoulder, Eichelberger appointed Byers to command the 32nd Infantry Division, but he too was wounded on 16 December. This left Eichelberger as the only American general in the forward area, and he assumed personal command of the division. He was not the most senior general present though; he served under the command of Australian Lieutenant General Edmund Herring, whom he referred to in letters to Em as "my grand colleague".

After the fall of Buna, Eichelberger was placed in command of the Allied force assembled to reduce the remaining Japanese positions around Sanananda, with Australian Major General Frank Berryman as his chief of staff. The battle continued until 22 January 1943. The price of victory at Buna was high. The 32nd Division lost 707 dead and 1,680 wounded; another 8,286 were hospitalized with tropical diseases, principally malaria. Its men referred to their division cemetery as "Eichelberger Square". On 24 January, Eichelberger flew back to Port Moresby where he was warmly welcomed by Herring. The next day he flew back to Rockhampton. For the battle, Eichelberger received the Distinguished Service Cross along with ten other generals, all of whom received the same citation. Some, like Herring, had served at the front; others, like Sutherland, had not. Eichelberger was also created an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire. Byers recommended Eichelberger for the Medal of Honor but the nomination was disapproved by MacArthur. Another officer on Eichelberger's staff, Colonel Gordon B. Rogers then submitted the recommendation directly to the War Department. MacArthur informed the War Department that "Among many outside the immediate staff of this officer, there was criticism of his conduct of operations which while not detracting from his personal gallantry led to grave considerations at one time of his relief from command."

New Guinea Campaign
In February 1943, Lieutenant General Walter Krueger's Sixth United States Army headquarters arrived in Australia. Since Sixth Army would do all the planning, and there was as yet little scope for corps-sized operations, Eichelberger found himself with a training role, preparing the 24th Infantry Division, which had arrived from Hawaii, and the 32nd and 41st Infantry Divisions, which had returned from Papua, for future missions. The War Department asked in May 1943 if Eichelberger could be released to command the First United States Army, but MacArthur would not release him. Later, it asked if he could be released to command the Ninth United States Army, but this was also refused, and this job went to Eichelberger's West Point classmate William H. Simpson. Instead, he was given responsibility for Eleanor Roosevelt's visit to Australia in September 1943. She visited Sydney Melbourne and Rockhampton, and had dinner with the Governor General of Australia, Lord Gowrie, and the Prime Minister of Australia, John Curtin, in Canberra.

In January 1944, Eichelberger was informed that he would be in charge of the next operation, a landing at Hansa Bay with the 24th and 41st Infantry Divisions. However, in March this was cancelled in favor of Operation Reckless, a landing by the same force at Hollandia. The operation meant leapfrogging the Japanese defenses at Hansa Bay, but was risky because it was outside the range of land-based air cover. Cover was instead provided by aircraft carriers of the United States Pacific Fleet, but this meant that the operation had to adhere to a strict timetable. Hoping to avoid a repeat of Buna, Eichelberger meticulously planned the operation, and implemented a thorough training program that emphasized physical fitness, individual initiative, small unit tactics, and amphibious warfare. The operation went well, mainly because surprise was achieved and few Japanese were present in the area. However, poor topographical intelligence led to an inability to clear some beaches due to their being backed by swamps. Supplies piled up on the beaches, with fuel and ammunition being stored together in some instances. On 23 April a single Japanese plane ignited a fuel dump, which caused a fire that resulted in 124 casualties and the loss of 60 per cent of the ammunition stockpile. An appalled Krueger felt that Eichelberger had been let down by his staff, and offered to transfer Byers to an assistant division commander's post, but Eichelberger turned down the offer.

In June 1944, Eichelberger was summoned to Sixth Army headquarters by Krueger. The Battle of Biak, where the 41st Infantry Division had landed in May, was going badly, and the airfields that MacArthur had promised would be available to support the Battle of Saipan were not in American hands. Eichelberger found that the Japanese, who were present in larger numbers than originally reported, were ensconced in caves overlooking the airfield sites. While the Americans were better trained and equipped than at Buna, so too were the Japanese, who employed their new tactics of avoiding costly counterattacks and exacting the maximum toll for ground gained. After seeing the situation for himself, Eichelberger concluded that Fuller's 41st Infantry Division had not done too badly. Nonetheless, as at Buna, Eichelberger relieved a number of officers that he felt were not performing as the battle ground on. His orders were to supersede Fuller as task force commander rather than relieve him as division commander, but Fuller requested his own relief, and Krueger obliged him. On Eichelberger's recommendation, Fuller was replaced by Brigadier General Jens A. Doe. Krueger was unimpressed with Eichelberger's performance on Biak, concluding that Eichelberger's tactics were unimaginative, and no better than Fuller's, and may have delayed rather than expedited the capture of the island. On the other hand, MacArthur thought sufficiently highly of Eichelberger's performance to award him the Silver Star.

Philippines Campaign
While still on Biak, Eichelberger learned that MacArthur had selected him to command the newly formed Eighth United States Army, which arrived at Hollandia in August 1944. Eichelberger took two officers with him from I Corps: Byers and Colonel Frank S. Bowen, his G-3. The Eighth Army assumed control of operations on Leyte Island from Sixth Army on 26 December, the day after MacArthur and Krueger announced that organized resistance there had ended. The troops there included Eichelberger's old command, the 77th Infantry Division. In two months, Sixth Army had killed over 55,000 Japanese soldiers on Leyte, and estimated that only 5,000 remained alive on the island. By 8 May 1945, the Eighth Army had killed over 24,000 more.

In January, the Eighth Army entered combat on Luzon, landing Major General Charles P. Hall's XI Corps on 29 January near San Antonio and Major General Joseph M. Swing's 11th Airborne Division at Nasugbu, Batangas two days later. Combining with Sixth Army, the Eighth Army enveloped Manila in a great pincer movement. Eichelberger assumed personal command of the operation, which involved an advance on Manila by the lightly equipped 11th Airborne Division. The audacious advance made rapid progress until it was halted by well-prepared positions on the outskirts of Manila. MacArthur awarded Eichelberger another Silver Star.

Eighth Army's final operation of the war was that of clearing out the southern Philippines, including the major island of Mindanao, an effort that occupied the soldiers of the Eighth Army for the rest of the war. In six weeks, the Eighth Army conducted 14 major and 24 minor amphibious operations, clearing Mindoro, Marinduque, Panay, Negros, Cebu, and Bohol. In August 1945, Eichelberger's Eighth Army became part of the Occupation of Japan. In the one instance when the Japanese formed a self-help vigilante guard to protect women from rape by off-duty GIs, the Eighth Army ordered armoured vehicles in battle array into the streets and arrested the leaders, and the leaders received long prison terms.

He was awarded an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal for his services as commander of I Corps, a second for his command of Eighth Army in the Philippines, and a third for the occupation of Japan. He also received the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, two oak leaf clusters to his Silver Star Medal, the Bronze Star Medal, and the Air Medal. He also received a number of foreign awards, including Grand Officer of the Order of Orange Nassau with swords from the Netherlands, Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour from France, Grand Officer of the Order of the Crown and the Croix de Guerre with palm from Belgium, the Order of Abdon Calderón from Ecuador, the Distinguished Service Star, Liberation Medal, and Legion of Honor from the Philippines, and Grand Officer of the Military Order of Italy.

Retirement and death
After nearly 40 years of service, Eichelberger retired with the rank of lieutenant general on 31 December 1948. In 1950, he moved to Asheville, North Carolina, where he lived with his wife Em for the rest of his life. He suffered from a number of health problems, including hypertension and diabetes, and had his gall bladder removed. His name appeared in a series of articles for the Saturday Evening Post on his campaigns in the Southwest Pacific, actually written by ghostwriter Milton MacKaye. They subsequently expanded the articles into a book, Our Jungle Road to Tokyo, which one reviewer described as "a straightforward and modest account of the campaigns of the Army ground forces from the Buna operation to the Philippines and victory." The book sold reasonably well, and Harry Truman and Omar Bradley requested autographed copies. In 1951 he traveled to Hollywood, where he served as technical consultant on Francis Goes to West Point (1952) and The Day the Band Played (1952), but he was not altogether happy with the results. He turned his hand to writing articles about the Far East for Newsweek, but gave this away in 1954. He then worked on the lecture circuit, giving speeches about his experiences, but gave this up too in 1955. He campaigned for Richard Nixon in 1960.

The United States Congress, in recognition of his service, promoted Eichelberger, along with a number of other officers who had commanded armies or similar higher formations, to general in 1954. He was distressed that Harding and Fuller were still hurt and angry with him over being relieved of their commands, something he felt was really MacArthur's fault. In turn, Eichelberger never forgave Krueger or Sutherland for real or imagined slights. When Sutherland tried to talk, Eichelberger refused to speak to him. Eventually, Eichelberger decided to write a tell-all book that "would destroy the MacArthur myth forever". For this purpose, he gave his papers to Duke University. Jay Luuvas, a historian at Allegheny College, published his letters in 1972 as Dear Miss Em: General Eichelberger's War in the Pacific 1942–1945. However, Eichelberger maintained his warm wartime relationship with Herring. Herring and his wife Mary stayed with the Eichelbergers in Asheville in 1953, and they exchanged regular letters. Eichelberger underwent exploratory prostate surgery in Asheville on 25 September 1961. Complications set in and he died from pneumonia the following day. He was buried with full military honors in Arlington National Cemetery.

United States awards
Source: Inventory of the Robert L. Eichelberger Papers, 1728–1998

Foreign awards
Source: Inventory of the Robert L. Eichelberger Papers, 1728–1998

title: Robert L. Eichelberger


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Domo (robot)

Domo is an experimental robot made by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology designed to interact with humans. The brainchild of Jeff Weber and Aaron Edsinger, cofounders of Meka Robotics, its name comes from the Japanese phrase for "thank you very much", domo arigato, as well as the Styx song, "Mr. Roboto". The Domo project was originally funded by NASA, and has now been joined by Toyota in funding robot's development.

Purpose
Domo was created to test many robotic circuits and commands that are very complex.

Origin
The home of the Domo Project is with the Humanoid Robotics Group at MIT Artificial Intelligence Labs. Its existence is inspired by the robot projects that came before it.

The Cardea Robot Project was a research project led by Professor Rodney Brooks in the Humanoid Robotics Group at MIT. The lab group worked to create a cable-drive brushless Series Elastic Actuator arm mounted to a Segway platform. Jeff Weber and Aaron Edsinger-Gonzales were a part of this research, specifically responsible for the design and implementation of the robotic arm. This collaboration allowed Edsinger-Gonzales and Weber to take some of the research and apply it to a new robot, Domo.

Edsinger and Weber collaborated on many other robots as well, and their experience working with the Kismet page and Cog projects influenced the design of Domo. Kismet was a robotic head developed by Cynthia Breazeal for experimenting with social expressions and cues. Edsinger's role in the project was helping to develop the early stages of Kismet's eye detection module, which allowed Kismet to make eye contact while interacting. The Cog project was intended to explore the way that intelligence is formed through social interaction. The Cog robot was designed to emulate the human body's motor points and limbs and to accept input stimuli from these so that it could use its limbs in a human-like way. Edsinger's contribution to the Cog project was a Series Elastic Actuator arm and controllers for the body of the robot. Though the research direction of these robots is very different from the Domo Project, the design of the eye detection module and the Series Elastic Actuator arm are integrated into Domo's design.

Design
Domo was created in order to research manipulation and interaction with stimuli and machine learning of sensorimotor skills. To accomplish this, the design was required to have particular consideration as to how the robot would be able to interact with unfamiliar stimuli. The research also required Domo to be able to perceive and act upon its surroundings. Satisfying these concerns meant that Domo needed to be able to function without a complete model of the world, rather, it was equipped with the ability to build a model for itself.

Head
Domo's robotic head consists of seven degrees of freedom for the upper head which is attached to a neck with two degrees of freedom. There are two eyes, each with a single wide-angle camera. The cameras are capable of video capture at either 640×480 at 30 frames per second (frame/s) or 1024×768 at 15 frame/s. The two cameras tilt along the same degrees of freedom, but have individual degrees of freedom to allow for independent panning. A set of eyelids is included to use for expressions.

Heads of previous robots, such as Cog, were impeded by the bundle of electrical cords that would run to the eye cameras and motors. Domo's design runs all the cables down through the neck so that they are tucked out of the way. This allows Domo a great deal of range and freedom in head articulation.

The head movement is facilitated by brushed direct-current motors. Potentiometer position sensors in the motor provide feedback as to the head's absolute position at startup, so Domo does not require a calibration routine before being able to function.

The main focus of the head design was for Domo to be able to emulate human eye movement. Human eye movements range from very quick and explosive movements to slow and accurate movements for following moving stimuli, so careful consideration was needed to design Domo's head and vision system.

These eyes are linked to a cognitive system that is a networked cluster of Linux machines. The YARP (Yet Another Robot Platform) software suite is utilized for the cognitive system to do visual processing.

Arms
Rather than designing Domo's arms for absolute precision, Edsinger and Weber designed the arms to work more closely to that of a human. Human arms are adept at sensing and controlling the forces at every joint, giving up precision in position for compliance. Translating this to a humanoid robot required the design to include some tolerance and compliance at every joint while also being able to keep track of and output torque.

Domo's arms have six degrees of freedom, two at the shoulder and four in the arm and wrist. The joints are Series elastic actuators (SEA) driven by custom brushless DC motors. The degrees of freedom contain cable drive systems, with the drive cables hidden discreetly in the center of the joints to not impede movement. Series elastic actuators are used to provide force-sensing capabilities to the arms. The sensors embedded throughout the arms are linked up to the cognitive system.

Hands
The design of a humanoid hand is required to incorporate some way to measure and output force. A few older designs had force sensors in the fingertips. While this would work in a known environment, it does not provide enough feedback to work in a novel and unknown environment. The controllers in Domo's hands are able to sense forces at the individual joints. This allows the hands to execute a grasp of an object even without a model of the object's size, shape or material.

Each hand consists of three fingers powered by four actuators. There is one actuator for each finger and the fourth is to control the spread between two of the fingers. The two fingers are spread using gears, while the third remains in place.

Abilities
Domo will adapt to its surroundings by testing the physical nature of things by touching them or shaking them. Its abilities include determining the volume of an item, placing items on shelves, pouring drinks for humans, shaking hands, and giving hugs.

Perception
Using the two cameras mounted on its head and the visual processing system, Domo is able to analyze the size and shape of an object to prepare for interaction. This is done without prior knowledge about an object and allows Domo to accomplish tasks in unknown environments.

Learning
Domo's architecture allows for the robot to remember previous sensory experiences. Domo is able to learn about its own sensorimotor abilities and is able to fine-tune the modulation of its actions based on previously accomplished tasks.

Manipulation
Domo's hands were designed to be dexterous and capable of many different grasps and movements. However, this cannot be accomplished without the design of the software system to be adept at managing different controllers for each of its joints. This allows the robot to be able to react quickly and change its arm activity. This is critical for the robot to be able to attempt to perform real world tasks.

title: Domo (robot)