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Chrysoprase

Chrysoprase, chrysophrase or chrysoprasus is a gemstone variety of chalcedony (a cryptocrystalline form of silica) that contains small quantities of nickel. Its color is normally apple-green, but varies from turquoise-like cyan to deep green. The darker varieties of chrysoprase are also referred to as prase. (However, the term prase is also used to describe chlorite-included quartz, and to a certain extent is a color-descriptor, rather than a rigorously defined mineral variety.)

Chrysoprase is cryptocrystalline, which means that it is composed of crystals so fine that they cannot be seen as distinct particles under normal magnification. This sets it apart from rock crystal, amethyst, citrine, and the other varieties of crystalline quartz. Other members of the cryptocrystalline silica family include agate, carnelian, and onyx. Unlike many non-transparent silica minerals, it is the color of chrysoprase, rather than any pattern of markings, that makes it desirable. The word chrysoprase comes from the Greek chrysos meaning 'gold' and  prasinon, meaning 'green'.

Unlike emerald which owes its green color to the presence of chromium, the color of chrysoprase is due to trace amounts of nickel compounds in the form of very small inclusions. The nickel reportedly occurs as different silicates, like kerolite or pimelite (not NiO mineral, bunsenite, as was reported before). Chrysoprase results from the deep weathering or lateritization of nickeliferous serpentinites or other ultramafic ophiolite rocks. In the Australian deposits, chrysoprase occurs as veins and nodules with brown goethite and other iron oxides in the magnesite-rich saprolite below an iron and silica cap.

As with all forms of chalcedony, chrysoprase has a hardness of 6 to 7 on the Mohs hardness scale and a conchoidal fracture like flint.

The best known sources of chrysoprase are Indonesia, Queensland, Western Australia, Haneti Tanzania, Germany, Poland, Russia, Arizona, California, and Brazil. Deposits in central Tanzania have been in constant production since 1986. The chrysoprase and nickel silicate ore deposit in Szklary, Lower Silesia, Poland, was probably the biggest European chrysoprase occurrence and possibly also the biggest in the world.

A very similar mineral to chrysoprase is chrome chalcedony, in which the color is provided by chromium rather than nickel.

title: Chrysoprase


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Bash.org (0th nomination)

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result of the debate was - kept

Bash.org
Webpage vanity

The above is 64.166.84.213, who did not sign.

 * Keep. Notable enough for me. Euphoria 05:11, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep this page! Damn... I can't believe this is being VFD'd!—Trevor Caira 05:14, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Invalid. Anons can't vote on VfD, and they can't nominate for VfD. This is just an attempt at beaurocratic vandalism. Someone needs to remove this nomination. CXI 05:22, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment: I don't think there is anything wrong with anons nominating stuff on VfD, there does not seem to be an explicit policy against that (and it's not really a major problem since it does not happen all that often). Anyway, bash.org is definitely notable enough for a keep -- Ferkelparade π 12:47, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Harmless. Someone seems to care. Keep. -- Jmabel | Talk 08:17, Dec 10, 2004 (UTC)

 * Keep. --Slowking Man 08:20, Dec 10, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep'. But it's not like I think that my vote is necessary. Jeltz 13:07, 2004 Dec 10 (UTC)
 * Keep: If there are no valid delete votes in 24 hours, I would recommend early removal from VfD.  An obviously significant web leader. Geogre 13:35, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, and support early removal. James F. (talk) 16:02, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Yet another abusive listing, further support early removal from VfD. [[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 17:43, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. There is no reason for deletion. -- Judson 19:26, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, for reasons already written. -- Old Right 19:39, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep - Its a valid wiki-page. -- Crevaner 19:43, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, noteworthy website. —[[en:RaD Man|RaD Man (talk)]] 23:13, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep - inherenly noteworththy Fledgeling 05:20, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Luis Antonio Rivera

Luis Antonio Rivera (April 9, 1930 – November 30, 2023), also known as "Yoyo Boing", was a Puerto Rican actor, comedian and television show host, who was also one of the pioneers of Puerto Rican television.

Early years
Rivera Benítez was born in Humacao, Puerto Rico on April 9, 1930 to Juan Antonio Rivera and Josefa Benítez Ortíz. His parents moved to Santurce, where he spent his childhood and adolescence, from Humacao when he was only three years old. After receiving his primary education, Rivera attended the "Escuela Superior Central de Santurce" (Central High School of Santurce). He found a part-time job at a local radio station which opened the doors to a new world for him.

Rivera became a member of the Drama Department of the University of Puerto Rico. As a drama student, he participated in two of René Marqués' plays. Having a deep baritone voice he also became a radio presenter. His radio station dramatized comedy sketches, and one of the producers suggested dramatizing Archie Comics over the radio. Due to the lack of audiovisual references for the characters at the time, there were no clear cut ways of representing the characters in Spanish, nor there were exact translations for their names. Rivera came up with the name of Yoyo Boing for representing Jughead; the name "Yoyo" sounded close to "Jughead", and the "Boing" part was a gimmick Rivera developed for the character: a vocalized "boing" that he constantly repeated to fill in silence gaps during each episode. Ever since his Archie stint on Puerto Rican radio, Puerto Ricans rarely refer to Rivera using his real name, and usually refer to him by his by-now "nickname".

Pioneer in Puerto Rican television
1954 was the year that television was born in Puerto Rico. Rivera, together with Tommy Muñiz, José Miguel Agrelot and Paquito Cordero was one of the first comedians in Puerto Rican television. In 1960, he starred alongside Norma Candal (Petunia) in a television comedy called "La Críada Malcríada" (The Rude Maid). In the 1970s, Rivera starred in own sit-com called "Mi Hippie Me Encanta" (I'm Crazy about My Hippie) broadcast by Telemundo. In the 1980s, Rivera starred in the situation comedies, "Generaciones", (Generations), with Chayanne, "Los Suegros" (The In-Laws) and later in a spin-off of that show called "Los Suegros y Los Nietos" (The In-Laws and the Grandchildren), broadcast by WAPA-TV. Rivera was also the General Manager of radio stations WKBM-AM ("AM 81") and WORO-FM ("Radio Oro", or Golden Radio), the radio branches of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Juan.

Various media producers arranged for many Puerto Rican performers to tour New York City in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Rivera was one of these. As fate would have it, one particularly chilly evening Rivera and Bobby Capó were exiting a performance outside the Teatro Puerto Rico and were looking for a place to eat. While waiting for public transportation, Rivera told Bobby Capó two jokes. These two jokes, reinterpreted by Capó and set to music, became two major musical hits: "El Negro Bembón", for Rafael Cortijo and his Combo (sung by Ismael Rivera), and "El Caballo Pelotero", a smash hit for El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico (original version sung by Pellín Rodríguez). For years, Rivera co-hosted "El Show del Mediodía", a midday variety show, on WAPA-TV alongside Luis Vigoreaux. After Vigoreaux was murdered early in 1983, Rivera became the show's main host, position in which he performed for several years afterwards.

Later years and Death
In the 1990s, Rivera wrote a book titled "A Reír Con Yoyo" (Let's Laugh with Yoyo) and donated all of the proceeds to an AIDS organization. He was also active in a television show called "Desde Mi Pueblo" ("From My Town") for WIPR-TV (San Juan's channel 6), where he would visit every town and city and show all of the interesting aspects of the featured place. His co-hosts on the program were Deborah Carthy-Deu, Maria Falcon and Tony Croatto.

After José Miguel Agrelot's sudden death in 2004, the remaining co-hosts on Agrelot's long-running radio show "Tu Alegre Despertar", (Your Cheerful Wake-Up), Aurora Previdi and María Falcón, asked the radio audience to select a permanent replacement for Agrelot from a round of temporary co-hosts. Rivera won the assignment; given the wishes of Agrelot's family to achieve some closure, the program changed its name to "Contigo en el tapón" ("Along With You In The Traffic Jam") and changed its format slightly. Rivera remained as a popular co-host, filling Agrelot's considerably large shoes. He also hosted a daily program of Puerto Rican music classics at Allegro WIPR-FM.

Puerto Rican writer Giannina Braschi wrote a performance novel using the Yoyo Boing nickname as a title with some punctuation added: "Yo-Yo Boing!". Featuring a tinted photo of Rivera with superimposed X-ray specs for the book's jacket, the comic bilingual novel has very little to do with Rivera himself, but does feature a dream sequence inspired by childhood memories of the roles he played.

By the 2000s, Rivera was retired from television but making special appearances. He was the protagonist of the locally produced movie for television "Santa Clos es Boricua" (Santa Claus is Puerto Rican) which was telecast in Puerto Rico and the United States through Televicentro on December 20, 2004. Since the early 2010s Rivera, who celebrated his 90th birthday on April 9, 2020, has been the host and producer of the popular radio talk show Tus Compañeros Del Tapón, a daily afternoon program on 940AM, WIPR (AM).

In 2020, Rivera suffered a stroke. A successful fundraiser was organized by a local journalist to provide Rivera with a power wheelchair lift. He died from heart disease at the Hospital del Maestro in Hato Rey, Puerto Rico on November 30, 2023, at the age of 93.

title: Luis Antonio Rivera


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User talk:Markthebrewer

Unverified images
Hi! Thanks for uploading the following image:

 * Image:Isoprene_Structure.png

I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GNU Free Documentation License,  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know at my talk page where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks so much. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk, automation script)]] 05:02, Dec 10, 2004 (UTC)

P.S. You can help tag other images at User:Yann/Untagged_Images. Thanks again.

Image Tagging Image:Isoprene Structure.png
Thanks for uploading Image:Isoprene Structure.png. I notice the image page currently doesn't specify who created the image, so the copyright status is therefore unclear. If you have not created the image yourself then you need to argue that we have the right to use the image on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the image yourself then you should also specify where you found it, i.e., in most cases link to the website where you got it, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the image also doesn't have a copyright tag then you must also add one. If you created/took the picture then you can use GFDL to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the image qualifies as fair use, please read fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other images, please check that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of image pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. – Quadell (talk) (bounties) 15:36, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Markthebrewer


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Ossessione

Ossessione (, "Obsession") is a 1943 Italian crime drama film directed and co-written by Luchino Visconti, in his directorial debut. It is an unauthorized and uncredited adaptation of the 1934 novel The Postman Always Rings Twice by American author James M. Cain, and stars Clara Calamai, Massimo Girotti, and Juan de Landa in the leading roles. It is often considered to be the first Italian neorealist film, though there is some debate about whether such a categorization is accurate.

Banned and ostracized by the Fascist regime during its initial release, the Italian Ministry of Culture has since placed Ossessione on its list of 100 Italian films to be saved, distinguishing films which "changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978."

Plot
Gino Costa, a wandering tramp, stops at a small roadside tavern and petrol station in the Po Valley, run by Giovanna Bragana and her older husband, Giuseppe. Giovanna is disgusted by her husband, having married him only for his money, and is instantly drawn to the younger and more attractive Gino. Giovanna serves Gino a meal, but they are interrupted by Giuseppe, who throws Gino out. Giovanna claims Gino did not pay, pocketing his money, as an excuse for him to return. Giuseppe chases after Gino, only to find that Gino has no money left, so Gino offers to fix Giuseppe's vehicle as payment for the meal, and the two bond over a shared military service as Bersaglieri.

When Giuseppe leaves to pick up a part for the vehicle, Gino and Giovanna confess their feelings to each other and begin an affair. Giuseppe, completely oblivious to the situation, takes a liking to Gino and tells him that he can stay and help out around the tavern. After a few days, Gino tries to convince Giovanna to run away with him. Giovanna initially agrees, but on the way to the train station she changes her mind and refuses to go through with it, so Gino leaves without her.

While Gino is on the train, he is confronted by the ticket inspector and admits that he has neither a ticket nor money. "Lo Spagnolo" ("The Spaniard"), a traveling street entertainer, steps in to pay for his train ticket and the two become friends. When they reach the city of Ancona, Gino spends a night at an inn with Spagnolo, where he reveals that he cannot stop thinking about Giovanna. When Spagnolo learns that Giovanna refuses to leave her husband because she fears having no money and security, he advises Gino to "run far away" and forget about Giovanna. Later that night, Spagnolo lights a cigarette and holds the match up in the dark bedroom to watch Gino while he sleeps.

Gino stays in Ancona and gets a job holding up an advertisement sign for Spagnolo. One day, Giuseppe and Giovanna run into Gino by chance, and the three go to a bar where Giuseppe sings in a voice competition. While he is on stage, Gino confesses to Giovanna that he tried to forget her but could not and tries again to convince her to leave with him. Even though Giovanna still has feelings for Gino, she refuses and tells him that she will stay with her husband, to which he angrily replies, "Then I'll come back to the store. Is that what you want?"

After the voice competition, Gino, Giuseppe, and Giovanna leave together to return to the Braganas' tavern. Giuseppe has been celebrating his successful singing performance and is quite drunk. Gino and Giovanna take advantage of his inebriated state and conspire to murder him. They convince Giuseppe to let Gino drive and stage the murder as a traffic accident.

In the aftermath of their crime, tensions begin to arise. Gino wants to sell the tavern and leave, while Giovanna wants to stay and run the tavern. Gino feels guilty about the murder, and his guilt is amplified by the fact that he is now living in the home of the man he killed. This causes him to feel trapped and he acts coldly toward Giovanna.

Giovanna hosts a party at the tavern to increase business, and Spagnolo shows up at the party. Gino is initially happy to see his friend, but he becomes agitated when Spagnolo tries to get him to leave and go traveling. Spagnolo implies that he knows of Gino's crime, and Gino loses his temper and punches Spagnolo. A bystander, who is actually a detective that has been investigating Gino and Giovanna, helps Spagnolo up. As Spagnolo walks away, Gino calls out to him, but he does not turn around.

In a brief scene, Spagnolo is seen as having arrived to speak to someone who works in an office at the police office.

One day while Gino and Giovanna are in town, Gino flirts with Anita, a young prostitute. Anita leaves, and Giovanna returns to Gino to tell him that Giuseppe had life insurance. This makes Gino feel that Giovanna has used him, and he feels even more guilt-ridden over the murder. He angrily yells at Giovanna that he does not want to be with her anymore and goes off to find Anita. Gino and Anita spend some time together in Anita's apartment before deciding to leave together to get some food. While they are outside, Giovanna, who has been sitting at a café outside Anita's apartment building, angrily confronts Gino. Anita runs off, and Giovanna threatens to tell the police that Gino killed Giuseppe if Gino does not stay with her. Gino loses his temper and hits Giovanna, causing a scene. He then goes back to Anita's apartment and confesses the crime to her.

Meanwhile, two men who arrived on the scene shortly after Giuseppe's death have contacted the police, and their description of events does not quite match that given by Gino and Giovanna. The detective who has been investigating the case is sent to bring Gino and Giovanna in for further questioning, but when Gino sees the detective outside Anita's apartment he is afraid Giovanna has gone to the police, so he convinces Anita to distract the detective and escapes by climbing across the roof to a neighboring building.

Gino returns to Giovanna at the tavern, where she tells him that she did not go to the police before saying she is pregnant with Gino's child and still loves him. Shocked, Gino leaves and spends the night wandering alone. Giovanna searches for him and finds him the next day on the beach, by which point he seems to have come to terms with their crime and has new resolve to love Giovanna and try to build a life with her. After they make up and spend some romantic time together on the beach, Gino tells Giovanna about the detective and she finally agrees that they need to leave the tavern. They get in their car and depart, but, realizing the police are on their trail, they drive as fast as they can and end up tailgating a large truck. In a twist of fate, the truck knocks their car over the edge of the road and into a river, killing Giovanna. Devastated, Gino carries her body out of the wreckage and surrenders to the police.

Background
Working under the censorship of the Fascist Italian government, Visconti encountered problems with the production even before filming commenced. He had initially wanted to adapt a story by Giovanni Verga, the Italian realist writer and one of his greatest influences, but that project was turned down almost immediately by the Fascist authorities due to its subject matter, which revolved around bandits. Around this time, Visconti uncovered a French translation of The Postman Always Rings Twice that had been given to him by French director Jean Renoir while he was working in France in the 1930s.

Development and writing
Visconti adapted the novel with a group of men he selected from the Milanese magazine Cinema, which was edited by Vittorio Mussolini, Benito Mussolini's son. The members of this group were talented filmmakers and writers and played a large role in the emerging neorealist movement: Mario Alicata, Gianni Puccini, Antonio Pietrangeli, and Giuseppe De Santis. Many of the Cinema crew were open or covert antifascists, a fact both the older and younger Mussolini tolerated under the belief their presence was necessary for the Italian film industry to innovate and compete with its rivals elsewhere, so long as their politics did not overtly affect the content of their films. Several of the Cinema alumni, including Visconti, would later go underground and join the resistance.

Filming
Ossessione was filmed between the summer and autumn of 1942. The exteriors were shot on-location in and around the Po Valley and the commune of Ferrara. Filming locations included the settlements of Codigoro, Ancona, Comacchio and Boretto. The interiors were shot at S.A.F.A. Studios in Rome.

Analysis
For the most part, Visconti retained the plot of the novel. He made changes such as tailoring the script to its Italian setting and adding a character (Lo Spagnolo), but the main departure from the novel and the defining characteristic of the film is the manner in which it confronts the realities of life.

Despite arguments about how to define neorealist cinema, certainly one of Ossessione's most poignant aspects is its stark realism and, despite being popular actors of Italian cinema, the stars of the film, Massimo Girotti and Clara Calamai, deliver breathtaking performances that are anything but glamorous. In one particularly memorable scene that anticipates a major theme of neorealism, Giovanna, Ossessione's central female character, enters her wildly messy kitchen, serves herself a bowl of soup and sits down with a newspaper, only to fall asleep, slumped over wearily in the midst of the confusion. At several moments like this one, Visconti slows the pace to give the viewer an even more penetrating glimpse into the routine of his characters and, in doing so, roots the narrative squarely in the life of his characters.

In another scene, Gino, Giovanna, and Giuseppe are eating when Giuseppe comments that a local landowner has been shot from behind by a worker, believed to be the result of the worker's love for the landowner's wife. In this way, Visconti foreshadows the man's own death and illuminates the study of class tension that is woven fluidly into the film. Soon afterwards, Giuseppe submits to his wife's physical and verbal responses to cats crying outside and fetches his shotgun and leaves. Shortly after his exit, the adulterous lovers huddle close and hear gunshots, thereby hinting at the doom also reserved for the lovers "in heat".

The landscape itself is realistic, and Visconti takes great care to situate his characters in a rural Italy that remains for the most part unromanticized. Nearly the entire story is told using medium and long shots, with Visconti choosing to employ close-ups only at moments of intense emotion. Characters are depicted interacting with and moving around within their environment; to help create this effect, Visconti favors long and ponderous shots, while making use of depth of focus to highlight the variety of action occurring throughout the space of the frame. He resists identifying solely with one character and prefers instead to maintain a distance, taking them all in with his viewfinder as independent, but irrevocably tangled, components of a larger cast, which includes the sets, scenery, and landscape, as well as what goes on outside of the frame. Shots of the landscape largely consist of the dusty road winding into the distance and the interior shots are just as bleak; the dowdy kitchen exudes a nearly tangible film of dust and grime and the dingy hotel room that speaks, with each detail, of the rebellious freedom cherished by those who share it.

The shift of focus from the novel is clear even in Visconti's decision to change the title: whereas the novel's title alludes to the final retribution exacted upon the adulterous couple, Visconti's header bespeaks the focus of his film, obsessive passion. The lovers, Gino and Giovanna, played by Girotti and Calamai, first meet in the kitchen of the inn that Giovanna runs with her husband, the fat and dim-witted Giuseppe. It is in the symbolic and literal center of the family sphere, before they ever touch, that the two make a silent oath. Their love, tainted as it is by a lie, is difficult for either of them to bear, and the tension is only exacerbated by Giuseppe's overwhelming presence. Unable to continue the affair under such pretense, but genuinely in love, Gino tries to persuade Giovanna to leave with him. She is clearly tempted, but knows of the power the road has over Gino, a relationship that Visconti executes nearly as palpably as that between him and Giovanna. She ultimately refuses Gino, opting for the security and stability that Giuseppe has to offer, and Gino sets out once again unencumbered. When they cross paths some time later, it is in the city, and Giuseppe is extremely drunk, engaged in a singing competition. Against the backdrop of the drunken and foolish Giuseppe, the couple plans his death, an act they carry out in a car crash. Rather than granting them the freedom they so desperately seek, however, the murder only heightens the need for deception and makes more acute the guilt they had previously been dealing with. Despite Giovanna's attempt to construct a normal life with Gino, Giuseppe's presence seems to remain long after they return to the inn. Their already crumbling relationship reaches its bounds when they go to collect the money from Giuseppe's life insurance policy. They have a very hostile argument and Gino retaliates by engaging Anita, an attractive young prostitute. Though Giovanna is pregnant and there seems to be some hope for the couple, Gino is left alone to deal with the law when Giovanna is killed in the film's second car crash.

The character of Lo Spagnolo (The Spaniard), Visconti's main textual departure from the novel, plays a pivotal role in the story of Ossessione. After failing to convince Giovanna to flee with him, Gino meets Spagnolo after boarding a train to the city, and the two of them strike up an instant friendship, subsequently working and living together. Spagnolo is an actor who works as a street vendor and serves as a foil to Giovanna's traditionalism and inability to let go of the material lifestyle. In contrast to the other main characters, who come across as very real and thoroughly developed, Spagnolo operates chiefly on a symbolic level. He represents for Gino the possibility of a liberated masculinity living a successful life separate from society's impositions—an alternative to the life he is drawn toward in his relationship with Giovanna.

Both Giovanna and Gino are tragic characters in their inability to find a space in which to situate themselves comfortably. The limited roles made available by society prove to be insufficient in providing narratives for their lives that bring them closer to happiness. Giovanna is pulled away from the security of her marriage to the repulsive Giuseppe by a desire for true love and fulfillment, whose potential is actualized with the appearance of Gino. Her attempts to hold onto the fortune that came with marriage, however, ultimately lead to the failure of her relationship with Gino and perhaps, by extension, to her death. Gino's situation seems to be just as distinct, if not more so, as the force pulling him away from Giovanna is his fear of a traditional commitment. From the first time that they sleep together, after which Giovanna shares with Gino all of her deepest problems while he listens to the sound of waves in a seashell, it is clear that he answers only to the open road, identifying it as his alternative to becoming an active part of mainstream society. Spagnolo is the road manifest, masculine freedom in opposition to Giovanna's femininity, love, and family values. Caught in between the two conflicting ideals, Gino ends up violating both of them and dooming himself in the process.

Visconti's approach to filmmaking is very structured, and there are several parallel scenes in the film, such as the car crashes. Additionally, Gino angrily leaves Giovanna by the side of the road and is later abandoned by Spagnolo in a similar way, and Gino and Spagnolo sit side by side on a wall shortly after they meet, a scene that is repeated at the end of their friendship. Cinematic techniques, such as the instances in which Visconti foreshadows major plot twists or the introduction of Spagnolo as a counterweight, demonstrate Visconti's formalist streak and technical virtuosity, but his realist vision and taste for drama are truly what breathe life into Ossessione.

Fascist reaction and ban
When Ossessione was completed and released in 1943, it was far from the innocent murder mystery the authorities had expected; after a few screenings in Rome and northern Italy, which prompted outraged reactions from Fascist and Church authorities, the film was banned by the Fascist government that had been reestablished in the German-occupied part of Italy after the September 1943 armistice. Eventually, the Fascists destroyed the film, but Visconti managed to keep a duplicate negative from which all existing prints have been made.

Post-war
After the war, Ossessione encountered more problems with mass distribution, both because Visconti had never obtained the rights to adapt Cain's novel as a result of the wartime production schedule and because Metro-Goldwyn Mayer produced an adaptation directed by Tay Garnett while the Fascist ban on Visconti's work was still in effect. Due to the copyright issues, the film was not released in the United States until 1976, but, despite the limited number of screenings, it was still able to gain acclaim among moviegoers who recognized in it some of the same sensibilities they had grown familiar with in neorealist films by Michaelangelo Antonioni, Puccini, and De Santis, among others.

title: Ossessione


text:
Gunstar Heroes

Gunstar Heroes is a run and gun video game developed by Treasure and published by Sega. It was Treasure's debut game, originally released for the Sega Genesis in 1993. The game's premise is centered around a pair of characters, the Gunstars, in their efforts to stop an evil empire from recovering four powerful gems. The characters can fire guns and perform a series of acrobatic maneuvers to fight enemies across each stage. There are four weapons in the game which can be combined with one another to create different shot types.

Development on Gunstar Heroes began among a team of staff working at Konami in 1991. Following an unwillingness of Konami to embrace their original game ideas, the team quit in 1992 and formed Treasure to see their project through. The team wanted to develop their game for the Genesis because of the system's powerful Motorola 68000 microprocessor. Sega initially rejected their proposal, but later granted approval after they had been working for Sega for several months on McDonald's Treasure Land Adventure (1993). Treasure worked on both games in parallel, and released Gunstar Heroes worldwide as their first game in 1993.

Gunstar Heroes was a critical success, being praised for its frantic action and advanced graphics. It helped establish Treasure's place in the industry, and introduced several design conventions which would become characteristic of their later work such as large bosses and a unique sense of humor. It was re-released several times, including dedicated ports to the Game Gear and Nintendo 3DS, and received a sequel on the Game Boy Advance. In retrospect, it is considered one of the best action games of the 16-bit era, and one of the best video games of all time by several publications.

Gameplay
Gunstar Heroes is a run and gun game played from a side-scrolling perspective similar to Contra. The game can be played in single-player, or cooperatively with a partner. The players take on the role of Gunstar Red and Gunstar Blue as they battle with an evil empire for control over a set of powerful gems. The game features seven stages, of which the first four can be tackled in any order. The stage formats vary; while some feature a typical left-to-right format, others have the player riding in a mine cart along walls, fighting enemies on a helicopter, or playing a board game. Completing a level grants the player an extension to their maximum health.

When starting a game, the player can choose either a free or fixed firing stance; the fixed stance immobilizes the character when shooting, while the free stance has the player move in the direction they are firing. The player also has a choice of starting weapon. There are four shot types in the game: a homing shot, lightning blaster, flamethrower, and machine gun. Each weapon has its strengths and weaknesses, and can be swapped with others from item drops in each stage. The weapons can be combined with each other to produce unique shot types. For example, the homing shot can be combined with the machine gun to add a homing effect to the latter, or two lightning shots can be combined to create a more powerful lightning gun. In addition to firing their weapon, the player characters can pull off a series of acrobatic maneuvers including jumping, sliding, and grabbing and throwing enemies.

Development
In 1991, several Konami employees led by programmer Masato Maegawa began holding planning sessions at coffee shops for an original game. They were establishing early concepts for an action shooting game, a genre they were familiar with. They pitched their idea to Konami, but were told it would not sell and it was rejected. Maegawa and his team were growing frustrated with the industry's reliance on sequels to established franchises and console conversions of arcade games to generate revenue. They felt Konami had fallen into this pattern as a large company, growing reliant on sequels in their Castlevania and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles series. Maegawa and his team felt consumers wanted original games, and so in 1992, they left Konami and established Treasure to continue development on their original game.

Treasure wanted to develop their game for Sega's Genesis. Maegawa was interested in the platform because of its Motorola 68000 microprocessor, which he felt was easier to program for than the Super NES, and more powerful. The team decided to approach Sega for a publishing contract. When they first presented their design documents to Sega, they were not granted approval because they lacked a proven track record. Instead, Sega contracted Treasure to develop McDonald's Treasure Land Adventure (1993). Several months into development, they were finally granted approval to work on their original action game. They originally were using the working title Lunatic Gunstar, thinking "Lunatic" was a good description of the game's stimulating action. Sega of America felt the word held a negative connotation, so rejected it. The team also considered Blade Gunner, in homage to Blade Runner, but this was also rejected because of copyright restrictions. Sega of America eventually suggested the word "Heroes," so Gunstar Heroes became the final title.

Treasure consisted of around 18 people, most being programmers from Konami. The staff was split in half to work on both Gunstar Heroes and McDonald's Treasure Land Adventure in parallel. The core team behind Gunstar Heroes consisted of six people: two programmers, two graphic designers, and two sound programmers. The staff (known by their nicknames) was composed of main programmer Yaiman, enemy and boss programmer Nami, graphic designers Han and Iuchi, composer Non, and sound effects programmer Murata. The role of game designer did not exist within Treasure; all game design and planning was undertaken by everyone involved. The team felt they had more freedom working under Sega than Konami. Maegawa got approval to add a Treasure logo when the game booted, which he felt was a rare opportunity for developers to get in that era.

Development of Gunstar Heroes lasted around nine to ten months. It was the team's first experience programming for the Genesis, having come off programming for the Super NES at Konami. Programmers Mitsuru Yaida and Hideyuki Suganami previously programmed Contra III: The Alien Wars (1992) for the Super NES at Konami. The team felt the Genesis's processor was more powerful, capable, and friendly to experimentation than other consoles. This led them to consider it more suited for action games and the sophisticated graphical effects they were looking to create. The team implemented heavy visual effects in an exercise in design experimentation (not an effort to push the hardware). Some of that experimenting was done with the system's sprite rotation and scaling capabilities, which evoked a sense of depth. The Genesis had its limitations however, as it could only display 64 colors on screen at once. The team placed extra effort on coloring to compensate. Early backgrounds were drawn with a 16 color palette, but they looked desolate, so ultimately two palettes with 32 colors were used. The team also used programming tricks to make the scenery appear like three to four layers were present, although the Genesis only supports two.

The team approached Gunstar Heroes with an "anything goes" concept, that led to many ambitious ideas being implemented into the final game. One such concept was the weapon combination mechanic, which was conceived in the early planning stages. They experimented with weapon attributes until the end of development, and designed the game so players would continue discovering new weapons and devise new ways to complete stages. The processor also made articulated multi-limb enemies possible, like the boss "Seven Force," which was programmed by Nami along with all other bosses. Because moving around large sprites was difficult due to limited video RAM, Seven Force was built by combining circles and squares to make one large character. Maegawa claims the game could have never worked on the Super NES because the boss animations required expanded computing power. The standard enemy characters, designed by Han, were drawn on the screen by combining a top and bottom sprite, allowing for more animation patterns with lower memory usage. Han was inspired by the game Mazin Saga: Mutant Fighter (1993) to program the enemies manually rather than with mathematical algorithms. The game was 16 megabits but compressed to fit under 8.

Release
Although McDonald's Treasure Land Adventure was completed first, Treasure decided to wait and release Gunstar Heroes first because they wanted their debut to be an original game. It was nearly rejected for an American release by Sega of America, only being approved by Mac Senour, the last producer in the reviewing queue after 12 others rejected it. Senour believed the other producers dismissed the game because its small character sprites contrasted with the more popular large sprites at the time. Senour did ask Treasure to change one boss character because it looked too similar to Adolf Hitler.

Gunstar Heroes was released in Japan on September 10, 1993, and released in the West the same month. Sega underestimated demand in Japan where their initial shipment was only 10,000 units. Meanwhile, Sega of America also ordered a small initial print run, as they were not typically confident in games from Sega of Japan. The game was not heavily promoted and spread by word of mouth. GameFan particularly enjoyed the game and published the first English interview with Maegawa. The game shipped in total around 70,000 copies in Japan, and 200,000 overseas. An arcade version was also released for the Sega Mega-Play arcade board.

Ports and re-releases
A Game Gear port was developed by M2. Sega asked M2 if they wanted to make a Game Gear game after being impressed by their Gauntlet port for the Genesis. M2 wanted to port The Cliffhanger: Edward Randy, but they were ultimately handed Gunstar Heroes. Since the Genesis version pushed hardware limitations, a Game Gear port was difficult. The port had some changes, such as the Dice Palace being removed, and it ran at lower frame rate. It was released on March 24, 1995.

Sega released Gunstar Heroes Treasure Box in 2006 in Japan, a compilation of Treasure games for the PlayStation 2 as part of their Sega Ages 2500 series. Included on the compilation were Gunstar Heroes, Dynamite Headdy (1994), and Alien Soldier (1995). The games are run through an emulator and include display options for filters and resolutions. The Japanese and international versions of each game were included, along with the Game Gear ports of Gunstar Heroes and Dynamite Headdy, and a Genesis prototype of Gunstar Heroes. A gallery is included with scans of the original instruction manuals, concept illustrations, and design documents. This compilation was released digitally on the PlayStation Store in 2012.

The game was ported by M2 to the Nintendo 3DS in 2015 as part of Sega's line of 3D Classics. Gunstar Heroes was originally not considered for the series because converting the game's backgrounds into a layered 3D effect was thought to be impossible, but these perceived problems were later overcome. In addition to supporting stereoscopic 3D, the game features two new game modes. "Gunslinger" mode starts the player with a full arsenal of every weapon type and grants the ability to change shot stance at any time, and "Mega Life" mode starts the player with double the normal amount of health. The game also supports local cooperative play and includes both the Japanese and international versions.

Gunstar Heroes has also been released on the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii, and Windows. A Sega Forever version for mobile devices was released in 2017. The game was again released on the Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack in 2021.

Reception
Gunstar Heroes achieved greater recognition than Treasure anticipated. Electronic Gaming Monthly called it their "Game of the Month," and the game placed first in Beep! Mega Drive 's reader rankings in Japan. GameFan deemed it their "Game of the Year" and called it a new benchmark for action games. Mean Machines Sega wrote that Gunstar Heroes was setting a new standard for action games on the Genesis, calling it "a stunning title both in appearance and the gameplay it offers." Electronic Gaming Monthly agreed, with one critic calling it "one of the most intense games I've seen on the home video game scene." Both Sega Magazine and Sega Force felt the game was a must-buy for Genesis owners.

The game was praised for its fast and furious action. Electronic Gaming Monthly called it "one of the most intense carts to date [...] nonstop intensity from beginning to end." Mean Machines Sega agreed, commending the variety in level design and the "frantic, high-density blasting mayhem." Sega Force believed the game's variety prevented it from falling into monotony, and instead, reinvigorated the platform genre. Computer and Video Games agreed, feeling gameplay customization options kept it feeling interesting and original. Some critics praised the player characters' acrobatics and attack maneuvers for adding excitement. GamePro called Gunstar Heroes "chaos in a cart" with "murderous action, excellent controls, and imaginative game design." The game's two-player cooperative mode was praised, although some felt there was too much clutter on the screen to tell the player characters apart.

The game's graphics were highlighted by several critics, with GamePro calling it "an assault on your senses." Mean Machines Sega felt the sprite rotating and scaling overshadowed the abilities of the Super NES. Sega Magazine also liked the sprite scaling, and highlighted its use on the boss "Seven Force." Other critics also felt the bosses were well animated and designed,  with some also extending their comments to the player characters' animations as well. Computer and Video Games commended the graphical explosion effects, with other critics praising the sound effects they were paired with for enhancing the game's atmosphere. A critic from Electronic Gaming Monthly called it "one of the best looking carts I've seen from Sega in a while."

Ports
Critics lauded the Game Gear port as a great 8-bit conversion. GameFan felt it was graphically advanced for a Game Gear game. Mean Machines Sega agreed, thinking that the graphics remained true to the 16-bit original despite greater system limitations. The 3DS version was praised for the added options and enhancements, with USgamer and Nintendo World Report calling it the best version of the game. The mobile version was criticized for being difficult to play with touch controls.

Legacy
Gunstar Heroes was listed as one of the best games ever made by several publications. Critics have called it a "classic" of the 16-bit era, with IGN writing that its pace and speed was "nearly unrivaled" at the time. Others called it one of the best Genesis games. Electronic Gaming Monthly called it "one of the best two-player games ever made." USgamer wrote that its chaotic and brash nature made it the "quintessential classic-era Sega game" in contrast to the more gentle offerings from Nintendo. Nintendo World Report called it "an incredible accomplishment, both creatively and technically" for the Genesis. Both TouchArcade and GameSpy deemed it one of the best side-scrolling action games ever made.

Being Treasure's debut game, Gunstar Heroes helped establish their reputation in the industry. Retro Gamer wrote that the game "blew open the state of 2D platform-shooters." Developers at the time borrowed inspiration for titles like Vectorman (1995) and Shinobi III (1993). Treasure also began to build a following of loyal hardcore fans, which USgamer felt was earned by "a sense of integrity to Treasure's work you don't often see in games of that era." 1UP.com wrote that between Gunstar Heroes and their other Genesis games, Treasure earned a reputation as a "master of hardcore action gaming." Many of the design conventions Treasure used in Gunstar Heroes would return and became characteristic of Treasure's later work, such as a quirky sense of humor and action taken to a level of absurdity. A sequel was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2005, Gunstar Super Heroes.

title: Gunstar Heroes


text:
Cold trap

In vacuum applications, a cold trap is a device that condenses all vapors except the permanent gases (hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) into a liquid or solid. The most common objective is to prevent vapors being evacuated from an experiment from entering a vacuum pump where they would condense and contaminate it. Particularly large cold traps are necessary when removing large amounts of liquid as in freeze drying.

Cold traps also refer to the application of cooled surfaces or baffles to prevent oil vapours from flowing from a pump and into a chamber. In such a case, a baffle or a section of pipe containing a number of cooled vanes, will be attached to the inlet of an existing pumping system. By cooling the baffle, either with a cryogen such as a dry ice mixture, or by use of an electrically driven Peltier element, oil vapour molecules that strike the baffle vanes will condense and thus be removed from the pumped cavity.

Applications
Pumps that use oil either as their working fluid (diffusion pumps), or as their lubricant (mechanical rotary pumps), are often the sources of contamination in vacuum systems. Placing a cold trap at the mouth of such a pump greatly lowers the risk that oil vapours will backstream into the cavity.

Cold traps can also be used for experiments involving vacuum lines such as small-scale very low temperature distillations/condensations. This is accomplished through the use of a coolant such as liquid nitrogen or a freezing mixture of dry ice in acetone or a similar solvent with a low melting point. Liquid nitrogen is only used when dry ice or other cryogenic approaches will not condense the desired gasses since liquid nitrogen will also condense oxygen. Any oxygen gas content in the vacuum line or any leak in the vacuum line will result in liquid oxygen mixed with the target vapors, often with explosive results.

When performed on a larger scale, this technique is called freeze-drying, and the cold trap is referred to as the condenser.

Cold traps are also used in cryopump systems to generate hard vacua by condensing the major constituents of the atmosphere (nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water) into their liquid or solid forms.

An igloo or other snow bivouac may exploit the same principle - confinement of denser cool air within an impermeable lower volume - to reduce cold air reaching the occupants through use of a sump or cill around a raised sleeping platform within.

Hazards
Care should be taken when using a cold trap not to condense oxygen gas into the cold trap, visible as light blue liquid. Liquid oxygen is potentially explosive, and this is especially true if the trap has been used to trap solvent. Oxygen can be condensed into a cold trap if a pump has sucked air through the trap when the trap is very cold, e.g. when cooled with liquid nitrogen. Besides oxygen, many hazardous gases emitted in reactions, e.g. sulfur dioxide, chloromethane, condense into cold traps.

Construction
Cold traps (C in the figure) usually consist of two parts: The bottom is a large, thick round tube with ground-glass joints (B in the figure), and the second is a cap (A in the figure), also with ground-glass connections. The length of the tube is usually selected so that, when assembled, the total reached is about half the length of the tube.

Arrangement
Cold traps should be assembled such that the down tube is connected to the source of gas whilst the cap is connected to the source of vacuum. Reversing this, connecting the down tube to the source of vacuum, places the inlet of the vacuum directly above the condensate, increasing the chances of vapour phase condensate moving up the (uncooled) down tube (towards the pump) or, should the trap begin to fill to an appreciable volume, liquid phase condensate being pulled into the pump.

title: Cold trap


text:
Jonathan Culler

Jonathan Culler (born 1944) is an American literary critic. He was Class of 1916 Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Cornell University. His published works are in the fields of structuralism, literary theory and literary criticism.

Background and career
Culler attended Harvard for his undergraduate studies, where he received a Bachelor of Arts in history and literature in 1966. After receiving a Rhodes scholarship, he attended St. John's College, Oxford University, where he earned a B. Phil (now M. Phil) in comparative literature (1968) and a D.Phil in modern languages (1972). His thesis for the B. Phil., on phenomenology and literary criticism, recorded Culler's first experiences with structuralism. The thesis explored the work of Maurice Merleau-Ponty and the criticism of the "Geneva School" using the ideas of Claude Lévi-Strauss, Roland Barthes, and Ferdinand de Saussure. Culler's "expanded, reorganized and rewritten" doctoral dissertation, "Structuralism: The Development of Linguistic Models and Their Application to Literary Studies," became an influential prize-winning book, Structuralist Poetics (1975).

Culler was Fellow in French and Director of Studies in Modern Languages at Selwyn College, Cambridge University, from 1969 to 1974, and Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford and University Lecturer in French from 1974 to 1977. He was Visiting Professor of French and Comparative Literature at Yale University in 1975. He is a past president of the Semiotic Society of America (1988), the American Comparative Literature Association (1999-2001), Secretary of the American Council of Learned Societies (2013-17), and Chair of the New York Council for the Humanities (2016-17). He has been elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2001-), the American Philosophical Society (2006-), and the British Academy (2020-). Currently, he is Class of 1916 Professor of English and Comparative Literature, Emeritus, at Cornell University.

In the years 1971 - 1974 he was married to the poet Veronica Forrest-Thomson. Culler is now married to deconstructionist critic Cynthia Chase.

Major works
Culler's Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature won the James Russell Lowell Prize from the Modern Language Association of America in 1976 for an outstanding book of criticism. Structuralist Poetics was one of the first introductions to the French structuralist movement available in English.

Culler's contribution to the Very Short Introductions series, Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction, received praise for its innovative technique of organization. It has been translated into 26 languages, including Kurdish, Latvian, and Albanian. Instead of chapters on critical schools and their methods, the book's eight chapters address issues and problems of literary theory.

In The Literary in Theory (2007) Culler discusses the notion of Theory and literary history's role in the larger realm of literary and cultural theory. He defines Theory as an interdisciplinary body of work including structuralist linguistics, anthropology, Marxism, semiotics, psychoanalysis, and literary criticism.

His Theory of the Lyric (2015) approaches the Western lyric tradition, from Sappho to Ashbery, exploring the major parameters of the genre and contesting two dominant models of the lyric: lyric as the intense expression of the author's affective experience, and lyric as the fictional representation of the speech act of a persona. Both these models, according to Culler, are extremely limiting and ignore the specifically poetic aspects of lyric poetry, such as rhythm and sound patterning.

Contributions to critical theory
Culler believes that the linguistic-structuralist model can help "formulate the rules of particular systems of convention rather than simply affirm their existence." He posits language and human culture as similar.

In Structuralist Poetics Culler warns against applying the technique of linguistics directly to literature. Rather, the "'grammar' of literature" is converted into literary structures and meaning. Structuralism is defined as a theory resting on the realization that if human actions or productions have meaning there must be an underlying system that makes this meaning possible, since an utterance has meaning only in the context of a preexistent system of rules and conventions.

Culler proposes that we use literary critical theory not to try to understand a text but rather to investigate the activity of interpretation. In several of his works, he speaks of a reader who is particularly "competent". In order to understand how we make sense of a text, Culler identifies common elements that different readers treat differently in different texts. He suggests there are two classes of readers, "the readers as field of experience for the critic (himself a reader)" and the future readers who will benefit from the work the critic and previous readers have done.

Culler's critics complain of his lack of distinction between literature and the institution of writing in general. John R. Searle has described Culler's presentation of deconstruction as making "Derrida look both better and worse than he really is;" better in glossing over some of the more intellectually murky aspects of deconstruction and worse in largely ignoring the major philosophical progenitors of Derrida's thought, namely Husserl and Heidegger.

title: Jonathan Culler


text:
Talk:Stratovision

Stratovision and education
I wish that people who love to edit the creative work of others would resist the impulse to act as judge of a work when it is clear from the dates of historical entry that it is a work in progress. The reason why I originally added education as a category is because one of the biggest uses of Stratovision was educational television which lasted for a period of years. Unfortunately I have to sleep, eat, do other things in life and so I can't do everything immediately. So next time you get the urge to delete, pause first then even take the time to send the editor a note enquiring why such and such is so. You might get a friendly reply. The other way shows a degree of superioritiy in attitude and that only tends to irk other people who are creating the content and without content there is no encyclopedia. MPLX/MH 05:07, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Oh, grow up. Your articles get edited, deal with it. Don't want to give up ownership of your work? You can leave. Rhobite 05:27, Dec 10, 2004 (UTC)

 * Why are you so rude and why do you launch into a personal attack? I contribute to Wikipedia and my contributions have creative value. I don't appreciate being addressed in this way. Is it possible for you to use a civil tone and drop me a friendly note if there is something that is not clear? Would that be too much to ask of you? I don't think that others would appreciate being told to leave and I don't believe that this is in the spirit of Wikipedia. I do appreciate those who tidy stuff up and add links and so on, but your behavior is uncalled for and yes, I am offended by it. MPLX/MH 06:04, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Regarding content: I have now added sections dealing with education, propaganda and the temporary nature of the service today. I have other material in my personal files concerning the use of Stratovision technology by the USA in Vietnam and other locations and I intend to add this material on a time permitting basis. MPLX/MH 06:04, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Picture
I have added article picture, with two of the test participants (Frank Mullins, C.E. Nobles) identified. It would be great to identify more of the people in this picture! Andrew Koontz (talk) 18:52, 25 July 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stratovision


text:
Talk:Mario Bava

Untitled
His excellent use of light and dark in black and white movies is simply beautiful - POV? Cnwb 05:07, 10 Dec 2004 (UTC)

The link to Black Sunday is not Bava's version of the film by the same title. It is for Frankenheimer's.

"Diabolik (1968) was one of the world's first comic book adaptations". Even if you ignore comic strip to cartoon adaptations, such as Krazy Kat, Superman jumped from comic books to film 20 years before Diabolik.

Surely I Vampiri is the first acknowledged co-directed film (1956). Collaboration with Riccardo Freda is not mentioned. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jeffcb25 (talk • contribs) 20:29, 2 May 2009 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Mario bava.jpg
Image:Mario bava.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 05:07, 6 June 2007 (UTC)

someone tagged the article for refs but didn't open a TP discussion as required
So, here it is. The tag was back in April. Actually, everything in the article IS accurate. However, it is a very quick overview verging on stub - even with the filmography or ins spite of it. A lot of detail about his cinematic skills is sorely missing, for example. 104.169.41.8 (talk) 23:43, 30 September 2018 (UTC)

Savage Gringo
Despite two sources stating that Bava had directed the film (one (from the early 2000s) going as far as to say Bava directed 90% of the film. The article itself in question finds that Alex Cox writes in his book (from 2010) that Bava isn't the main director. Tim Lucas who wrote in his 2007 book that Bava couldn't have been the assistant director, but also that his son Lamberto notes that Bava was there to do matte work, but also took over to do some directorial work, but it's not clear how much he did. Now, if it was 100% clear that the film was mostly directed by Bava, I'd say go for it, but as it stands from the sources on hand, the more contemporary ones don't go into full detail how much he did and it was truly 90%, i feel like that would have been set clear from a) people who were on set and b) the other more contemporary sources. Andrzejbanas (talk) 07:40, 23 February 2023 (UTC)
 * To follow it up further, Thomas Weisser's book on Spaghetti Westerns states "the actual amount of Bava's contribution to the film has been the subject of great controversy since it's release." (here) Andrzejbanas (talk) 07:43, 23 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Weisser wrote about spaghetti westerns and Japanese films in general, whereas the two premiere authorities on Mario Bava were Troy Howarth and (especially) Tim Lucas. They each wrote massive comprehensive studies on Bava specifically, whereas Weisser just covered spaghetti westerns generally (and his books are loaded with errors by the way). The Tim Lucas biography on Bava sells for thousands of dollars on ebay, it is the definitive text. Howarth and Lucas both stated that Bava finished directing "Savage Gringo" after Roman was fired, and they are both extremely reliable sources. We don't have to write that Bava directed 90% of the film or 70% or whatever, no one cares exactly how much of the film he directed. But we do know that Bava directed at least part of the film, so it should definitely be included in his filmography. The whole reason that Lamberto Bava was the assistant director on the film was because his father was directing it! Comparing Weisser's error-riddled books with an acclaimed authority like Tim Lucas who specializes in studying Bava is totally wacky, I can't see how those two sources can even be compared. Why are Caltiki and I Vampiri included in Bava's filmography, but not "Savage Gringo"? As long as Bava was involved in directing even PART of "Savage Gringo", then it should be included in his filmography, simply because we KNOW he worked on it. Why is this so difficult? It seems you are just determined not to include the film out of sheer stubbornness. EuroHorrorGuy (talk) 19:55, 23 February 2023 (UTC)
 * PS - Who the heck is Alex Cox? And just because a source is more recent or contemporary, doesn't make it accurate. The Tim Lucas book blows away any research Alex Cox ever did, whoever that is, or Weisser who just covers general topics in a very peripheral manner. EuroHorrorGuy (talk) 19:59, 23 February 2023 (UTC)
 * What makes Weisser's book "error-ridden"? As for Cox, he has written books on film, is a director and appears in several extra on specialized home video departments such as Criterion and Arrow Video. I'm not sure why Weisser's far more contemporary sources than Howarth's are any less valid and you'll have to provide back up on that to be taken seriously.Andrzejbanas (talk) 04:49, 24 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Weisser and Cox just write about generic subjects like spaghetti westerns, etc. whereas Howarth and Lucas each wrote specifically on Bava. The Lucas book is in such demand by Bava fans, it sells for thousands of dollars on ebay. So if Lucas and Howarth both agree that Bava completed "Savage Gringo", you should not use shoddily done quickie research books by Weisser and Cox to contradict their statements. They are not experts on the subject of Bava by any means. EuroHorrorGuy (talk) 20:40, 24 February 2023 (UTC)
 * You ask, "What makes Weisser's book error-ridden"? Check out some of the reviews on this site: https://forum.spaghetti-western.net/t/spaghetti-westerns-the-good-the-bad-and-the-violent-thomas-weisser/710 EuroHorrorGuy (talk) 23:38, 24 February 2023 (UTC)
 * I don't know how much weight I should put into a bunch of anonymous posts on a message board, but Weisser's comments are hardly controversial in this case and back up what has been the research put forward so far, specifically that it's the subject of controversy on how much was directed, which is backed up by the varied reports on who did what. Andrzejbanas (talk) 00:46, 25 February 2023 (UTC)
 * By the way, I just looked at the excerpt you noted from Weisser's book, and it says (and I quote) "Director: Mario Bava with Antonio Roman". So even Weisser listed Bava as the director! Why are you citing Weisser's book if it agrees that the film was directed by Mario Bava?? How is it "controversial" if even Weisser says Bava was the director? This is getting stranger and stranger. EuroHorrorGuy (talk) 19:04, 25 February 2023 (UTC)
 * He can list that all he likes, but other authors have posted that he should be viewed strictly as an assistant director. What makes one more accurate than the other? You also just said earlier Weisser's book is unreliable, and now you want to use it. Which is it? Until you can find more specific material, I don't see any real reason to change what is currently in the article. Andrzejbanas (talk) 20:32, 25 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mario Bava


text:
Talk:Foghat

Recognition
It amazes me this band gets hardly any recognition
 * I agree. Basically, punk killed them the same way that Nirvana killed the hair metal movement.  Before punk, Foghat, Head East, all the southern boogie bands, etc. were the only places to go for straight ahead rock.  "I Just Want to Make Love to You" is a great single, and "Slow Ride" is incredible.  Not sure that "Fool for the City" is so good.  Anyway, I'm about to source the bit on "Spinal Tap."  Geogre 16:24, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * The article states: "The group remained popular during the disco era, but after the emergence of punk rock, the band no longer had a substantial audience, and they stopped performing live in 1980 but continued recording for some time after."
 * Does this work chronologically? I think of punk as coming somewhat before disco ... 76-77, with disco reaching its heyday a bit later, 77-78.
 * That's one of the hard questions. Punk can be dated to 1974 with Television and Ramones and Talking Heads at CBGB's.  However, I was really working with punk-era and disco-era.  Both of these were lags.  These are imprecise terms by their nature, but disco in the US was 1976-1979.  Punk in the US as an era is really kicking off (so far as the public is aware) 1979-1981.  The performers were ahead of the public.  The reason that I made this kind of "mistake" is that the point I was trying to make was that the power and rock of punk drained away the audience for this strong rock, whereas disco never could have.  I.e. the people who listened to Foghat wouldn't have been siphoned off by Donna Summer, but they definitely would by Joe Strummer.  Still, I have no objections to changing the dates or modifying the prose. Geogre 15:20, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Foghat is also mentoned in several that 70s' show episodes, and in the prom episode there is a band playing Slow ride (SØX.)

Disco probably started around early 1974 with George McCrae who heavily influenced folks like KC & the Sunshine Band. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 159.10.134.170 (talk) 12:33, 25 October 2011 (UTC)

 * In the US they become far more noticed than at home during the 70's. In the 80's they killed themselves by changing style. "Boys to Bounce, Girls to Chat" is OK, but as pop - not heavy rock. F.i. Kiss did "worse things" by f.i. "I was made for loving You" - a pure discohit. The Punk-era was brief (77-79) already in autumn of 1980 Iron Maiden become the symbolof "the second wave of British metal". Then, finally, JudasPriest got their breakthrough (though their best LP's already was made. Saxon, Def Leppard and in Germany Scorpions and Accept was other band's of th 80's era. And ofcourse AC/DC - who also already had done their best LPs in the late 70's (I think, RIP Bon Scott). UFO was excellent British band, first experimental hard rock, then titanic hits like "Doctor Doctor". UFO became squeezed between the old style "Uriah Heep/Deep Purple/ LZ"-style and the "Iron Maiden-style" 83.249.161.132 (talk) 06:32, 6 November 2012 (UTC)

'British'
Altered the link "England|British" to "United Kingdom|British". Important not to confuse 'England', 'Britain' etc. as Great Britain is made up of 3 countries, and linking the word Britain to 'England' would cause offence to any Welsh or Scots, as well as confusing the meaning, something which I spend a lot of time fixing on articles. Grunners 19:17, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks. Just a sloppy link on my part, although I do think these guys were from England.  Geogre 15:20, 12 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Isn;t norther Ireland a country that is part of England. If not, then WTF id Northern Ireland.--Dr who1975 04:12, 5 June 2007 (UTC)
 * The full name is "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland". Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom Tctwood (talk) 09:56, 8 September 2008 (UTC)

origin of the name
What is the origin of the name foghat? (I am thinking of Bender's color choice of foghat grey). --WhiteDragon 13:19, 29 November 2006 (UTC)
 * It is, I believe, a hat. On the cover of "Fool for the City," the man with a fishing pole fishing in the sewers is wearing a fog hat.  It is a yellow slicker hat that is lower on the sides than the front and back.  Imagine the pulled down "Napoleon" hat but made out of yellow raincoat, with no bill.  It's a hat that a lighthouse keeper would stereotypically wear.  (I wonder if Wiktionary has the word?)  Geogre 13:05, 5 January 2007 (UTC)
 * How weird... for decades I always thought it was a play on "fuck it" or "faggot". Interesting to see there's a real story behind it. -Rolypolyman (talk) 21:58, 15 September 2008 (UTC)

Dave Prevett said he name Foghat came from a game he played as a child. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.159.25.180 (talk) 23:20, 22 February 2011 (UTC)

Yes - I found an article where it is reported in an interview that it was a word he tried to use in a scrabble game. I think this is probably worth referencing. http://www.tulsaworld.com/article.aspx/Foghat_Blue_Oyster_Cult_set_for_River_Spirit_Event/20110811_269_wk9_cutlin33357 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.252.244.255 (talk) 18:04, 1 August 2013 (UTC)

Trivia
Does anyone else think that the pop culture references to Slow Ride in the Trivia section could be moved into the article on the song itself since most of them are already mentioned there? I suggest in their place a pointer to that article. Tctwood (talk) 10:18, 8 September 2008 (UTC)

Hits *other* than Slow Ride?
C'mon guys. We've all had the radio on as kids. I can't remember anything of any significant playtime, certainly not of "hit" status, other than Slow Ride. In full disclosure I personally do think Foghat is horribly overrated, but I do believe that my observation here is objectively correct. Foghat really was a OHW with Slow Ride.Tgm1024 (talk) 19:14, 23 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Easy. "Fool for the city", "Honey Hush", "Fools Hall of Fame", "Trouble, Trouble" etc 83.249.161.132 (talk) 07:39, 6 November 2012 (UTC)

This is Wikipedia, not a classic rock message board, as such your personal opinion serves no purpose here and these comments should be rightfully deleted. (Sellpink (talk) 01:30, 23 October 2014 (UTC))

Fancruft
To follow on somewhat from the above comments. I am neither a fan nor enemy of this outfit, but the present article is full of unsourced fancruft, hear'say and whimiscal adultation; and devoid of sources, verifiability and balance. Can someone turn the tide from fansite to encyclopedia ?

Derek R Bullamore (talk) 00:45, 4 October 2010 (UTC)

I see it too: this is written more like a band newsletter than a WP article. I added a tag, and I'll try to come back to it if no one else steps up soon. SteveStrummer (talk) 15:57, 3 January 2011 (UTC)

FOGHAT PHOTO
Please: Doesn't somebody have a decent picture of the REAL Foghat? Charlie Huhn?? No offense to him, but Foghat is LONESOME DAVE, period. Charlie Huhn is a footnote. Please, somebody find a post a decent picture! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.80.112.230 (talk) 17:54, 13 March 2011 (UTC)

Honey Hush no LP ?
I just got a "flash-back" - and wonder. Was "Honey Hush" not an LP aswell ? On which other album (but the Live) was the hit on ? Greatful for replies. 83.249.161.132 (talk) 06:35, 6 November 2012 (UTC)

Live album Road Cases
I just bought the older (1998) single disc version of the live album Road cases and wanted to know how I can add it...or if someone else can! There is also a 2 disc European version I am planning on getting.

Ray-from-texas1 (talk) 23:06, 9 April 2015 (UTC)Ray-From-Texas1

Rodney O'Quinn
I have fixed the membership section to show Rodney O'Quinn as a LIVE SUBSTITUTE for Craig MacGregor. I had previously put Jeff Howell as his live substitute based on recent live videos I have seen of them but after examining them it appears that O'Quinn is in fact their full time substitute (at least at most shows). He is listed in the "Touring musicians" section on the Foghat page as Craig MacGregor is still listed as an official member of the band on their official website and he will probably rejoin them on the road if he is able to overcome his illness. O'Quinn is not an official member of the band so he should not be shown anywhere in the band's infobox. MacGregor is still officially their bassist.

sk8punk3d288 (talk) 22:15, 21 November 2016 (EST)
 * Makes sense, but I believe O'Quinn has been touring with the band since fall 2015. Semper Fi! FieldMarine (talk) 15:07, 22 November 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Foghat


text:
User talk:Molahs

Unverified images
Hi! Thanks for uploading the following image:

 * Image:IsraeliBulldozers.jpg

I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GNU Free Documentation License,  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know at my talk page where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks so much. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk, automation script)]] 05:12, Dec 10, 2004 (UTC)

P.S. You can help tag other images at User:Yann/Untagged_Images. Thanks again.

title: User talk:Molahs


text:
Rectangular function

The rectangular function (also known as the rectangle function, rect function, Pi function, Heaviside Pi function, gate function, unit pulse, or the normalized boxcar function) is defined as

$$\operatorname{rect}\left(\frac{t}{a}\right) = \Pi\left(\frac{t}{a}\right) = \left\{\begin{array}{rl} 0, & \text{if } |t| > \frac{a}{2} \\ \frac{1}{2}, & \text{if } |t| = \frac{a}{2} \\ 1, & \text{if } |t| < \frac{a}{2}. \end{array}\right.$$

Alternative definitions of the function define $\operatorname{rect}\left(\pm\frac{1}{2}\right)$ to be 0, 1,  or undefined.

Its periodic version is called a rectangular wave.

History
The rect function has been introduced by Woodward in as an ideal cutout operator, together with the sinc function as an ideal interpolation operator, and their counter operations which are sampling (comb operator) and replicating (rep operator), respectively.

Relation to the boxcar function
The rectangular function is a special case of the more general boxcar function:

$$\operatorname{rect}\left(\frac{t-X}{Y} \right) = H(t - (X - Y/2)) - H(t - (X + Y/2)) = H(t - X + Y/2) - H(t - X - Y/2)$$

where $$H(x)$$ is the Heaviside step function; the function is centered at $$X$$ and has duration $$Y$$, from $$X-Y/2$$ to $$X+Y/2.$$

Fourier transform of the rectangular function

The unitary Fourier transforms of the rectangular function are $$\int_{-\infty}^\infty \operatorname{rect}(t)\cdot e^{-i 2\pi f t} \, dt =\frac{\sin(\pi f)}{\pi f} = \operatorname{sinc}_\pi(f),$$ using ordinary frequency $f$, where $\operatorname{sinc}_\pi$ is the normalized form of the sinc function and $$\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}}\int_{-\infty}^\infty \operatorname{rect}(t)\cdot e^{-i \omega t} \, dt =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}}\cdot \frac{\sin\left(\omega/2 \right)}{\omega/2} =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}} \operatorname{sinc}\left(\omega/2 \right), $$ using angular frequency $$\omega$$, where $\operatorname{sinc}$ is the unnormalized form of the sinc function.

For $$\operatorname{rect} (x/a)$$, its Fourier transform is$$\int_{-\infty}^\infty \operatorname{rect}\left(\frac{t}{a}\right)\cdot e^{-i 2\pi f t} \, dt =a \frac{\sin(\pi af)}{\pi af} = a\ \operatorname{sinc}_\pi{(a f)}.$$Note that as long as the definition of the pulse function is only motivated by its behavior in the time-domain experience, there is no reason to believe that the oscillatory interpretation (i.e. the Fourier transform function) should be intuitive, or directly understood by humans. However, some aspects of the theoretical result may be understood intuitively, as finiteness in time domain corresponds to an infinite frequency response. (Vice versa, a finite Fourier transform will correspond to infinite time domain response.)

Relation to the triangular function
We can define the triangular function as the convolution of two rectangular functions:

$$\operatorname{tri} = \operatorname{rect} * \operatorname{rect}.\,$$

Use in probability
Viewing the rectangular function as a probability density function, it is a special case of the continuous uniform distribution with $$a = -1/2, b = 1/2.$$ The characteristic function is

$$\varphi(k) = \frac{\sin(k/2)}{k/2},$$

and its moment-generating function is

$$M(k) = \frac{\sinh(k/2)}{k/2},$$

where $$\sinh(t)$$ is the hyperbolic sine function.

Rational approximation
The pulse function may also be expressed as a limit of a rational function:

$$\Pi(t) = \lim_{n\rightarrow \infty, n\in \mathbb(Z)} \frac{1}{(2t)^{2n}+1}.$$

Demonstration of validity
First, we consider the case where $|t|<\frac{1}{2}.$ Notice that the term $(2t)^{2n}$  is always positive for integer $$n.$$ However, $$2t<1$$ and hence $(2t)^{2n}$  approaches zero for large $$n.$$

It follows that: $$\lim_{n\rightarrow \infty, n\in \mathbb(Z)} \frac{1}{(2t)^{2n}+1} = \frac{1}{0+1} = 1, |t|<\tfrac{1}{2}.$$

Second, we consider the case where $|t|>\frac{1}{2}.$ Notice that the term $(2t)^{2n}$  is always positive for integer $$n.$$ However, $$2t>1$$ and hence $(2t)^{2n}$  grows very large for large $$n.$$

It follows that: $$\lim_{n\rightarrow \infty, n\in \mathbb(Z)} \frac{1}{(2t)^{2n}+1} = \frac{1}{+\infty+1} = 0, |t|>\tfrac{1}{2}.$$

Third, we consider the case where $|t| = \frac{1}{2}.$ We may simply substitute in our equation:

$$\lim_{n\rightarrow \infty, n\in \mathbb(Z)} \frac{1}{(2t)^{2n}+1} = \lim_{n\rightarrow \infty, n\in \mathbb(Z)} \frac{1}{1^{2n}+1} = \frac{1}{1+1} = \tfrac{1}{2}.$$

We see that it satisfies the definition of the pulse function. Therefore,

$$\operatorname{rect}(t) = \Pi(t) = \lim_{n\rightarrow \infty, n\in \mathbb(Z)} \frac{1}{(2t)^{2n}+1} = \begin{cases} 0 & \mbox{if } |t| > \frac{1}{2} \\ \frac{1}{2} & \mbox{if } |t| = \frac{1}{2} \\ 1 & \mbox{if } |t| < \frac{1}{2}. \\ \end{cases}$$

Dirac delta function
The rectangle function can be used to represent the Dirac delta function $$\delta (x)$$. Specifically,$$\delta (x) = \lim_{a \to 0} \frac{1}{a}\operatorname{rect}\left(\frac{x}{a}\right).$$For a function $$g(x)$$, its average over the width $$a$$ around 0 in the function domain is calculated as,

$$g_{avg}(0) = \frac{1}{a} \int\limits_{- \infty}^{\infty} dx\ g(x) \operatorname{rect}\left(\frac{x}{a}\right).$$ To obtain $$g(0)$$, the following limit is applied,

$$g(0) = \lim_{a \to 0} \frac{1}{a} \int\limits_{- \infty}^{\infty} dx\ g(x) \operatorname{rect}\left(\frac{x}{a}\right)$$ and this can be written in terms of the Dirac delta function as, $$g(0) = \int\limits_{- \infty}^{\infty} dx\ g(x) \delta (x).$$The Fourier transform of the Dirac delta function $$\delta (t)$$ is

$$\delta (f) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty \delta (t) \cdot e^{-i 2\pi f t} \, dt = \lim_{a \to 0} \frac{1}{a} \int_{-\infty}^\infty \operatorname{rect}\left(\frac{t}{a}\right)\cdot e^{-i 2\pi f t} \, dt = \lim_{a \to 0} \operatorname{sinc}{(a f)}.$$ where the sinc function here is the normalized sinc function. Because the first zero of the sinc function is at $$f = 1 / a$$ and $$a$$ goes to infinity, the Fourier transform of $$\delta (t)$$ is

$$\delta (f) = 1,$$ means that the frequency spectrum of the Dirac delta function is infinitely broad. As a pulse is shorten in time, it is larger in spectrum.

title: Rectangular function


text:
Ophthalmoscopy

Ophthalmoscopy, also called funduscopy, is a test that allows a health professional to see inside the fundus of the eye and other structures using an ophthalmoscope (or funduscope). It is done as part of an eye examination and may be done as part of a routine physical examination. It is crucial in determining the health of the retina, optic disc, and vitreous humor.

The pupil is a hole through which the eye's interior can be viewed. For better viewing, the pupil can be opened wider (dilated; mydriasis) before ophthalmoscopy using medicated eye drops (dilated fundus examination). However, undilated examination is more convenient (albeit not as comprehensive), and is the most common type in primary care.

An alternative or complement to ophthalmoscopy is to perform a fundus photography, where the image can be analysed later by a professional.

Types

There are two major types of ophthalmoscopy:
 * direct ophthalmoscopy, which produces an upright (unreversed) image of approximately 15× magnification
 * indirect ophthalmoscopy, which produces an inverted (reversed) image of 2–5× magnification

Each type of ophthalmoscopy has a special type of ophthalmoscope:
 * Direct ophthalmoscopy uses the direct ophthalmoscope, an instrument the size of a small flashlight with several lenses that can magnify up to about 15 times. This type of ophthalmoscope is most commonly used during a routine physical examination. The pan-ophthalmoscope has a larger primary lens with a variable focusing, allowing for a wider field-of-view.
 * Indirect ophthalmoscopy uses the indirect ophthalmoscope, an instrument that has a light attached to a headband, in addition to a small handheld lens. It provides a wider view of the inside of the eye. Furthermore, it allows a better view of the fundus of the eye, even if the lens is clouded by cataracts. An indirect ophthalmoscope can be either monocular or binocular. It is used for peripheral viewing of the retina.

Medical uses
Ophthalmoscopy is done as part of a routine physical or complete eye examination, mainly by optometrists and ophthalmologists. It is used to detect and evaluate symptoms of various retinal vascular diseases and eye diseases.

In patients with headaches, the finding of swollen optic discs (papilledema) on ophthalmoscopy is a key sign indicating raised intracranial pressure, which may be due to conditions such as hydrocephalus, benign intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri), and brain tumors. In glaucoma, cupped optic discs are seen. In patients with diabetes mellitus, regular ophthalmoscopic eye examinations (once every 6 months to 1 year) are important to screen for diabetic retinopathy, as visual loss due to diabetes can be prevented by retinal laser treatment if retinopathy is spotted early. In arterial hypertension, hypertensive changes of the retina closely mimic those in the brain and may predict cerebrovascular accidents (strokes).

Dilating the pupil
During ophthalmoscopy, the pupil constricts due to light from the ophthalmoscope. To allow for better inspection of the posterior eye through the pupil, it is often desirable to dilate (enlarge) the pupil by applying a mydriatic agent (e.g. tropicamide), or by reducing the ophthalmoscope's brightness, which may slightly increase natural mydriasis.

Mydriatic agents are primarily considered ophthalmologist or optometrist equipment, but is used by other specialists as well, including neurologists and internists. Recent developments like scanning laser ophthalmoscopy can make good quality images through pupils as small as 2 mm, so dilating the pupil is not necessary with these methods.

Early models
The first instrument for looking into the eye was first invented in 1847 by British inventor Charles Babbage. However, he was unable to obtain an image with the instrument when showing it to ophthalmologist Thomas Wharton Jones, and thus became discouraged to proceed further. The instrument is described by Jones as follows: "It consisted of a bit of plain mirror, with the silvering scraped off at two or three small spots in the middle, fixed within a tube at such an angle that the rays of light falling on it through an opening in the side of the tube, were reflected into the eye to be observed, and to which the one end of the tube was directed. The observer looked through the clear spots of the mirror from the other end."

- Thomas Wharton Jones

Later in 1851, German physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz invented the ophthalmoscope again independently. At that time, Helmholtz was a young physiology professor and wanted to demonstrate to his students why the pupil was sometimes black and sometimes light. He wrote about his ophthalmoscope in detail and demonstrated that it required three essential components (which remain true today):

 * a source of illumination (Helmholtz used a candle)
 * a method of reflecting the light into the eye
 * an optical method for correcting an unsharp image of the fundus

Helmholtz called his instrument an Augenspiegel ('eye mirror'). The name "ophthalmoscope" only came into common use in 1854, three years after the instrument's invention.

Later improvements
Helmholtz's first ophthalmoscope could not correct for refractive errors in the patient and/or the observer. This limitation was solved in 1852 by Helmholtz' machinist, Egbert Rekoss, who added two rotatable discs that each contained a few lenses. These wheels of lenses were superior to other early opthalmoscopes which used separate individual lenses that were inconvenient to change. The discs are known as the "Rekoss Disc" and continue to be used on most hand-held ophthalmoscopes today.

Observing the eye's interior required alignment of the observer's vision and the light source. This was discovered by William Cumming, a young ophthalmologist at the Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital, who wrote that "every eye could be made luminous if the axis from a source of illumination directed towards a person's eye and the line of vision of the observer were coincident". To eliminate this variable, some (including Lionel Beale) created ophthalmoscopes with an attached light source.

While training in France, Greek ophthalmologist Andreas Anagnostakis came up with the idea of making the instrument hand-held by adding a concave mirror. Austin Barnett created a model for Anagnostakis, which he used in his practice and subsequently presented at the first Ophthalmological Conference in Brussels in 1857, which made the instrument very popular among ophthalmologists.

The invention of the incandescent light bulb further enabled the ophthalmoscope to be self-luminous instead of relying on an external and remote source of illumination. The first ophthalmoscope to have an installed light bulb was created by William Dennet, who presented his invention to the American Ophthalmological Society in 1885, though it was unreliable as the light bulb's life was short and unpredictable.

The ophthalmoscope was further improved in 1915 by G.S. Crampton, who added a battery to the handle for powering the light source, thus making the instrument portable.

In 1915, Francis A. Welch and William Noah Allyn invented the world's first hand-held direct-illuminating ophthalmoscope. The company Welch Allyn started as a result of this invention. In the 2000s, the company developed a new design of ophthalmoscope called the "Panoptic". The instrument produced an image with a field-of-view five times larger than conventional direct ophthalmoscopes.

Etymology and pronunciation
The word ophthalmoscopy uses combining forms of ophthalmo- + -scopy, yielding "viewing the eye". The word funduscopy derives from fundus + -scopy, yielding "viewing the far inside". The idea that fundus can and should correspond to a combining form fundo- drives the formation of an alternate form, fundoscopy (fundo- + -scopy), which is the subject of a descriptive-versus-prescriptive difference in acceptance. Some dictionaries enter the fundo- form as a second-listed variant, but others do not enter it at all,  and one prescribes its avoidance with a usage note.

title: Ophthalmoscopy


text:
Garry Guzzo

Garry Guzzo (born November 18, 1941) is a former politician in Ontario, Canada. He was a Progressive Conservative member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1995 to 2003. He represented the ridings of Ottawa–Rideau and Ottawa West—Nepean.

Background
Guzzo was educated at the University of Ottawa. He graduated with a Bachelor of Commerce degree and a law degree. He practiced as a lawyer with the firm of Chiarelli and Guzzo from 1969 to 1976, and was a provincial court judge from 1978 to 1989. He briefly served as counsel with the firm Kelly, Howard, and Santini and then operated a private practice in Ottawa until 1999. He also served as a director of the city's Riverside Hospital.

Politics
Guzzo was elected for a three-year term to Ottawa City Council as an alderman for Capital Ward in 1969.

In the provincial election of 1971, he ran as the Progressive Conservative candidate in Ottawa Centre. He came within 182 votes of defeating future New Democratic Party leader Michael Cassidy. From 1974 to 1976, he served as a Councillor in the regional municipality of Ottawa-Carleton.

Guzzo ran for the Ontario legislature a second time in the provincial election of 1995, and defeated Liberal incumbent Yvonne O'Neill by about 1,500 votes in the riding of Ottawa—Rideau. The Progressive Conservatives won a majority government in this election under Mike Harris; despite being the only Tory Member of Provincial Parliament (MPP) from Ottawa, however, Guzzo was not appointed to cabinet.

In the 1999 provincial election, Guzzo won re-election in the redistributed riding of Ottawa West—Nepean against Liberal Rick Chiarelli and New Democratic incumbent Alex Cullen. (The Harris government had previously reduced the number of ridings from 130 to 103, forcing several incumbents to face one another for re-election.) He was again left out of the cabinet in the parliament which followed, and became best known for a private member's bill calling for an investigation into rumours of an organized pedophile ring in Cornwall, Ontario.

In 2003, Guzzo criticized his own government for unveiling its budget at the headquarters of Magna International, rather than in the legislature. Later in the year, he courted controversy by making favourable comments about former United States Senator Joseph McCarthy, and criticizing "illegal refugees" for burdening the province's taxation system. These comments may have contributed to his defeat in the provincial election of 2003; Guzzo lost to former Ottawa Mayor Jim Watson by just under 3,000 votes.

title: Garry Guzzo