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Leatherstocking Tales

The Leatherstocking Tales is a series of five novels (The Deerslayer, The Last of the Mohicans, The Pathfinder, The Pioneers, and The Prairie) by American writer James Fenimore Cooper, set in the eighteenth-century era of development in the primarily former Iroquois areas in central New York. Each novel features Natty Bumppo, a frontiersman known to European-American settlers as "Leatherstocking", "The Pathfinder", and "the trapper". Native Americans call him "Deerslayer", "La Longue Carabine" ("Long Rifle" in French), and "Hawkeye".

Publication history
The story dates are derived from dates given in the tales and span the period roughly of 1740–1806. They do not necessarily correspond with the actual dates of the historical events described in the series, which discrepancies Cooper likely introduced for the sake of convenience. For instance, Cooper manipulated time to avoid making Leatherstocking 100 years old when he traveled to the Kansas plains in The Prairie.

The Natty Bumppo character is generally believed to be inspired, at least in part, by the historic explorer Daniel Boone or the lesser known David Shipman. Critic Georg Lukacs likened Bumppo to Sir Walter Scott's "middling characters; because they do not represent the extremes of society, these figures can serve as tools for the social and cultural exploration of historical events, without directly portraying the history itself.

Related novels

 * 1) Homeward Bound: or The Chase: A Tale of the Sea (1838) - The Effingham family, descendants of Oliver Effingham of The Pioneers, return home from Europe. Set in the Atlantic Ocean and the North African coast in 1835.
 * 2) Home as Found (1838) - Eve Effingham and her family encounter a social world new to them in New York City and Templeton (Cooperstown), New York in 1835.

Characters

 * Natty Bumppo is the protagonist of the series: an Anglo-American raised in part by Native Americans, and later a near-fearless warrior (his chief weapon is the long rifle). He and his Mohican "brother" Chingachgook are constant companions. He is known as "Deerslayer" in The Deerslayer, "Hawkeye" and "La Longue Carabine" in The Last of the Mohicans, "Pathfinder" in The Pathfinder, "Leatherstocking" in The Pioneers, and "the trapper" in The Prairie. The novels recount significant events in Natty Bumppo's life from 1740 to 1806.
 * Chingachgook is a Mohican chief and companion of Bumppo. He is present in all the books except for The Prairie, as he dies of old age after narrowly escaping a forest fire in The Pioneers.
 * Uncas, son of Chingachgook, "last of the Mohicans", grew to manhood, but was killed in a battle with the hostile scout Magua. In actual history, a man named Uncas was a chief of the Mohegan in the 1600s. Though a prominent figure only in The Last of the Mohicans, he is mentioned as a boy at the very end of The Deerslayer, only once by name in The Pathfinder, and several times in The Prairie.

Adaptations
Several films have been adapted from one or more of this series of Cooper's novels. Some used one of Bumppo's nicknames, most often Hawkeye, to identify this character, e.g., in:
 * Lederstrumpf / Leatherstocking (1920 German silent film) co-starred Bela Lugosi as Chingachgook
 * The serial film Leatherstocking (1924)
 * The Last of the Mohicans (1936), the 1992 film is based on the screenplay of this film.
 * Chingachgook, die große Schlange (1967), an East German film, co-starred Gojko Mitić as Chingachgook
 * The Last of the Mohicans (1992), in which Hawkeye's surname was changed from Bumppo to Poe
 * The Pathfinder (1952), Columbia Pictures film starring George Montgomery
 * The Pathfinder (1996), where he is known chiefly as Pathfinder, but his birth name of Nathaniel is also mentioned

Two Canadian TV series were based on the character of Leatherstocking:
 * In Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans (1957), Natty Bumppo's name was changed to Nat Cutler, but he was usually referred to as Hawkeye
 * The series Hawkeye (1994) is mostly set around the fictional Fort Bennington during the French and Indian War

WQED (TV) Pittsburgh's Once Upon A Classic children's television series produced a four-episode adaptation entitled Leatherstocking Tales (1979), which won one Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Series and was nominated for another for writing. The main character's name is Natty Bumppo, though other nicknames appear.

In popular culture

 * Bumppo is featured in the comic book series Jack of Fables (2006–2011), along with Slue-Foot Sue, as trackers hired to capture other "Fables".
 * In Alan Moore's comic series The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (1999–2007), Natty Bumppo is featured as a member of the group assembled by Lemuel Gulliver, alongside other literary characters including Dr Syn, Fanny Hill, The Scarlet Pimpernel, and Orlando.
 * In J.R. Moehringer, The Tender Bar: A Memoir (2005), among the men Moehringer gets to know is Bud, who refers to Bumppo in the following quote: "Don't think of fear as the villain. Think of fear as your guide, your pathfinder – your Natty Bumppo."(page 133)
 * In the M*A*S*H franchise, the central character Benjamin Franklin "Hawkeye" Pierce was nicknamed this by his father, citing The Last of the Mohicans as "the only book my father ever read".

title: Leatherstocking Tales


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Talk:RDS-1

(William M. Connolley 23:42, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)) A couple of questions/comment:

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Untitled

 * From http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/Sovwpnprog.html, its not clear whether First Lightning was a more official Western codename, or the USSR code. I'd guess the former.
 * I think "Joe" comes from a generic expression for a Russian (which itself comes from J Stalin) rather than directly from JS.
 * The stuff about the meaning of RDS-1 might be incorporated too?

Nice picture.

 * I've always heard that the "Joe" was in respect to Stalin, but I could probably source that. My guess on "First Lightning" is the latter, only because it doesn't really resonate at all in English (and the US PR men usually picked good names for this sort of thing). In Russian I believe it would be, "Pervaya Molniya," I believe. --Fastfission 01:09, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I heard "RDS-1" is named after the comment of Kurchatov after the operation;"Our country made it for herself". Does anyone know the mark in accurate Russian? 210.150.101.50 10:05, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I seem to recall reading somewhere that RDS-1 was originally a meaningless codename and was backronymed into meaning "Stalin's Rocket Engine" (Reaktivnyi Dvigatel Stalina), but I'll check on that... --Fastfission 16:52, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I examined;"Лодина Д??? Сама" (Rodina Delara(?) Sama-"Our country made it(?) for herself"), but I Only Don't understood spelling one word, "Derala(?)". I researched from only Japanese book and Russian-Japanese dictionary. I'm waiting for the addition of the person who understands details. 210.150.101.50 17:16, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Using Japanese dictionaries is a bad idea because of problems with L/R (or Л/Р in cyrillics) confusing in Japanese. Russian text may be "Родина делала сама" (i. e. "Our country made it BY herself") or "Родина делала себе" (if "Our country made it FOR herself" is well-translated phrase). But the latter variant is bad in Russian: the variants that are correсt in Russian is "сделала себе" или "делала для себя". NOTE: I've heard nothing about it, so my comment is only the comment of native Russian-speaker, not historician.--213.247.213.207 16:50, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

 * as one more Russian-speaking non-historican, i would say that "Russia is doing itself" it very unprobable in Soviet Union, where (especially in that years) any reference to [tzar-time]Russia would had been treated as opposition to the [communists-time] Soviet Union of number of countries, including Russia. I would also say it is highly unlikely even for backronym to say 'делала' ("delala", did) - it has no sense. "Has done" in russian would begin with another letter, "s". So the only possible thing on that way would be "Motherland produces herself" - "Родина делает сама". But not "Russia", and not Past Simple "did/produced"

www-traditio-ru/index.php/Советский_атомный_проект#_note-1
 * I cannot justify the sources, but here it is referenced, that among all those acoronyms, the correct one was "Jet Engine, Special" rather than suggested above "Stalin's Jet Engine"

Rosenbergs
The original wording implied that the Rosenbergs were the central figures in the passing of nuclear secrets. When the dominoes began to fall, it was Fuchs who fell first, who then named others, who in turn named Julius Rosenberg. Thus I entered Fuchs where the Rosenbergs were. Wulfe 21:12, 12 September 2007 (UTC)Wulfe

Naming
Is there a reason the article is called "Joe One" rather than "Joe-1" or "Joe 1"? I've never seen a source use the former, with the spelled "One." Is this a Wikipedia naming convention? It's not crucial but I find it a little odd (especially since we also have Joe 4). --Fastfission 01:17, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)

More naming
Mea culpa. I wrote the original, and if a better title is appropriate, fine. It hit me too, as Joe 4 is titled as such. I was about to move the article once, but got too distracted. This I shall do now.

dino 19:44, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Bad Translation
The first translation seems wrong. It would seem more appropriate that RDS would be more like "Russia does it herself" not "russia makes it herself." Although "made" is I suppose is a fairly accurate translation (as the verb делать can mean both to make and to do), how many times does anyone "make" a nuclear weapon - normally you build, or construct one. However, if you accomplish something on your own, you have "done it yourself." —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 69.178.54.217 (talk • contribs) 30 April 2006 (UTC)

 * But not "Russia". Maybe "Motherland" - "Родина", "Rodina". But never "Russia" ! And not "made" - it has not sense. And not "have made" - it would start with "s" letter in russian. Only possible way is to be "makes"/"produces" - "делает". Yet after all I think this is nothing more than backronym rumours, not real history behind "RDS" designation.

Joe 1
Why is it redirected from the official RDS-1 to Joe 1, surely it should work the other way around. --60.224.14.194 02:45, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, usually we go with the name which is most common in English. Even the history of nuclear weapons literature in English usually uses "Joe 1" rather than RDS-1. --Fastfission 02:49, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

But then why does "Nazi Party" redirect to National Socialist German Workers Party? The official name RDS-1 would be better here, i think. 87.33.53.61 13:25, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

Picture
I found a website which claims the picture for Joe-1 is actually that of the 1965 "Chagan" nuclear test instead. Somebeody should confirm this. http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/Sovwpnprog.html

 * This is a picture of Joe-1. This is a picture of Chagan. They are pretty easy to tell apart if you know what to look for (the latter is obviously a cratering shot). Which is what the other page says, though the layout is confusing. --Fastfission 15:50, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

lights on the shell?
Their appears to be to lights on the front of the RSD 1's shell. can anyone prove or disprove this? The reason this would actually make sense is to alert the crew of the bomber to its position. Or it could be a form of terrorism (IF they dropped one bomb and there where survivors then they could just drop a shell to scare a city sense less.--GMWhilhuffTarkin (talk) 19:42, 11 April 2009 (UTC)
 * They're radar outlets. The one pictured here seems to have a more glossy back then others I have seen. It could be a special variant with a different radar system, I guess they could have replaced the radar with lights, but that seems unlikely. The ones I have seen have a shaft in the 'eyes' to act as radar system. Can anyone get a definite answer to the 'flashbulb' pictured here?--DMKTirpitz (talk) 00:42, 17 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Oh now I see. the radar wells have plastic knobs on them that look like a lightbulb.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by DMKTirpitz (talk • contribs) 22:55, 25 July 2009 (UTC)

Uranium or plutonium?
DOES NOT SAY WHAT NUCLEAR FUEL WAS USED. I presume it was Plutonium? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 150.203.239.253 (talk) 11:01, 15 April 2009 (UTC)

 * Yes --Mr.98 (talk) 17:30, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

I repeat the question. The article does not make it clear whether the bomb was an uranium bomb or a plutonium bomb. This information should be made more clear. Also, I suppose the U.S. knew from the fallout the type of the bomb. Was this information published? -- Petri Krohn (talk) 14:29, 29 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Well, it was a copy of the plutonium-bomb Fat Man. So it should have been a plutonium bomb. But what i want to know: where did the plutonium come from? Not from a uranium enrichment plant. So why mention that "A uranium-235 plant was built near Chelyabinsk in 1948."?ospalh (talk) 20:29, 4 April 2011 (UTC)
 * Hmm. Chelyabinsk-65. "The first production reactor (Reactor A) went into operation in June 1948 and the first batch of plutonium was produced at the radiochemical plant (Plant B) on February 26, 1948." Wait. What‽ The reactor had produced plutonium before it became critical? I'd guess the Pu probably came from those reactors anyway. But is that good enough‽ ospalh (talk) 21:52, 13 April 2011 (UTC)

Droppable?
The pic clearly shows a droppable bomb. The first US tests weren't. I suppose the USSR might really have done its first test with a "weaponised" droppable form, but it seems a bit unlikely. Does anyone know for sure? Was the actual test done from a tower, or dropped? William M. Connolley (talk) 09:09, 26 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Seems likely.
 * The design was already tested by the U.S.
 * The aim of the test was to test the effects on infrastructure. (note "metro")
 * The first Soviet hydrogen bomb tests were weaponised (if I remember correctly).
 * Even the Tsar Bomba test was weaponised.
 * -- Petri Krohn (talk) 14:38, 29 August 2010 (UTC)

first lightning
much more interesting name than 'RDS-1' imho. Decora (talk) 21:08, 11 April 2011 (UTC)

Summary
For those that may be confused after teying to make sense of the comments above:
 * 1) RDS - The meaning is at present unclear, but it certainly does not mean "Stalin's Rocket Engine" (Reaktivnyi Dvigatel Stalina).
 * 2) Joe-1, Joe-2 etc. refer to the test shots and not to the weapons or warheads used in them.

First Lightning
Is there an reliable source of this naming? Russians are strongly disagree with that one - they said it never occured. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.72.24.59 (talk) 17:12, 14 August 2013 (UTC)

 * It went off like g-g-greased lightning. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.67.149.171 (talk) 18:12, 18 November 2013 (UTC)

 * According to the editor of the book on Soviet Strategic Rocket Forces, Pavel Podrig, the name First Lightening was not heard in the Soviet Union until the 90s. He says that in a comment on Wellerstein's blog, though I don't remember which article. SkoreKeep (talk) 15:55, 2 August 2014 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:RDS-1


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Grahame Clark

Sir John Grahame Douglas Clark (28 July 1907 – 12 September 1995), who often published as J. G. D. Clark, was a British archaeologist who specialised in the study of Mesolithic Europe and palaeoeconomics. He spent most of his career working at the University of Cambridge, where he was appointed Disney Professor of Archaeology from 1952 to 1974 and Master of Peterhouse from 1973 to 1980.

Born in Kent to an upper-middle-class family, Clark developed an early interest in archaeology through his collection of prehistoric flint tools. After an education at Marlborough College, he proceeded to Peterhouse in the University of Cambridge, there attaining both his undergraduate and then doctoral degree. For the latter, he produced a thesis and published monograph focusing on Mesolithic Britain. In 1932, he co-founded the Fenland Research Committee, through which he excavated several prehistoric sites in the East Anglian Fens. He was also a senior member of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia and played an instrumental role in transforming it into The Prehistoric Society in 1935. He served as the editor of its academic journal, the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, from 1933 until 1970.

During the Second World War, Clark was drafted into the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve. He remained in Britain, working on aerial reconnaissance, and wrote further archaeological research articles in his spare time. After the war he returned to Cambridge University, where he was employed as a full-time lecturer. Over the course of 1949, 1950, and 1951, he excavated the important Mesolithic settlement site of Star Carr in North Yorkshire. Other excavations carried out under his directorship included that of an Iron Age settlement on Micklemoor Hill, Norfolk, and the Neolithic site of Hurst Fen, Suffolk. In 1951 he was made a Fellow of the British Academy, in 1952 appointed to Cambridge's Disney Chair, and in 1959 elected President of the Prehistoric Society. In later life he travelled the globe more extensively, often as a visiting professor. In these years, he also wrote more prolifically, although these books typically received a less enthusiastic reception than his earlier work.

Clark was not a popular figure among the British archaeological community, being regarded as a competitive and remote individual who craved recognition. He was nevertheless regarded as one of the most important prehistorians of his generation. He was particularly noted for his emphasis on exploring the economies and environmental conditions of prehistoric Europe. His career was recognised by a number of accolades, including the Dutch Erasmus Prize and a British knighthood, and he was the subject of a posthumous biography by Brian Fagan.

Early life: 1907–27
John Grahame Douglas Clark was born on 28 July 1907. He was the eldest son of Maude Ethel Grahame Clark (née Shaw) and Charles Douglas Clark, the latter being a stockbroker and a reserve officer in the British Army. The family were upper middle-class and moderately prosperous. They lived in the village of Shortlands, near to Bromley in West Kent. At the outbreak of the First World War, Charles Clark joined the West Kent Regiment and was sent to fight overseas. He survived the war, but during his return to Britain in 1919 succumbed to the influenza pandemic and died mid-journey. Grahame Clark grew up without a father, instead being raised by his mother and an uncle for whom he had great affection. According to the available evidence, Clark's childhood was a happy one. His family moved to Seaford, a coastal town on the edge of the Sussex Downs, with the young Clark developing a fascination with the prehistoric flint tools that he collected on the Downs.

In 1921 Clark began an education at Marlborough College in Wiltshire, where he joined the school's Natural History Society. Aside from his interest in prehistoric tools—which earned him the school nickname "Stones and Bones"—he was also fascinated by the butterflies and moths that could be found in Wiltshire. During his time at the college he visited the archaeological excavation of Windmill Hill run by Alexander Keiller, and became an early subscriber to the archaeological journal Antiquity. His interest in archaeology was encouraged by Antiquity's editor, O. G. S. Crawford, and he published articles on prehistoric tools in the Natural History Society's Reports. Having familiarised himself with much of the literature on prehistory, including V. Gordon Childe's influential 1925 book The Dawn of European Civilisation, in his final year at Marlborough Clark gave a talk on the subject of "Progress in Prehistoric Times". By the time that he left the school he was committed to the idea of becoming a professional archaeologist. In this period most prehistoric archaeologists were non-professional hobbyists, and of the few archaeological jobs available most were in museums.

University education: 1927–34

In 1920s, Britain there were few universities that taught courses in prehistory or archaeology. One was the University of Oxford, although Clark was unsuccessful in attaining a scholarship to attend St John's College, Oxford. Turning to the University of Cambridge, he applied to join Peterhouse and while they too turned him down for a scholarship, they admitted him as a "pensioner", or a student who pays for their own tuition. He began his degree in 1927, and during his first two years was enrolled on the history tripos. He attended lectures by economic historians like Michael Postan, which would influence his later archaeological approach to the economies of prehistoric societies. During these years he had continued his research into archaeology on an independent basis, producing articles on prehistoric stone tools that were published in the journals Sussex Archaeological Collections and the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia.

In 1928, Clark began his studies in archaeology, which was then taught alongside physical anthropology and social anthropology within the university's anthropology department. The department was run by the Disney Professor Ellis Minns—whose ideas influenced Clark—while the archaeology curriculum was largely organised by Miles Burkitt, an unpaid lecturer of private means. Providing himself with a broad-based grounding in archaeology, Clark sat in on lectures given by archaeologists like Gertrude Caton Thompson, Dorothy Garrod, Leonard Woolley, and Childe. Although the Cambridge syllabus did not provide opportunities for excavation, Clark assisted the non-professional archaeologist Eliot Curwen during his excavations of the Whitehawk Neolithic causewayed camp near Brighton and then The Trundle, an Iron Age hillfort and Neolithic causewayed enclosure near Chichester. It was at the latter that he befriended two fellow excavators, Stuart Piggott and Charles Philips, who became lifelong friends. He also visited a number of Mortimer Wheeler's excavations, although never worked on them. Clark graduated in 1930 with a first-class honours degree.

Clark then registered as a doctoral student, being awarded a Hugo de Balsham studentship at Peterhouse from 1930 to 1932, and then a Bye Fellowship from 1932 to 1935. At Burkitt's suggestion, he devoted his thesis largely to the Mesolithic—or 'Middle Stone Age'—period of British prehistory. At the time little was known about Mesolithic Britain as few scholars had paid attention to it, and most of the archaeological evidence for it consisted of scattered flint tools. Burkitt served as his supervisor, although largely left Clark to his own devices. Clark initially familiarised himself with the evidence for Mesolithic society in continental Europe by travelling to Denmark and Sweden in 1929, where he had a chance meeting with Sophus Müller. On his return to Britain he began a systematic examination of Mesolithic stone tool collections that were held in both museums and private collections across the country, listing these many artefacts within a database. From this he was able to map the distribution of such Mesolithic tool assemblages across the island.

On the basis of this research he wrote The Mesolithic Age in Britain, which was published to critical acclaim by Cambridge University Press in 1932. The book took a conservative approach to the subject by being heavily artefact-focused, although reflected Clark's growing interest in ecology and the role of Mesolithic society in adapting to climate change by discussing the technique of pollen analysis—which had recently been developed in Scandinavia—as a means of understanding ancient changes in the vegetation. Influenced by Childe, the book was rooted in the theoretical perspective of culture-historical archaeology, presenting different styles of Mesolithic tool as representations of different 'cultures', which in turn represented different peoples. The Mesolithic Age in Britain formed the core of Clark's completed thesis, which was titled "The Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Early Metal Age Industries in Britain" and submitted in January 1934. After passing his oral exam, which was conducted by Thomas Kendrick at the British Museum in London, Clark was awarded his PhD in 1934.

While conducting his research, he published a number of research articles in scholarly journals such as Antiquity. In 1932, he co-founded the Fenland Research Committee with the botanists Harry and Margaret Godwin; it represented a loose association of specialists in different academic fields who all had an interest in the East Anglian Fenlands. Clark served as the group's honorary secretary, and under him all of the Committee's research projects would be promptly written up and published. The group excavated at Plantation Farm near Shippea Hill, helping to establish a basic stratigraphic chronology of the Fenland's development. In 1934 they then carried out a second excavation at Peacock's Farm, which was very important for demonstrating the advantages of interdisciplinary research and for placing British prehistory within an environmental framework.

In February 1932, Clark was elected to the council of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia, and in May 1933 became acting editor of the society's Proceedings at Childe's recommendation. In February 1934 he was made a permanent council member and honorary editor of the Proceedings. By 1934, both Clark and contemporaries like Piggott had become increasingly influential within the British archaeological community. Previously, in February 1933, Burkitt had ensured that Clark was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. Clark himself was however unpopular in many archaeological circles, a result of what his later biographer Brian Fagan described as Clark's tendency to be "extremely critical, even cruel" toward others. During his doctoral studies, he entered a relationship with an archaeology student at Girton College, Cambridge named Gwladys Maud "Mollie" White. In June 1933 the couple assisted Philips' excavation of the long barrow atop Giant's Hill near Skendleby, Lincolnshire.

Early career: 1935–39
In July 1935, Cambridge University's Department of Anthropology and Archaeology employed Clark as an assistant lecturer to teach a course on "geochronology and climatic history", and the following year his position was upgraded to that of a faculty member. In this position he trained an influential coterie of undergraduates in archaeology between 1935 and 1939, among them Charles McBurney, Bernard Fagg, and J. Desmond Clark. In 1935, he helped to set up the Cambridge University Archaeology Field Unit and was appointed its honorary vice president. He arranged for undergraduate members of the Field Unit to assist him in his March 1935 excavations at Mildenhall Fen, where they discovered a wealth of Bronze Age material. Over the course of 1937 and 1938, he co-ran an excavation of the Mesolithic site at Farnham with the non-professional W. F. Rankine. The excavation only revealed some stone tools, producing no ecological data and very little evidence of any structures. Although Rankine argued that they should produce a lengthy report, Clark only wrote up the results for a 1939 article in the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society.

In February 1935, Clark had suggested that the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia rename itself as the Prehistoric Society, thus stretching its remit far beyond East Anglia. A vote on the issue produced an overwhelming majority in support of the change. Membership of the group then grew rapidly; in 1935 it had 353 members, and this had increased to 668 in 1938. Under Clark's lead, the new Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society published articles by prominent archaeologists like Childe, Piggott, Philips, and Glyn Daniel, and emphasised interdisciplinary examinations that took into account the work of the natural sciences. Clark also encouraged archaeologists working on non-British prehistory to submit to the journal, and met with the prominent French archaeologist Henri Breuil on the latter's visit to Cambridge.

In the summer of 1936, Clark married Mollie in St Peter's Church, Chichester. They then embarked on a honeymoon in Norway and Sweden, looking at the region's prehistoric rock art, on the subject of which Clark then produced an illustrated article for Antiquity. Later that year, the couple and Philips embarked on a road trip across northern Europe, visiting archaeological sites like the Danevirke and the Nydam Boat. In Germany they spent time at the Schleswig Museum and met with Gustav Schwantes, who took them to visit Alfred Rust's excavation of a Mesolithic site at Meiendorf. Clark and Rust got on well and remained in contact for many years. Crossing to Denmark, the trio were involved in a car crash near to Randers, with the Clarks requiring hospitalisation for three weeks.

Mollie and Grahame were recruited by Charles Phillips to excavate the Sutton Hoo Mound 1 ship in 1939.

In 1936, Cambridge University Press published Clark's The Mesolithic Settlement of Northern Europe, in which he demonstrated his growing interest in ecological and environmental themes. The book established Clark as being at the forefront of Mesolithic archaeology, and was hailed as an important and trend-setting tome which would influence generations of Mesolithic archaeologists before eventually becoming outdated due to more detailed research.

In 1939 Methuen and Co published Clark's Archaeology and Society. This was a textbook that outlined how to understand past societies through archaeology, and expressed the view that archaeology could be a force for peace in the world by promoting notions of human unity. In the book he condemned Soviet archaeology, believing that the Soviet government had forced archaeologists to support their pre-conceived Marxist ideas about societal and economic development. He also condemned the use of archaeology in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, claiming that they used archaeology to promote a "diseased nationalism". Published to good reviews, the book was read widely and revised editions were published in 1947 and 1952. According to the historian of archaeology Pamela Jane Smith, it became "one of Clark's most widely read and respected publications."

Second World War: 1939–45
Clark's archaeological career was put on hold during the Second World War. While awaiting enlistment into the British armed forces, Clark took lessons in Russian with Minns in order to enable him to read Soviet archaeological publications. He was then drafted into the Royal Air Force (RAF) Volunteer Reserve as a pilot officer, being posted to the central interpretative unit at RAF Medmenham. There, he served in the aerial photograph interpretation unit, where he worked alongside fellow archaeologists like Daniel, Garrod, Piggott, Philips, and McBurney. This grouping allowed for some continuity in the British archaeological community despite the widespread cessation of active research. During this period he lived with his wife and two children at a small, isolated house in Little Marlow, Buckinghamshire. In 1944 he was transferred to the Air Historical Branch based in Westminster, which allowed him and his family to relocate back to their Cambridge house in Barton Road. Clark used his daily commute from Cambridge into central London to edit articles submitted for the Proceedings. Although all meetings of the Prehistoric Society were cancelled for the duration of the war, Clark was able to keep the journal going despite paper rationing.

Clark read omnivorously and produced a steady stream of academic articles in this period. From 1942 to 1948, he published articles on such diverse subjects as water, bees, sheep, fishing, and whale hunting in prehistory. These publications reflected his interest in using recorded folk culture and historical evidence to inspire fresh interpretations of the archaeological material. In August 1943, Clark gave the opening address at the 'Future of Archaeology' conference at London's Institute of Archaeology. This address was then published in Antiquity. In it, Clark claimed that education in British schools was a "parody of knowledge" and that rather than emphasising competitiveness and preparing pupils for future careers, education should focus on "human well-being" and helping students to gain an understanding of both themselves and of humanity. He claimed that the teaching of prehistory—a subject he thought to be the inheritance of all humanity—would provide a good basis for a pupil's education. At the conference, he had been among those arguing that after the war the field of archaeology should not be allowed to come under increasing state control, fearing that doing so might result in British archaeology taking on increasingly nationalistic characteristics, as it had in Nazi Germany.

Post-war period: 1946–51
Clark was demobilised in 1946. He returned to Cambridge University where he was appointed full lecturer in archaeology, with the department now under the leadership of Garrod. During the war he had written From Savagery to Civilisation, and it was published by Cobbett Press in 1946. The book utilised the anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor's division of society into the categories of savagery, barbarism, and civilisation, although added the innovation of dividing savagery into higher and lower forms. Fagan later noted that in adopting Tylor's tripartite division, the book was "old-fashioned even for the 1940s". During the summer break of 1947, Clark led a team of undergraduates in the excavation of Bullock's Haste along the Car Dyke near Cottenham, revealing evidence of early Romano-British activity. In 1947 and in 1948, he was awarded a Leverhulme Fellowship which allowed him to travel across much of Northern and Central Europe. He looked at the technologies and techniques of rural and fishing communities in much of Scandinavia, displaying his interest in the relationship between folk culture and ecology. He expanded the length of the Proceedings in the years following the war, now aided by Piggott and Kenneth Oakley as his editorial assistants.

In 1946, Childe resigned as the Abercromby Professor of Archaeology at the University of Edinburgh. Clark applied to succeed him, although the position was instead given to Piggott. Piggott then invited Clark to give the Munro Lectures at Edinburgh in 1949. In 1950, he was elected to a fellowship at Peterhouse, a position that he held for the next 45 years. At the college he befriended his colleague Michael Postan, an economic historian whose research into Medieval farming techniques inspired Clark to reassess Neolithic farming. In 1951, he contributed a chapter on the use of folklore in interpreting prehistory for a festschrift devoted to Childe. Fagan later described this chapter as one of Clark's most important papers. Using his Munro Lectures as a basis, Clark also wrote a book, Prehistoric Europe: the Economic Basis, which reflected his interest in ecology and the impact that it had on the economics of human society. The book received mixed reviews, although would be described by Fagan as "arguably the most influential of all Clark's books". It sold widely and was translated into several languages.

Clark had been very impressed with Gerhard Bersu's excavation of the Iron Age settlement of Little Woodbury in Wiltshire in 1938 and 1939. After the war, he decided to excavate an Iron Age settlement nearer to Cambridge using the same techniques as Bersu had used. An amateur archaeologist had found early Iron Age pottery on Micklemoor Hill near West Harling in Norfolk, and Clark began an excavation of the site in 1948. However, before Clark could finish the excavation, he was distracted by a new project.

In 1948, Clark was informed about a Mesolithic flint scatter that had been found in peaty deposits at Seamer Carr in North Yorkshire by an amateur archaeologist, John Moore. Clark visited this site, known as Star Carr, and realised that it may provide further evidence of a Mesolithic settlement. He oversaw three seasons of excavation at the site, in the summers of 1949, 1950, and 1951. The project was carried out on a shoestring budget under the auspices of Cambridge University and the Prehistoric Society. The project was consciously multidisciplinary, involving botanists from the beginning. Fagan noted that the excavation methods were "adequate, although certainly not up to Mortimer Wheeler standards". He published his results promptly, bringing out preliminary reports in the 1949 and 1950 editions of the Proceedings. The final monograph was completed in December 1952 and published by Cambridge University Press in 1954. According to Fagan, it was "one of the classic archaeological monographs of the twentieth century". It was published to good reviews, and helped to establish Clark's reputation among the archaeological community in the United States. A number of American excavations—such as that at Ozette indigenous village in Washington—were influenced by its multidisciplinary approach.

Disney Chair: 1952–72

In 1952, Garrod took an early retirement and Clark was selected as her replacement for the Disney Chair. To mark this status, Cambridge University awarded him an Sc.D degree on the basis of his published work. In this position he avoided formal meetings and made decisions by himself. He failed to obtain many resources for the department from the university administration, with the department therefore remaining small under his tenure. He did however acquire funds to hire a research assistant, the first being Eric Higgs. As chair, he encouraged the staff in his department to prioritise their research over teaching, and to prioritise the teaching of graduates over undergraduates. In this position he had little personal contact with the department's students, and encouraged them to go abroad after their education, believing that the best opportunities for archaeological research lay outside Britain. He got on with some of his staff, such as John Coles and McBurney, although not with others, such as Glyn Daniel.

Over the coming years he would also sit on a range of committees, including the Ancient Monuments Board, Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England, the management committee of the Institute of Archaeology, as well as the Prehistoric Society, of whose journal he remained editor. In 1951, he had been elected a Fellow of the British Academy, and in 1953 he gave the Academy's Reckitt Archaeological Lecture, which he devoted to a discussion of prehistoric economies.

With his project at Star Carr completed, Clark returned his attention to the excavation of the Iron Age settlement at Micklemoor Hill. He oversaw two further seasons of excavation in 1952 and 1953, which was mostly overseen by Clare Fell, the assistant curator at the Museum of Archaeology. In 1954, Clark was made aware of Neolithic pottery and worked flints that had been discovered through an excavation at Hurst Fen near Mildenhall in Suffolk. Believing this to be likely evidence of a Neolithic settlement, he oversaw a project of excavation at the site in 1957 and 1958, although left most of the running of the excavation to Higgs. Clark was disappointed that he excavation revealed a number of scatters post-holes and pits but no structures. The site had nevertheless yielded important typological information about Neolithic pottery and provided greater knowledge about the Neolithic period in eastern England. It would prove to be Clark's final major excavation.

Prehistoric Europe brought Clark wider visibility and resulted in his first opportunity to visit the United States. In 1952 he was asked to attend the inaugural meeting of the Wenner Gren Foundation for Anthropology in New York City. At the event Clark met the American archaeologist Gordon Willey, who became his good friend. In 1957, he returned to the U.S. to teach for a semester as the Grant McCurdy Lecturer at Harvard University. In 1958, Clark published his last piece of original research on the Mesolithic, an article on trapez-shaped microliths for the Proceedings. That year he also spent time in France's Dordogne region, visiting Lascaux cave and Hallam L. Movius's excavation of Abri Pataud. In 1959, Clark was elected President of the Prehistoric Society. In his presidential address he called for a less Eurocentric and more global focus on research into prehistory. To this end he produced a one-volume history of global prehistory, resulting in World Prehistory: An Outline, which was published by Cambridge University Press in 1961. Despite its title, over half of the book was devoted to the prehistory of Western and Central Europe, reflecting how little was known about much of the world's distant past at the time. The book proved an immediate success and brought Clark far greater visibility and opportunities.

In 1960, Clark returned to Peacock Farm to oversee a small excavation designed to recover material that could be subjected to the newly developed process of radiocarbon dating. He also grew increasingly interested in Greek prehistory, and gained a permit to excavate the Neolithic Nea Nikomedia mound near Veroia in eastern Macedonia. He did not personally lead the excavation, which took place in 1961, instead leaving that to his student Robert Rodden, who was assisted by fellow students like David L. Clarke, Charles Higham, and Colin Renfrew. After his visited the excavation, Clark proceeded to Turkey to visit James Mellaart excavation of the Neolithic site at Çatalhöyük. Clark then furthered his interest in south-eastern Europe by writing an article for the Proceedings which synthesised newly discovered radiocarbon dates to argue that farming originally spread across Europe from Greece and the Western Balkans.

In early 1964, Clark made his first visit to the Antipodes as he spent time as the William Evans Professor at Otago University in New Zealand, using the opportunity to learn more about Maori prehistory. In May of that year he used the Commonwealth Visiting Scholars' appointment to fund a period in Australia, where he spent time at the University of Sydney, Queensland Museum, and the Australian Museum. He also visited Vincent Megaw's excavation of the Curracurrang rock shelter and was taken by Norman Tindale to witness a living hunter-gatherer society at the Papunya indigenous community. In November 1965, he undertook a lecture tour of the U.S., giving talks at Pennsylvania State University, Temple University, the University of Michigan, the University of Chicago, the University of Colorado, and Colorado Women's College. That year Hutchinson published a book that Clark had co-written with Piggott, Prehistoric Societies, and in 1967 Thames and Hudson published Clark's coffee table book, The Stone Age Hunters. In 1968, he published a revised second edition of World Prehistory, although it attracted criticism from archaeologists studying Africa for making significant errors about that continent. In 1968, he travelled via Moscow to Japan in order to attend the International Conference of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, using the trip to spend time in Taiwan, the Philippines, and New Zealand. In 1969, he was then appointed visiting Hitchcock Professor at the University of California-Berkeley; his lectures there were published as Aspects of Prehistory by the University of California Press in 1970. He published a classification system of five "lithic modes" or types of stone tools in 1969, which is still in use today.

In 1970, Clark retired as editor of the Proceedings. In 1972, Clark spent time at Uppsala University as a visiting professor. That same year, Clark returned to the subject of Star Carr to publish a book for undergraduate students, Star Carr: A Case Study in Bioarchaeology. Towards the end of his career, Clark was given a range of awards in recognition of his research output: the Smithsonian Institution's Hodgkins Medal in 1967, the Wenner-Gren Foundation's Viking Fund Medal in 1971, Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1971, the University of Pennsylvania's Lucy Wharton old Medal in 1974, the Society of Antiquaries' Gold Medal in 1978, and the Asiatic Society's Chandra Medal in 1979. Two festschrift's were also produced in his honour: a 1971 volume of the Proceedings was devoted to him, while in 1976, Gale de Giberne Sieveking, Ian H. Longworth, and Kenneth E. Wilson produced the edited volume Problems in Economic and Social Archaeology, which again was dedicated to Clark.

Later life: 1973–95
Clark retired as Disney Professor in 1974. From 1973 until 1980 he served as the Master of Peterhouse, in what became some of the happiest years of his life. In 1975, he revised may of his ideas on Mesolithic Northern Europe for The Earlier Stone Age Settlement of Scandinavia. The book was not well received, with many archaeologists working on Scandinavian material deeming it outdated. In 1976, he made a coast-to-coast trip across Canada, and that year chaired the first meeting of the Science-based Archaeological Committee, which had been established by the Science Research Council in order to distribute funds to archaeological projects. In 1977, he published a third edition of World Prehistory, now retitled World Prehistory in New Perspective. From 1974 to 1978, he chaired the British Academy's Section Ten, which was devoted to archaeology and anthropology. In 1978 he travelled to New Delhi to attend the Wheeler Memorial Lecture of the Archaeological Survey of India at the invitation of B. K. Thapar.

In 1980, Clark's short book, Mesolithic Prelude was published, based on his 1979 Munro Lecture. In 1982, Methuen then published Clark's The Identity of Man as Seen by an Archaeologist, in which he argued that cultural diversity underlay the process of humanisation. The book received few reviews, including one produced by Edmund Leach for Nature which was highly critical, claiming that Clark's functionalist and culturally evolutionary approach was outdated. He then produced a sequel, Symbols of Excellence, which allowed him to discuss his interest in art; it was published by Cambridge University Press in 1986. In 1989, Clark's Prehistory at Cambridge and Beyond was published, a work that was part-biography and part-history of archaeology, discussing the broad diaspora of Cambridge-trained archaeologists. Clark's final book, Space, Time, and Man: A Prehistorian's View, was published by Cambridge University Press in 1992. The book dealt with concepts of time and place throughout the ages and received few reviews on publication. According to Fagan, Clark's later books were "based on the values of an earlier time and reflect his profound conservatism", perhaps explaining why they received so little attention.

In his final years, Clark continued to receive recognition for his achievements. The Netherlands Foundation awarded him the Erasmus Prize in 1990. He divided the £100,000 prize money between the British Academy and the Prehistoric Society, allowing both to establish their own prizes. In 1992, the British state then awarded him a knighthood. While on a cruise in the eastern Mediterranean with his wife, Clark suffered a serious stroke in June 1995, requiring a return home. There, he died in Cambridge on 12 September 1995. A memorial service was held at Little St Mary's, Cambridge. One of his fellow staff members at Cambridge, John Coles, was appointed literary executor of his books and papers.

Archaeological approach
According to Fagan, Clark was "more concerned with what happened [in the past] rather than how or why." The archaeologist John Mulvaney stated that, in contrast to the tendency of Childe and other archaeologists to focus on artefact typologies, Clark's "vibrant world embraced landscape, economy and social themes, not simply labelled artefacts". This was reflected in the changing definitions of archaeology that Clark used; in 1927 he claimed that archaeology was "the study of past distribution of culture-traits in time and space, and of the factors governing their distribution", while in 1939 he referred to it as "the study of how men lived in the past".

Clark was fascinated by prehistoric subsistence and social patterns. His approach to prehistory was rooted in the notion that the human race was biologically united and that human diversity arose from responses to changing environments. Smith believed that as of 1939, Clark had become a functionalist. From 1972 onward, Clark became heavily involved in the use of newly developed scientific techniques for the analysis of archaeological material. Influenced by German and Scandinavian archaeological models, Clark drew on folklore and ethnography to gain a better understanding of prehistoric modes of subsistence. He nevertheless did not use such analogies uncritically, believing that they were mostly of use when there was a continuous historical link between older and more recent communities and where they both lived in very similar environmental conditions.

Clark encountered the development of processual archaeology during the mid-20th century, when his student David L. Clarke became one of its key proponents. The proponents of processualism, then referred to as the "New Archaeology", often rejected what they regarded as the old guard in the profession. Clark stayed out of the theoretical debates between the processualists and adherents of older schools of thought, although in a letter to Coles expressed "distress" at what he saw as students forcing archaeological data to fit their preconceived notions. He rejected the idea that archaeology was a pure science, claiming that this was misguided and "also pathetic".

Personal life
Physically, Clark was tall and thin, and in his personal life he was intensely private. Fagan described him as "an imposing, remote man who hid his feelings", while presenting "an austere, sometimes forbidding exterior". Coles similarly regarded him as aloof figure, but nevertheless thought that he was "basically a sympathetic and kind man". Clark was awkward around his students, who were often a little afraid of him. His lecture style was regarded as dry and not entertaining. Clark's biographer noted that his teaching was "at best pedestrian", and that he had a "reputation for poorly prepared lectures", rendering him unpopular as a teacher. According to Coles, Clark's lectures "were generally considered to be rather poorly constructed, and he often wandered from the subject in hand". On several cases he was reported to have given the wrong lecture to a class.

According to Fagan, Clark had a "competitive personality" and "craved recognition and an international reputation". Although he had many acquaintances within the archaeological community, he had few friendships with other archaeologists; according to Fagan, he was "not necessarily universally beloved". He annoyed colleagues by quickly turning any conversations into a talk about his own research. Daniel for instance noted that there was "an alarming and chilling self-centredness [in Clark]. It was so difficult to conduct any reasonable conversation" with him. Mulvaney, who was one of his students, noted that in supervisory meetings, the "austere and busy" Clark "wasted time with derisory gossip concerning his peers, tainted with dogmatic political assertions". Mulvaney nevertheless felt that Clark's "personality blemishes were worth enduring. As years passed he became helpful and friendly."

Fagan noted that Clark was one of the four men who dominated British archaeology during the 1950s and early 1960s, along with the Edinburgh-based Piggott, the Cardiff-based Roger Atkinson, and the Oxford-based Christopher Hawkes. Clark's relationship with these colleagues was mixed; Piggott was a lifelong friend, although Hawkes became his "long-term intellectual adversary". The two publicly disagreed strongly on the place of migration and cultural diffusion in British prehistory; Hawkes believed that cultural development and change was brought about primarily by migration into Britain, whereas Clark argued in favour of indigenous cultural evolution as the best explanation for such changes.

Throughout his life, Clark remained a practicing Christian. Politically, he was deeply conservative, an ideological standpoint nurtured since his youth. In books like The Identity of Man, Clark promoted what he saw as the benefits of social hierarchy, viewing socio-economic inequalities as an impetus towards liberty and believing that unequal levels of consumption allowed for humanity's greatest artistic and cultural creations. In response to these claims, Leach described Clark's political beliefs as "lying well to the right" of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. An elitist, Clark believed strongly in the importance of individual achievement and human progress, believing that humanity's future lay in the ability of people from different cultures and ideologies to co-operate in order to solve those problems that they had in common.

Clark was dedicated to his family. According to Coles, his wife Mollie "became an indispensable part of Clark's academic life as well as a source of immense happiness to him". After their wedding, the Clarks purchased a house in Barton Road, Cambridge. They lived away from this house during the first part of the Second World War, although returned in 1944. Here, Clark took an interest in gardening and proudly displayed his garden to visitors. Clark had a love of dinghy sailing, and for many years had a houseboat at the coastal town of Aldeburgh. When the boat became too dilapidated he replaced it with a cottage in the town in 1957. Clark spent much of his leisure time visiting art galleries, and in later life he began collecting art, as well as Chinese porcelain, and Asian jade.

Reception and legacy
For Fagan, Clark was "one of the most important prehistorians of the twentieth century", an individual whose "intellectual influence on archaeology was enormous", producing a "legacy to prehistory [that] will endure for generations". The historian Adam Stout noted that Clark was "one of the century's most influential prehistorians". Coles similarly noted that he was "one of the founders of European and world-wide prehistoric studies, and there are many now who would assert his primacy in these fields over all other prehistorians of the 20th century".

Coles noted that among continental European scholars, Clark was "the most respected British prehistorian" of his generation. Clark's work was however little known in the United States, where it was eclipsed in the 1960s by the growth of processual archaeology. A less grandiose assessment was left by the archaeologist Pamela Jane Smith, who stated that Clark made "major contributions to the establishment of prehistory as an academic subject at Cambridge University".

The archaeologists Arkadiusz Marciniak and John Coles stated that Clark was one of the "eminent archaeologists" who helped to establish prehistoric archaeology as a "fully professional discipline" with explicitly outlined goals and methods and an institutional foundation. He was a pioneer in ecological, functionalist approaches to archaeology, as well as the first archaeologist to write a global prehistory of humankind.

In November 1997, a Grahame Clark Memorial Conference was held at the British Academy in London. It was at the conference that John Coles invited Fagan to write Clark's biography. In 2007, an academic symposium was held to mark the centenary of Clark's birth at the Archaeology Museum of Biskupin in Poland; it was co-organised by the museum with the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Committee of Pre- and Proto-historical Sciences. On the basis of the conference, in 2010, Marciniak and Coles published a co-edited volume titled Grahame Clark and His Legacy. They noted that up to that point there had been "little in-depth assessment" of Clark's influence in archaeology, in particular in contrast to the large number of Childe.

Publications

 * Clark, J. Grahame D. (1936). The Mesolithic Settlement of Northern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 * Clark, J. Grahame D. (1977). World Prehistory: In New Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521291781
 * Clark, J. Grahame D. (1954). Excavations At Star Carr: An Early Mesolithic Site at Seamer, near Scarborough, Yorkshire. CUP Archive.
 * Clark, Grahame; Mellaart, James; Mallowan, M. E. L; Aldred, Cyril. (1961). The Dawn of Civilisation The First World Survey of Human Cultures in Early Times. London: Thames and Hudson.
 * Clark, Grahame & Piggott, Stuart (1965). Prehistoric Societies. Hutchinson. (The History of Human Societies series)
 * Clark, Grahame & Piggott, Stuart (1965). Prehistoric Societies. Hutchinson. (The History of Human Societies series)

title: Grahame Clark


text:
Cromer Academy

Cromer Academy (formerly Cromer High School, Sports College, Cromer Institute of Science, Cromer Language College) is a 11- 16 secondary school with academy status in Cromer, Norfolk. It is part of the Inspiration Trust federation.

Description
The school is coeducational and students are admitted without regard to ability. It is part of a partnership of schools known as the Cromer Campus, with the neighbouring Suffield Park Infants and Cromer Junior School. Many pupils go through all three schools in the campus.

In December 2016, the school was rated "good" by Ofsted. They found a smaller than average comprehensive school, with just 495 students who are mainly white British, with a below average number from minority ethnic groups and similarly a lower than average number of students with Special Educational Needs.

On 1 June 2020, Darren Hollingsworth replaced Stewart Little as the school's principal.

Curriculum and Enrichment
Virtually all maintained schools and academies follow the National Curriculum, and are inspected by Ofsted on how well they succeed in delivering a 'broad and balanced curriculum'. The school has to decide whether Key Stage 3 contains years 7, 8 and 9- or whether and year 9 should be in Key Stage 4 so the students will just study their chosen GCSE exam subjects for the final three years. Cromer has selected the three year Key Stage 3 so in Years 7-9 all students study the core curriculum of math, English, and science, with art, computer science, design technology, drama, geography, history, the modern language (French or Spanish, music, philosophy, and physical education). There are sessions covering personal, social, and health issues.

Ofsted judged the school to have 'outstanding management' and commented on the schools efforts to stretch the more able and support the weak. Bullying was non-existent and pupils felt safe and cared for.

In Key Stage 4 students still do the 30-period week, and lessons are still 55 minutes long, but there is an element of choice. Half the week is spent studying the core subjects of mathematics, double English and science with a compulsory language, and a compulsory Humanity in addition. These are the subjects demanded to achieve the English Baccalaureate. They can choose two optional subjects from art, performing arts, music (provided by performer John the Piano Man ), design technology (DT), computer science, sport, photography, philosophy and not psychology, and Statistics or further sport.

Community involvement
1895 (Cromer) Air Training Corps and Cromer Platoon, Britannia Coy., Norfolk Army Cadet Force are based at Cromer Academy.

Notable students
Automotive journalist (BBC, ITV, Sky) Jess Shanahan attended Cromer Academy (at the time, Cromer High School) from 2000-2007.

Second Lieutenant, Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers (British Army) Charles Albert Hicks attended Cromer Academy (at the time, Cromer Language College) from 1906-1911.

title: Cromer Academy


text:
Greek Scriptures

Greek Scriptures may refer to:
 * The New Testament
 * A translation of any Scripture into the Greek language, but especially the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, or Old Testament

title: Greek Scriptures


text: Talk:Happy Days

title: Talk:Happy Days


text:
Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies

The Bucharest University of Economic Studies (Academia de Studii Economice din București, abbreviated ASE) is a public university in Bucharest, Romania. Founded in 1913 as the Academy of Higher-level Commercial and Industrial Studies (Academia de Înalte Studii Comerciale și Industriale (AISCI)), it has become one of the largest economic higher education institutes in both Romania and South-Eastern Europe. The Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies is classified as an advanced research and education university by the Ministry of Education. It is one of the five members of the Universitaria Consortium (the group of elite Romanian universities).

History
Established on 6 April 1913 by the Royal Decree of Carol I of Romania, the Academy of Higher-level Commercial and Industrial Studies was the first economic higher education institution established in Romania.

In 1947, the academy was reorganised and merged with the Academy of Cooperative Studies to form the Academy of Commercial and Cooperative Studies. During the Communist Era, in August 1948, it turned into the Institute for Economic Sciences and Planning, according to the model provided by the Soviet higher education institutions.

During the 1967–1968 academic year, the institute was reorganised again and became the Bucharest University of Economic Studies, a name which the university still holds today.

Institution
The Bucharest University of Economic Studies has 22,684 students (undergraduate and graduate levels) in eleven faculties.

The university has positioned itself as a research institution, hosting 13 centers of research acknowledged and endorsed by the National Council of Scientific Research in Higher Education.

A notable presence inside ASE is the Business Information Technology department (Romanian: Informatică Economică) which is an entity that promotes an educational philosophy based on combining economics and software development as a way of creating experts suitable for the Information Age.

Format and length of studies
In the 1970s and 1980s, master's degrees in economics were awarded to full-time students after 4 years of study, except for the Faculty of 'Cibernetics and Informatics', which required one additional year.

After 1990, Undergraduate studies at the Bucharest University of Economic Studies ended with a Bachelor's degree in Economics, while acquiring a second specialization according to the department where they were enrolled. Up to 2005, undergraduate studies at the Academy of Economic Studies consisted of a four-year cycle (five-year cycle for the Faculty of 'Cibernetics and Informatics'). Master studies would continue for two more years, and doctoral programmed would normally be three years long.

Since 2005 however, the university has adopted the Bologna declaration and undergraduate studies are now three-year long, followed by 2-year Master programmes. In this format, undergraduate studies finalize with a total of 180 credits, graduate programmes require a completion of 120 credits. The PhD programmes remain with a length of minimum three years.

Ranking
ASE was ranked by the Times Higher Education World University Ranking 2021 as the best university in Romania. Top Shanghai 2018 ranked ASE as the best university in Economics in Romania and 201–300 worldwide. QS World University Rankings 2017 also ranked ASE as the best university in Economics and Econometrics in Romania and 301–350 worldwide.

Faculties
There are thirteen faculties:
 * FABIZ - Administrarea Afacerilor cu predare în limbi străine (Business Administration in Foreign Languages);
 * AMP - Administrație și Management Public (Administration and Public Management);
 * BBS - Școala de Afaceri București (Bucharest Business School);
 * CIG - Contabilitate și Informatică de Gestiune (Accounting and Management Information Systems);
 * COM - Business and Tourism (formerly Commerce);
 * CSIE - Cibernetică, Statistică şi Informatică Economică (Economic Cybernetics, Statistics, and Informatics);
 * LAW - Drept (Law);
 * EAM - Economia Agroalimentară şi a Mediului (Agricultural, Food, and Environmental Economics);
 * ECO - Economie Teoretică și Aplicată (Economics);
 * FABBV - Finanţe, Asigurări, Bănci şi Burse de Valori (Finance, Insurance, Banking, and Stock Exchanges);
 * MAN - Management;
 * MRK - Marketing;
 * REI - Relaţii Economice Internaţionale (International Business, and Economics).

title: Bucharest Academy of Economic Studies


text:
Talk:List of governors of Georgia

Untitled
The county's official site states that the currently accepted spelling varied from that used by Governor John Houstoun. This seems reasonable given that standardized spelling wasn't in much vogue during the 18th century. Ellsworth 23:54, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)

As someone who took Georgia history as a schoolchild, I'd like to point out that, at several different times in the early 1900s and also during Reconstruction, their were three or more people claiming to be governor. This should be noted. I'd especially look at the Arnall, Talmadge, Thompson period, where, for two months in 1947, Georgia had three governors.

Many of the links for the colonial governors just prior to the American Revolution are just plain wrong. . . but I don't know if the names are wrong, or just the links. . . RCL - 2 Aug 2006

I've upgraded the table and added notes, but I have no/little good information for the revolutionary governors. I haven't put any notes for the pre-Jeffersonian Republican governors. --Golbez 11:44, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

Numbering of Governors
The numbering of the Governors is incorrect. Georgia numbers it's Governors by the individual, not the governorships. In othewords: Non-consecutive term Governors are not recounted. GoodDay (talk) 23:56, 23 January 2009 (UTC)
 * The entire list is an unfinished mess. You're welcome to renumber it; it's not under active editing at the present. --Golbez (talk) 01:36, 24 January 2009 (UTC)
 * I'll have a go at it, later today. GoodDay (talk) 01:43, 24 January 2009 (UTC)

No Pardon Authority
Contrary to what you have listed, the Governor of the State of Georgia has absolutely no Pardon power or authority. It is vested in the Georgia Board of Pardons and Parole per § 42-9-56. Restriction on Governor's powers:

The Governor shall have no authority or power whatever over the granting of pardons or paroles.

HISTORY: Ga. L. 1943, p. 185, § 21; Ga. L. 1983, p. 500, § 7. --Commonwealth States Historian (Kentucky 1333) (talk) 20:24, 19 April 2010 (UTC)

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120328011231/http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/con1798.htm to http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/con1798.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120328011227/http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/con1789.htm to http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/con1789.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20121114004206/http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/con1777.htm to http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/con1777.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130815012131/http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/con1776.htm to http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/con1776.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 19:00, 9 December 2017 (UTC)

Numbering of Governors (again)
Kemp will be the 83rd governor, not the 89th. GoodDay (talk) 00:13, 17 November 2018 (UTC)
 * I mean, they say that, but I'd like to see you find a way to count 83 governors. The best way I found was: Until the Civil War, count everything; ignore the military governor; and ignore repeat terms after the civil war. One can see how this is insane unless we have an official source saying how. Once Kemp is inaugurated and there's press saying he's #83, I'll email the state archives directly and ask how they came up with this, it'd be interesting to know if we have some listed that they omit, or maybe they're just wrong - see Iowa's list, where we acknowledge, with support from the press, that no one knows what the official number should be. I'd be completely happy to have that here, but at the moment, any numbering system is original research, so yeah, I guess removing them was the best option. --Golbez (talk) 04:43, 17 November 2018 (UTC)
 * My guess is, there's confusion with the Confederate governors & likely some governors were counted more then once (due to multiple terms) while others weren't. It's a mess, for sure. GoodDay (talk) 04:54, 17 November 2018 (UTC)

I emailed the state and got a pretty good response:
 * "We believe the Governor's Office is working from the list in the Official and Statistical Register of Georgia, published by the Office of Secretary of State. The register is no longer published but has been scanned and is available online in the Digital Library of Georgia.  The 1977-78 register is considered the last "historical" register, with lists of statewide elected officials and members of the General Assembly dating back to the creation of the office (in the "State Miscellany" section of the Register).  The list of governors in the 1977-78 register includes the Royal Governors, the presidents of the Trustees of Georgia during the Colonial period, and the military commander during Reconstruction, Gen. Thomas H. Ruger.  You can find the list here, http://statregister.galileo.usg.edu/statregister/view?docId=statregister/stat1977/stat1977-1146.xml

 * If you count the governors from no. 77, George Busbee, Brian Kemp is the 83rd governor."

I'll work on integrating this, but I think it solves our problem.

That said, I must share the last line of their email:

"We frankly gave no thought to the numbering."

I feel ya, friend. --Golbez (talk) 20:39, 15 January 2019 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:List of Governors of New York which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 14:30, 11 April 2019 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
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 * Governor Kemp Official Portrait (cropped).jpeg

Article deficiencies
So frustrating to come to wikipedia and not find some needed information. ..

So, first of all, I take issue that there is no article called Governor of Georgia (the reason that's not a red link is because it's a redirect to this article). Separate articles are needed. A "list" should not include things like powers and methods of election. And I'd really like this to cover the way the governor is elected. Tonight I learned that Lester Maddox won in 1966 despite not having gotten the most votes, because the legislature picked him when no one got an actual majority. Is that still the way it's done? I'd like to know, but the article that would tell me had not been created. Why not? About half the states have an article on the office and another mere list. All of them should have both. Unschool 03:42, 13 July 2019 (UTC)
 * "Why not?" Because you haven't made it yet. :P You aren't new here, you know that Wikipedia can work in fits and starts. --Golbez (talk) 04:18, 13 July 2019 (UTC)
 * You're right, of course. I was a bit frustrated (and surprised) in the moment.  I'll try to take this on this fall. Unschool 03:28, 14 July 2019 (UTC)

 * Simply having an article at Governor of Georgia wouldn't guarantee that the information you were seeking would have been there. In my 14 years on Wikipedia, I have often found that sometimes creating a stub article on a highly notable topic is a good way to start the process. It doesn't always work, and sometimes over-eager editors will try to curtail the process by suggesting the articles be merged again. But sometimes getting the ball rolling is all that is needed. - BilCat (talk) 05:53, 27 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks, BilCat. When I was actually active here (2005-2009) I used to create stubs semi-regularly (most of the limited number of articles I "created" were just stubs when I left them, and others did the hard work later).  But the last couple of times I tried (in more recent years) I had some get deleted and I have just sort of given up.Unschool 00:08, 29 May 2020 (UTC)

 * I went ahead and created a draft article at Draft:Governor of Georgia. The text of the list article will also need to be cut down when the draft goes live to avoid duplication. - BilCat (talk) 06:14, 27 May 2020 (UTC)
 * I think your draft looks great, BilCat. That's certainly a lot more than a stub.  Well done, and thank you! Unschool 00:08, 29 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Good, thanks! Bubba73 You talkin' to me? 19:21, 27 May 2020 (UTC)

 * ✅ See Governor of Georgia. - BilCat (talk) 21:34, 19 June 2020 (UTC)

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 * Governor Brian P. Kemp.jpg

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 * Gov Ellis Arnall.jpg

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 * Melvin Thompson.jpg

Text that will date
The guideline WP:DATED says "terms such as now, today, currently, present, to date, so far, soon, upcoming, ongoing, and recently should usually be avoided in favor of phrases such as during the 2010s, since 2010, and in August 2020. Wording can usually be modified to remove the 'now' perspective". The point is that Wikipedia is a work of reference not a source of current news; text such as "There have officially been 83 governors of the State of Georgia", "the current governor is XXX", etc. will go out of date, and there is no guarantee that an article will be kept up to date. Also, printed or otherwise saved articles will become wrong. This can be avoided without affecting the meaning by wording such as "As of 2024 there have officially been 83 governors", "XXX became governor in 2024", etc. There are more than plenty of articles in Wikipedia with outdated "current" information.

I recently added "as of 2024", and it was reverted today. Opinions?

Best wishes, Pol098 (talk) 20:05, 23 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Other statements in the article that are potentially already out of date:
 * "The governor of Georgia is the head of government of Georgia"
 * "The governor and the lieutenant governor are not officially elected on the same ticket."
 * The fact that Brian Kemp is the incumbent, and that Burt Jones is his lieutenant.
 * The lifespans of the living governors.
 * There is simply no reason to add an 'as of' to this single statement, and nothing you've said has justified it. "Terms such as now, today, [etc.]" None of those terms are being used. Either you think for some reason the number of governors is vital enough to uniquely require an as-of, or I just opened your eyes to a dozen other as-ofs that need to be added here, or perhaps none of these need to be added, and the last-edited date on the article is sufficient. --Golbez (talk) 05:17, 24 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Or, to put it another way: The number of governors cannot possibly change faster than the current governor can, so why not put an 'as of' by any mention of him, rather than the count? One can assume, perhaps, that the header of the article is as up-to-date as the table, and you haven't proposed adding a date to the table, nor should you. --Golbez (talk) 05:24, 24 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of governors of Georgia


text:
Star (glyph)

In typography, a star is any of several glyphs with a number of points arrayed within an imaginary circle. A commonly used star symbol is the asterisk.

Seven points

 * Commonwealth Star
 * Heptagram

Ten points

 * Decagram

Eleven points

 * Hendecagram

Thirteen points

 * Tridecagram

Fourteen points

 * Tetradecagram

Fifteen points

 * Pentadecagram

title: Star (glyph)


text:
Battle of Pulkkila

The Battle of Pulkkila was fought between Swedish and Russian forces near Pulkkila in Northern Ostrobothnia on 2 May 1808 during the Finnish War.

At the battle of Pulkkila on 2 May 1808, Johan August Sandels marched eastwards to liberate those parts of Finland that were under Russian control. During the march they encountered some Russian troops at Pulkkila. Sandels used about 800 men for the attack; of which 350 from the Västerbotten Regiment and 80 from the Savolax jägers. The Russian troops were led by Colonel Obuhov. The Russians were soon surrounded and tried desperately to break out, but they were forced back to a nearby village where the Russians were defeated after some vicious fighting. The Russian commander was forced to surrender to the attacking Swedes. The Swedes then went on and retook the town of Kuopio in the middle of Finland.

Sandels' offensive was one of the most remarkable operations of the entire war. During his operations against Barclay de Tolly's troops, he captured Russian depots, constantly harassed their rear areas, and committed actions that won him respect among both friends and foes.

However, Swedish success was only temporary in the Summer Campaign 1808 and the Russian counteroffensive resulted in the Swedish retreat in late August 1808.

title: Battle of Pulkkila


text:
User talk:Freud (usurped)

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia.

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Thank you for your time. FreudGermany (talk) 15:27, 12 August 2013 (UTC)

title: User talk:Freud (usurped)


text:
Evelyn Lear

Evelyn Shulman Lear (January 8, 1926 – July 1, 2012) was an American operatic soprano. Between 1959 and 1992, she appeared in more than forty operatic roles, appeared with every major opera company in the United States and won a Grammy Award in 1966. She was well known for her musical versatility, having sung all three main female roles in Der Rosenkavalier. Lear was also known for her work on 20th century pieces by Robert Ward, Alban Berg, Marvin David Levy, Rudolf Kelterborn and Giselher Klebe. She was married to the American bass-baritone Thomas Stewart until his death in 2006.

Life and career
Lear was born as Evelyn Shulman in Brooklyn, New York, the daughter of Nina (Kwartin), a coloratura, and Nathan Shulman, and granddaughter of the distinguished cantor Zavel Kwartin. Her family was Russian Jewish. She completed her musical education at Hunter College, New York University and the Juilliard School of Music studying voice, piano, French horn and composition. She married Walter Lear, a physician and later political activist, divorcing in the mid-1950s. While at Juilliard she studied under Sergius Kagen and met her future husband, baritone Thomas Stewart. Both Lear and Stewart won Fulbright scholarships to study at Hochschule für Musik in Berlin where she studied with Maria Ivogün. She later studied singing with Beverley Peck Johnson.

Lear started her opera career as a member of the Städtische Oper Berlin in Richard Strauss' Ariadne auf Naxos playing the Composer, a lead role which she would later play at a number of leading opera houses. She played the title role in Alban Berg's Lulu in 1960 in its Austrian debut in concert form. She had only three weeks to learn the role, having been called in as a late replacement. Her performance was so well received that she played the role in the first staged version since World War II at the Theater an der Wien at the Vienna Festival of 1962 with Karl Böhm conducting. The performance was repeated in 1964 and recorded by Deutsche Grammophon. She also performed in Lulu in the late 1980s, albeit in the mezzo-soprano supporting role of the Countess Geschwitz. She appeared as Nina Cavallini in Robert Altman's 1976 film Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson. In 1989, she played the role of Queen Elizabeth I of England in the musical Elizabeth and Essex, based on Maxwell Anderson's 1930 play.

Creation of roles
Lear created a number of roles during her career. In 1955, having just graduated from Juilliard, she created the role of the heroine Nina in Marc Blitzstein's Reuben, Reuben – a role that would prompt Leonard Bernstein to name his daughter Nina. In 1961, she created the title role of Giselher Klebe's Alkmene in Berlin. Two years later, she created another role as Jeanne in Werner Egk's Die Verlobung in San Domingo in the reopening of the Munich Nationaltheater. Her debut with the Metropolitan Opera came with the creation of the role of Lavinia Mannon in the world premiere of Marvin David Levy's Mourning Becomes Electra in 1967.

Soon after this she experienced vocal problems, losing much of her upper range and clarity, which she blamed on singing so much modern music. This did not stop her performing modern roles, however. In 1974, she created the role of Irma Arkadina in Thomas Pasatieri's The Seagull at the Houston Grand Opera. Lear created the role of Magna in Robert Ward's Minutes to Midnight in 1982, followed by creating the role of Ranyevskaya in Rudolf Kelterborn's Der Kirschgarten in Zurich in 1984.

Association with Richard Strauss
Lear enjoyed success performing Richard Strauss's works. She made her London debut in a performance of the Four Last Songs. Her longest association, however, has been with Der Rosenkavalier having performed all three major female roles. She sang the role of Sophie in regional German opera houses with the Berlin State Opera, progressing to sing the role of Octavian in major opera houses in Vienna, Berlin and New York. Her greatest success in this opera was her role as the Marschallin which she debuted in 1971 and played in leading opera houses including La Scala and her farewell performance at the Metropolitan in 1985.

Honors and awards
The Senate of Berlin gave Lear the title of Kammersängerin for her contribution to the opera in that city while the Salzburg Festival honored her with the Max Reinhardt Award. She won a Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording in the Grammy Awards of 1966 for her work with Karl Böhm, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Fritz Wunderlich and the German Opera and Chorus for their performance of Berg's Wozzeck.

Family
Lear and Thomas Stewart married in 1955 and were together until his death on 24 September 2006, aged 78. She had two children by her previous marriage. Lear died on July 1, 2012, at Brook Grove nursing center in Sandy Spring, Maryland, aged 86.

Select discography

 * Bernstein: On the Town, conducted by Michael Tilson Thomas, Deutsche Grammophon
 * Strauss: Der Rosenkavalier, conducted by Edo de Waart, Philips

title: Evelyn Lear