text:
Capella

Capella is the brightest star in the northern constellation of Auriga. It has the Bayer designation α Aurigae, which is Latinised to Alpha Aurigae and abbreviated Alpha Aur or α Aur. Capella is the sixth-brightest star in the night sky, and the third-brightest in the northern celestial hemisphere after Arcturus and Vega. A prominent object in the northern winter sky, it is circumpolar to observers north of 44°N. Its name meaning "little goat" in Latin, Capella depicted the goat Amalthea that suckled Zeus in classical mythology. Capella is relatively close, at 42.9 ly from the Sun. It is one of the brightest X-ray sources in the sky, thought to come primarily from the corona of Capella Aa.

Although it appears to be a single star to the naked eye, Capella is actually a quadruple star system organized in two binary pairs, made up of the stars Capella Aa, Capella Ab, Capella H and Capella L. The primary pair, Capella Aa and Capella Ab, are two bright-yellow giant stars, both of which are around 2.5 times as massive as the Sun. The secondary pair, Capella H and Capella L, are around 10,000 astronomical units (AU) from the first and are two faint, small and relatively cool red dwarfs.

Capella Aa and Capella Ab have exhausted their core hydrogen, and cooled and expanded, moving off the main sequence. They are in a very tight circular orbit about 0.74 AU apart, and orbit each other every 104 days. Capella Aa is the cooler and more luminous of the two with spectral class K0III; it is 78.7 ± 4.2 times the Sun's luminosity and 11.98 ± 0.57 times its radius. An aging red clump star, it is fusing helium to carbon and oxygen in its core. Capella Ab is slightly smaller and hotter and of spectral class G1III; it is 72.7 ± 3.6 times as luminous as the Sun and 8.83 ± 0.33 times its radius. It is in the Hertzsprung gap, corresponding to a brief subgiant evolutionary phase as it expands and cools to become a red giant. Several other stars in the same visual field have been catalogued as companions but are physically unrelated.

Nomenclature
α Aurigae (Latinised to Alpha Aurigae) is the star system's Bayer designation. It also has the Flamsteed designation 13 Aurigae. It is listed in several multiple star catalogues as ADS 3841, CCDM J05168+4559, and WDS J05167+4600. As a relatively nearby star system, Capella is listed in the Gliese-Jahreiss Catalogue with designations GJ 194 for the bright pair of giants and GJ 195 for the faint pair of red dwarfs.

The traditional name Capella is Latin for (small) female goat; the alternative name Capra was more commonly used in classical times. It is the translation of the Greek star name Aἴξ (aix) meaning "the Goat". As the sound of the Greek term for the goat (aἴξ) is similar to the sound of the name for the Aegaean Sea, this star has been used for weather rules and determining the seasonal wind direction. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalogue and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included Capella for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names. The catalogue of star names lists Capella as applying to the star α Aurigae Aa.

Observational history
Capella was the brightest star in the night sky from 210,000 years ago to 160,000 years ago, at about −1.8 in apparent magnitude. At −1.1, Aldebaran was brightest before this period; it and Capella were situated rather close to each other in the sky and approximated boreal pole stars at the time.

Capella is thought to be mentioned in an Akkadian inscription dating to the 20th century BC. Its goat-associated symbolism dates back to Mesopotamia as a constellation called "GAM", "Gamlum" or "MUL.GAM" in the 7th-century BC document MUL.APIN. GAM represented a scimitar or crook and may have represented the star alone or the constellation of Auriga as a whole. Later, Bedouin astronomers created constellations that were groups of animals, where each star represented one animal. The stars of Auriga comprised a herd of goats, an association also present in Greek mythology. It is sometimes called the Shepherd's Star in English literature. Capella was seen as a portent of rain in classical times.

Building J of the pre-Columbian site Monte Albán in Oaxaca state in Mexico was built around 275 BC, at a different orientation to other structures in the complex. Its steps are aligned perpendicular to the rising of Capella at that time, so that a person looking out a doorway on the building would have faced it directly. Capella is significant as its heliacal rising took place within a day of the Sun passing directly overhead over Monte Albán.

Multiple status
Professor William Wallace Campbell of the Lick Observatory announced that Capella was binary in 1899, based on spectroscopic observations—he noted on photographic plates taken from August 1896 to February 1897 that a second spectrum appeared superimposed over the first, and that there was a doppler shift to violet in September and October and to red in November and February—showing that the components were moving toward and away from the Earth (and hence orbiting each other). Almost simultaneously, British astronomer Hugh Newall had observed its composite spectrum with a four prism spectroscope attached to a 25 in telescope at Cambridge in July 1899, concluding that it was a binary star system.

Many observers tried to discern the component stars without success. Known as "The Interferometrist's Friend", it was first resolved interferometrically in 1919 by John Anderson and Francis Pease at Mount Wilson Observatory, who published an orbit in 1920 based on their observations. This was the first interferometric measurement of any object outside the Solar System. A high-precision orbit was published in 1994 based on observations by the Mark III Stellar Interferometer, again at Mount Wilson Observatory. Capella also became the first astronomical object to be imaged by a separate element optical interferometer when it was imaged by the Cambridge Optical Aperture Synthesis Telescope in September 1995.

In 1914, Finnish astronomer Ragnar Furuhjelm observed that the spectroscopic binary had a faint companion star, which, as its proper motion was similar to that of the spectroscopic binary, was probably physically bound to it. In February 1936, Carl L. Stearns observed that this companion appeared to be double itself; this was confirmed in September that year by Gerard Kuiper. This pair are designated Capella H and L.

X-ray source
Two Aerobee-Hi rocket flights on September 20, 1962, and March 15, 1963, detected and confirmed an X-ray source in Auriga at RA 05:09:0 Dec +45°, identified as Capella. A major milestone in stellar X-ray astronomy happened on April 5, 1974, with the detection of the strongest emission of X-rays up to that time from Capella, measured at more than 10,000 times the x-ray luminosity of the Sun. A rocket flight on that date briefly calibrated its attitude control system when a star sensor pointed the payload axis at Capella. During this period, X-rays in the range 0.2–1.6 keV were detected by an X-ray reflector system co-aligned with the star sensor.

The X-ray luminosity (Lx) of ~1024 W (1031 erg s−1) is four orders of magnitude above the Sun's X-ray luminosity. Capella's X-rays are thought to be primarily from the corona of the most massive star. Capella is ROSAT X-ray source 1RXS J051642.2+460001. The high temperature of Capella's corona as obtained from the first coronal X-ray spectrum of Capella using HEAO 1 would require magnetic confinement, unless it is a free-flowing coronal wind.

Observation
With an average apparent magnitude of +0.08, Capella is the brightest object in the constellation Auriga, the sixth-brightest star in the night sky, the third-brightest in the northern celestial hemisphere (after Arcturus and Vega), and the fourth-brightest visible to the naked eye from the latitude 40°N. It appears to be a rich yellowish-white colour, although the yellow colour is more apparent during daylight observation with a telescope, due to the contrast against the blue sky.

Capella is closer to the north celestial pole than any other first-magnitude star. Its northern declination is such that it is actually invisible south of latitude 44°S—this includes southernmost New Zealand, Argentina and Chile as well as the Falkland Islands. Conversely it is circumpolar north of 44°N: for the whole of the United Kingdom and Canada (except for part of Southern Ontario), most of Europe, and the northernmost fringes of the contiguous United States, the star never sets. Capella and Vega are on opposite sides of the pole, at about the same distance from it, such that an imaginary line between the two stars will nearly pass through Polaris. Visible halfway between Orion's Belt and Polaris, Capella is at its highest in the night sky at midnight in early December and is regarded as a prominent star of the northern winter sky.

A few degrees to the southwest of Capella lie three stars, Epsilon Aurigae, Zeta Aurigae and Eta Aurigae, the latter two of which are known as "The Kids", or Haedi. The four form a familiar pattern, or asterism, in the sky.

Distance
Based on an annual parallax shift of 76.20 milliarcseconds (with a margin of error of 0.46 milliarcseconds) as measured by the Hipparcos satellite, this system is estimated to be 13.12 pc from Earth, with a margin of error of 0.3 light-year (0.09 parsec). An alternative method to determine the distance is via the orbital parallax, which gives a distance of 13.159 pc with a margin of error of only 0.1%. Capella is estimated to have been a little closer to the Solar System in the past, passing within 29 light-years distant around 237,000 years ago. At this range, it would have shone at apparent magnitude −0.82, comparable to Canopus today.

In a 1960 paper, American astronomer Olin J. Eggen concluded that Capella was a member of the Hyades moving group, a group of stars moving in the same direction as the Hyades cluster, after analysing its proper motion and parallax. Members of the group are of a similar age, and those that are around 2.5 times as massive as the Sun have moved off the main sequence after exhausting their core hydrogen reserves and are expanding and cooling into red giants.

Stellar system
There are several stars within a few arcminutes of Capella and some have been listed as companions in various multiple star catalogues. The Washington Double Star Catalog lists components A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, L, M, N, O, P, Q, and R, with A being the naked-eye star. Most are only line-of-sight companions, but the close pair of red dwarfs H and L are at the same distance as the bright component A and moving through space along with it. Capella A is itself a spectroscopic binary with components Aa and Ab, both giant stars. The pair of giants is separated from the pair of red dwarfs by 723".

American astronomer Robert Burnham Jr. described a scale model of the system where Capella A was represented by spheres 13 and 7 inches across, separated by ten feet. The red dwarfs were then each 0.7 inch across and they were separated by 420 feet. At this scale, the two pairs are 21 miles apart.

Capella A
Capella A consists of two yellow evolved stars that have been calculated to orbit each other every 104.02128 ± 0.00016 days, with a semimajor axis of 111.11 ± 0.10 million km (0.74272 ± 0.00069 AU), roughly the distance between Venus and the Sun. The pair is not an eclipsing binary—that is, as seen from Earth, neither star passes in front of the other. The orbit is known extremely accurately and can be used to derive an orbital parallax with far better precision than the one measured directly. The stars are not near enough to each other for the Roche lobe of either star to have been filled and any significant mass transfer to have taken place, even during the red giant stage of the primary star.

Modern convention designates the more luminous cooler star as component Aa and its spectral type has been usually measured between G2 and K0. The hotter secondary Ab has been given various spectral types of late (cooler) F or early (warmer) G. The MK spectral types of the two stars have been measured a number of times, and they are both consistently assigned a luminosity class of III indicating a giant star. The composite spectrum appears to be dominated by the primary star due to its sharper absorption lines; the lines from the secondary are broadened and blurred by its rapid rotation. The composite spectral class is given as approximately G3III, but with a specific mention of features due to a cooler component. The most recent specific published types are K0III and G1III, although older values are still widely quoted such as G5IIIe + G0III from the Bright Star Catalogue or G8III + G0III by Eggen. Where the context is clear, these two components have been referred to as A and B.

The individual apparent magnitudes of the two component stars cannot be directly measured, but their relative brightness has been measured at various wavelengths. They have very nearly equal brightness in the visible light spectrum, with the hotter secondary component generally being found to be a few tenths of a magnitude brighter. A 2016 measurement gives the magnitude difference between the two stars at a wavelength of 700 nm as 0.00 ± 0.1.

The physical properties of the two stars can be determined with high accuracy. The masses are derived directly from the orbital solution, with Aa being and Ab being. Their angular radii have been directly measured; in combination with the very accurate distance, this gives and  for Aa and Ab, respectively. Their surface temperatures can be calculated by comparison of observed and synthetic spectra, direct measurement of their angular diameters and brightnesses, calibration against their observed colour indices, and disentangling of high resolution spectra. Weighted averages of these four methods give 4,970 ± 50 K for Aa and 5,730 ± 60 for Ab. Their bolometric luminosities are most accurately derived from their apparent magnitudes and bolometric corrections, but are confirmed by calculation from the temperatures and radii of the stars. Aa is 78.7 ± 4.2 times as luminous as the Sun and Ab 72.7 ± 3.6 times as luminous, so the star defined as the primary component is the more luminous when all wavelengths are considered but very slightly less bright at visual wavelengths.

Estimated to be 590 to 650 million years old, the stars were probably at the hot end of spectral class A during their main-sequence lifetime, similar to Vega. They have now exhausted their core hydrogen and evolved off the main sequence, their outer layers expanding and cooling. Despite the giant luminosity class, the secondary component is very clearly within the Hertzsprung gap on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, still expanding and cooling towards the red giant branch, making it a subgiant in evolutionary terms. The more massive primary has already passed through this stage, when it reached a maximum radius of 36 to 38 times that of the Sun. It is now a red clump star which is fusing helium to carbon and oxygen in its core, a process that has not yet begun for the less massive star. Detailed analysis shows that it is nearing the end of this stage and starting to expand again which will lead it to the asymptotic giant branch. Isotope abundances and spin rates confirm this evolutionary difference between the two stars. Heavy element abundances are broadly comparable to those of the Sun and the overall metallicity is slightly less than the Sun's.

The rotational period of each star can be measured by observing periodic variations in the doppler shifts of their spectral lines. The absolute rotational velocities of the two stars are known from their inclinations, rotation periods, and sizes, but the projected equatorial rotational velocities measured using doppler broadening of spectral lines are a standard measure and these are generally quoted. Capella Aa has a projected rotational velocity of 4.1 ± 0.4 km per second, taking 104 ± 3 days to complete one rotation, while Capella Ab spins much more rapidly at 35.0 ± 0.5 km per second, completing a full rotation in only 8.5 ± 0.2 days. Rotational braking occurs in all stars when they expand into giants, and binary stars are also tidally braked. Capella Aa has slowed until it is rotationally locked to the orbital period, although theory predicts that it should still be rotating more quickly from a starting point of a rapidly-spinning main sequence A star.

Capella has long been suspected to be slightly variable. Its amplitude of about 0.1 magnitudes means that it may at times be brighter or fainter than Rigel, Betelgeuse and Vega, which are also variable. The system has been classified as an RS Canum Venaticorum variable, a class of binary stars with active chromospheres that cause huge starspots, but it is still only listed as a suspected variable in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars. Unusually for RS CVn systems, the hotter star, Capella Ab, has the more active atmosphere because it is located in the Hertzsprung gap—a stage where it is changing its angular momentum and deepening its convection zone.

The active atmospheres and closeness of these stars means that they are among the brightest X-ray sources in the sky. However the X-ray emission is due to stable coronal structures and not eruptive flaring activity. Coronal loops larger than the Sun and with temperatures of several million kelvin are likely to be responsible for the majority of the X-rays.

Capella HL
The seventh companion published for Capella, component H, is physically associated with the bright primary star. It is a red dwarf separated from the pair of G-type giants by a distance of around $$. It has its own close companion, an even fainter red dwarf that was 1.8″ away when it was discovered in 1935. It is component L in double star catalogues. In 2015 the separation had increased to 3.5″, which was sufficient to allow tentative orbital parameters to be derived, 80 years after its discovery. The Gliese-Jahreiss Catalogue of nearby stars designates the binary system as GJ 195. The two components are then referred to individually as GJ 195 A and B.

The two stars are reported to have a 3.5-visual-magnitude difference (2.3 mag in the passband of the Gaia spacecraft) although the difference is much smaller at infrared wavelengths. This is unexpected and may indicate further unseen companions.

The mass of the stars can, in principle, be determined from the orbital motion, but uncertainties in the orbit have led to widely varying results. In 1975, an eccentric 388-year orbit gave masses of and. A smaller near-circular orbit published in 2015 had a 300-year orbit, benefitting from mass constraints of and, respectively, for GJ 195 A and B, based on their infrared magnitudes.

Visual companions
Six visual companions to Capella were discovered before Capella H and are generally known only as Capella B through G. None are thought to be physically associated with Capella, although all appear closer in the sky than the HL pair.

Component F is also known as TYC 3358-3142-1. It is listed with a spectral type of K although it is included in a catalogue of OB stars as a distant luminous star.

Component G is BD+45 1076, with a spectral type of F0, at a distance of 123 pc. It is identified as a variable member of the Guide Star Catalogue from Chandra observations although it is not known what type of variability. It is known to be an X-ray source with an active corona.

Several other stars have also been catalogued as companions to Capella. Components I, Q and R are 13th-magnitude stars at distances of 92″, 133″ and 134″. V538 Aurigae and its close companion HD 233153 are red dwarfs ten degrees away from Capella; they have very similar space motions but the small difference makes it possible that this is just a coincidence. Two faint stars have been discovered by speckle imaging in the Capella HL field, around 10″ distant from that pair. These have been catalogued as Capella O and P. It is not known whether they are physically associated with the red dwarf binary.

Etymology and culture
Capella traditionally marks the left shoulder of the constellation's eponymous charioteer, or, according to the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy's Almagest, the goat that the charioteer is carrying. In Bayer's 1603 work Uranometria, Capella marks the charioteer's back. The three Haedi had been identified as a separate constellation by Pliny the Elder and Manilius, and were called Capra, Caper, or Hircus, all of which relate to its status as the "goat star". Ptolemy merged the Charioteer and the Goats in the 2nd-century Almagest.

In Greek mythology, the star represented the goat Amalthea that suckled Zeus. It was this goat whose horn, after accidentally being broken off by Zeus, was transformed into the Cornucopia, or "horn of plenty", which would be filled with whatever its owner desired. Though most often associated with Amalthea, Capella has sometimes been associated with Amalthea's owner, a nymph. The myth of the nymph says that the goat's hideous appearance, resembling a Gorgon, was partially responsible for the Titans' defeat, after Zeus skinned the goat and wore it as his aegis.

In medieval accounts, it bore the uncommon name Alhajoth (also spelled Alhaior, Althaiot, Alhaiset, Alhatod, Alhojet, Alanac, Alanat, Alioc), which (especially the last) may be a corruption of its Arabic name, العيوق, al-cayyūq. cAyyūq has no clear significance in Arabic, but may be an Arabized form of the Greek αίξ aiks "goat"; cf. the modern Greek Αίγα Aiga, the feminine of goat. To the Bedouin of the Negev and Sinai, Capella al-'Ayyūq ath-Thurayyā "Capella of the Pleiades", from its role as pointing out the position of that asterism. Another name in Arabic was Al-Rākib "the driver", a translation of the Greek.

To the ancient Balts, Capella was known as Perkūno Ožka "Thunder's Goat", or Tikutis. Conversely in Slavic Macedonian folklore, Capella was Jastreb "the hawk", flying high above and ready to pounce on Mother Hen (the Pleiades) and the Rooster (Nath).

Astrologically, Capella portends civic and military honors and wealth. In the Middle Ages, it was considered a Behenian fixed star, with the stone sapphire and the plants horehound, mint, mugwort and mandrake as attributes. Cornelius Agrippa listed its kabbalistic sign with the name Hircus (Latin for goat).

In Hindu mythology, Capella was seen as the heart of Brahma, Brahma Hṛdaya. In traditional Chinese astronomy, Capella was part of the asterism 五車 (Wŭ chē; English: Five Chariots), which consisted of Capella together with Beta Aurigae, Theta Aurigae and Iota Aurigae, as well as Beta Tauri. Since it was the second star in this asterism, it has the Chinese name 五車二 (Wŭ chē èr; English: Second of the Five Chariots).

In Quechua it was known as Colça; the Incas held the star in high regard. The Hawaiians saw Capella as part of an asterism Ke ka o Makali'i ("The canoe bailer of Makali'i") that helped them navigate at sea. Called Hoku-lei "star wreath", it formed this asterism with Procyon, Sirius, Castor and Pollux. In Tahitian folklore, Capella was Tahi-ari'i, the wife of Fa'a-nui (Auriga) and mother of prince Ta'urua (Venus) who sails his canoe across the sky. In Inuit astronomy, Capella, along with Menkalinan (Beta Aurigae), Pollux (Beta Geminorum) and Castor (Alpha Geminorum), formed a constellation Quturjuuk, "collar-bones", the two pairs of stars denoting a bone each. Used for navigation and time-keeping at night, the constellation was recognised from Alaska to western Greenland. The Gwich'in saw Capella and Menkalinan has forming shreets'ą įį vidzee, the right ear of the large circumpolar constellation Yahdii, which covered much of the night sky, and whose orientation facilitated navigation and timekeeping.

In Australian Aboriginal mythology for the Boorong people of Victoria, Capella was Purra, the kangaroo, pursued and killed by the nearby Gemini twins, Yurree (Castor) and Wanjel (Pollux). The Wardaman people of northern Australia knew the star as Yagalal, a ceremonial fish scale, related to Guwamba the barramundi (Aldebaran).

Namesakes

 * Capella, a lunar crater to the north of the Mare Nectaris, not named after the star
 * USS Capella (AK-13) and USNS Capella (T-AKR-293), both U.S. Navy ships
 * Mazda Capella, a model of automobile manufactured by Mazda

title: Capella


text:
The Hot Gates

The Hot Gates is the title of a collection of essays by William Golding, author of Lord of the Flies. The collection is divided into four sections: "People and Places", "Books", "Westward Look" and "Caught in a Bush". Published in 1965, it includes pieces that Golding had written over the previous ten years. "Caught in a Bush" contains his childhood recollections "Billy the Kid" and "The Ladder and the Tree", and his essay "Fable", which answered questions about Lord of the Flies appears in "Books". "Fable" is based on lectures Golding gave at UCLA in California and he hoped it would answer "some of the standard questions which students were asking". The book starts out with an essay on the Battle of Thermopylae, which can be translated from ancient Greek to English as "hot gates", thus giving it the title. The Hot Gates are famous for being the place where Leonidas I made his last stand against the Persian army under Xerxes I.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Hot Gates


text:
Talk:The Two Georges

Release dates?
The release ans award dates (if correct) require time travel.

Anyone know the correct dates? Osprey

 * Per the Sidewise Award site, it was indeed nominated for the 1995 award (though it did not, in fact, win it). Per Amazon, the first edition was released March 1, 1996.  So I'm confused, too. —Cryptic (talk) 04:49, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * You know? This one had me stumped as well, until it dawned on me. When you read, Sidewise's website, you'll note the publisher is listed as "Hodder & Staughton", a *British* publisher. Apparently, it was published in the UK first in 1995, before its U.S. debut in March of 1996. See: http://catalogue.bl.uk for details. The book was an interesting read, I remember it. Interesting, a mistake we make often in the USA, assuming a book has been published in this country first. I wonder if the same would have happened in Turtledove's British America, or "North American Union" --Larry G 05:50, 13 November 2005 (UTC) Posting from around New Liverpool.

Flag
I have switched the "jack and stripes" used on this page a flag of the British East India Company with the post-1800 Union Jack. According to FOTW, this flag is used in the book; see http://flagspot.net/flags/fic_2g.html#nau. - Thanks, Hoshie 09:33, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

I'm sorry,
But alot of stuff after the plot summary looks like original research and/or questionable. 68.39.174.238 04:22, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

I agree with the above poster. That, and, much of the section "Social and Political Themes" is written in a manner that unfit of an encyclopedia article. The about Martin Luther King are written in a manner best fitting a review of the book, not an encyclopedia article on it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.158.55.245 (talk) 03:52, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

That map is...
...incorrect, per the authoritative version included in the front of the version I finished reading. The British still have British Guiana, Portugal is evidently independent (Or at least still owns Brazil), all of Africa is listed as belonging to someone, etc, etc. 68.39.174.238 18:26, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

The Road to Wigan Pier
Not sure where or whether this should be inserted but The Two Georges' scenes of mining life owe a lot to George Orwell's The Road to Wigan Pier. Avalon (talk) 08:58, 21 April 2011 (UTC)

Provinces of the NAU/Edit Request 8/20/14

 * In this book, the North American Union is composed of many provices. Could they be put on the artical in a table, please? I will list the provinces below. Note, OTL means Original Time Line or Our Time Line and ATL means Alternate Time Line. Could a map of the North American Union from the book also be put on Wikipedia on the Two Georges page? 24.147.1.197 (talk) 15:40, 20 August 2014 (UTC)Jacob Chesley

List of Provices

 * These are all of the known provinces of the North American Union. My source was from the Harry Turtledove Wiki. That wiki helped me out with the list. 24.147.1.197 (talk) 15:40, 20 August 2014 (UTC)Jacob Chesley

 * Albertus - OTL Alberta and west-central Montana.

 * Baffin - OTL North West Territories (less the Southeastern section) and northwestern Nunavut aswell as the Victoria and King William Islands.

 * Banksia - OTL Yukon.

 * Canada - OTL Ontario.

 * Cherokee Nation - OTL northwest Alabama, northern Mississippi, a northeastern part of Louisiana and southeastern Arkansas.

 * Connecticut - OTL Connecticut.

 * Cranmer - OTL Texas (minus the eastern part) and Oklahoma (minus the southeastern corner). This province is named after Thomas Cranmer.

 * Delaware - OTL Delaware.
 * Disraeli - OTL southeaster Idaho, eastern Nevada, all of Utah, and western Colorado. This province is named after Benjamin Disraeli.

 * Florida - OTL Florida, the extreme southern parts of Alabama and Mississippi bordering the Gulf of Mexico, and the Florida Parishes of Louisiana.

 * Franklin - OTL Kentucky. This province is named after Benjamin Franklin.

 * Georgia - OTL Georgia and the remaining part of Alabama.

 * Hanover - OTL eastern Montana, southwestern South Dakota, all of Wyoming, and eastern Colorado and Nebraska north of the Platte River.

 * Hudsonia - OTL Nunavut (minus the northwestern section aswell as the Victorian and King Islands) and the southeastern section of the Northwest Territories.

 * Illinois - OTL Illinois.

 * Louisiana - OTL Louisiana (minis the Florida Parishes and the northeastern part), a central strip of Mississippi, eastern Texas, southeastern Oklahoma, and a southwestern corner of Arkansas.

 * Lower California - OTL Baja California and Baja California Sur.

 * Maryland - OTL Maryland.
 * Massachusetts - OTL Massachusetts and Maine.

 * Mississippi - OTL western Minnesota west of the Mississippi River, southeastern North Dakota, South Dakota east of the Missouri River, and Iowa and Missouri north of the Missouri River.

 * Missouri - OTL Missouri south of the Missour River, northern Arkansas, and Kansas and Nebraska south of the Platte River.

 * New Brunswick - OTL New Brunswick.

 * Newfoundland - OTL Newfoundland and Labrador.

 * New Guernsey - OTL Wisconsin, Minnesota east of the Mississippi River, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.

 * New Hampshire - OTL New Hampshire.

 * New Jersey - OTL New Jersey.

 * New Scotland - OTL Nova Scotia.

 * New York - OTL New York (minus the western section), but includes all of OTL Vermont.

 * North Carolina - OTL North Carolina.

 * Ontario - OTL Manitoba, northeastern North Dakota, and northwestern Minnesota.

 * Oregon - OTL Oregon and Washington (state), along with most of Idaho and northwestern Montana.

 * Pennsylvania - OTL Pennsylvania.

 * Phoenix - OTL Arizona and New Mexico.

 * Quebec - OTL Quebec.

 * Rhode Island - OTL Rhode Island.

 * South Carolina - OTL South Carolina.

 * Tennessee - OTL Tennessee.

 * The Six Nations - OTL western New York.

 * Tippecanoe - OTL Indiana.

 * Upper California - OTL California and western Nevada.

 * Vancouver - OTL British Colombia.

 * Victoria - Although not a province at all, Victoria is the seat of the North American Union Government. It takes up OTL Washington D.C. and is named after Queen Victoria. The city is in Maryland.

 * Virginia - Both OTL Virginia and West Virginia.

 * Washington - OTL Saskachewan, eastern Montana, western North Dakota, and norhtwestern South Dakota. This province is named after George Washington.

Well, here is the finished list! I hope someone answers and does my request soon! 24.147.1.197 (talk) 15:40, 20 August 2014 (UTC)Jacob Chesley
 * Wilberforce - OTL Michigan (except the Upper Peninsula).

 * ✅ Long since done. I almost completely forgot about this comment I left back when I was editing Wikipedia as a wiki contributor under my first IP address. My request ended up being answered by myself under my second IP address! Funny how the time just goes by so fast these days. --JCC the Alternate Historian (talk) 22:02, 14 February 2018 (UTC)

Mess up on Provinces Section
I was able to put down all of the provinces of the North American Union on the page. However, something messed up and my editing didn't come out like I planed. I thought I set up the table where I put the names of all the provinces in order correctly, but the table still got screwed up somehow. Could someone fix my mess up? --75.68.122.13 (talk) 14:24, 17 January 2015 (UTC)Jacob Chesley the Alternate Historian

Who ever fixed my mess up, thank you very much :)! --75.68.122.13 (talk) 18:56, 29 January 2015 (UTC)Jacob Chesley the Alternate Historian

 * It was me - just needed to add a couple of lines to start the table. You're welcome! Robevans123 (talk) 19:04, 29 January 2015 (UTC)

Map/Edit Request 7/29/2016
Could new map be added to the article? The map of the world that is already on the article is horribly inaccurate to the one on found in the novel. The borders of some of the nations and colonies and wrong and a few of those colonies and shown to be part of the wrong European power. The map in the link below me is much cleaner and more accurate.

http://vignette3.wikia.nocookie.net/turtledove/images/6/69/WorldMap_1995_TheTwoGeorges_by_lamnay.jpg/revision/latest?cb=20120730173506

--75.68.122.13 (talk) 15:27, 29 July 2016 (UTC)Jacob Chesley the Alternate Historian

Why I changed the categories
While the novel was first published in the U.K. (which is why I left it in 1995 British novels), the authors are both very American authors. It just happened that for logistic reasons related to the two publishers' schedules, the U.K. edition technically came out first. The authors are Yanks, the sales of the U.S. edition were much higher, etc. It is extremely misleading to categorize this as a British book in any way except "the first edition is the U.K. edition". -- Orange Mike |  Talk  02:38, 5 January 2018 (UTC)

Agreed Hugo999 (talk) 22:19, 5 January 2018 (UTC)

Very Inaccurate Map/Request for a Better Map 2/15/2018
The map that is shown here on the Two Georges article here on Wikipedia (originally on Wikimedia) is very incorrect and outdated. In fact, one of the only few accurate things on this map in that it shows Jamaica under control of the Holy Alliance (Franco-Spain) as it does on the map in the novel. In fact, I'm just going to list as many inaccurate things I can find about this map as I can possibly find. --JCC the Alternate Historian (talk) 21:30, 15 February 2018 (UTC)

 * The Baja California Peninsula is shown as Franco-Spanish territory when in the novel it is under control of the North American Union as the Providence of Lower California.
 * Most of the islands in both the Carribian and the Pacific Ocean are shown under British control even though it isn't mentioned which Empire controls what island due to their sizes.
 * In South America, OTL Suriname is shown under Franco-Spanish control when it should still be Dutch Guyana with British Guyana to the West and Franco-Spanish Guyana to the East.
 * Brazil's border should be roughly the same as OTL even if it is still under Portuguese control.
 * The Holy Alliance (France and Spain) should have a small portion of Northern Italy in its borders.
 * The Netherlands should have control over Belgium and Luxembourg rather than being left blank.
 * In Africa, Ethiopia should be shaded in British colors since it is mentioned that it governed by India.
 * South Africa should have cleaner borders. It contains not just OTL South Africa, but also Swaziland, Lesotho, Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe.
 * Angola and Mozambique have more or less the same borders as they do in OTL.
 * The African Possessions of the British Empire not including South Africa, the Southern portion of the Ottoman Empire (a British protectorate), and Indian Ethiopia would include British West Africa consisting of the coastal lands around the Gulf of Guinea and separated from South Africa by Portuguese Angola (this includes nations such as Nigeria and Cameroon but not Liberia), British East Africa along the east coast from Portuguese Mozambique to and including the Horn of Africa (this includes nations such as Tanzania and Somalia).
 * Madagascar is left blank on the map when it should be part of the Franco-Spanish Holy Alliance.
 * Thailand is shown blank on the map when it should be part of Indochina and thus, the Holy Alliance. It is mentioned that Siam (Thailand) prolonged efforts to retain its independence, it eventually succumbed to the tide of 19th century European colonialism and became a French colony, and incorporated into Franco-Spanish Indochina. With that, blank on the map Indochina (modern day Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) should also be shaded under Franco-Spanish rule.
 * The Philippines are left blank even though that are under Franco-Spanish rule.
 * Japan is left blank even though it is mentioned as a second tier power and controls a small empire.
 * Formosa (Taiwan) is shown under British control on the map when it should be under Japanese control.
 * The Korean Peninsula is shown blank went it should be under Japanese control.
 * And lastly, Indonesia is blank when it should be under Dutch control as the Dutch East Indies.

Well, that is all the errors I could find on the Wikimedia map of The Two Georges. I'll be back shortly with some links to more accurate maps. --JCC the Alternate Historian (talk) 21:00, 16 February 2018 (UTC)

I found a much more accurate Two Georges world map while searching on the internet. Although it still has a few inaccuracy's (such as showing Jamaica and Belize), it's currently a much better map to use until someone can get a map from the front of the book added to Wikipedia. There is also a separate map in the book of the North American Union and its neighbors. However, I found a map of the NAU we can use for now until we can get that map from the novel uploaded to Wikipedia. Two links with the maps can be seen belong this comment.

https://vignette.wikia.nocookie.net/turtledove/images/6/69/WorldMap_1995_TheTwoGeorges_by_lamnay.jpg/revision/latest?cb=20120730173506 -The more accurate Two Georges map I was referring to.

https://www.alternatehistory.com/forum/attachments/two-georges-nau-desktop-png.253910/ - Map of the North American Union.

--JCC the Alternate Historian (talk) 21:28, 16 February 2018 (UTC)

Map
The text says that Baja is British American, but in the map it is French-Spanish. --ExperiencedArticleFixer (talk) 13:18, 10 July 2020 (UTC)

 * If your talking bout the map that is currently on the page, that map is Very very inaccurate. According to the map at the beginning of the book and some dialog, it mentions that Baja California (called Lower California in the novel) is part of the North American Union and is the Southern most province. Look at my above comments about the map, dude. --JCC the Alternate Historian (talk) 21:00, 9 August 2020 (UTC)

, Thanks for this effort. It adds a lot to the article.

I notice these differences between your version & the 1996 Tor edition:
 * Ethiopia is part of the British Empire & should be red. Significant: it shows the fuller extent of the British Empire
 * Madagascar is part of the Holy Alliance.  Significant: it shows the fuller extent of the Holy Alliance.
 * Hollandia & its Dutch colonies are not singled out with a color. They are clearly labeled.  I suggest making them all Dark Blue and Sweden light gray as its another minor county without an empire. ''Minor: as Hollandia has no role in the novel.  BUT it is the only empire not colored.,,

If you can update the map, I be happy to do a full comparison of the two, to find any other differences. — Lentower (talk) 17:39, 12 February 2021 (UTC):Briangotts}}, Thanks for this effort. It adds a lot to the article.

Richard Dreyfuss
Does anyone have any idea what Richard Dreyfuss contributed to this novel? Since Harry Turtledove is a historian, his contribution can be inferred, but Dreyfuss is an actor, and this is not a film. Just curious. Jokem (talk) 03:41, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Two Georges


text:
Talk:Marie-Thérèse, Duchess of Angoulême

Citation styles
This page has some inconsistent citation styles, so I am editing to a single style based on the guidelines at WP: Citing sources. Best, Oldsanfelipe2 (talk) 21:11, 10 May 2023 (UTC)

Identity?
Was princes replaced in 1795 by her half sister Ernestine Lambriquet? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.198.138.84 (talk • contribs) 02:35, 11 December 2004

Royalist bias?
The entire article is highly biased towards the royal family and royalism making the revolution out to be a horrible thing while the royal family was, despite some minor failings, a wonderful thing filled with loving individuals that doted on their children and gave their earnings to the poor. It is ridiculously naive and I would suggest a serious editing of the entire article.

 * I certainly agree that the article has a distinct royalist POV in spots. Rather than arguing the merits of that POV (naive or not), the article should be made more neutral.  It also needs to be better sourced.  I don't understand the tag about it needing to be more formal however.  The formality of the writing style seems fine to me.  Kevin Nelson 07:04, 11 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I have added a neutrality tag to this article. The previous poster is right - this article is highly biased in favour of the French Royal family. --Kelmendi 18:15, 16 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Perhaps I have a bias because of my family history, but the French Revolution was a murderous and barbarous action. My ancestor was beheaded in the Great Terror on account of his being a Catholic priest.
 * Bias against the Royal Family is every bit as much of a POV.
 * --FidesetRatio 06:19, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * That's not really the point. Of course the French revolution was horrible and violent, and many innocent people died.  That doesn't mean that the royal family was made up of saints, though - and that's how they are being presented in this article.  The best way to pay tribute to your dead ancestor is to present the victims of the French Revolution the way they really were, rather than as idealised versions.
 * --Kelmendi 22:08, 31 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Definitely read this article with basic knowledge of the French Revolution and it seems extremely biased to the family. The part were the Marie is said to feel guilt for the suffering of the poor cannot be fully proven, only speculated. Just as well. This does not give accurate viewpoints of everyone, mainly the poor, even while it is only on a child of the Revolution.Nrenee218 (talk) 08:08, 11 February 2017 (UTC)

In addition to being heavily biased towards the French Royal family, it is factually inaccurate as well. It refers to the "fall of the Monarchy" as happening prior to the fall of the Bastille (July 14, 1789) and serving as a catalyst for licentious publishing against Marie-Antoinette; in actuality the Austrian alliance had never been popular, the queen had been especially hated since the Affair of the Necklace in 1785, and the use of pornography to slander political enemies dates back to the Middle Ages and was extremely prevalent in Enlightenment France (cf. Robert Darnton, Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France.) The monarchy fell on August 10, 1792. The sexual charges made against the queen were of course ludicrous, but concerning the accusations of treason, it certainly cannot be claimed that "There was no evidence to support the charges." The queen had been exposing troop movements to her brother the Austrian emperor for several years, including after the declaration of war in 1792 (cf Thomas Carlyle, The French Revolution, 433), which is treason in any nation. At the time, treason was always given the death penalty; in the case of nobles like the queen, by decapitation, which is exactly what happened. The slandering of Jean Baptiste Drouet as a "former servant (who felt he had been mistreated by Louis XVI)" is ridiculous. He was a Postmaster and former soldier (Carlyle 391, Max Steel, Vive La Revolution, 117, William Doyle, French Revolution, 151). The entire article needs to be rewritten by someone with a more balanced approach, an attention to facts, and the citing of sources. Cypher z 01:54, 18 March 2007 (UTC)

Quite an informative article, well written on a relatively obscure topic —Preceding unsigned comment added by Drfcb (talk • contribs) 21:34, 11 November 2006

>>What is with this bit? "Louis XVI was an affectionate father, who delighted in spoiling his daughter and giving her anything she wanted. Marie-Thérèse appreciated him much more than her mother." Is there any evidence or sources to suggest this? It doesn't sound very academic at all. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.218.165.61 (talk) 01:56, 10 June 2010 (UTC)

All history is biased.
I greatly sympathize with the French people before and during the revolution. But at the same time I also equally sympathize for the French Royal Family. They were born into the same world as the rest of France and Europe with the same codes applying. They may have been in a much nicer position, but they were still bound by the same traditional order. King Louis XVI was misguided and alone his whole life with no one to turn to, at least until Marie Antoinette arrived, and still neither of them had really been taught anything on how to run a country. It is true that Marie Antoinette was very immature when she first arrived in France, but after she became a mother she settled down and became more sympathetic to the French people. However, she didn’t know how to help them, and neither did King Louis XVI. Their court constantly put pressure on them and ultimately was much stronger than the royal family. You also must remember that the France he was born into and she arrived into, was not of their making. The dept left by Louis XIV and the almost completely ignoring of the country by Louis XV made it almost impossible for them to fix anything. I will admit that they did make many mistakes, but they also at least tried to make up for it in some ways. But in the end they were just people who were caught up in the same dangerous misfortune and revolution as the rest of the country. And because of whom they were, people were even more biased against them, making the revolution even harder for them in some cases. It's amazing that Marie Therese Charlotte survived, especially when you look at what the great revolution did to her brother. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by DukeDarrickofDrugarcio (talk • contribs) 17:02, 28 February 2007 (UTC).

Modern Sources Required
This article needs to have some balance, with modern sources.72.80.111.132 (talk) 17:49, 25 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Resolved - included several citations of Marie-Therese: The Fate of Marie Antoinette's Daughter by Susan Nagel (originally pub. 2008, cited edition 2009). This brought about the addition of a whole new paragraph and a bit more, but I'll reference to it on currently-standing bits of information. Kfodderst (talk) 07:34, 4 April 2011 (UTC)

Name change
Maybe the article should be changed to Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte, Dauphine of France-Croix129 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.224.56.169 (talk) 02:16, 22 May 2008 (UTC)

Correct name of Marie-Thérèse Charlotte
I changed the title of the article to Marie-Thérèse Charlotte de France because *de France* is/was the surname of the kings of France & of their direct descendants; accordingly, as the daughter of Louis XVI of France, her name is Marie-Thérèse Charlotte de France. Also, hyphen only between her first two first names: Marie-Thérèse. Frania W. (talk) 00:44, 21 June 2009 (UTC)

Madame Royale
"Until her marriage to Louis-Antoine, Duke of Angoulême, eldest son of Charles X, the court referred to her by the traditional honorific of Madame Royale."

 * I removed the above from introduction as Marie-Thérèse was given the honorific Madame Royale at birth, which should be said in the lead, not what happened after her marriage.
 * Are we sure that she lost this honorific at the time of her marriage?
 * 1. She was born a fille de France at which time she was also Madame Royale.
 * 2. She married the duc d'Angoulême, a fils de France (thank you Montjoy for this one!)
 * 3. Did she lose the honorific at the death of her brother in June 1795 when Louis XVIII became king (although he could not reign for cause of Revolution)? If she was to lose it because not daughter of the reigning king, then that is when she should have lost it - not at the time of her marriage.
 * 4. At the time of her marriage to the duc d'Angoulême in 1799, there were no other fille de France alive & no other Madame Royale had replaced her, as non-reigning-king-in-exile Louis XVIII had no children.
 * 5. Did her marriage make her automatically lose the honorific Madame Royale?

In other words, she was Madame Royale at birth because born the eldest daughter of a king, a fact that never changed throughout her life as she was never displaced by the daughter of any other king who followed her father Louis XVI on the throne. The only person who could have taken the honorific from her was... herself when she became Dauphine in 1824, or - even for only twenty minutes - Queen of France, in August 1830.

Which leads to the last question: What was she when the duc de Bordeaux received the crown from his uncle the duc d'Angoulême, Louis XIX? Dowager Queen addressed to as Sa Majesté?

Royalement vôtre, Frania W. (talk) 19:14, 22 August 2009 (UTC)

She was really called Madame Royale from birth? Not Mademoiselle Royale? She was called comtesse de Marnes in exile, no? john k (talk) 05:32, 28 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Madame Royale from birth.
 * Comte de Marnes was the title taken by her husband the duc d'Angoulême as they went into exile after the double abdication of his father & himself on 2 August 1830 . --Frania W. (talk) 11:30, 29 May 2010 (UTC)

 * Madame Royale was the title given to the eldest unmarried daughter of the French monarch. She lost this title when she married. This is different from the British title Princess Royal, which is given for life; Princess Anne is the current Princess Royal and Princess Charlotte cannot become Princess Royal until Anne dies. History Lunatic (talk) 13:42, 16 June 2018 (UTC)History Lunatic

Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte de France
"de France" was her surname/family name. References are given in lead of article.

In http://www.heraldica.org/topics/france/frroyal.htm#names, at Family Names and Titles of Younger Sons, the second paragraph reads as follows: "Although the king of France had no family name, and his children were born "de France", there was a sense in which a certain house was on the throne. The legitimized children of kings took as family name the name of the house: for example, the son of Charles IX, was known as Charles de Valois, duke of Angoulême (the name of the house was officially Valois because François I had been made duc de Valois in 1498 before ascending the throne). The legitimized children of Henri IV and Louis XIV all had Bourbon as family name."

--Frania W. (talk) 14:12, 18 September 2010 (UTC)

 * I'd be fine with adding Charlotte. The fact that her surname was "de France" seems irrelevant to me.  Infante Gabriel of Spain had the surname "de Borbón y Sajonia," but we don't need to put that in the article title.  The Spanish Wikipedia does that, but we don't follow the same conventions. john k (talk) 15:11, 18 September 2010 (UTC)

John, the problem is not "Charlotte", she either signed "Marie-Thérèse" or "Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte", but the surname "de France". Is not the name of someone supposed to be given in the first sentence of the lead? A contributor keeps on reverting to "of" France her surname "de" France, which is a real surname/last name/family name, as explained in the various sources I have added to the article. She is "Marie-Thrèse-Charlotte de France, Countess of Angoulême", like we have "Philippe d 'Orléans, Duke of Orléans", "Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Condé" etc.

One of the references I brought to a previous discussion in another article was Diderot's Encyclopédie méthodique, Jurisprudence dédiée à ... Tome sixième, Paris 1786: et présentée à Monseigneur Hue de Miromesnil, Garde ... which explains the origin of surnames. On page 159, you can read: And it goes on on page 160 with explanation on the surname Orléans etc. --Frania W. (talk) 16:25, 18 September 2010 (UTC)
 * "Le nom de famille de nos rois de France & tous nos princes sont de la maison de France, en prenant ce nom, non comme un titre de dignité qui indique la possession de la couronne, mais comme un nom propre de famille ... (my underlining)
 * "Les filles de nos rois, lesquelles n'ont point d'apanage, portent distinctement le nom de France, comme nom de famille [...] Le surnom de France appartient aux filles des rois de France. "
 * "Les fils de France qui n'ont point d'apanage, parce qu'ils doivent hériter la couronne, portent toujours le nom de France. Le duc de Bourgogne ... s'appelle Louis de France, duc de Bourgogne".
 * "Les fils de France qui ont des apanages, joignent au nom de France comme nom de famille celui de leur apanage..." etc.
 * http://books.google.fr/books?id=IUk_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=nom+de+famille+%22de+Lorraine%22&hl=fr&ei=2jI7TPPbGMGB8gaG2qynBg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFwQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=nom%20de%20famille%20de%20France&f=false
 * Hmm, yeah, I think it should be de France in the first line. Just not in the title. john k (talk) 21:56, 18 September 2010 (UTC)
 * Hmm, hmm, yeah, yeah, I do not see why her real name could not be in the title, since it is her name... but I know that I am fighting windmills; however, in view of the fact that, unlike children of kings of other European countries (I think), the legitimate children of the kings of France had a surname, and it was "de France", I do not see why it cannot be used.
 * --Frania W. (talk) 02:17, 19 September 2010 (UTC)
 * The legitimate children of kings of Spain, Portugal, and the Two Sicilies definitely had (have, in the case of Spain) surnames. So also the legitimate children of (Farnese and Bourbon) dukes of Parma and Piacenza, (Este) dukes of Modena and Reggio, (Medici) grand dukes of Tuscany.  The Bernadotte kings of Sweden can probably also be considered to have surnames, as also the Tudor and especially Stuart kings of England and Scotland, and maybe the (Savoy) Kings of Sardinia.  Lack of surnames is a status that largely seems to pertain to the various dynasties of German origin. john k (talk) 05:13, 19 September 2010 (UTC)
 * The members of the Swedish Royal Family in male line descent from the first Bernadotte king do not have surnames. For instance, look in the tax registry of Sweden. The crown princess, among others, lack a surname. This is an outstanding example of a house rising from time memorial and shedding its surname. Most of the other examples you give are families whose names derive from territories and lands... Pseudo-surnames at best when "Grecia" can be one of the Prince of Asturias' names (although we can probably call this a surname for a contempory person today). I wouldn't called the Savoys surnamed either, since they considered themselves of the House of Savoy and enumerated themselves as such. The Portuguese were "of Braganza", as the ducal title indicates and the names of the princesses who married abroad. Parma... Is it even clear what and when? Zita, for instance, signed as "Zita de Bourbon, Princesse de Parme" (French). The late duke called himself "di Borbone Parma" (Translated! And a different form! But with the title prince preceding...). It's hard to call these surnames when they use the native form of "of" in their native languages. Contemporary documents (generally) separate a surname from the rest of a name. Unless a field on a birth certificate, etc, indicates the identifier at the end of the name to be a surname, we can't assume it is for royalty where such distinctions are anachronistic. Of all given examples perhaps only the English and Scottish are clearly and unambiguously surnamed. Tudor and Stuart certainly are not territorial or titular designations. Seven Letters 19:53, 22 September 2010 (UTC)
 * So Honoré of Balzac did not have a surname either? I don't see how the fact of translation makes things which are clearly surnames any less surnames.  You are imposing a particular modern standard onto this.  Plenty of people who are not royalty would translate their name if they moved to another country.  The name "Stuart," which you have already conceded is a surname, was the French translation of the original surname "Stewart."  I don't see how you can deny that Farnese, d'Este, Gonzaga, and de' Medici are surnames.  The Este, I suppose, were very old territorial nobility, and perhaps you can argue that that is a territorial designation.  One could more distantly make that argument about the Farnese, but at that point you have basically reached the point of dismissing any surname which at some point derived from a territorial designation.  The Medici, though were a middle class family of bankers, and the Gonzaga were, apparently, a family of officials, so probably from the urban patriciate rather than the territorial nobility.  I don't see how one can claim that either Medici or Gonzaga is not a surname.  Did the surnames of early modern European royalty function in exactly the same manner as a surname today?  Probably not, although we shouldn't imagine that "a surname today" is a unitary concept that can only work in one particular way.  That doesn't mean that they weren't, effectively surnames.  I'd add that I think it's at least arguable that "Bernadotte" remains the surname of members of the Swedish royal house, but simply isn't used for princes and princesses of Sweden.  As soon as the titles are disclaimed, their surname reverts to Bernadotte.  That's a rather different case from actually surnameless folks like the Greek royal family; when Prince Philip gave up his titles, a surname had to be invented for him. john k (talk) 22:58, 22 September 2010 (UTC)

 * John, I referred only to examples which I brought up and why. I never said that Farnese, Este, Gonzaga and Medici were not surnames. I can't remember how to search the Swedish tax registry (it had to be pointed out to me) but Crown Princess Victoria is entered as "Victoria Ingrid Alice Desirée *". The asterisk taking the place of a surname. I agree if any of her agnates became titleless that they would assume the surname Bernadotte but until and unless, surnameless. Same with the British royals... No Windsor for princes. Seven Letters 00:56, 23 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I suppose it's fair to say that the Swedes don't have surnames (although I think one can make the argument that they have surnames which are only used in the event that they don't have a royal title). I don't think it makes much sense to generalize about all royals.  Just because something is a territorial designation does not mean it is not also a surname.  Even the much vaunted surnamelessness of German royals seems exaggerated to me.  Certainly we treat mediatized aristocrats in the 19th century as having surnames, and the way they used their names was virtually indistinguishable from how they were used by members of reigning houses.  What is the different between a Prinz zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst and a Prinz von und zu Liechtenstein, namewise?  I just don't think that it makes sense to draw firm lines.  Some royals clearly don't have surnames (Greece, Norway, Belgium, Denmark).  Some clearly do (Stuart, Gonzaga, Medici).  And then there's a whole continuum in between where we have to make a judgment call as to where the line is between "territorial designation" and "surname".  Braganza and Bourbon (for the Spanish and Italian lines) are very close to being surnames, I think, as is d'Orléans.  Bernadotte and Windsor are surnames which exist in the ether, never used by actual royals but always ready to be used if royal status is lost.  Then there's a bunch of long-standing territorial designations, like Savoy, Lorraine, many of the German lines, which generally function as noble titles, surnames, and territorial designations all at once.  One can just as easily say that the country we now call "Austria" is named for the House of Habsburg, and the German state we call "Saxony" is named for the House of Wettin, as the reverse.  Is that a territorial designation?  The country of Liechtenstein is explicitly named for the House, although I believe the house was originally named for a different place called Liechtenstein.  We ought to accept diversity and not try to corral it into pre-made categories.  Although I fear we've gotten very far afield of the topic at hand. john k (talk) 02:36, 23 September 2010 (UTC)

torture
I don't like the fact that we say Louis XVII was "tortured." I think there's an implication of physical torture there, which Frania admits in the inline note there is no evidence for. Isn't there some way to phrase it so as to make clear that he was not physically tortured? The whole sentence also needs a source. john k (talk) 21:59, 18 September 2010 (UTC)

 * "Tortured" has to go, working on it. Since the women in their apartment could hear him cuss & sing the Marseillaise, they would have heard his screams had he been "tortured", and Marie-Charlotte never mentioned any such screams in her mémoires.The boy was treated harshly, no one can deny it. Being separated from his mother must have been unbearable, psychologically something akin to torture, but not what's implied in the text. Words like "abuse", "neglect" come to mind.
 * --Frania W. (talk) 03:30, 19 September 2010 (UTC)
 * Maybe we should say he was neglected and mistreated, or something along those lines? john k (talk) 05:09, 19 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I agree, as the only 19th century "eyewitness" accounts of him being "tortured" are from people who were not there. He definitely must have been "traumatized" when his father was executed & when he was separated from his mother, and his sister suffered the same traumas. The role of Simon was to re-educate his young royal pupil and turn him into a good little Republican, in which task he must have succeeded, the proof being in the "brainwashed" child loudly singing the Marseillaise, and signing the deposition against his mother. After the departure of the Simon couple in January 1794, the child locked into a room & left to die was certainly willfully "neglected".
 * --Frania W. (talk) 13:38, 19 September 2010 (UTC)
 * In fact, these details on the treatment of Louis-Charles do not belong in the article of his sister, so I took the bold decision of removing them... Now, we must turn to the article of the "little king who never reigned" & make corrections there: it needs major surgery.
 * --Frania W. (talk) 20:11, 19 September 2010 (UTC)
 * If he was not tortured, he was at least significantly beaten - Marie-Therese recorded hearing her brother's cries of pain as he was beaten, as I have incorporated into the article. They were both subject to torture - at the least, harsh and physical interrogation - for several hours, to get them to testify at Marie Antoinette's trial. But yes, this does not belong to this particular article. Kfodderst (talk) 07:32, 4 April 2011 (UTC)

Hildburghausen and Castle Eishausen Theories
These few incidents should be included into this article. Some references to aid writing a section for this: The Dark Count by Ludwig Bechstein, The Mystery of Hildburghausen by Brachvogel and Nevtelen Var (The Nameless Castle in English) by Jokai Mor for purporting the theory; in contrast, and a nice summary/overview, which dismantles the theory rather effectively, was done by Sophie Nagel in her book on Marie-Therese, Marie-Therese: The Fate of Marie Antoinette's Daughter. The inclusion should be done as soon as possible. I will be able to contribute as well, but maybe not immediately. If anyone has anymore references/sources or information, please mention them here so they can be included into the article. Kfodderst (talk) 07:41, 4 April 2011 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 21:51, 26 June 2016 (UTC)

Another image is available, but may not be needed
Please see this edit where I removed a text fragment that didn't make sense. It looks to be part of an image caption for an image which is not included here. See the main image at Victoire de Rohan. The baby in that picture is Marie Thérèse of France, sitting in the lap of Victoire de Rohan. Opinions may differ whether that drawing is well-suited here. EdJohnston (talk) 02:50, 21 April 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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text:
Jan Zbigniew Ossoliński

Jan Zbigniew Ossoliński (1555–1623) was a Polish–Lithuanian nobleman, or szlachcic.

He held the following offices:
 * Secretary to the King from 1578
 * Chamberlain or podkomorzy of Sandomierz from 1593
 * Castellan of Małogoszcz and Żarnów from 1603
 * Voivode of the Podlasie Voivodeship from 1605
 * Voivode of the Sandomierz Voivodeship from 1613
 * Elder or starost of Czersk, Nowe Miasto, and Stopnica.

Ossoliński was the son of Hieronim Ossoliński, and the father of Jerzy Ossoliński, who was to become Kanclerz (Chancellor) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

title: Jan Zbigniew Ossoliński


text:
1953 in rail transport

January events

 * January 15 - The brakes fail on Pennsylvania Railroad's southbound Federal Express passenger train; the train barrels through the end of track barriers and stationmaster's office at Union Station (Washington, D.C.), but nobody is killed in the accident.

March events

 * March - Union Pacific Railroad removes the streamliner trainset M-10003 from revenue service.
 * March 5 - After Joseph Stalin's death this day, construction work ceases on the ill-fated Salekhard-Igarka Railway in Siberian Arctic.
 * March 27 - Three train accident on the New York Central near Conneaut, Ohio, kills 21 and injures 49.
 * March 31 - The Staten Island Railway closes its North Shore and South Beach Branches.

April events

 * April - Fairbanks-Morse and Canadian Locomotive Company introduce the H-24-66 model Train Master diesel locomotive, at the time the most powerful single-engine diesel locomotive available.
 * April 12 - Last run of the Orange Blossom Special passenger train in United States.

May events

 * May 30 - The Cedar Rapids and Iowa City Railway runs its last passenger trains.

June events

 * June 5 - The last steam locomotive runs on the Lackawanna Railroad.
 * June 9 - Chesapeake and Ohio Railway 2-6-6-6 “Allegheny” number 1642 suffers a boiler explosion. All three head-end crew members are killed when the cab is blown in one piece 200 ft in the air and 300 yd off the mainline into the adjacent river. The boiler is blown off the running gear and flips end for end, coming to rest 600 ft ahead of the train. The blast is blamed on a faulty feedwater injector and/or cold water pump.
 * June 15 - The New York City Transit Authority is created.
 * June 16 - The last steam powered through passenger train runs on the Canada Southern.
 * June 16 - New York Central Railroad ends steam locomotive operation on the former Michigan Central Railroad with a train pulled by 4-6-4 number 5434.
 * June 17 – The Southern Railway (US) runs its last steam locomotive and the remaining steam locomotives on the line go into standby service.
 * June 22 - At the Annual Association of American Railroads railroad show the first Fairbanks-Morse Train Master diesel locomotives and Airslide covered hoppers are displayed, but for the first time no new steam locomotives are shown.
 * June 26 - The Rutland Railroad becomes freight-only.

July events

 * July 2 - Baltimore’s Museum of Transportation opens.
 * July 13 - Last day of steam locomotive operations on the Cotton Belt and Lackawanna Railroads.
 * July 25 - The New York City Subway begins using tokens for passenger fares.

August events

 * August 8 - The northbound Royal Scot train derails near Abington in Scotland descending from Beattock Summit due to buckling of track caused by high temperature; 37 are injured.
 * August 13 - The Chicago and North Western Railway begins Trailer-On-Flat-Car (TOFC, or "piggyback") service. The first route is an overnight service between Chicago and Green Bay, Wisconsin. At the start, two semi-truck trailers and a single fifty foot flat car are adequate to meet the demand.
 * August 15 - The Irk Valley Junction rail crash in Manchester, England kills 10 people.

September events

 * September 20 - The Chicago Aurora and Elgin Railroad ceases to operate into Chicago.

October events

 * October - The North British Locomotive Company of Glasgow, Scotland, begins delivery of class 25 4-8-4 locomotives to South African Railways ( gauge), the largest rigid-frame steam locomotives built in the UK (with condensing tenders, 234 tons 7 cwt and 107 ft 6 in. over buffers).
 * October 26
 * Electric operation of the Waldenburgerbahn in Switzerland begins using 1500 V DC and completely new rolling stock.
 * Passenger service is discontinued on the Pacific Electric Santa Monica Air Line.

November events

 * November 9
 * Canadian National Railway extends the line from Lynn Lake to Sherridon, Manitoba.
 * Canadian Pacific Railway introduces Budd Rail Diesel Car service, "Dayliners", for lighter passenger train duties on some branch lines.
 * November 15 - SNCF introduces 25 kV AC railway electrification on the line between Aix-les-Bains and La Roche-sur-Foron in south-eastern France as part of its trials of different railway electrification systems.
 * November 16 - New York Central Railroad's electric locomotive operations end at Cleveland Union Terminal.

December events

 * December 12 - Krauss-Maffei deliver first prototype Class V 200 diesel-hydraulic express locomotive to Deutsche Bundesbahn, Germany.
 * December 14 - Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway discontinues extra-fare charges on the El Capitan passenger train between Chicago, Illinois, and Los Angeles, California.
 * December 19 - An electric passenger train of the New South Wales Railways runs into the rear of another electric train, causing the Sydenham Rail Disaster. Five people die and 748 are injured.
 * December 24 - The Prague-Bratislava express train in the Czech Republic whose crew have fallen asleep after several bottles of wine hits a commuter train at a station, killing 106 in the Šakvice train disaster.
 * December 24 - 151 people die in the Tangiwai disaster in New Zealand when the Tangiwai Railway Bridge over the Whangaehu River collapses as the overnight express train between Wellington and Auckland passes over it; the bridge supports have been weakened by a lahar (a volcanic ash and debris filled flash flood) a few minutes earlier.
 * December 29 - The last electric locomotive runs through the Detroit River Tunnel. It is replaced by diesel locomotives.
 * December - Norfolk and Western Railway turns out class S1a 0-8-0 switcher #244 from its Roanoke Shops, the last conventional steam locomotive built for a United States Class I railroad.

Unknown date events

 * The first Trailer-On-Flat-Car (TOFC, or "piggyback") equipment enters service on the Southern Pacific Railroad in the United States.
 * Baghdad Central Station is opened by Iraqi State Railways.
 * John W. Barriger III steps down from the presidency of the Monon Railroad in the United States.

February deaths

 * February 14 – Richard Paul Wagner, locomotive designer for Deutsche Reichsbahn, 1922–1942, dies in Bavaria (born 1882).

May deaths

 * May 30 – Sam Fay, General manager of the Great Central Railway, 1902–1922, dies in Hampshire, England (born 1856).

title: 1953 in rail transport


text:
User:SlimVirgin/Wikipedia

 * Verifiability

 * Cite sources

 * Neutral point of view

 * [Wikipedia:No original research

On Mon, 6 Dec 2004, Jimmy (Jimbo) Wales wrote:

"An article that makes no new low-level claims, but nonetheless synthesizes work in a non-standard way, is effectively original research that I think we ought not to publish. This comes up most often in history, where there is a tendency by some Wikipedians to produce novel narratives and historical interpretations with citation to primary sources to back up their interpretation of events. Even if their citations are accurate, Wikipedia's poorly equipped to judge whether their particular synthesis of the available information is a reasonable one."

---

On Fri, 3 Dec 2004, Jimmy (Jimbo) Wales wrote:

"The phrase orginated primarily as a practical means to deal with physics cranks, of which of course there are a number on the web. The basic concept is as follows: it can be quite difficult for us to make any valid judgment as to whether a particular thing is true or not. It isn't appropriate for us to try to determine whether someone's novel theory of physics is valid, we aren't really equipped to do that. But what we "can" do is check whether or not it actually has been published in reputable journals or by reputable publishers. So it's quite convenient to avoid judging the credibility of things by simply sticking to things that have been judged credible by people much better equipped to decide. The exact same principle will hold true for history, though I suppose the application will in some cases be a bit different and more subtle."

On Mon, 6 Dec 2004, Jimmy (Jimbo) Wales wrote:

"An article that makes no new low-level claims, but nonetheless synthesizes work in a non-standard way, is effectively original research that I think we ought not to publish. This comes up most often in history, where there is a tendency by some Wikipedians to produce novel narratives and historical interpretations with citation to primary sources to back up their interpretation of events. Even if their citations are accurate, Wikipedia's poorly equipped to judge whether their particular synthesis of the available information is a reasonable one."

"I think in part this is just a symptom of an unfortunate tendency of disrespect for history as a professional discipline. Some who completely understand why Wikipedia ought not to create novel theories of physics by citing the results of experiments and so on and synthesizing them into something new, may fail to see how the same thing applies to history."

title: User:SlimVirgin/Wikipedia


text:
Hematopoietic stem cell

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are the stem cells that give rise to other blood cells. This process is called haematopoiesis. In vertebrates, the first definitive HSCs arise from the ventral endothelial wall of the embryonic aorta within the (midgestational) aorta-gonad-mesonephros region, through a process known as endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition. In adults, haematopoiesis occurs in the red bone marrow, in the core of most bones. The red bone marrow is derived from the layer of the embryo called the mesoderm.

Haematopoiesis is the process by which all mature blood cells are produced. It must balance enormous production needs (the average person produces more than 500 billion blood cells every day) with the need to regulate the number of each blood cell type in the circulation. In vertebrates, the vast majority of hematopoiesis occurs in the bone marrow and is derived from a limited number of hematopoietic stem cells that are multipotent and capable of extensive self-renewal.

Hematopoietic stem cells give rise to different types of blood cells, in lines called myeloid and lymphoid. Myeloid and lymphoid lineages both are involved in dendritic cell formation. Myeloid cells include monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, erythrocytes, and megakaryocytes to platelets. Lymphoid cells include T cells, B cells, natural killer cells, and innate lymphoid cells.

The definition of hematopoietic stem cell has developed since they were first discovered in 1961. The hematopoietic tissue contains cells with long-term and short-term regeneration capacities and committed multipotent, oligopotent, and unipotent progenitors. Hematopoietic stem cells constitute 1:10,000 of cells in myeloid tissue.

HSC transplants are used in the treatment of cancers and other immune system disorders due to their regenerative properties.

Structure
They are round, non-adherent, with a rounded nucleus and low cytoplasm-to-nucleus ratio. In shape, hematopoietic stem cells resemble lymphocytes.

Location
The very first hematopoietic stem cells during (mouse and human) embryonic development are found in aorta-gonad-mesonephros region and the vitelline and umbilical arteries. Slightly later, HSCs are also found in the placenta, yolk sac, embryonic head, and fetal liver.

Stem and progenitor cells can be taken from the pelvis, at the iliac crest, using a needle and syringe. The cells can be removed as liquid (to perform a smear to look at the cell morphology) or they can be removed via a core biopsy (to maintain the architecture or relationship of the cells to each other and to the bone).

Subtypes
A colony-forming unit is a subtype of HSC. (This sense of the term is different from colony-forming units of microbes, which is a cell counting unit.) There are various kinds of HSC colony-forming units:
 * Colony-forming unit–granulocyte-erythrocyte-monocyte-megakaryocyte (CFU-GEMM)
 * Colony-forming unit–lymphocyte (CFU-L)
 * Colony-forming unit–erythrocyte (CFU-E)
 * Colony-forming unit–granulocyte-macrophage (CFU-GM)
 * Colony-forming unit–megakaryocyte (CFU-Meg)
 * Colony-forming unit–basophil (CFU-B)
 * Colony-forming unit–eosinophil (CFU-Eos)

The above CFUs are based on the lineage. Another CFU, the colony-forming unit–spleen (CFU-S), was the basis of an in vivo clonal colony formation, which depends on the ability of infused bone marrow cells to give rise to clones of maturing hematopoietic cells in the spleens of irradiated mice after 8 to 12 days. It was used extensively in early studies, but is now considered to measure more mature progenitor or transit-amplifying cells rather than stem cells.

Isolating stem cells
Since hematopoietic stem cells cannot be isolated as a pure population, it is not possible to identify them in a microscope. Hematopoietic stem cells can be identified or isolated by the use of flow cytometry where the combination of several different cell surface markers (particularly CD34) are used to separate the rare hematopoietic stem cells from the surrounding blood cells. Hematopoietic stem cells lack expression of mature blood cell markers and are thus called Lin-. Lack of expression of lineage markers is used in combination with detection of several positive cell-surface markers to isolate hematopoietic stem cells. In addition, hematopoietic stem cells are characterised by their small size and low staining with vital dyes such as rhodamine 123 (rhodamine lo) or Hoechst 33342 (side population).

Haematopoiesis
Hematopoietic stem cells are essential to haematopoiesis, the formation of the cells within blood. Hematopoietic stem cells can replenish all blood cell types (i.e., are multipotent) and self-renew. A small number of hematopoietic stem cells can expand to generate a very large number of daughter hematopoietic stem cells. This phenomenon is used in bone marrow transplantation, when a small number of hematopoietic stem cells reconstitute the hematopoietic system. This process indicates that, subsequent to bone marrow transplantation, symmetrical cell divisions into two daughter hematopoietic stem cells must occur.

Stem cell self-renewal is thought to occur in the stem cell niche in the bone marrow, and it is reasonable to assume that key signals present in this niche will be important in self-renewal. There is much interest in the environmental and molecular requirements for HSC self-renewal, as understanding the ability of HSC to replenish themselves will eventually allow the generation of expanded populations of HSC in vitro that can be used therapeutically.

Quiescence
Hematopoietic stem cells, like all adult stem cells, mostly exist in a state of quiescence, or reversible growth arrest. The altered metabolism of quiescent HSCs helps the cells survive for extended periods of time in the hypoxic bone marrow environment. When provoked by cell death or damage, Hematopoietic stem cells exit quiescence and begin actively dividing again. The transition from dormancy to propagation and back is regulated by the MEK/ERK pathway and PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. Dysregulation of these transitions can lead to stem cell exhaustion, or the gradual loss of active Hematopoietic stem cells in the blood system.

Mobility
Hematopoietic stem cells have a higher potential than other immature blood cells to pass the bone marrow barrier, and, thus, may travel in the blood from the bone marrow in one bone to another bone. If they settle in the thymus, they may develop into T cells. In the case of fetuses and other extramedullary hematopoiesis. Hematopoietic stem cells may also settle in the liver or spleen and develop.

This enables Hematopoietic stem cells to be harvested directly from the blood.

Transplant
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is the transplantation of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells, usually derived from bone marrow, peripheral blood, or umbilical cord blood. It may be autologous (the patient's own stem cells are used), allogeneic (the stem cells come from a donor) or syngeneic (from an identical twin).

It is most often performed for patients with certain cancers of the blood or bone marrow, such as multiple myeloma or leukemia. In these cases, the recipient's immune system is usually destroyed with radiation or chemotherapy before the transplantation. Infection and graft-versus-host disease are major complications of allogeneic HSCT.

In order to harvest stem cells from the circulating peripheral blood, blood donors are injected with a cytokine, such as granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), that induces cells to leave the bone marrow and circulate in the blood vessels. In mammalian embryology, the first definitive Hematopoietic stem cells are detected in the AGM (aorta-gonad-mesonephros), and then massively expanded in the fetal liver prior to colonising the bone marrow before birth.

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation remains a dangerous procedure with many possible complications; it is reserved for patients with life-threatening diseases. As survival following the procedure has increased, its use has expanded beyond cancer to autoimmune diseases and hereditary skeletal dysplasias; notably malignant infantile osteopetrosis  and mucopolysaccharidosis.

Stem cells can be used to regenerate different types of tissues. HCT is an established as therapy for chronic myeloid leukemia, acute lymphatic leukemia, aplastic anemia, and hemoglobinopathies, in addition to acute myeloid leukemia and primary immune deficiencies. Hematopoietic system regeneration is typically achieved within 2–4 weeks post-chemo- or irradiation therapy and HCT. HSCs are being clinically tested for their use in non-hematopoietic tissue regeneration.

DNA damage
DNA strand breaks accumulate in long term hematopoietic stem cells during aging. This accumulation is associated with a broad attenuation of DNA repair and response pathways that depends on HSC quiescence. Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is a pathway that repairs double-strand breaks in DNA. NHEJ is referred to as "non-homologous" because the break ends are directly ligated without the need for a homologous template. The NHEJ pathway depends on several proteins including ligase 4, DNA polymerase mu and NHEJ factor 1 (NHEJ1, also known as Cernunnos or XLF).

DNA ligase 4 (Lig4) has a highly specific role in the repair of double-strand breaks by NHEJ. Lig4 deficiency in the mouse causes a progressive loss of hematopoietic stem cells during aging. Deficiency of lig4 in pluripotent stem cells results in accumulation of DNA double-strand breaks and enhanced apoptosis.

In polymerase mu mutant mice, hematopoietic cell development is defective in several peripheral and bone marrow cell populations with about a 40% decrease in bone marrow cell number that includes several hematopoietic lineages. Expansion potential of hematopoietic progenitor cells is also reduced. These characteristics correlate with reduced ability to repair double-strand breaks in hematopoietic tissue.

Deficiency of NHEJ factor 1 in mice leads to premature aging of hematopoietic stem cells as indicated by several lines of evidence including evidence that long-term repopulation is defective and worsens over time. Using a human induced pluripotent stem cell model of NHEJ1 deficiency, it was shown that NHEJ1 has an important role in promoting survival of the primitive hematopoietic progenitors. These NHEJ1 deficient cells possess a weak NHEJ1-mediated repair capacity that is apparently incapable of coping with DNA damages induced by physiological stress, normal metabolism, and ionizing radiation.

The sensitivity of hematopoietic stem cells to Lig4, DNA polymerase mu and NHEJ1 deficiency suggests that NHEJ is a key determinant of the ability of stem cells to maintain themselves against physiological stress over time. Rossi et al. found that endogenous DNA damage accumulates with age even in wild type Hematopoietic stem cells, and suggested that DNA damage accrual may be an important physiological mechanism of stem cell aging.

Loss of clonal diversity
A study shows the clonal diversity of hematopoietic stem cells gets drastically reduced around age 70 to a faster-growing few, substantiating a novel theory of ageing which could enable healthy aging. Of note, the shift in clonal diversity during aging was previously reported in 2008 for the murine system by the Christa Muller-Sieburg laboratory in San Diego, California.

Behavior in culture
A cobblestone area-forming cell (CAFC) assay is a cell culture-based empirical assay. When plated onto a confluent culture of stromal feeder layer, a fraction of hematopoietic stem cells creep between the gaps (even though the stromal cells are touching each other) and eventually settle between the stromal cells and the substratum (here the dish surface) or trapped in the cellular processes between the stromal cells. Emperipolesis is the in vivo phenomenon in which one cell is completely engulfed into another (e.g. thymocytes into thymic nurse cells); on the other hand, when in vitro, lymphoid lineage cells creep beneath nurse-like cells, the process is called pseudoemperipolesis. This similar phenomenon is more commonly known in the HSC field by the cell culture terminology cobble stone area-forming cells (CAFC), which means areas or clusters of cells look dull cobblestone-like under phase contrast microscopy, compared to the other hematopoietic stem cells, which are refractile. This happens because the cells that are floating loosely on top of the stromal cells are spherical and thus refractile. However, the cells that creep beneath the stromal cells are flattened and, thus, not refractile. The mechanism of pseudoemperipolesis is only recently coming to light. It may be mediated by interaction through CXCR4 (CD184) the receptor for CXC Chemokines (e.g., SDF1) and α4β1 integrins.

Repopulation kinetics
Hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) cannot be easily observed directly, and, therefore, their behaviors need to be inferred indirectly. Clonal studies are likely the closest technique for single cell in vivo studies of HSC. Here, sophisticated experimental and statistical methods are used to ascertain that, with a high probability, a single HSC is contained in a transplant administered to a lethally irradiated host. The clonal expansion of this stem cell can then be observed over time by monitoring the percent donor-type cells in blood as the host is reconstituted. The resulting time series is defined as the repopulation kinetic of the HSC.

The reconstitution kinetics are very heterogeneous. However, using symbolic dynamics, one can show that they fall into a limited number of classes. To prove this, several hundred experimental repopulation kinetics from clonal Thy-1lo SCA-1+ lin−(B220, CD4, CD8, Gr-1, Mac-1 and Ter-119) c-kit+ HSC were translated into symbolic sequences by assigning the symbols "+", "-", "~" whenever two successive measurements of the percent donor-type cells have a positive, negative, or unchanged slope, respectively. By using the Hamming distance, the repopulation patterns were subjected to cluster analysis yielding 16 distinct groups of kinetics. To finish the empirical proof, the Laplace add-one approach was used to determine that the probability of finding kinetics not contained in these 16 groups is very small. By corollary, this result shows that the hematopoietic stem cell compartment is also heterogeneous by dynamical criteria.

It was originally believed that all hematopoietic stem cells were alike in their self-renewal and differentiation abilities. This view was first challenged by the 2002 discovery by the Muller-Sieburg group in San Diego, who illustrated that different stem cells can show distinct repopulation patterns that are epigenetically predetermined intrinsic properties of clonal Thy-1lo Sca-1+ lin− c-kit+ HSC. The results of these clonal studies led to the notion of lineage bias. Using the ratio $$\rho = L/M$$ of lymphoid (L) to myeloid (M) cells in blood as a quantitative marker, the stem cell compartment can be split into three categories of HSC. Balanced (Bala) hematopoietic stem cells repopulate peripheral white blood cells in the same ratio of myeloid to lymphoid cells as seen in unmanipulated mice (on average about 15% myeloid and 85% lymphoid cells, or 3 ≤ ρ ≤ 10). Myeloid-biased (My-bi) hematopoietic stem cells give rise to very few lymphocytes resulting in ratios 0 < ρ < 3, while lymphoid-biased (Ly-bi) hematopoietic stem cells generate very few myeloid cells, which results in lymphoid-to-myeloid ratios of ρ > 10. All three types are normal types of HSC, and they do not represent stages of differentiation. Rather, these are three classes of HSC, each with an epigenetically fixed differentiation program. These studies also showed that lineage bias is not stochastically regulated or dependent on differences in environmental influence. My-bi HSC self-renew longer than balanced or Ly-bi HSC. The myeloid bias results from reduced responsiveness to the lymphopoetin interleukin 7 (IL-7).

Subsequently, other groups confirmed and highlighted the original findings. For example, the Eaves group confirmed in 2007 that repopulation kinetics, long-term self-renewal capacity, and My-bi and Ly-bi are stably inherited intrinsic HSC properties. In 2010, the Goodell group provided additional insights about the molecular basis of lineage bias in side population (SP) SCA-1+ lin− c-kit+ HSC. As previously shown for IL-7 signaling, it was found that a member of the transforming growth factor family (TGF-beta) induces and inhibits the proliferation of My-bi and Ly-bi HSC, respectively.

Etymology
From Greek haimato-, combining form of haima 'blood', and from the Latinized form of Greek poietikos 'capable of making, creative, productive', from poiein 'to make, create'.

title: Hematopoietic stem cell


text:
João Cabral de Melo Neto

João Cabral de Melo Neto (January 6, 1920 – October 9, 1999) was a Brazilian poet and diplomat, and one of the most influential writers in late Brazilian modernism. He was awarded the 1990 Camões Prize and the 1992 Neustadt International Prize for Literature, the only Brazilian poet to receive such award to date. He was considered until his death a perennial competitor for the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Melo Neto's works are noted for the rigorous, yet inventive attention they pay to the formal aspects of poetry. He derives his characteristic sound from a traditional verse of five or seven syllables (called ‘’redondilha’’) and from the constant use of oblique rhymes. His style ranges from the surrealist tendency which marked his early poetry to the use of regional elements of his native northeastern Brazil. In many works, including the famed auto Morte e Vida Severina, Melo Neto's addresses the life of those affected by the poverty and inequality in Pernambuco.

Life and career
Melo Neto was born in Recife, Pernambuco, and spent most of his youth in his family's sugar-cane mills in the interior of the state. He was a cousin of distinguished poet Manuel Bandeira and sociologist Gilberto Freyre. In 1940, his family moved to Rio de Janeiro.

Two years later, Melo Neto published his first book of poems, Pedra do Sono, at his own expense, with a circulation of 340 copies. In 1945, he applied to the post of diplomat, a position he would hold for most of his life. The following year, he married Stella Maria Barbosa de Oliveira, with whom he had five children.

After passing through several different countries, he became consul of Brazil in Porto in 1984, only returning to Rio de Janeiro three years later. He worked for many years in Spain, and his experiences in Seville would leave palpable influences in his poetry.

In 1956, Melo Neto published his most famous work, Morte e Vida Severina, and, in 1968, he was elected to the 37th chair of the Brazilian Academy of Letters.

In 1986, he married Marly de Oliveira and, two years later, he retired, resigning from his office as ambassador. Melo Neto died in 1999, in Rio de Janeiro. In a career spanning more than fifty years, Melo Neto published 18 books of poetry and two plays.

Poetry
Poetry is not the product of inspiration triggered by feeling, but the product of the poet's patient and lucid work.

The image of an engineer designing a building, an epithet Melo Neto himself adopted, is often used to describe his poetry. From the start, his poetry was extraordinarily rich in imagery. Commenting Pedra do Sono, his first book, Antonio Candido, who noted his debt to cubism and surrealism, observed how his poems were composed from the accumulation of concrete and sensory images, using words in an almost pictorial manner.

Quickly, however, he proved highly attentive to the social reality of his state. In O cão sem plumas (“A Dog without Feathers”)’, his first long poem, dated from 1950, he portrayed the lives of the destitute classes, who depended on the Capibaribe River, and described the toiling of the sugar-cane mill. Three years later, in O Rio (“The River”) he assumed the voice of the river, narrating in first-person its course and the villages and landscapes it crossed.

Clarifying his debts to Melo Neto, Augusto de Campos has said: “One might say that he has no antecedents in Brazilian poetry, but his work has consequences. It is Concrete poetry that will sustain, continue, expand and broaden this poetic language that is not sentimental, but objective, a poetry of concretude, a critical poetry, as João's poetry is.”

Poetry

 * 1942: Pedra do Sono (Slumber Stone)
 * 1943: Os Três Mal-Amados (The Three Unloved)
 * 1945: O Engenheiro (The Engineer)
 * 1947: Psicologia da Composição com a Fábula de Anfion e Antiode (Psychology of Composition with the Fable of Amphion and Anti-Ode)
 * 1950: O Cão sem Plumas (The Dog without Feathers)
 * 1953: O Rio ou Relação da Viagem que Faz o Capibaribe de Sua Nascente à Cidade do Recife (The River or On the Course of the Capibaribe River from Its Source to the City of Recife)
 * 1960: Dois Parlamentos (Two Parliaments)
 * 1960: Quaderna
 * 1966: A Educação pela Pedra (Education by the Stone)
 * 1975: Museu de Tudo (Museum of Everything)
 * 1980: A Escola das Facas (The School of the Knives)
 * 1984: Auto do Frade (The Friar's Way)
 * 1985: Agrestes
 * 1987: Crime na Calle Relator (Crime in Relator Street)
 * 1990: Primeiros Poemas (First Poems)
 * 1990: Sevilha Andando (Walking around Seville)

Play

 * 1955: Morte e Vida Severina (translated in part by Elizabeth Bishop as Life and Death of a Severino)

title: João Cabral de Melo Neto