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Gränichen

Gränichen is a municipality in the district of Aarau of the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.

Geography
The river Wyna flows north at first and heads northwest thereafter. The valley has an average width of about 500 m. On both sides of the valley there are steep hills with tributary valleys and small high plateaus. The landscape is not dissimilar to that of the Tafeljura, even though - geographically and geologically speaking - Gränichen lies in the Midland of Switzerland.

The hills on the left side of the valley are (from north to south): Manzenberg ( 524 m ), Wällenen (524 m559 m), Moosberg (524 m550 m), Heidberg (566 m) and Pfendel (615 m). These are foothills of the Schornig (596 m), which marks the transition to the valley of the river Suhre. The hills on the right side of the valley are called Fuden (570 m), Räckholderen (566 m), Breitenberg (551 m) and Surberg (607 m). In front of the Breitenberg is the Schulthess (513 m) which has almost the shape of an ellipsis. The Dossen (532 m) und the high plateau of the Liebegg are foothills of the Surberg.

Near the southern border, at an average distance of two kilometers, there are three hamlets, which also belong to the municipality of Gränichen: Rütihof (585 m) on Moorbergs, Bleien (430 m) and Refental (490 m) between Breitenberg, Dossen and Surberg.

Gränichen has an area,, of 17.3 km2. Of this area, 30.1% is used for agricultural purposes, while 56.7% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 13.1% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (0.1%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes). The highest point is at 615 m above main sea level on the 'Pfendel', the lowest point is at 402 m where the river wyna leaves the village.

The seven neighbouring villages are Suhr in the nordwest, Hunzenschwil in the north, Schafisheim in the northeast, Seon in the east, Teufenthal in the south, Unterkulm in the south, Muhen in the southwest and Hirschthal in the west.

History
History's first mention of Gränichen was around 1184 under the name of Cranechon. However, archaeological discoveries dating from the Neolithic, as well as the remains of a Celtic castle, show that the area around Gränichen has been settled for quite some time.

In the 12th century Gränichen belonged to the monastery of Engelberg and later came under the reign of the Habsburgs, who passed the government of the village to the Lords of the Castle of Liebegg. After 1415, Gränichen belonged to Bern.

The construction of the Wynentalbahn railway in 1904 promoted the settlement of local industries.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Per bend sinister Or and Azure a Bend counterchanged.

Points of interest
The castle of Liebegg resides on a hill close to the border to Teufenthal, about three kilometers south-south-east of the village center. The Castle, which dates from the 11th century, is nowadays used as a center for culture, meetings and congresses.

Near the village center one finds the "Chornhaus", which, built in 1695, looks very similar to a small castle, because of its tower. Until 1798 it served as a granary and was thereafter used by the municipal administration department for over a century. Since the new parish hall was completed in 1995 it contains a small village museum.

The Reformed Church was built from 1661 to 1663 on the site where the previous church had collapsed. It is one of the main works of Protestant church building in the canton of Aargau, and is listed as a heritage site of national significance.

The other heritage site of national significance in Gränichen is the Untervogthaus on Lochgasse.

Notable people

 * Werner Arber, Nobel-prize winning microbiologist, was born in Gränichen in 1929

Population
Gränichen has a population (as of ) of. , 17.6% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 6.8%. Most of the population speaks German (90.2%), with Italian being second most common ( 4.1%) and Albanian being third ( 1.5%). Of the rest, 1.1% spoke Serbo Croatian and 0.7% spoke Turkish.

The age distribution,, in Gränichen is; 580 children or 9.0% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 804 teenagers or 12.5% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 691 people or 10.7% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 774 people or 12.0% are between 30 and 39, 1,174 people or 18.2% are between 40 and 49, and 956 people or 14.8% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 674 people or 10.5% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 503 people or 7.8% are between 70 and 79, there are 251 people or 3.9% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 37 people or 0.6% who are 90 and older.

, there were 140 homes with 1 or 2 persons in the household, 1,243 homes with 3 or 4 persons in the household, and 1,001 homes with 5 or more persons in the household. The average number of people per household was 2.50 individuals. there were 1,357 single family homes (or 47.3% of the total) out of a total of 2,871 homes and apartments.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 40.5% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SP (18.4%), the FDP (13.4%) and the Green Party (7.3%).

Authorities
The municipal assembly (Gemeindeversammlung) is the law-making body (legislature). The executive authority is the municipal council (Gemeinderat). The members of the council are elected by the assembly according to the principle of majority. They stay in office for a duration of four years. The council's task is to lead and represent the municipality. In order to do so, he takes care of the decisions of the assembly and the assignments imposed by the canton and the federal government.

The five municipal councils (since 1 January 2012) are:
 * Rolf Arber, Mayor
 * Hans-Peter Lüem, Vice-Mayor
 * Ruedi Gautschi
 * Peter Stirnemann
 * Peter Hofmann

The district court of Aarau is responsible for matters of civil right.

Economy
, Gränichen had an unemployment rate of 1.54%. , there were 94 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 45 businesses involved in this sector. 1,098 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 68 businesses in this sector. 961 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 155 businesses in this sector.

One of the largest bakeries in Switzerland (Jowa) is located in Gränichen. In addition, there is also a company which fabricates heaters (Zehnder), a gravel plant and several other smaller businesses.

there was a total of 3,149 workers who lived in the municipality. Of these, 2,312 or about 73.4% of the residents worked outside Gränichen while 1,145 people commuted into the municipality for work. There were a total of 1,982 jobs (of at least 6 hours per week) in the municipality.

Religion
From the, 1,370 or 22.4% are Roman Catholic, while 3,619 or 59.2% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 21 individuals (or about 0.34% of the population) who belong to the Christian Catholic faith, 4.3% were Moslem, 1.1% were Christian-Orthodox and 1.0% belonged to a different religion.

Transport
Gränichen lies on the connecting road from Aarau via Beromünster to Luzern. The town is also connected to Seon in the Seetal valley. The local public rail service (AAR-Bahn), which goes from Aarau through the Wyna valley up to Menziken, has four stations: Töndler, Gränichen-Dorf, Oberdorf and Bleien. The rails of the public transport were right next to the main street, until they were rebuilt along the Wyna river in 1985.

Education
There are five kindergartens as well as three elementary schools. Furthermore, there is a center for secondary education covering Realschule, Sekundarschule and Bezirksschule levels. The closest gymnasium is in Aarau. Aside from the Castle of Liebegg, there is also an agricultural school.

The entire Swiss population is generally well educated. In Gränichen about 72.7% of the population (between age 25-64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the school age population, there are 448 students attending primary school, there are 203 students attending secondary school, there are 128 students attending tertiary or university level schooling in the municipality.

title: Gränichen


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Talk:Cosmo and Wanda

Vandalism
I eliminated the slash crap some idiot added to this section. RugglesRugglesRuggles —Preceding comment was added at 00:33, 12 November 2007 (UTC)

Photo
I added a pic of Cosmo and Wanda smooching. It's from the episode "Lovestruck". This image was once here, but deleted for some reason. I hope I followed the guidlines correctly in restoring this image. It's a great pic and certainly belongs here. Ruggles

Cosmo and Wanda Cosma
It is a good assumsion that C&W's last name is Cosma, bacause Cosmo's mother is called Moma Cosma, noting she is the mother of someone in the Cosma family (obviously Cosmo, it's been mentioned so many times before Moma Cosma is Cosmo's mom), and if it was supposed to mean "mother of Cosmo" it would've been someting more along those lines. --Wack'd About Wiki 08:19, 27 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Your "good assumption" doesn't consider that "Cosma" could be her first name.  --UsaSatsui 00:32, 1 May 2006 (UTC)

Also note that in the SpongeBob SquarePants episode Sailor Mouth Mr. Krabs's mom is called "Mama Krabs."

In the episode "the boy who would be queen", Cosmo was turned into Cosma, so his/her name would be Cosma Cosma if your theory was true.

Yeah, so I'm probably wrong. Sorry. --Wack'd About Wiki 09:45, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

Cosmo and Wanda
I added more comprehensive character info to the C & W section. -- Ruggles, Sept. 8, 2006, 9:22 pm

It's odd that character info on Cosmo and Wanda has been deleted yet there is more definitive info on the more minor characters. At any rate, I've restored the C & W character info. I also deleted some junk in Trivia about Cosmo disliking Wanda's advances. Those few times he's been evasive with her were due to his cluelessness rather than lack of desire. See the episodes "Apartnership", "Dog's Day Afternoon", "Truth or Cosmoquences", "AbraCatastrophe" and "Fairy Idol", among others, if anyone needs proof that Cosmo loves his wife. - Ruggles, Dec. 23, 2006, 12:42 AM.

Again, deleted junk that attacked the Cosmo and Wanda relationship. Whoever's doing that, deal with your feelings of past rejection and pent-up angst in some other fashion, 'kay? ~

(s)mother
Is this edit OK? It came from an IP address (apparently a Kinko's workstation) often associated with vandalism, and it looks suspicious. I know nothing of the topic. - Jmabel | Talk 18:12, 27 June 2006 (UTC)

It seems fine. Its just a characterization of Mamma Cosma, and the one before showed her differently. I think its a better one. Mdesrosii 16:13, 15 October 2006 (UTC)

Favorite Disguises
Favorite Disguises section needs to be fixed for grammar errors and misspellings. Person was either in a hurry or their keyboard was messed up... ChicanoJ 17:16, 22 July 2006 (UTC)

Age
I believe that the age in the article is incorrect. In the episode "Apatnership", it is confirmed that Cosmo and Wanda have been married for almost 10,000 years. Also, in "The Really Bad Day", it is revealed that Wanda caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. This proves that they are both way more than 70 million years old. NGinjedi IV 14:40, 10 December 2006

 * Ya think the would have kids by now! Well, they might. My friend thinks she say a green haired Wanda and a Pink haired Cosmo while flipping thruogh channels, but duh it was the Yoo-Doo doll episode, I can't remember the name. -ILuvCosmo 18:58, 13 January 2007 (UTC)

As the series show a lot of time travel adventures, Wanda causing anything anytime doesn't prove a thing. Sorry. --201.65.133.86 00:08, 13 January 2007 (UTC)

Children?!?!?!??
Cosmo and Wanda have triplets when in the series???? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by MudkipNDS (talk • contribs) 03:42, 12 February 2007 (UTC).
 * Where did you here that from? You were probably thinking about a fanfiction story.

Repeat
I've Noticed that in "Cosmo's Pet's" It mentions that 3 of his pet's were named after the adventures of Jimmy Neutron characters, which is said Again in "Trivia" Captain Eric 00:01, 8 July 2007 (UTC)

Beverage advertising character?
Why is this article categorized under Category:Beverage Advertising characters? Flashn00b 04:37, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:FOP Mama Cosma.jpg
Image:FOP Mama Cosma.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 19:36, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

Notability?
Cna we please either see some actual real world content regarding the notability and importance of these characters, or else see a full redirect to the show's main article? ThuranX (talk) 04:59, 8 January 2008 (UTC)

Super-Refurb
I have begun a project called the Cosmo & Wanda Super-Refurb. This will completely redo the entire article. Currently, it is the most cruft-filled article I've ever seen. I will begin by removing the 2 unneeded trivia sections. Next, I'll restructure the article to fit an out-of-universe style. The entire article will be different when this is over. Hopefully, this can save the article from redirection. Dylanlip (talk) 02:54, 20 March 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Cosmo and Wanda


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Antonio Gabriel Villeda

Antonio Gabriel Villeda was proposed for deletion. This page is an archive of the discussion about the proposed deletion. This page is no longer live. Further comments should be made on the article's talk page rather than here so that this page is preserved as an historic record. The result of the debate was delete

Antonio Gabriel Villeda
Vanity. "Shrimp House" appears to be a livejournal account, from googling "Gabriel Villeda" with Shrimp House. -- Graham ☺ | Talk 19:44, 5 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. He's 17 and has no google hits. Pretty obvious vanity. -- Scott $e^{i \pi} \,\!$ 22:00, Dec 5, 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: Vanity with promises of more to come (the redlinks). Geogre 05:50, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete vanity - created by User:Gabriel.Villeda - Cdc 06:42, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete on grounds of vanity. [[User:GRider|GRider\talk]] 22:22, 6 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete Are you a teenaged male? Do you have dreams of fame and fortune? Try to resist the hormonal urge to post those fantasies on wiki. I mean, at least wait until you've started a religion or a war or something, and can muster some victims to spam properly for you. Wyss 01:25, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Are you a teenaged male? Afflicted by hormones that make you feel like one? Come to VfD and abuse newbies!Dr Zen 02:32, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * Or just come to VfD to abuse anyone who nominates an article.

This page is now preserved as an archive of the debate and, like other '/delete' pages is no longer 'live'. Subsequent comments on the issue, the deletion or on the decision-making process should be placed on the relevant 'live' pages. Please do not edit this page.


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Lucius Alfenus Senecio

Lucius Alfenus Senecio was a Roman figure of the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries.

Career
Born in Curculum, Africa (Roman province) (Djemila, Algeria), Lucius Alfenus Senecio was a Numidian (Romanised Berber). He served as procurator Augusti in Gallia Belgica, then in Mauretania Caesariensis (196-197?). After consulship, served as governor of Syria between 200 and 205. Between c. 205 and 207, he was the last governor of all Roman Britain prior to its division into multiple provinces.

He restored many of the installations at Hadrian's Wall following the uprisings of earlier years and a Victory dedication mentions his name. Dio Cassius also writes of victories in Britain in 206 and it is therefore likely that he finished the re-occupation of the province and its frontiers. Troubles from the tribes immediately north of the wall however, trouble from the Maeatae and the Caledonian Confederacy appear to have required expeditions north of the wall. Senecio seems to have been initially successful; he erected a victory monument at Benwell.

Herodian records that he requested re-enforcements from emperor Septimius Severus, perhaps to undertake punishment raids in Scotland or for a military expedition led by the emperor himself. His report back to Rome described barbarians rebelling, "overrunning the land, taking booty and causing destruction". Despite being 62 years old, Septimius Severus chose to intervene personally, arriving in 208 to lead new campaigns.

When Severus arrived in Britain he charged his youngest son, Publius Septimius Geta with the task of administering some aspects of Roman Britain although as viceroy rather than as a formal governor.

When Severus died at York in 211, his eldest son, Caracalla tried to claim the throne. As part of his efforts to settle matters in Britain before leaving to press his claim, he may have divided the province into Britannia Inferior in the north and Britannia Superior in the south, each with its own governor. Alternatively, the division may have been decreed by Severus sometime previously.

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If He Hollers Let Him Go

If He Hollers Let Him Go is the first novel by American writer Chester Himes, published in 1945, about an African-American shipyard worker in Los Angeles during World War II. It earned him critical acclaim and was considered a "protest novel", in the tradition of Richard Wright.

The book was adapted as a 1968 film, starring Raymond St. Jacques, Dana Wynter, Kevin McCarthy, Barbara McNair, and Arthur O'Connell. The screenplay differed markedly from the novel.

Plot and characters
The story spans four days in the life of Robert "Bob" Jones, a newcomer to Los Angeles from Ohio. With some college education, he works as a crew leader in a naval shipyard. In this period, black workers are gaining opportunities in the defense industry as a result of executive orders of President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II.

However, Jones cannot escape the pressures of racism. He believes he was promoted as a supervisor only to gain the cooperation of black workers in the war effort. He is forced to deal with anti-communist paranoia, resentment from whites on the floor working at the same jobs as "colored boys", and the baiting of black workers by some white females.

His fears invade his dreams, aspirations, and passions. His dream of making something of himself in California is jeopardized as he reacts to the actions of the white people around him. He struggles to contain his urges to fight, kill, and rape as ways to overcome his resentment of white power arrayed against him.

The main characters are the protagonist, Bob Jones, and two women: Madge Perkins, who is white; and Alice Harrison, his higher-class African-American girlfriend. Bob struggles for place in a white-dominated world and is filled with violent thoughts against white people, but does not act on them.

In what is described as a "sexually charged novel", Madge makes a racial slur toward Bob. His calling her a "bitch" results in his demotion. He considers raping her as a way to get back at white America, seeing her as a symbol of "whiteness", but when she expresses sexual attraction to him, he rejects her. Alice tells Bob it is no use getting angry about the inequality that blacks must live with, and he has to learn to deal with it.

Themes
Themes addressed in the novel include racism suffered by black people, color differentiation among African Americans (Alice's light skin is associated with her higher class), employment discrimination against blacks, and class divisions among whites and blacks. Communism is featured generously, as the Communist unionists ("agitators") are the only ones who talk about the issue of race in any way with which the protagonist agrees. There is some reference to jazz.

The book’s title plays on the third line of a popular children’s rhyme, which follows the second line historically included a racial epithet, “catch a n** by the toe”(in the US and other English-speaking countries like Australia). Mid-20th century variants in the US replaced the epithet with “tiger.”

The novel is referred to in Frantz Fanon's book, Black Skin White Masks (1952), first published in French, in the chapter titled "The Fact of Blackness".

Reception
Critics praised this first novel by Himes, classifying it in the "protest novel" tradition established by Richard Wright.

title: If He Hollers Let Him Go


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Mold (disambiguation)

Mold (or mould) is a structure formed by fungi.

Mold or mould may also refer to:

Artifacts

 * Molding (process), in which a hollowed-out block is filled with pliable material
 * Mold (cooking implement), a container used to shape food

Biology

 * Leaf mold, composted soil or earth, particularly loose soil suitable for planting
 * Slime mold, a kind of protist
 * Water mold or oomycete, a kind of protist

Entertainment

 * Mold (album), Praxis' 1998 experimental music release
 * Master Mold, a fictional Marvel Comics villain

People

 * Mold (surname)
 * Mould (surname)

Places

 * Mold, Flintshire, a county town in Wales, UK
 * 18240 Mould, a main-belt asteroid
 * Mold, an unincorporated community of Douglas County, Washington, US

Sports teams

 * Mold F.C., a defunct Welsh association football club
 * Mold Golf Club, an 18-hole course in Pantymwyn, Wales
 * Mold RFC, a rugby union team from Mold, Wales

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Cackling goose

The cackling goose (Branta hutchinsii) is a species of goose found in North America and East Asia.

Systematics
The genus name Branta is a Latinised form of Old Norse Brandgás, "burnt (black) goose", and the specific epithet hutchinsii commemorates English surgeon Thomas Hutchins who was employed by the Hudson's Bay Company.

The cackling goose was originally considered to be the same species or a subspecies of the Canada goose, but in July 2004 the American Ornithologists' Union's (AOU) Committee on Classification and Nomenclature split the two into two species, making cackling goose into a full species with the scientific name Branta hutchinsii. The British Ornithologists' Union (BOU) followed suit in June 2005.

The AOU has divided the many associated subspecies between both animals. To the present species were assigned:

 * Richardson's cackling goose (B. h. hutchinsii)
 * Aleutian cackling goose (B. h. leucopareia)
 * Small cackling goose (B. h. minima)
 * Taverner's cackling goose (B. h. taverneri)
 * †Bering cackling goose (B. h. asiatica)—doubtfully distinct from B. h. leucopareia; extinct (c.1929)

The distinctions between the two geese have led to a great deal of confusion and debate among ornithologists. This has been aggravated by the overlap between the small types of Canada goose and larger types of cackling goose. The old "lesser Canada geese" were believed to be a partly hybrid population, with the birds named taverneri considered a mixture of minima with subspecies occidentalis and parvipes, which today remain with the Canada goose proper. Actually however, taverneri is one of the larger subspecies of cackling geese. In addition, it has been determined that the barnacle goose (B. leucopsis) is a derivative of the cackling goose lineage, whereas the Hawaiian goose (B. sandvicensis) is an insular representative of the Canada goose.

In the wake of the discussion generated by the official standalone species designation, introduced by the AOU and BOU in 2004 and 2005, Harold C. Hanson published a paper in 2007 suggesting that Canada and cackling geese should be split into six species and 200 subspecies. The radical nature of this proposal provoked surprise, with Richard Banks of the AOU urging caution before any of Hanson's proposals be accepted. No further redesignation has been introduced by either of these Ornithologists' Unions.

Description
The black head and neck with white "chinstrap" distinguish this goose from all other geese except the larger Canada goose (Branta canadensis) and the similarly sized barnacle goose (B. leucopsis). There are up to five subspecies of cackling goose of varying sizes and plumage details. The female looks virtually identical but is slightly lighter and has a different voice. Some are hard to distinguish from the Canada goose, with which the cackling goose was long assumed to form one species, the cackling goose and the smaller Canada goose subspecies being called the lesser Canada goose. The smallest 1.4 kg cackling geese (B. h. minima) are much smaller than any Canada goose, but the subspecies B. h. hutchinsii, at up to 3 kg, grows to the same size as some Canada geese. The distinctness of the extinct population of the Komandorski and Kuril Islands B. h. asiatica is controversial. The barnacle goose differs in having a black breast and grey, rather than brownish, body plumage.

Measurements:

 * Length: 24.8 - 25.6 in
 * Weight: 49.3 - 84.0 oz
 * Wingspan: 42.5 - 43.7 in

Range
This species is native to North America, breeding in Northern Canada and Alaska in a variety of tundra habitats, where the nest is usually located in an elevated area near water. The eggs are laid in a shallow depression, lined with plant materials and down. However, as the nests are made close-to, or directly on, the ground, the eggs (along with lone nesting females and newly-hatched goslings) are particularly vulnerable to predation by certain mammalian carnivores. Depending on the region, potential threats may vary from free-ranging domestic or feral cats and dogs, to foxes, coyotes, rats and other animals, such as some species of snakes. Thus, as a result, both geese—especially the male—in a nesting pair become highly aggressive and defensive of the nesting site, even chasing people away who may happen to walk by.

A pair may mate for life (up to around 20 years). Adult geese are often seen leading their goslings in a line with one parent at the front, and the other at the back of the "parade".

Like most geese, the cackling goose is naturally migratory, with their overwintering range being most of the U.S. (locally in Western Canada, the West Coast of the U.S. and northern Mexico). The calls overheard from large flocks of cackling geese, flying in their typical "V"-shaped formation, signal the transitions into spring and fall. In some areas, migration routes change due to shifts in available habitat, environment and food sources.

As vagrants, cackling geese have reached Western Europe of their own accord, as has been proven by ringing recoveries and documented sightings. The birds seen in Europe are of, at least, the subspecies hutchinsii, and possibly others. Cackling geese are also found, naturally, as vagrants around the Kamchatka Peninsula in Far Eastern Russia (Siberia), East China, and throughout the islands of Japan. Nevertheless, the IUCN considered the species to be extirpated from Japan, where it previously had an established non breeding (winter) population. Birds have recently been reintroduced to both Japan and Siberia.

Feeding
These birds feed mainly on plant material. When feeding in water, they submerge their heads and necks to reach aquatic plants, sometimes tipping forward like a dabbling duck. Flocks of these birds often feed on leftover cultivated grains in fields, especially during migration or in winter. They also eat some insects, molluscs and crustaceans.

Status
By the early 20th century, over-hunting and loss of habitat in the late 19th and early 20th centuries had resulted in a serious decline in the numbers of this bird in its native range. With improved game laws and habitat restoration and preservation programs, their populations have recovered in most of their range, although some local populations may still be declining, especially of the subspecies minima and leucopareia. Though the taxonomic distinctness of the Komandorski and Kuril Islands populations, which used to winter in Japan, is controversial, it is without doubt that they disappeared around 1929.

title: Cackling goose


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Countersteering

Countersteering is used by single-track vehicle operators, such as cyclists and motorcyclists, to initiate a turn toward a given direction by momentarily steering counter to the desired direction ("steer left to turn right"). To negotiate a turn successfully, the combined center of mass of the rider and the single-track vehicle must first be leaned in the direction of the turn, and steering briefly in the opposite direction causes that lean. The rider's action of countersteering is sometimes referred to as "giving a steering command".

The scientific literature does not provide a clear and comprehensive definition of countersteering. In fact, "a proper distinction between steer torque and steer angle ... is not always made."

How it works

When countersteering to turn right, the following is performed:
 * A torque on the handlebars to the left is applied.
 * The front wheel will then rotate about the steering axis to the left and the tire will generate forces in the contact patch to the left.
 * The machine as a whole steers to the left.
 * Because the forces in the contact patch are at ground level, this pulls the wheels "out from under" the bike to the left and causes it to lean to the right.
 * The rider, or in most cases the inherent stability of the bike, provides the steering torque necessary to rotate the front wheel back to the right and in the direction of the desired turn.
 * The bike begins a turn to the right.

While this appears to be a complex sequence of motions, it is performed by every child who rides a bicycle. The entire sequence goes largely unnoticed by most riders, which is why some assert that they do not do it.

It is also important to distinguish the steering torque necessary to initiate the lean required for a given turn from the sustained steering torque and steering angle necessary to maintain a constant radius and lean angle until it is time to exit the turn.
 * The initial steer torque and angle are both opposite the desired turn direction.
 * The sustained steer angle is in the same direction as the turn.
 * The sustained steer torque required to maintain that steer angle is either with or opposite the turn direction depending on forward speed, bike geometry, and combined bike and rider mass distribution.

Need to lean to turn
A bike can negotiate a curve only when the combined center of mass of bike and rider leans toward the inside of the turn at an angle appropriate for the velocity and the radius of the turn:

 * $$\theta = \arctan \left (\frac{v^2}{gr}\right )$$

where $$v$$ is the forward speed, $$r$$ is the radius of the turn and $$g$$ is the acceleration of gravity.

Higher speeds and tighter turns require greater lean angles. If the mass is not first leaned into the turn, the inertia of the rider and bike will cause them to continue in a straight line as the tires track out from under them along the curve. The transition of riding in a straight line to negotiating a turn is a process of leaning the bike into the turn, and the most practical way to cause that lean (of the combined center of mass of bike and rider) is to move the support points in the opposite direction first.

Stable lean
As the desired angle is approached, the front wheel must usually be steered into the turn to maintain that angle or the bike will continue to lean with gravity, increasing in rate, until the side contacts the ground. This process often requires little or no physical effort, because the geometry of the steering system of most bikes is designed in such a way that the front wheel has a strong tendency to steer in the direction of a lean.

The actual torque the rider must apply to the handlebars to maintain a steady-state turn is a complex function of bike geometry, mass distribution, rider position, tire properties, turn radius, and forward speed. At low speeds, the steering torque necessary from the rider is usually negative, that is opposite the direction of the turn, even when the steering angle is in the direction of the turn. At higher speeds, the direction of the necessary input torque often becomes positive, that is in the same direction as the turn.

At low speeds
At low speeds countersteering is equally necessary, but the countersteering is then so subtle that it is hidden by the continuous corrections that are made in balancing the bike, often falling below a just noticeable difference or threshold of perception of the rider. Countersteering at low speed may be further concealed by the ensuing much larger steering angle possible in the direction of the turn.

Gyroscopic effects
One effect of turning the front wheel is a roll moment caused by gyroscopic precession. The magnitude of this moment is proportional to the moment of inertia of the front wheel, its spin rate (forward motion), the rate that the rider turns the front wheel by applying a torque to the handlebars, and the cosine of the angle between the steering axis and the vertical.

For a sample motorcycle moving at 22 m/s (50 mph) that has a front wheel with a moment of inertia of 0.6 kgm2, turning the front wheel one degree in half a second generates a roll moment of 3.5 Nm. In comparison, the lateral force on the front tire as it tracks out from under the motorcycle reaches a maximum of 50 N. This, acting on the 0.6 m (2 ft) height of the center of mass, generates a roll moment of 30 Nm.

While the moment from gyroscopic forces is only 12% of this, it can play a significant part because it begins to act as soon as the rider applies the torque, instead of building up more slowly as the wheel out-tracks. This can be especially helpful in motorcycle racing.

Motorcycles
Deliberately countersteering is essential for safe motorcycle riding, and as a result is generally a part of safe riding courses run by organisations like the Motorcycle Safety Foundation, the Canada Safety Council, or Australian Q-Ride providers. Deliberately countersteering a motorcycle is a much more efficient way to steer than to just lean. At higher speeds the self-balancing property of the bike gets stiffer, and a given input force applied to the handlebars produces smaller changes in lean angle.

Training
Much of the art of motorcycle cornering is learning how to effectively push the grips into corners and how to maintain proper lean angles through the turn. When the need for a quick swerve to one side suddenly arises in an emergency, it is essential to know, through prior practice, that countersteering is the most efficient way to change the motorcycle's course. Many accidents result when otherwise experienced riders who have never carefully developed this skill encounter an unexpected obstacle.

To encourage an understanding of the phenomena around countersteering, the phrase positive steering is sometimes used. Other phrases are "PRESS – To turn, the motorcycle must lean", "To lean the motorcycle, press on the handgrip in the direction of the turn" or "Press left – lean left – go left".

The Motorcycle Safety Foundation teaches countersteering to all students in all of its schools, as do all motorcycle racing schools. Countersteering is included in United States state motorcycle operator manuals and tests, such as Washington, New Jersey, California, and Missouri.

Safety
According to the Hurt Report, most motorcycle riders in the United States would over-brake and skid the rear wheel and under-brake the front when trying hard to avoid a collision. The ability to countersteer and swerve was essentially absent with many motorcycle operators. The often small amount of initial countersteering input required to get the bike to lean, which may be as little as 0.125 seconds, keeps many riders unaware of the concept.

Multi-track vehicles
Three wheeled motorcycles without the ability to lean have no need to be countersteered, and an initial steer torque in one direction does not automatically result in a turn in the other direction. This includes sidecar rigs where the car is rigidly mounted on the bike. The three wheeled BRP Can-Am Spyder Roadster uses two front wheels which do not lean, and so it steers like a car.

Some sidecars allow the motorcycle to lean independent of the sidecar, and in some cases, the sidecar even leans in parallel with the motorcycle. These vehicles must be countersteered the same way as a solo motorcycle. The three wheel Piaggio MP3 uses mechanical linkages to lean the two front wheels in parallel with the rear frame, and so that it is countersteered in the same manner as a two-wheeled motorcycle.

Free-leaning multi-track vehicles must be balanced by countersteering before turning. Multi-track leaning vehicles that are forced-tilted, such as the Carver, are tilted without countersteering the control and are not balanced by the operator. Later versions of the Carver introduced automatic countersteer to increase tilt speed and reduce the force required to tilt the vehicle. Other forced-tilted vehicles may incorporate automatic countersteering. A prototype tilting multi-track free leaning vehicle was developed in 1984 that employs automatic countersteering and does not require any balancing skills.

Countersteering by weight shifting
With a sufficiently light bike (especially a bicycle), the rider can initiate a lean and turn without using the handlebars by shifting body weight, called counter lean by some authors. Documented physical experimentation shows that on heavy bikes (many motorcycles) shifting body weight is less effective at initiating leans.

The following is done when countersteering using weight shifting to turn left:

 * The rider applies a momentary torque, either at the seat via the legs or in the torso that causes the bike itself to lean to the right.
 * The combined center of mass of the bike and rider is only lowered and not moved out, but if the front of the bike is free to swivel about its steering axis, the lean to the right will cause it to steer to the right by some combination of gyroscopic precession, ground reaction forces, gravitational force on an off-axis center of mass or simply the inertia of an off-axis center of mass depending on the exact geometry and mass distribution of the particular bike and the amount of torque and the speed at which it is applied.
 * This countersteering to the right causes the ground contact to move to the right of the center of mass, as the bike moves forward, thus generating a leftward lean. Finally the front end steers to the left and the bike enters the left turn.

The amount of leftward steering necessary to balance the leftward lean appropriate for the forward speed and radius of the turn is controlled by the torque generated by the rider, again either at the seat or in the torso.

To straighten back out of the turn, the rider simply reverses the procedure for entering it: cause the bike to lean farther to the left; this causes it to steer farther to the left, which moves the wheel contact patches farther to the left, eventually reducing the leftward lean and exiting the turn.

A National Highway Traffic Safety Administration study showed that rider lean has a larger influence on a lighter motorcycle than a heavier one, which helps explain why no-hands steering is less effective on heavy motorcycles. Leaning the torso with respect to the bike does not cause the bike to lean far enough to generate anything but the shallowest turns. No-hands riders may be able to keep a heavy bike centered in a lane and negotiate shallow highway turns, but not much else.

Complex maneuvers are not possible using weight shifting alone because even for a light machine there is insufficient control authority. Although on a sufficiently light bike (especially a bicycle), the rider can initiate a lean and turn by shifting body weight, there is no evidence that complex maneuvers can be performed by bodyweight alone.

Other uses
The term countersteering is also used by some authors to refer to the need on bikes to steer in the opposite direction of the turn (negative steering angle) to maintain control in response to significant rear wheel slippage. Motorcycle speedway racing takes place on an oval track with a loose surface of dirt, cinders or shale. Riders slide their machines sideways, powersliding or broadsiding into the turns, using an extreme form of this type of countersteering that is maintained throughout the turn. This also works, without power, for bicycles on loose or slippery surfaces, although it is an advanced technique.

The term is also used in the discussion of the automobile driving technique called drifting.

The Wright Brothers
Wilbur Wright explained countersteering this way:

"I have asked dozens of bicycle riders how they turn to the left. I have never found a single person who stated all the facts correctly when first asked. They almost invariably said that to turn to the left, they turned the handlebar to the left and as a result made a turn to the left. But on further questioning them, some would agree that they first turned the handlebar a little to the right, and then as the machine inclined to the left, they turned the handlebar to the left and as a result made the circle, inclining inward."

title: Countersteering


text: Category:2005 elections

title: Category:2005 elections


text:
Talk:Perspectivism

Analysis
In all morphological occurrences through the prospect of time, I believe it is unmistakeably doubtless that Friedrich Nietzsche is the first (inasmuch is to be so far considered apparent) perspectivist, which is immediately notable from his manuscripts--specifically note, The Will to Power Vintage Books Edition, September, 1968, edited by Walter Kaufmann, p. 149, subh. 259 (1884). Now, someone can very easily grasp the essence of perspectivism as a view, but it is also important to represent how Nietzsche also viewed perspectivism within its own context (viz., its tenability, wherefores, etc.), and that could thus be tied in his corresponding article. In any event, the case stands thus. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 66.136.148.208 (talk) 19:51, 5 December 2004 (UTC).

 * The problem is that the The Will to Power is not a reliable source of Nietzsche's thinking. As a chaotic collection of fragments of his writing by his sister, it has been considered unscientific by a majority of philologist. As such, i find that presenting Perspectivism through this book is quite misleading for the layman not acquainted with the work of Nietzsche and should be deleted and/or presenetd in another way. 176.179.110.38 (talk) 20:34, 3 November 2015 (UTC) Giboulot Q

This article could do with some revision.
From a lay persons point of view reading this article it comes out as being completely cryptic. I think maybe it needs to be broken down or simplified to aid understanding. I admit Ive not got the widest vocabulary of all Wikipedias readership but in its current form this article is totally unassailable without extensive use of Wiktionary. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 193.113.57.163 (talk) 17:06, 23 February 2007 (UTC).

I'm with that guy ^. The article tells essentially opens with what perspectivism isn't! e.g. "contrasted with objectivism"... "differs from the many kinds of relativism". And then when it does tell us what perspectivism is, it does so in a way that is vastly obtuse and verbose, "Perspectivism is the delineation of vantage points as formal constituents within networks or systems of perspectival schemata, it moreover emphatically assesses rules according to contingent circumstances of those contextual perspectives". I have two post graduate degrees and all I have to say about that sentence is: huh? Someone, please fix this stuff up so that someone without a degree is philosophy can figure it out. Bilz0r 08:45, 10 June 2007 (UTC)

Indeed. I think the most important thing the article can express is how a third view (the first and second being absolutism and relativism) is possible, and what such a view would be. That, in and of itself, would neatly explain "perspectivism," as well as how it fits in with the two more familiar schools of thought. -69.47.186.226 05:13, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

I had quite a hard time understanding this article. I am sure it is an interesting concept, but it is not readily accessible to a lay person or non philosophy student. 69.21.24.44 18:36, 18 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm not certain even Nietzsche would understand what the author of this article is trying to say. The concept itself doesn't seem to be that complicated but all substance is lost in pretentious babble. 213.112.137.175 17:16, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I was definelty surprised that there are theories making Nietzsche the "founder" of the perspectivism! Persepectivism is a philosophy having it's roots earlier than the 19th century. Perspectivism started when art started, when perspective paintings were painted, when music started using a perspective (Bach!) ... and the perspectivism is from a philosophic point of view nothing more or less than to look at things from all sides without juging (a priori) only from one point of view. Taking Nietzsche's philosophy to explain the perspectivism is like using a blind man's description of a landscape. I'd really like to get deeper into this, but there's too much investigation on the right sources to do. I'd suggest to take this article off for some time ... before the world believes that Nietzsche invented the perspectivism! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.169.79.176 (talk) 00:26, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I've just registered myself to Wikipedia to document that the statement before was made by me ... and, that I'll soon take the time to prove my statement in a scientific and resumable way ...

 * Yo Ralf, thanks for registering. Have you considered the possibility that the term "perspectivism" describes different things in different contexts? Nietzsche may have been the originator of an obscure philosophical theory that happens to be called "perspectivism" that is not directly related to the painting/music theories. Skomorokh  incite 00:44, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Skomorokh, if what you say is the case then there must be a split -> between this (and many other) obscure theories Nietzsche had and an existing philosophical root ... binding "Perspectivism" to Nietzsche in a way this article does is misleading many that can not know otherwise! Let me ajust that it was exactly art and music that led to a new way of looking at, behind, over, under and from any direction at one object ... not saying it's all green just because the front of that object is green, but from behind it's white, from under it's blue and at a certain angle it has a small red point ... I like the discussion very much but I'm close to twenty years out of this subject ... please give me the time to research my own resources and to provide reliable information ... thanks already for your time and attention, Ralf —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ralf.klatt (talk • contribs) 01:05, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

 * No problem Ralf, take your time. Wikipedia has a rule against original research, so if you can dig up some reliable sources that explicitly link the perspectivism attributed to Nietzsche to these art movements, we can go ahead and correct the article accordingly. Skomorokh  incite 01:10, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

Italian article
I found in the Italian wikipedia a much better historical delineation of Perspectivism: "Prospettivismo è un termine che è stato coniato da Gustav Teichmüller (Die Wirkliche und die Scheinbare Welt, 1882). [...] In età moderna, con Montaigne, la scoperta del Nuovo Mondo e i conseguenti problemi etici e antropologici portano a un orientamento prospettivistico del filosofare. In seguito, Leibniz ha sottolineato come una stessa città vista da diverse angolature appaia totalmente differente, pressoché moltiplicata prospettivamente. Usando le parole di Goethe: "Nella stessa città, un evento importante sarà raccontato, alla sera, diversamente che al mattino".[1] La necessaria prospetticità è stata oggetto del pensiero gnoseologico della corrente storica dell'Illuminismo. Il prospettivismo filosofico si riafferma con Emerson nel contesto pluralistico-democratico degli Stati Uniti negli anni precedenti la seconda rivoluzione industriale. La sua scia sarà seguita, ma con precisi intenti di restaurazione gerarchico-aristocratica, da Nietzsche. Nel '900, Ortega y Gasset rilancia la difesa d'un prospettivismo storico, ossia l’idea che esistano una serie di prospettive che si possono scoprire soltanto nel corso della storia." In this sense something should be revised/added to this article. Ingrid —Preceding unsigned comment added by 137.204.148.73 (talk • contribs)

 * Assuming that you know Italian and can grab similar references in English, then I would highly recommend that you do this. My modest grasp of the language tells me that it does indeed have a nice overview on the concept's history.— ignis scripta 17:44, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

DamnPinguin
After comparing & comparing I found that NickPinguin added that idiot part titled 'Interpretation' citing certain Richard Schacht that adds nothing usefull to the article, on contrary, rather confusing series of words without meaning, sorry but I can't use another expression for this than mental j. It seems the style of some people that teach philosophy and teach it (and spread the idea) in a way "if you can't understand it or prove it does not say anything, or prove that it does say the same simple thing but in a much more complicated way, then it is philosophy". (Anyway it is similar as saying that the Earth is flat but is not uniform, and his extrems are connected through hyperspace - could be, but it is much simpler to have our Earth round). How can we remove it?
 * You could start by clarifying what your objection is. In theory, such sections – interpretation of the concept by eminent Nietzsche scholars – is very welcome, but of course if a section is poorly written it can be revised or removed. Are we to understand that your problem with the paragraph is its incoherence? Skomorokh  01:08, 7 May 2009 (UTC)

'objection'? I can only restate "adds nothing useful...", in theory or not in theory interpretations of the concepts should be welcomed only if they say something, clarify something, explain better, deepen e.t.c. and not based on so called "eminent Nietzsche scholars". Question: who defines / chooses those 'eminent' and what are the criteria? Dirty trick if this arguments go towards giving credits or gives these labels (eminent N. scholars) implicitly. Regarding the interpretation ... there was an article (maybe NY Times) about a country where today people talk about the meaning of the semaphore's red light. Let's talk about what is told not by whom is told. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.50.176.90 (talk) 00:18, 4 September 2009 (UTC)

Nehamas references
In this edit you added some inline citations to a book by Alexander Nehamas. I skimmed the page range from that book that you provided, but I did not see how it supports the claims to which you attached the inline citations. In this edit I added Page needed tags where a specific page number is needed to verify that the book supports the claims. Can you provide here on the talk page quotations from Nehamas that you think support the claims, especially in the lead paragraph?

After you provide those quotations, we can discuss whether that book by Nehamas is the best source for a current overview of perspectivism. That book is fine as a source on Nietzsche since Nehamas is (among other things) a Nietzsche scholar, but the book is not a good current overview of perspectivism, since it was published in 1998, 23 years ago, and important work on perspectivism has been published since then. Also, the subject of that book is apparently not perspectivism; its LCSHs are "Socrates" and "Conduct of life". I do not have a positive impression of the Barry Sandywell reference either (although you didn't add that one); it is very superficial. The book Understanding Perspectivism, edited by Michela Massimi and Casey McCoy, is deeper and more current, as it was published barely over a year ago. Biogeographist (talk) 15:50, 29 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Happy to help. Hopefully these excerpts (and the passages surronding them) help to clarify: • "He does not believe that [...] a single informative explanation why all our true views are true, exists. or that, if they are, they are true for no reason at all. [etc. etc.]" p. 146

• "That is the second, evaluative, and more controversial component of perspectivism: people need not believe something just because it is true, just as they need not reject it just because it is false. [...] From a first-person point of view, if I already accept a certain view, I cannot also believe that I have a choice whether to believe it or not. [...] From a third-person point of view, however, perspectivism becomes more disturbing. From a third-person point of view, " p. 148

• "Perspectivism may therefore be true after all, and " p. 148

• "[B]ut it does not, undermine itself on purely logical grounds." p. 147 On its own, a matter of decades isn't enough to write off a source. However, if you think you can draw good material from Massimi/McCoy source I strongly encourage you to do so—though it does seem a bit more limited to the philosophy of science side of perspectivism (rather than broader epistemology, value theory, metaphysics etc.) but the article is also severely lacking information in this regard too (besides the mere of perspectivism in philosophy of science). As it currently stands, this article does not have a surplus of information for cutting well-sourced material to be a serious consideration for simple contemporaneity biases—not that this isn't sometimes a good course to take. Also just keep in mind differences between secondary and tertiary sources. I think it'd be best to try growing the article with some of the sources you've added and to expand on what these sources actually say. I'm happy to discuss further though. Thanks for your work,  Oeqtte [t] 23:50, 3 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks. I will look more closely at those Nehamas quotations in context. On its own, a matter of decades isn't enough to write off a source: I agree; my aim is to find better sources, which I will try to do if warranted after a closer study of the Nehamas source. Reading the quotations above, it sounds like Nehamas is summarizing Nietzschean perspectivism; if so, it would not be appropriate to cite Nehamas in the first paragraph as if his summary of Nietzschean perspectivism were sufficient to summarize all perspectivism. But I still have to think through this by comparing Nehamas to other sources. Biogeographist (talk) 13:33, 4 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I don't so much disagree though I think its worth noting that the line is somewhat blurred between "Nietzschean perspectivism" and both its pre-Nietzschean forms and later developments within continental philosophy. That is to say, just because a source treats Nietzsche as the main figure of traditional perspectivism the information be limited only to Nietzschean perspectivism. (See for example Nehamas' use of "perspectivists" in the plural.) In the cases of Heraclitus, Protagoras, and Montaigne, their perspectivism is of this form (though perhaps focusing even more on value-theory than epistemology compared to Nietzsche; see their respective sources). The newer scientific / analytical philosophy forms of perspectivism seemingly have little to do with value-theory however, and so the "evaluative [...] component of perspectivism" should be carefully portrayed to neither over- nor understate its position within perspectivist thought as a whole. The Sandywell source seems to fall very short in this regard too. Cheers,  Oeqtte [t] 10:35, 5 April 2021 (UTC)

create page: ontological perspectivism
Ontological perspectivism (also called ontological perspectivalism) is the ontoaxiomatic principle (principle of how the axiomatics of substantiality create Everettian causal connectomes = things that exist inside universes or other universe-like worlds which allow ontoaxiomatic operations) that the existence of anything substantial is probabilistic, relative and Everettian (one outcome of the wave function of the universe) bound to the particular perspectives of the sub-universal reality around the specific object (see: Hubble volume for the space of possible interactions around something; but Hubble volumes are infinite and overlapping which doesn't change the range of possible interactions but merely acts to hold the universe as a whole; see also: probabilistic entanglement [even extremely afar Hubble volumes that should have near zero causal correlation, do have partial entanglements with the Hubble volume of the observer because statistically some quantum rotations align by chance).

Some old atheists were afraid that ontological perspectivism is tautological/identical to ontological arbitrariness; but that's not the case because causality has rules for every ontoaxiomatics = universe. Each different ontoaxiomatic phase space (universe-like world) keeps its main characteristics, but the microstates inside it Everettianly/manyworldedly vary.

___________

What is an ontoaxiomatics = ontological axiomatic system = axiomatic system of substantiality?
It is causally coherent axioms that ARE/COMPRISE the world (there is no causoimpermeability; due to causal permeability/causopermeability the ontoaxiomatics itself is the world. Any universe-like world is an ontological Turing machine which is its own computer AND program which both are of the same nature and ARE the physical world itself.

The difference between ontoaxiomatics and scientoaxiomatics is that ontoaxiomatics has causally coherent axioms (otherwise causality fragments and the foundations of the particular cosmos decay); scientoaxiomatics is an eclectic list of axioms which are useful to make science (ontoaxiomatics isn't usually good for generic calculations; thus the ontological Turing machine usually it is not a general computer) but [the axioms of scientoaxiomatics/scientific axiomatic systems] they are NOT (usually; because artificial neural network experiments and other experiments exist) creates by the same axiomatic algorithm.

Ontoaxiomatics is usually an algorithm and not a static/unmoving list, because any axiomatics faces the problems of incompleteness and/or inconsistency; and our ontoaxiomatic reality (universe) deals the axiomatic incompleteness and/or inconsistency with entropy (our universe expands = its own ontoaxiomatics = substantiality expands; there's no causoimpermeability thus there's one and the same) and with Heisenberg's uncertainty principle (Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is of substantial/ontological importance and not merely interpretational/observed; it is a core ontoaxiomatic component of substantiality; but the full Everettian alternatives and not a single observer's reality is the full ontology of the wave function of the universe).

By no means our own universe is the sole possible substantiality, thus we cannot use it as the general template, but many of its properties are generalizable. There is no omniontoaxiomatics / there's not a single recipe for creating physical substantialities. Absolute empiricism is wrong because it blocks the fields of study: quantum foundations and its hypernym: (the) foundations of substantiality.

Allomathematics are extremely important in ontoaxiomatics.

allomathematics = allo-/different mathematics = mathematics with different axiomatics than the mainstream axiomatics (but still logical, procedural, antispiritual, etc.)

natural worlds = ontoaxiomatics (they're one and the same with their ontological foundations because there's no causoimpermeability per stratified order of magnitude [reality is more like a connectome with pseudostratified densities which are causopermeable; see: Leonard Susskind)

Natural worlds have usually allomathematical foundations (not mathematics useful for general purpose calculations).

Allomathematics cannot (usually) be transcribed into mathematics as an overall system transcription, but particular operations are transcribable with different adjustments to each ontoaxiomatic operation. Thus we can have a better physics, but it's really difficult to discover the exact correct allomathematical axiomatic system of our universe (our universe isn't Everything: the Everything isn't a set, a system, etc. It cannot exist as a single standalone ontological Turing machine; the purported "theory of everything" is a misnomer because it's falsely used with the meaning "Theory of Our Local Universe").

see separately: The University of Edinburgh, David Deutsch

substantiality weight (see: Sean M. Carroll's Everett[ian]ism, many-worlds theory)
In ontological perspectivism not all Everettian alternatives have the same substantiality weight (some theorists even use the dying of of some Everettian alternatives as the cause of dark matter because that excessive energy boosts the surviving actualities).

see the lectures and the books of: Sean M. Carroll

title: Talk:Perspectivism


text:
Talk:Silent Night

On record charts
Several recordings of "Silent Night" have reached the record charts in various countries. These include:
 * 1969–1979: Percy Sledge on the Dutch Charts
 * 1972–1973: Tom Tomson on the Belgium Ultratop Flanders chart and  on its Wallonia chart
 * 1975–1976: The Cats on the Dutch Charts
 * 1991–1992: Sinéad O'Connor on the Dutch Charts
 * 2007–2008: Josh Groban on the Norwegian Charts and  on the U.S. Billboard Adult Contemporary Chart
 * 2008: Glasvegas on the Swedish Charts
 * 2009: Mariah Carey on the U.S. Billboard Digital Song Sales Chart
 * 2013–2014: Elvis Presley on the French Charts
 * 2013–2014: Nat King Cole on the French Charts

Discovery of Gruber's Authorship
The History section makes it sound as though it was not attributed to Gruber until 1995, but the 1968 film and 1976 cartoon both feature Gruber's participation. When was his involvement actually rediscovered? Thebiggnome (talk) 13:03, 17 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Silent Night


text:
Lang Hancock

Langley Frederick George "Lang" Hancock (10 June 1909 – 27 March 1992) was an Australian iron ore magnate from Western Australia who maintained a high profile in the spheres of business and politics. Famous initially for discovering the world's largest iron ore deposit in 1952 and becoming one of the richest men in Australia, he is now perhaps best remembered for his marriage to the much-younger Rose Porteous, a Filipino woman and his former maid. Hancock's daughter, Gina Rinehart, was bitterly opposed to Hancock's relationship with Porteous. The conflicts between Rinehart and Porteous overshadowed his final years and continued until more than a decade after his death.

Early life
Hancock was born on 10 June 1909 in Leederville, Perth, Western Australia. He was the oldest of four children born to Lilian (Prior) and George Hancock; his mother was born in South Australia and his father in Western Australia. His father's great-aunt was Emma Withnell, while a cousin was Sir Valston Hancock. Hancock spent his early childhood on his family's station at Ashburton Downs, later moving to Mulga Downs Station in the north-west after his father, George Hancock, bought a farming estate there. After initially being educated at home, at the age of eight he began boarding at the St Aloysius Convent of Mercy in Toodyay. He later attended Hale School in Perth from 1924 to 1927, where he played for the school cricket and football teams. Upon completing his secondary education, he returned to Mulga Downs Station to help his father manage the property.

As a young man, Hancock was widely considered charming and charismatic. In 1935 he married 21-year-old Susette Maley, described by his biographer Debi Marshall as "an attractive blonde with laughing eyes". The couple lived at Mulga Downs for many years, but Maley pined for city life and eventually left Hancock to return to Perth. Their separation – formalised in 1944 – was amicable. Also in 1935, Hancock took over the management of Mulga Downs station from his father. He partnered with his old schoolmate E. A. "Peter" Wright in running the property, later boasting that no deals between the two men were ever sealed with anything stronger than a handshake.

During the Second World War, Hancock served in a militia unit, the 11th (North-West) Battalion, Volunteer Defence Corps, and attained the rank of sergeant. On 4 August 1947, he married his second wife, Hope Margaret Nicholas, the mother of his only acknowledged child, Gina Rinehart. Lang and Hope remained married for 35 years, until her death in 1983 at the age of 66. In 2012, Hilda Kickett, who had long claimed to be Lang Hancock's illegitimate daughter, claimed that the late mining magnate had had an illicit affair with an Aboriginal cook on his property at Mulga Downs resulting in her conception. These claims have not been corroborated.

Wittenoom Gorge
As a child, Hancock showed a keen interest in mining and prospecting from his uncle john jr hancock, and discovered asbestos at Wittenoom Gorge at the age of ten. He staked a claim at Wittenoom in 1934 and began mining blue asbestos there in 1938 with the company Australian Blue Asbestos.

The mine attracted the attention of national behemoths CSR Limited, who purchased the claim in 1943. Hancock retained a 49% share after the sale, but appears to have become quickly disillusioned about this arrangement, complaining that CSR viewed their 51% share as a licence to ignore his views. He sold the remainder of his claim in 1948. The mine would later become the source of much controversy, when hundreds of cases of asbestos-related diseases came to light. He was aware of the dangers of asbestos prior to selling his stake in Australian Blue Asbestos (as recently discovered papers have shown) but never accepted any liability, nor have his companies since his death. Neither the Australian federal government nor the Western Australian state government have pursued his companies for damages as of 2017.

The Pilbara discovery
On 16 November 1952, Hancock claimed he discovered the world's largest deposit of iron ore in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Hancock said he was flying from Nunyerry to Perth with his wife, Hope, when they were forced by bad weather to fly low, through the gorges of the Turner River. In Hancock's own words, "In November 1952, I was flying down south with my wife Hope, and we left a bit later than usual and by the time we got over the Hamersley Ranges, the clouds had formed and the ceiling got lower and lower. I got into the Turner River, knowing full well if I followed it through, I would come out into the Ashburton. On going through a gorge in the Turner River, I noticed that the walls looked to me to be solid iron and was particularly alerted by the rusty looking colour of it, it showed to me to be oxidised iron."

The story is widely accepted in modern descriptions of the discovery, but one biographer, Neill Phillipson, disputes Hancock's account. In Man of Iron he argues that there was no rain in the area of the Turner River on 16 November 1952 or indeed on any day in November 1952, a fact the Australian Bureau of Meteorology confirms. Hancock returned to the area many times and, accompanied by prospector Ken McCamey, followed the iron ore over a distance of 112 km. He soon came to realise that he had stumbled across reserves of iron ore so vast that they could supply the entire world, thus confirming the discovery of the geologist Harry Page Woodward, who after his survey asserted: ""[t]his is essentially an iron ore country. There is enough iron ore to supply the whole world, should the present sources be worked out". – Annual General Report of the Government Geologist, 1890 But overseas demand at that time was negligible and development of the formations was uneconomic."

After 1920 development of the Yampi Sound deposits started but exports to Japan were curtailed by the Commonwealth Government in 1938. Prospecting and exploration of other ore deposits continued until 1952 where an agreement between the Government of Western Australia and BHP to build a steel mill and smelter in Kwinana was established. All other iron ore, known or unknown, was reserved to the Crown for 9 years. Representations were made to the Commonwealth Government to have the embargo lifted and in 1960 limited approval was granted for the export of iron ore from non-BHP deposits. This sparked a wave of intensive prospecting and exploration concentrated in the North West, the Hamersley Ranges in particular, where formation had been known but ore bodies not yet delineated. At this time Hancock revealed his discovery. Hancock had lobbied furiously for a decade to get the ban lifted and in 1961 was finally able to reveal his discovery and stake his claim.

In the mid sixties Hancock turned once more to Peter Wright and the pair entered into a deal with mining giant Rio Tinto Group to develop the iron ore find. Hancock named it "Hope Downs" after his wife. Under the terms of the deal Rio Tinto set up and still administer a mine in the area. Wright and Hancock walked away with annual royalties of A$25 million, split evenly between the two men. In 1990, Hancock was estimated by Business Review Weekly to be worth a minimum of A$125 million.

Political activity
Although Lang Hancock never aspired to political office, he held strong conservative political views and often entered the political arena. In addition to his activities in the 1950s, lobbying against government restrictions on the mining of iron ore, Hancock donated considerable sums of money to politicians of many political stripes. His political views aligned most closely with the Liberal and National Parties of Australia. He was a good friend and strong supporter of Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen and donated A$632,000 to the Queensland National Party while Bjelke-Petersen was in charge. He gave A$314,000 to their counterparts in Western Australia, but also gave the Western Australian Labor Party A$985,000; because "at least they can't do any harm". Hancock had had a falling-out with Sir Charles Court and the Western Australian Liberals and was adamant that the Liberals should be kept out of power as long as possible.

Hancock also offered strong advice to the politicians he favoured. In 1977 he sent a Telex to the then-Treasurer of Australia Sir Phillip Lynch, telling him he needed to "stop money coming in to finance subversive activities, such as Friends of the Earth, which is a well-heeled foreign operation." He also suggested to Bjelke-Petersen that the Federal Government should attempt to censor the works of Ralph Nader and John Kenneth Galbraith, lest they "wreck Fraser's government".

In 1969 Hancock and his partner Peter Wright commenced publication in Perth of a weekly newspaper, The Sunday Independent, principally to help further their mining interests. Faced with strong competition, the newspaper is thought never to have turned a profit, Hancock largely relinquishing his interest in it in the early 70s and Wright selling it to The Truth in 1984.

Hancock was a staunch proponent of small government and resented what he considered to be interference by the Commonwealth Government in Western Australian affairs. He declared before a state Royal Commission in 1991 that "I have always believed that the best government is the least government", and that "Although governments do not and cannot positively help business, they can be disruptive and destructive."

Hancock bankrolled an unsuccessful secessionist party in the 1970s, and in 1979 published a book, Wake Up Australia, outlining what he saw as the case for Western Australian secession. The book was launched by Gina Rinehart and Bjelke-Petersen.

Attitudes towards Aboriginal people
Hancock is quoted as saying,
 * "Mining in Australia occupies less than one-fifth of one percent of the total surface of our continent and yet it supports 14 million people. Nothing should be sacred from mining whether it's your ground, my ground, the blackfellow's ground or anybody else's. So the question of Aboriginal land rights and things of this nature shouldn't exist."

In a 1984 television interview, Hancock suggested forcing unemployed indigenous Australians − specifically "the ones that are no good to themselves and who can't accept things, the half-castes" − to collect their welfare cheques from a central location. "And when they had gravitated there, I would dope the water up so that they were sterile and would breed themselves out in the future, and that would solve the problem."

Rose Porteous
In 1983, the same year as Hope Hancock's death, Rose Lacson (now Porteous) arrived in Australia from the Philippines on a three-month working visa. By the arrangement of Hancock's daughter, Gina Rinehart, Porteous began working as a maid for the newly widowed Lang Hancock.

Hancock and Porteous became romantically involved over the course of Porteous' employment and they were wed on 6 July 1985 in Sydney. It was a third marriage for each of them. Porteous, who was thirty-nine years younger than her husband, was often accused of gold digging because of their age disparity, as well as being unfaithful and promiscuous. As Porteous later stated: "I have been accused of sleeping with every man in Australia ... I would have been a very busy woman." Hancock's daughter, Gina Rinehart, who stood to inherit his entire estate, did not attend the wedding.

Although the marriage would later prove tumultuous, early on Hancock was clearly infatuated with his young wife. He gave her money and investments in real estate in the Sydney area. Porteous, in turn, helped Hancock to look and act like a much younger man, belying his eight decades. As The Age put it, "Rose made Lang feel younger, sprucing up his wardrobe, dyeing his hair and getting rid of his cane." Together they built the "Prix d'Amour", a lavish 16-block mansion overlooking the Swan River. The mansion, which was modelled after Tara, the plantation mansion from the movie Gone with the Wind, was the setting for many large parties at which Hancock and Porteous would "dance into the night".

As the marriage wore on, however, the relationship between Lang and Rose began to break down. Rinehart would later claim that Hancock's bride had paid little attention to his worsening health, but had instead "screeched at him for money". Although there were many quarrels, the Hancocks remained married until Lang's death in 1992.

On 25 June 1992, less than three months after Hancock's death, Porteous married for the fourth time, to Hancock's long-time friend William Porteous. Rinehart was indignant at the haste with which her stepmother had remarried.

The Prix d'Amour, built in 1990, was bulldozed in March 2006. Western Australian finance minister Max Evans mourned the loss of the home as the excavators moved in and recalled Hancock had been bemused by his wife's desire for the sprawling mansion:

"He'd say, 'Mr Evans, I don't know why Rose wants this house, I'd be happy sleeping in a transportable.' "

Mrs Porteous told him she'd always wanted to live in Prix D'Amour, "but I don't want to clean it", she had added quickly.

Death and inquest
In March 1992 Hancock died, aged 82 years, while living in the guesthouse of the Prix D'Amour. According to his daughter, the death was "unexpected" and came "despite strong will to live".

An autopsy showed that he had died of arteriosclerotic heart disease and police investigation revealed no evidence to contradict that. However, Hancock's daughter insisted that her stepmother had unnaturally hastened his death. Two successive state coroners refused to allow an inquest, but one was eventually granted in 1999 under the direction of the WA Attorney-General, Peter Foss.

After preliminary hearings during 2000, the inquest began in April 2001 with an initial estimate of 63 witnesses to be called over five weeks. The inquest was dominated by claims that Porteous had literally nagged Hancock to death with shrill tantrums and arguments. Porteous denied the allegations, famously explaining: "For anyone else it would be a tantrum, for me it's just raising my voice." In the last few days of Hancock's life, Porteous had attempted to pressure him into changing his will and Hancock eventually took out a restraining order against her. The inquest was put on hold after allegations that Rinehart had paid witnesses to appear and that some had lied in their testimony. It resumed three months later with a smaller witness list and ended with the finding that Hancock had died of natural causes and not as a result of Porteous' behaviour.

With a legal bill of A$2.7m, Rose and William Porteous commenced action against Rinehart, that was eventually settled out of court in 2003.

Legacy
Hancock's daughter, Gina Rinehart, continues to chair Hancock Prospecting and its expansion into mining projects continues in Western Australia and other states of Australia, estimated to be earning about A$870 million in revenue in 2011. Rinehart is Australia's richest person and was also the world's richest woman for a period of time, with a net worth of A$29.17 billion during 2012; by 2019, her wealth had eased to around $US14.8 billion, according to Forbes.

The Hancock Range, situated about 65 km north-west of the town of Newman at -23.00639°N, 119.20861°W, commemorates the family's contribution to the establishment of the pastoral and mining industry in the Pilbara region.

title: Lang Hancock


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Talk:Santería

Santeria isn't solely Cuban
"Santeria" is also the name used by Puerto Ricans for their religion. I have no reason to believe that they learned santeria from Cubans. E A (talk) 12:42, 17 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Many Cubans have moved to Puerto Rico over the years, especially since the Cuban Revolution, so that may explain why the term transferred from one island to another, either to describe imported Cuban practices, practices that developed in Puerto Rico itself, or a mix of both. Midnightblueowl (talk) 08:45, 19 May 2020 (UTC)

To be more precise, "santería" is a general term. It is also used in the Colombia/Venezuela region. However, in addition to this it also can be applied specifically to regla de Ocha/Lucumí. Thus, there is ambiguity. Cruxador (talk) 21:18, 25 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Presumably, the appearance of the term (which arose in Cuba in the 1930s) in Columbia and Venezuela is due to the substantial numbers of Cuban migrants who have moved to those regions, especially following the Cuban Revolution. Midnightblueowl (talk) 21:28, 25 August 2021 (UTC)
 * It could be, however this is speculative. At least, I have been told anecdotally that the term is in general usage so it seems to me equally or more likely that it arrived there by ordinary linguistic means to describe the same general phenomenon of syncretizing other religious figures with saints - it can be generally used in this way, not necessarily specific to the orisha faith, across the Spanish-speaking world. It is not, after all, a very non-obvious grammatical construction. However, this usage is in my perception less common and falling out of favor within the last century compared to more specific description of the Santería to which this article refers. In any case, the boundaries of what the more specific label fit are quite fuzzy. It's a difficult matter to address unambiguously. Cruxador (talk) 21:59, 25 August 2021 (UTC)

Citation errors
There are a couple of citation errors:

203. Bascom 1950, p. 65; Mason 2002, p. 71; Wedel 2007b, p. 114. Harv error: link from CITEREFWedel2007b doesn't point to any citation.

416.Brandon 1992, pp. 76, 77-78; Fernández Olmos & Paravisini-Gebert 2011, p. 42. Harv error: link from CITEREFBrandon1992 doesn't point to any citation.

--Graham Beards (talk) 10:04, 12 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks Graham Beards; I've now fixed those two errors. Midnightblueowl (talk) 11:35, 12 May 2021 (UTC)

Errors in spelling
I am familiar with Santería in Cali, where I live and in Sao Paulo, which I have visited.

The spelling "oricha" is original, I have never seen it, it should be orishá or at least orichá, being way, way, way more common the first one, except in articles written by non-native speakers of Spanish.

The Wikipedia article says Orisha.

I started to correct spelling but was unable when I realized that the word "oricha" is spelled like that 116 times, my gosh.

The same goes for "babaloricha" which I have seen spelled as "babalorisha".

I highly doubt the person writing the article has ever heard the salsa songs devoted to santería where the letters "sh" are invariably used instead of the much more strong pronunciation "ch" which I have never heard used in santería rites as both letters or digrams "sh" and "ch" have a very different pronunciation in Spanish.

Also Yemaja seems an English translation and a poor one or at least very original of Yemayá.

Ogun is spelt Ogún and Chango is Changó, Babalu is Babalú, is not Lucumi but Lucumí, which is a very common last name in Cali.

Most names in Santería are stressed in the last syllable and that is what the accent means.

There is mention of "guerror" in this Talk while one imagines it means to say "guerrero".

The word "Santeria" is used sometimes while most of the time says "Santería", which is the correct spelling.Ciroa (talk) 02:09, 25 August 2021 (UTC)

 * Santería in Sao Paolo? Do you instead mean Candomblé, a related tradition of Brazilian origin? As for many of the examples you say are incorrectly spelled, are you referring to the Talk Page or the article itself? Because in the article, we do use spellings like "Santería," "Changó" and "Lucumí" throughout. Also, "oricha" is the standard spelling for the deities of Cuban Santería in the English-language academic and specialist literature on this topic, whose example we follow. Midnightblueowl (talk) 09:45, 25 August 2021 (UTC)

 * Rather than errors in spelling, there aren't universally accepted spellings in the first place. It seems that the article generally leans towards the most distinctively Cuban variants, which is probably the best that can be done in this decade. Although, "guerror" seems very strange to me too since that one should indeed have a correct form. But, that's because it's a Spanish word and not a Lucumí word. Cruxador (talk) 21:33, 25 August 2021 (UTC)

Insufficient allowance for variation
It seems to me that the great degree to which most details can vary by Ilé (which this article translates as "casa") would not be obvious to a reader who isn't already familiar with this matter. This is true in little details, for two examples: the article says their are 16 main orisha, according to me if I picked a number it would be 15 and I have two different guesses who the 16th might be. This is something that can vary and it's normal for it to do so because the line between major and minor orisha is very vague. There is also the issue of gender. It is said that the orishas can be male or female, but there are also those which are genderless (Olokún is not, in my experience, normally depicted as humanoid and can be said to be without path/camino) or dual gender (Obatalá is said to have an equal number of male and female paths, and is entirely male as well as entirely female, containing the full wisdom of both genders) or otherwise not binary. It also applies to practitioners currently, the article states as though it were objective truth that women are equally important or more important in Santería, and specifically can hold the highest positions. Although this is true of Regla de Ocha, it doesn't account for the fact that in many Ilé, Ocha is very integrated with Ifá, and therefore a babalawo (a role only for males) can be considered more important. In addition, all specific references to practices could vary, although I didn't notice anything to which I'm aware of an obvious exception. Finally, even the big things can change. For example, the relative emphasis on the orishas compared to the ancestors can be very different. Cruxador (talk) 21:51, 25 August 2021 (UTC)
 * In its current form, this article does try to stress that there is a great deal of variation in how Santería is practiced. In the opening paragraph, for example, we state that "much diversity exists among practitioners," and in the "Definitions" section immediately following the lead we also highlight that "Santería is a flexible and eclectic tradition, with considerable variation in how it is practiced." On that count, we are certainly not trying to conceal this diversity of practice. (In the "Divination" section we also discuss the gendered restrictions of the babalawo).
 * It is important to remember that the nature of Wikipedia means that we are constrained by what the Reliable Sources say, and cannot add anything that represents Original Research. There are instances where this may mean that we make a statement that is true of many Ilé/casa, but not all. This is an issue that we inevitably face when putting together Wikipedia articles on any religion that is not heavily regulated and controlled by a central leadership. In those instances where you have concerns that we are presenting a generalisation that does not apply to all adherents, perhaps we could add in some words like "typically" or "often" so as to try and capture some of that variation? Midnightblueowl (talk) 09:37, 26 August 2021 (UTC)

Christmas and Santa in modern Santeria
I'm a Nigerian born and bred in Nigeria. I have always been attracted to non European identity and I have embraced Santeria. I have been mentally unstable before I sincerely adopted Santeria. As a Nigerian in Nigeria, I'm a sort of authority on Santeria and so I am sure that starting from 2023, Santafest (first December to fourth January every year) is a Santeria holiday season during when there will be a lot icing Santa (saint) associated with Elegua or Esu who will bring gifts for children. This is not the Christian Christmas. Santa is a key element in Santeria ✅ (Santa Remi (talk) 11:49, 20 December 2023 (UTC))

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Talk:Westron Wynde

Untitled
well done! Perhaps we should link it into a few categories (or do we need to invent a new one??)), so people find it? Linuxlad 19:53, 5 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Bambi
Is it just me, or coincidental similarity, or did Disney use a variant of this tune for "Love is a song which never ends" in Bambi sammy (talk) 15:35, 7 August 2009 (UTC)

Spelling consistency
I think that perhaps we need to take a bit of care with the name of this song. Thus far the article gives three spellings:

 * Westron Wynde: which seems to have been the original spelling;
 * Western Wind: the modern English translation;
 * Westron Wind: in the underlay from Philips' programme notes, and the name of the movement from the Stravinsky Cantata.

There are also references to other musicians' versions of the song, but without giving their versions of the song's name.

Given this article's title, I propose that references to the song should use the Westron Wynde form unless they are to a particular version of the song that has been given a different form of the name. It may also be useful to find out the forms used by the other referenced but unnamed versions. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Kay Dekker (talk • contribs) 13:27, 11 January 2010

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108-form Wu family tai chi

108-Form Wu family tai chi, also known as Wu Jianquan-style tai chi, is a traditional form of tai chi that originated in China. It is named after its creator, Wu Jianquan, who developed this style of tai chi in the early 20th century.

The different slow-motion solo-form training sequences of tai chi are the manifestations of tai chi best-known to the general public. In English, they are usually called the hand form or just the form. In Mandarin, it is usually called quan. They are performed slowly by beginners and are said to promote concentration, condition the body, and acquaint students with the inventory of motion techniques for more advanced styles of martial arts training. There are also solo weapons forms, as well as much shorter and repetitive sequences to train power-generation-leverages as a form of qigong. The various forms of Wu-style pushing hands have their own one-person drill routines, as well, which fulfil some of the same functions as the power-generation drills.

History
Wu Jianquan was born in 1870 in the Hebei province of China, into a family of martial artists. His father, Wu Quanyou, was a student of Yang Luchan, the founder of Yang-style tai chi. Wu Jianquan began learning martial arts from his father at a young age and later went on to study under Yang Banhou, the son of Yang Luchan.

In the early 1900s, Wu Jianquan founded his own school of tai chi in Shanghai, where he taught his unique style to students from all over China. He combined the principles of tai chi with his family's martial arts techniques, creating a new style, which came to be known as Wu Jianquan-style tai chi.

Training
Training in Wu Jianquan-style tai chi typically involves learning the basic movements and principles of tai chi, as well as the specific movements of the 108 forms. Students begin by learning the basic stances, hand and foot movements, and basic breathing techniques, before progressing to more advanced movements.

The style also includes partner drills and sparring exercises, where students learn to apply the principles of tai chi in a practical setting. In addition, Wu Jianquan-style tai chi also includes various forms of Qigong, or energy cultivation exercises that are designed to improve the body's internal energy and to enhance health.

Forms
The 108-Form Wu Family tai chi is a long and complex form, consisting of 108 movements that are performed in a slow, continuous, and flowing manner. It emphasizes the use of softness and yielding to overcome hardness and force, using circular movements and spiralling energy to deflect attacks and neutralize an opponent's force.

The style emphasizes the importance of relaxation and internal energy, using the breath and the mind to guide the movements. Practitioners of Wu Jianquan-style tai chi believe that by cultivating internal energy, or Qi, they can enhance their health, improve their mental focus, and develop their martial arts skills.

List of forms
The following list is an English translation from Chinese of the empty-hand or fist-form list published in Wu Kung-tsao's Wu Family T'ai Chi Ch'uan. Different schools will use different translations. Notably, the family's Shanghai branch has a different enumeration scheme, numbering the same "long form" routine sequence with 89 posture names instead of 108. Almost all of the individual posture names are the same, however.

For each unique form name, there is a literal translation, the Hong Kong school's translation, and then the Shanghai school's translation in italics where they differ, followed by the original Chinese characters:

1. Begin Tai Chi Form – The Beginning of Tai Chi – The Preparation Form 太極起式

2. Raise Hands Above Posture – Raise Hands – Raise Hand and Step Up 提手上勢

3. Hand Plays Pipa – Play Guitar – Hand Strums the Lute 手揮琵琶

4. Grasp Bird's Tail 攬雀尾

5. Single Whip 單鞭

6. Slant Flying Posture (also known as Slant Single Whip) – Flying Oblique 斜飛勢 (斜單鞭)

7. Raise Hands Above Posture 提手上勢

8. White Crane Spreads Wings – White Stork Flaps its Wings 白鶴亮翅

9. Brush Knee Push Step Left and Right 4 Times – Brush Knee Twist Step 摟膝拗步左右四度

10. Hand Plays Pipa 手揮琵琶

11. Step Forward, Deflect, Parry, Punch – Step Up Diverting and Blocking Fist 進步搬攔捶

12. As If Seemingly Sealed Shut (also known as Push Forward) – As if Closing Up 如封似閉 (進按)

13. Carry Tiger to the Mountain – Tiger and Leopard Spring to the Mountain 抱虎歸山

14. Cross Hands 十

15. Slant Brush Knee Push Step 斜摟膝拗步

16. Turn Body Brush Knee Push Step 轉身摟膝拗步

17. Grasp Bird's Tail 攬雀尾

18. Single Whip (also known as Slant Single Whip) 單鞭 (斜單鞭)

19. Fist Under Elbow Punch 肘底看捶

20. Fall to Repulse Monkey Left and Right 3 Times 倒攆猴左右三度

21. Slant Flying Posture 斜飛勢

22. Raise Hands Above Posture 提手上勢

23. White Crane Spreads Wings 白鶴亮翅

24. Brush Knee Push Step 摟膝拗步

25. Sea Bottom Needle – Needle at Sea Bottom – Needle at the Bottom of the Sea 海底針

26. Fan Through Back – Play Arms like a Fan 扇通背

27. Rotate Body Away Body Punch – Strike Fist to Back – Parry and Punch 翻身撇身捶

28. Step Back, Deflect, Parry, Punch – Move Step Diverting and Blocking Punch 退步搬攔捶

29. Step Up Grasp Bird's Tail 上步攬雀尾

30. Single Whip 單鞭

31. Cloud Hands (3 Times) 雲手 (三度)

32. Single Whip 單鞭

33. Left High Pat Horse 左高探馬

34. Right Separate Foot Kick – Right Parting Leg 右分腳

35. Right High Pat Horse 右高探馬

36. Left Separate Foot Kick – Left Parting Leg 左分腳

37. Turn Body Kick with Heel – Turn Body Pedaling Foot 轉身蹬腿

38. Brush Knee Push Step Twice 摟膝拗步二度

39. Step Forward Punch Down 進步栽捶

40. Rotate Body Away Body Punch 翻身撇身捶

41. High Pat Horse 高探馬

42. Right Separate Hands 右分手

43. First Raise Foot Kick 一起腳

44. Step Back Seven Stars 退步七星

45. Step Back Hit Tiger Posture – Retreat Step Beat the Tiger 退步打虎勢

46. Second Raise Foot Kick 二起腳

47. Double Peaks Pierce Ears – Strike the Ears with Double Fists 雙峰貫耳

48. Lean Back Kick with Toe – Open Body and Kick 披身踢腿

49. Turn Body Kick with Heel 轉身蹬腿

50. High Pat Horse 高探馬

51. Step Forward, Deflect, Parry, Punch 進步搬攔捶

52. As If Seemingly Sealed Shut (also known as Push Forward) 如封似閉 (進按)

53. Carry Tiger to the Mountain 抱虎歸山

54. Cross Hands 十字手

55. Slant Brush Knee Push Step 斜摟膝拗步

56. Turn Body Brush Knee Push Step 轉身摟膝拗步

57. Grasp Bird's Tail 攬雀尾

58. Single Whip (also known as Slant Single Whip) 單鞭 (斜單鞭)

59. Hand Plays Pipa 手揮琵琶

60. Wild Horse Separate Mane – Parting the Wild Horse's Mane 野馬分鬃

61. Hand Plays Pipa 手揮琵琶

62. Wild Horse Separate Mane 3 Times 野馬分鬃三度

63. Hand Plays Pipa 手揮琵琶

64. Wild Horse Separate Mane 野馬分鬃

65. Jade Lady Works Shuttles Twice – Jade Girl Works at the Shuttle 玉女穿梭二度

66. Hand Plays Pipa 手揮琵琶

67. Wild Horse Separate Mane 野馬分鬃

68. Jade Lady Works Shuttles Twice – Jade Girl Works at the Shuttle 玉女穿梭二度

69. Grasp Bird's Tail 攬雀尾

70. Single Whip 單鞭

71. Cloud Hands (3 Times) 雲手 (三度)

72. Single Whip 單鞭

73. Downward Posture (also known as Snake Creeps Down Posture) 下勢 (蛇身下勢)

74. Left Golden Rooster on One Leg – Golden Cockerel Standing on One Leg 左金雞獨立

75. Right Golden Rooster on One Leg 右金雞獨立

76. Fall to Repulse Monkey Left and Right 3 Times 倒攆猴左右三度

77. Cross Slant Flying Posture 橫斜飛勢

78. Raise Hands Above Posture 提手上勢

79. White Crane Spreads Wings 白鶴亮翅

80. Brush Knee Push Step 摟膝拗步

81. Sea Bottom Needle 海底針

82. Fan Through Back 扇通背

83. Rotate Body Away Body Punch 翻身撇身捶

84. Step Up, Deflect, Parry, Punch 上步搬攔捶

85. Step Up Grasp Bird's Tail 上步攬雀尾

86. Single Whip 單鞭

87. Cloud Hands (3 Times) 雲手 (三度)

88. Single Whip 單鞭

89. High Pat Horse 高探馬

90. Slap Face Palm – Palm Goes to Meet the Face 撲面掌

91. Rotate Body Single Swing Lotus – Turn Body Cross Swing Lotus 翻身單擺蓮

92. Brush Knee Push Step 摟膝拗步

93. Step Up Finger Stop Punch – Pointing to the Crotch Punch 上步指擋捶

94. Step Up Grasp Bird's Tail 上步攬雀尾

95. Single Whip 單鞭

96. Downward Posture (also known as Snake Creeps Down Posture) 下勢 (蛇身下勢 )

97. Step Up Seven Stars 上步七星

98. Step Back Ride Tiger 退步跨虎

99. Turn Body Slap Face Palm – Turn Body Hit Face Palm 轉身撲面掌

100. Rotate Body Double Swing Lotus – Turn Body Double Swing Lotus 翻身雙擺蓮

101. Bend Bow Shoot Tiger – Curve Bow Shoot Tiger 彎弓射虎

102. High Pat Horse 高探馬

103. Slap Face Palm 撲面掌

104. Rotate Body Away Body Punch 翻身撇身捶

105. Step Up High Pat Horse 上步高探馬

106. Step Up Grasp Bird's Tail 上步攬雀尾

107. Single Whip 單鞭

108. Conclusion of Tai Chi – Closing Tai Chi 合太極

title: 108-form Wu family tai chi


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